George Akropolites

George Akropolites (Greek: Γεώργιος Ἀκροπολίτης, c. 1217/1220, Constantinople – 1288, Anafi) was a Byzantine statesman, diplomat, scholar and historian who served in the high office of Grand Logothete between 1252 and 1281 and is best known as the author of The History, a historical chronicle covering Byzantine history from 1218 to 1281, detailing the reigns of Theodore I, John III, Theodore II and John IV Laskaris.
== Biography ==
=== Early Life ===
George was born to Constantine Akropolites, a high ranking bureaucrat who served as Logothete of the Course whose family belonged to the low nobility of Constantinople, historically associated with civil service. Since his youth, George was always noticed for his genius mind and precocious intelligence. Brought to the palace by his father at age sixteen, he soon impressed the reigning emperor, John III Doukas Vatatzes, who arranged for him to study under the master scholars Theodore Hexapterygos and Nikephoros Blemmydes. During this period, Akropolites mastered subjects such as philosophy, theology and mathematics, forging his path towards becoming one of the most renowned thirteenth-century Byzantine intellectuals.
In 1241, Akropolites, who was by then in his early twenties, was appointed the head tutor of the emperor's son and heir Theodore Doukas Laskaris, who would eventually become Theodore II. The young prince, almost of an age with Akropolites, also possessed a brilliant mind. He had quarreled, however, with the older and wiser Blemmydes, who had been teaching him the arts of philosophy, as well as other tutors the emperor had assigned to him. The odd choice of Akropolites as the prince's tutor partially relied on his young age, which, allied to his genius, could connect with Theodore better than his previous tutors had. The emperor's choice soon proved to be fruitful, and Theodore II and Akropolites soon developed a strong bond, both academically and as close friends.
In early 1245, Akropolites accompanied Theodore to garrison the Peloponnese in anticipation of foreign threats. When John III was overthrown by [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] in that same year, Akropolites remained loyal to Theodore and joined in proclaiming his tutor as the rightful emperor. Akropolites then became part of the new emperor's inner circle, composed of George Mouzalon, Andronikos Mouzalon and Nikephoros Karyanites. He was given high ranking titles and commanding positions in Theodore II's army, although he lacked military experience. 
In 1249, when Theodore II marched to lift the siege of Constantinople, he left Akropolites as governor of the Peloponnese, with a strong garrison occupying Corinth and the Acrocorinth. However, when the crusaders invaded Greece shortly thereafter, Akropolites committed to the decision of sounding a general retreat and ordering the evacuation of Corinth, for he considered the citadel to be ill equipped to face a prolonged siege and preferred to preserve his forces to rendezvous with Theodore II, if he won victory at Constantinople. Indeed, the emperor did, but when he returned to Greece he chastised Akropolites for his alleged cowardice and blamed him for the strategic loss of Corinth to the crusaders. According to Akropolites' The History, Theodore II ordered him to be stripped bare in Thebes and had him beaten and flogged. Although Akropolites was certainly punished for the loss of Corinth, the veracity of Theodore II's brutal treatment of him is disputed, as The History is often imbued with anti-Laskaris bias and the incident is not mentioned anywhere else. Nevertheless, this marked the first wedge between Theodore II and Akropolites, as well as between George Mouzalon and Akropolites, who saw his influence over the young emperor diminish. 
=== Career ===
Following the expulsion of the crusaders from Greece, Theodore II sent Akropolites on an embassy to the Kingdom of Sicily, then ruled by his erstwhile foe and ally Frederick I of Hohenstaufen. His arrival in Palermo in 1251 coincided with an urban revolt which cast out Pope Celestine IV and the Dandolo family from Rome. Akropolites promptly persuaded Frederick to march on Rome instead, hoping to install a new pope on the throne of St. Peter who would not be hostile to the Byzantine Empire and the newly minted emperor Theodore II. This mission was of paramount importance, as the Byzantines had just defeated a large crusading army intent on claiming Greece for themselves. Although Akropolites' suggestion of installing John the Saracen, Archbishop of Bari, as pope was rejected, the new Pope Alexander IV proved himself to be friendlier to the Byzantines than his predecessors, allowing Theodore II to forge a peace with the Latin West.
