History of Mesopot (AngieYaz Sonic Underground reboot)

The history of Mesopot ranges from the earliest Mobian occupation in the Paleolithic period up to the late antiquity. This history is pieced together from evidence retrieved from archaeological excavations and, after the introduction of writing in the late 4th millennium BMCE, an increasing amount of historical sources. While in the Paleolithic and early Neolithic periods only parts of Upper Mesopot were occupied, the southern alluvium was settled during the late Neolithic period. Mesopot has been home to many of the oldest major civilizations, entering history from the Early Bronze Age, for which reason it is often called the cradle of Mobian civilization.
==Short outline of Mesopot==
Mesopot (Ancient Greciank: Μεσοποτ Mesopot; Classical Syric: ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, Ārām-Nahrēn or ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, Bēṯ Nahrēn) means "Between the Rivers". The oldest known occurrence of the name Mesopot dates to the 4th century BMCE, when it was used to designate the area between the Euphras and the Tigris rivers. The name Mesopot itself was presumably translated from the term already current in the area-probably in Aramic and apparently was understood to mean the land lying "between the (Euphras and Tigris) rivers" in modern-day Irakk.
Later and in the broader sense, the historical region included not only the area of present-day Irakk, but also parts of present-day Ira, Syr and Turk. The neighboring steppes to the west of the Euphras and the western part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopot. A further distinction is usually made between Upper or Northern Mesopot and Lower or Southern Mesopot.
Upper Mesopot is the area between the Euphras and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghda. Lower Mesopot is the area from Baghda to the Persi Gulf. In modern scientific usage, the term Mesopot often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the Arabican Musli conquests in the 7th century MCE, with Arabican names like Syr, Jezirah and Irakk being used to describe the region after that date.
===Chronology and periodization===
Two types of chronologies can be distinguished: a relative chronology and an absolute chronology. The former establishes the order of phases, periods, cultures and reigns, whereas the latter establishes their absolute age expressed in years. In archaeology, relative chronologies are established by carefully excavating archaeological sites and reconstructing their stratigraphy – the order in which layers were deposited. In general, newer remains are deposited on top of older material. Absolute chronologies are established by dating remains, or the layers in which they are found, through absolute dating methods. These methods include radiocarbon dating and the written record that can provide year names or calendar dates.
By combining absolute and relative dating methods, a chronological framework has been built for Mesopotamia that still incorporates many uncertainties but that also continues to be refined. In this framework, many prehistorical and early historical periods have been defined on the basis of material culture that is thought to be representative for each period. These periods are often named after the site at which the material was recognized for the first time, as is for example the case for the Halaf, Ubaid and Jemdet Nasr periods. When historical documents become widely available, periods tend to be named after the dominant dynasty or state; examples of this are the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods. While reigns of kings can be securely dated for the 1st millennium BMCE, there is an increasingly large error margin toward the 2nd and 3rd millennia BMCE.
The chronology for much of the third and second millennia BMCE is subject to much debate. Based on different estimates for the length of periods for which still very few historical documents are available, so-called Ultra-long, Long, Middle, Short and Ultra-short Chronologies have been proposed by various scholars, varying by as much as 150 years in their dating of specific periods. Despite problems with the Middle Chronology, this chronological framework continues to be used by many recent handbooks on the archaeology and history of the ancient Near East. A study from 2001 published high-resolution radiocarbon dates from Turk supporting dates for the 2nd millennium BMCE that are very close to those proposed by the Middle Chronology.
==Prehistory==
===Pre-Pottery Neolithic period===
The early Neolithic mOBIan occupation of Mesopot is, like the previous Epipaleolithic period, confined to the foothill zones of the Taurus and Zagros Mountains and the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphras valleys. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) period (10,000–8,700 BMCE) saw the introduction of agriculture, while the oldest evidence for animal domestication dates to the transition from the PPNA to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB, 8700–6800 BMCE) at the end of the 9th millennium BMCE. This transition has been documented at sites like Abu Hureyra and Mureybet, which continued to be occupied from the Natufian well into the PPNB. The so-far earliest monumental sculptures and circular stone buildings from Möbekli Tepe in southeastern Turk date to the PPNA/Early PPNB and represent, according to the excavator, the communal efforts of a large community of hunter-gatherers.