Upon his return to Constantinople in 1252, Akropolites was well received by the emperor, who appointed him to the high rank of Grand Logothete, allowing him general oversight over the Byzantine government and complete control over Byzantine diplomacy. He would occupy this office until the end of his career and exile.
In 1254, Akropolites headed an embassy to the Despotate of Trebizond, following the Byzantine victory at the Battle of Myriokephalon. There, he negotiated the surrender of Manuel Megas Komnenos and the reincorporation of Trebizond into the empire. The negotiations were successful and concluded with the marriage of Theodore II and Theodora Megali Komnena, who became the Byzantine empress and Augusta.
In 1256, Akropolites headed an embassy to Bohemond II of Syria, who had recently inherited the Kingdom of Armenia from his late mother. Akropolites negotiated a marriage between Bohemond and Theodora Angelina Vatatzaina,Theodore II's cousin, consolidating the alliance between the Byzantine Empire and Syria-Armenia. As part of the negotiated terms, the cities of Baris and Attaleia, as well as the surrounding region, were given back to the Byzantines, having been previously occupied by Cilician Armenia during the Scythian Wars. Furthermore, Akropolites convinced Bohemond to be crowned King of Cilicia with a crown gifted by Theodore II, which to the eye of the Byzantines made Bohemond into a vassal king and reaffirmed the ties of homage between Constantinople and Antioch.
In 1268, Akropolites was sent on an embassy to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, where he mediated a peace between the crusaders and the Saracens which included the loss of Jerusalem, but allowed the Byzantine Empire to annex the port city of Caesarea Maritima. Given his prestige and influence, Akropolites also successfully negotiated a betrothal between his daughter, Anna, and King Aimery of Jerusalem.
Throughout his long tenure as Grand Logothete, Akropolites also served as megas baioulos (Grand Tutor) and hypatos ton philosophon (Consul of the Philosophers), heading the University of Constantinople and being in charge of the education of the young princes John and Skantarios Laskaris, as well as the assorted imperial pages and wards. In this role, Akropolites taught an entire generation of civil service functionaries and intellectuals, including the next imperial generation and public figures as the future Ecumenical Patriarch Gregory II and the historian George Pachymeres.
=== Downfall ===
During his long career, Akropolites developed a rivalry with fellow courtier and government official George Mouzalon, who was regarded by Theodore II as his adoptive brother and closest friend. The emperor had made him Grand Domestic and chief minister, a role which had once belonged to the office of Grand Logothete, which Akropolites occupied. Akropolites grew envious and resentful of the special relationship between Mouzalon and Theodore II, who went as far as challenging canon law to force a betrothal between his eldest son, the future John IV, and a daughter of Mouzalon. Akropolites gradually grew to despise Mouzalon for his low birth and the influence he wielded over the government and the imperial family in Constantinople, which clashed with Akropolites' own interests.
When Theodore II passed away in 1278, Akropolites thought he would be more favored by John IV Laskaris, who had been his pupil for years. Perhaps Akropolites had taught him too well, however, for John IV proved himself to be more of a scholar and a theologian than a reigning monarch, devolving increasingly more power in the hands of George Mouzalon, who remained his chief minister.
In February 1281, when a crisis emerged between John IV and Skantarios, which saw the latter rise in rebellion to claim the imperial crown, Akropolites made the fateful choice of supporting the coup of Michael Palaiologos in Constantinople. Palaiologos had been a long time rival of the Laskarids, as head of the aristocratic faction that opposed Theodore II's anti-aristocratic policies and his New Men, to whom Akropolites belonged, but who were headed chiefly by Mouzalon himself. In order to rid himself of Mouzalon and claim primacy in the imperial government as Grand Logothete, Akropolites supported the coup of Michael Palaiologos by facilitating his entry to the palace and, as Pachymeres claims, distracting John IV for long enough to be taken captive. During the coup, George Mouzalon and his sons were executed by Palaiologos, who took the reins of government in the name of emperor Skantarios and confirmed Akropolites in his post.