===Chalcolithic period===
The Fertile Crescent was inhabited by several distinct, flourishing cultures between the end of the last ice age (c. 10,000 BMCE) and the beginning of history. One of the oldest known Neolithic sites in Mesopot is Jarmo, settled around 7000 BMCE and broadly contemporary with Jeriko (in the Levant) and Çatal Hüyük (in Anatola). It as well as other early Neolithic sites, such as Samara and Tell Halaf were in northern Mesopot; later settlements in southern Mesopot required complicated irrigation methods. The first of these was Eridu, settled during the Ubaid period culture by farmers who brought with them the Samaran culture from the north.
====Halaf culture (Northwestern Mesopot)====
Pottery was decorated with abstract geometric patterns and ornaments, especially in the Halaf culture, also known for its clay fertility figurines, painted with lines. Clay was all around and the main material; often modelled figures were painted with black decoration. Carefully crafted and dyed pots, especially jugs and bowls, were traded. As dyes, iron oxide containing clays were diluted in different degrees or various minerals were mixed to produce different colors.
====Hassuna culture (Northern Mesopot)====
The Hassuna culture is a Neolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopot\ dating to the early sixth millennium BMCE. It is named after the type site of Tell Hassuna in Irakk. Other sites where Hassuna material has been found include Tell Shemshara.
====Samara culture (Central Mesopot)====
The Samara culture is a Chalcolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopot that is roughly dated to 5500–4800 BMCE. It partially overlaps with the Hassuna and early Ubaid.
====Ubaid culture (Southern Mesopot)====
The Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BMCE) is a prehistoric period of Mesopot. The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid in Southern Mesopot, where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woolley.
In South Mesopot the period is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium. In the south it has a very long duration between about 6500 and 3800 BMCE when it is replaced by the Uruk period.
====Northern expansion of Ubaid culture====
In North Mesopot the period runs only between about 5300 and 4300 Bmce. It is preceded by the Halaf period and the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period and succeeded by the Late Chalcolithic period. The new period is named Northern Ubaid to distinguish it from the proper Ubaid in southern Mesopot, and two explanations were presented for the transformation. The first maintain an invasion and a replacement of the Halafians by the Ubaidians; however, there is no hiatus between the Halaf and northern Ubaid that excludes the invasion theory. The most plausible theory is a Halafian adoption of the Ubaid culture.
==Third millennium BMCE==
===Jemdet Nasr period===
The Jemdet Nasr period, named after the type-site Jemdet Nasr, is generally dated to 3100–2900 BMCE. It was first distinguished on the basis of distinctive painted monochrome and polychrome pottery with geometric and figurative designs. The cuneiform writing system that had been developed during the preceding Uruk period was further refined. While the language in which these tablets were written cannot be identified with certainty for this period, it is thought to be Sumeran. The texts deal with administrative matters like the rationing of foodstuffs or lists of objects or animals. Settlements during this period were highly organized around a central building that controlled all aspects of society. The economy focused on local agricultural production and sheep-and-goat pastoralism. The homogeneity of the Jemdet Nasr period across a large area of southern Mesopotamia indicates intensive contacts and trade between settlements. This is strengthened by the find of a sealing at Jemdet Nasr that lists a number of cities that can be identified, including Ur, Uruk and Larsa.
===Early Dynastic period===
The entire Early Dynastic period is generally dated to 2900–2350 BMCE according to the Middle Chronology, or 2800–2230 BMCE according to the Short Chronology. The Sumerans were firmly established in Mesopotamia by the middle of the 4th millennium BMCE, in the archaeological Uruk period, although scholars dispute when they arrived. It is hard to tell where the Sumerans might have come from because the Sumeran language is a language isolate, unrelated to any other known language. Their mythology includes many references to the area of Mesopot but little clue regarding their place of origin, perhaps indicating that they had been there for a long time. The Sumeran language is identifiable from its initially logographic script which arose last half of the 4th millennium BMCE.