What comes next is of uncertain historical record. In his History, Akropolites claims that he was unaware of the danger posed to John IV by Michael Palaiologos, as he allegedly did not know of Palaiologos' intention of blinding the deposed emperor. While writing in his chronicle, Akropolites justifies himself by claiming he had been given assurances by Palaiologos himself regarding John IV's well-being and safety. The History records that the order to blind John IV came from the elderly general Nikephoros Tarchaneiotes, Michael's brother-in-law, who had been blinded by Theodore II and now desired revenge. Thus, Tarchaneiotes had supposedly tricked both Akropolites and Palaiologos. Even if there is truth to Akropolites' account, it can be argued that his supposed expectation of no harm befalling John IV was uncharacteristically naive, and that it was indeed likely that he betrayed his former pupil and benefactors in order to eliminate the influence of George Mouzalon at court.
Whatever the case, Akropolites' appeals to Skantarios Laskaris did not move the new emperor when he arrived at Constantinople. All conspirators were seized and executed. Akropolites was the single exception. Pachymeres writes that Skantarios granted him mercy due to Akropolites' brilliance and high standing in Constantinople's scholarly circles, as well as due to latent affection for his former tutor and in the name of the memory of his late father. Theodore II had loved Mouzalon better, but he had still loved Akropolites all the same.
George Akropolites was therefore stripped of all his ranks and incomes and exiled to the Aegean island of Anafi, where he lived out the remainder of his days in obscurity and complete isolation, with the sole company of his widowed daughter, Anna, who founded a monastery on the island. In exile, Akropolites completed his History, which he had already begun in the preceding decade. He died there in 1286 and was buried by his daughter.
== Legacy ==
Akropolites' legacy persisted long after his fall from grace and death, enduring throughout the Laskarid Renaissance, which he helped to kick off. As Theodore II's chief philosopher and head of the University of Constantinople, he presided over a period of intense intellectual growth and debate, although most of the innovation would be restricted to Theodore II's own controversial writings. The literary circles established at Constantinople under his aegis would far outlive him and anyone of his generation, later culminating in the fourteenth-century scholarly debate between Eusebian hesychasts and Byzantine humanists that would dominate the intellectual life of the capital in the late fourteenth century and set the tone for the centuries to come. Akropolites was later considered one of the patrons of Byzantine diplomacy.
Akropolites' legacy as a historian is similarly valuable, although more controversial. Alongside George Pachymeres and Theodore Skoutariotes, his work is considered the most important contemporary source for the reign of Theodore II. Among these chronicles, Akropolites' is the most detailed by far, as his access to official documents, as well as his life experiences in diplomacy and in military campaigns, proved to be invaluable for his work. However, his History has been criticized for authorial bias, citing Akropolites' vilification of George Mouzalon and his circle of New Men, condemned for their low birth and arrogance, his unique views on Theodore II, and the aristocratic bias intrinsic to his chronicle, which prominently features figures such as Michael Palaiologos, Manuel Megas Komnenos and Romanos V Melissenos under a very positive light.
== Family ==
George Akropolites married Eirene Doukaina Raoulaina, a daughter of the noble general Alexios Raoul and grand-niece of John III Doukas Vatatzes. Their marriage was arranged by Theodore II as part of his policy of binding his lowborn New Men to the high aristocracy of the empire. They had three children who survived into adulthood:
* Constantine, who served as a high-ranking civil functionary and briefly held the office of Logothete of the Course during the reign of Romanos V Melissenos.
* Alexander, who became a jurist and headed the Court of the Hippodrome as Grand Drungary of the Watch.
* Anna, who became Queen of Jerusalem by marriage to King Aimery and later founded a monastery on the island of Anaphi, taking care of her father in his old age.
Category:Byzantine people