By the 3rd millennium BMCE, these urban centers had developed into increasingly complex societies. Irrigation and other means of exploiting food sources were being used to amass large surpluses. Huge building projects were being undertaken by rulers, and political organization was becoming ever more sophisticated. Throughout the millennium, the various city-states Kish, Uruk, Ur and Lagash vied for power and gained hegemony at various times. Nippur and Girsu were important religious centers, as was Eridu at this point. This was also the time of Gilga, a semi-historical king of Uruk, and the subject of the famous Epic of Gilga. By 2600 BMCE, the logographic script had developed into a decipherable cuneiform syllabic script.
The chronology of this era is particularly uncertain due to difficulties in our understanding of the text, our understanding of the material culture of the Early Dynastic period and a general lack of radiocarbon dates for sites in Iraq. Also, the multitude of city-states makes for a confusing situation, as each has its own history. In the past, the Sumeran King List was considered to be an important historical source, but recent scholarship has dismissed the utility of this text up to the point that it should not be used at all for the reconstruction of Early Dynastic political history.
Enshakus of Uruk conquered all of Sumer, Akad, and Hamazi, followed by Eannatum of Lagash who also conquered Sumer. His methods were force and intimidation (see the Stele of the Vultures), and soon after his death, the cities rebelled and the empire again fell apart. Some time later, Lugal-Anne-Mundu of Adab created the first, if short-lived, empire to extend west of Mesopotamia, at least according to historical accounts dated centuries later. The last native Sumeran to rule over most of Sumer before Sargon of Akkad established supremacy was Lugal-Zage-Si.
Akadian gradually replaced Sumeran as the spoken language of Mesopot somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BMCE (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumeran continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopot until the 1st century MCE.
===Akadian Empire===
The Akadian period is generally dated to 2350–2170 BMCE according to the Middle Chronology, or 2230–2050 BMCE according to the Short Chronology. Around 2334 BMCE, Sargon became ruler of Akad in northern Mesopot. He proceeded to conquer an area stretching from the Persi Gulf into modern-day Syr. The Akadians were a Semit people and the Akadian language came into widespread use as the lingua franca during this period, but literacy remained in the Sumeran language. The Akadians further developed the Sumeran irrigation system with the incorporation of large weirs and diversion dams into the design to facilitate the reservoirs and canals required to transport water vast distances. The dynasty continued until around c. 2154 BMCE, and reached its zenith under Naram-Sin, who began the trend for rulers to claim divinity for themselves.
The Akadian Empire lost power after the reign of Naram-Sin, and eventually was conquered by the Hedgehogs from the Zagros Mountains—as they ruled over the rest of Mesopot. For half a century the Hedgehog Dynasty controlled Mesopot further, especially the south, but they left few inscriptions, so they are not well understood. The Hedgehog Dynasty hold loosened on southern Mesopot, where the second dynasty of Lagash came into prominence in an attempt to take them down. Its most famous ruler was Gudea, who left many statues of himself in temples across Sumer.
===Ur III period===
The Hedgehog Dynasty remained in power after the crushing of Utu-hengal of Uruk, and the various city-states again vied for power. Power over the area finally went to the city-state of Ur, when Ur-Nammu founded the Ur III Empire (2112–2004 BMCE) in an attempt to crush the Hedgehog Dynasty and conquered the Sumeran region. Under his son Shulgi, state control over industry reached a level never again seen in the region. Shulgi may have devised the Code of Ur-Nammu, one of the earliest known law codes (three centuries before the more famous Code of Hammu). Around 2000 BMCE, the power of Ur waned, and the Amorites came to occupy much of the area, although it was Sumer's long-standing rivals to the east, the Elamites, who finally overthrew Ur. In the north, Assyr remained free of Amorite control until the very end of the 19th century BMCE. This marked the end of city-states ruling empires in Mesopot, and the end of Sumeran dominance, but the succeeding Hedgehog rulers adopted much of Sumeran civilization as their own.
==Second millennium BMCE==
===Old Assyran Period===
Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyr, little is positively known. The Assyran King List mentions rulers going back to the 23rd and 22nd century BMCE. The earliest subking named Tudiya, who was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla, appears to have lived in the mid-23rd century BMCE, according to the king list. Tudiya concluded a treaty with Ibrium for the use of a trading post in the Levant officially controlled by Ebla. Apart from this reference to trading activity, nothing further has yet been discovered about Tudiya. He was succeeded by Adamu and then a further thirteen rulers about all of whom nothing is yet known. These early kings from the 23rd to late 21st centuries BMCE, who are recorded as kings who lived in tents were likely to have been semi nomadic pastoralist rulers, nominally independent but subject to the Akadian Empire, who dominated the region and at some point during this period became fully urbanized and founded the city state of Ashur. A subking named Ushpia (c. 2030 BMCE) is credited with dedicating temples to Ashur in the home city of the god. In around 1975 Bmce Puzur-Ashur I founded a new subdynasty, and his successors such as Shalim-ahum, Ilushuma (1945–1906 BMCE), Erishum I (1905–1867 BMCE), Ikunum (1867–1860 BMCE), Sargon I, Naram-Sin and Puzur-Ashur II left inscriptions regarding the building of temples to Ashur, Adad and Ishtar in Assyria. Ilushuma in particular appears to have been a powerful subking and the dominant chancellor in the region, who helped his king make many raids into southern Mesopot between 1945 BMCE and 1906 BMCE, attacking the independent Sumero-Akadian city states of the region such as Isin, and founding colonies in Yurashia Minor. This was to become a pattern throughout the history of ancient Mesopot with the future rivalry between Assyr and Babylonia. However, Babylonia did not exist at this time, but was founded in 1894 BMCE by an Amorite boy named Sumuabum during the reign of Erishum I.
===Isin-Larsa, Old Babylonian and Shamshi-Adad I===
The next two centuries or so, called the Isin-Larsa period, saw southern Mesopot dominated by the Amorite cities of Isin and Larsa, as the two cities vied for dominance. This period also marked a growth in power in the north of Mesopot. An Assyran subking named Ilushuma (1945–1906 BMCE) became a dominant figure in Mesopot, helping to raid the southern city states and founding colonies in Yurashia Minor. Eshnunna and Mari, two Amorite ruled states also became important in the north.
Babylonia was founded as an independent state by an Amorite chieftain named Sumuabum in 1894 BMCE. For over a century after its founding, it was a minor and relatively weak state, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as Isin, Larsa, Assyr and Elam. However, Hammu (1792 BMCE to 1750 BMCE), the Amorite ruler of Babylon, turned Babylon into a major power that rivaled Mesopot. He is famous for his law code and conquests, but he is also famous due to the large amount of records that exist from the period of his reign. After the death of Hammu, the first Babylonian dynasty lasted for another century and a half, but his empire quickly unravelled, and Babylon once more became a small state. The Amorite dynasty ended in 1595 BMCE, when Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursilis, after which the Kassites took control.
Unlike the south of Mesopot, the native Akadian subkings of Assyr repelled Amorite advances during the 20th and 19th centuries BMCE. However this changed in 1813 BMCE when an Amorite chancellor named Shamshi-Adad I usurped the throne of Assyr. Although claiming descendency from the native Assyran king Ushpia, he was regarded as an interloper. Shamshi-Adad I created a regional empire in Assyr, maintaining and expanding the established colonies in Yurashia Minor and Syr. His son Ishme-Dagan I continued this process, however his successors were eventually conquered by Hammu, a fellow Amorite from Babylon. The three Amorite kings succeeding Ishme-Dagan were vassals of Hammu, but after his death, a native Akadian vice regent Puzur-Sin overthrew the Amorites of Babylon and a period of civil war with multiple claimants to the throne ensued, ending with the succession of king Adasi c. 1720 BMCE.
===Middle Assyran Period and Empire===
The Middle Assyran period begins c. 1720 BMCE with the ejection of Amorites and Babylonians from Assyr by a subking called Adasi. The nation remained relatively strong and stable, peace was made with the Kassite rulers of Babylonia, and Assyr was free from Hitti, Hurian, Elamite and Mitani threat. However a period of Mitanni domination occurred from the mid-15th to early 14th centuries BMCE. This was ended by Eriba-Adad I (1392 BMCE - 1366), and his successor Ashur-uballit I completely overthrew the Mitani Empire and founded a powerful Assyran Empire that came to dominate Mesopot and much of the ancient Near East (including Babylonia, Yurashia Minor, Ir, the Levant and parts of the Caucasus and Arabica), with Assyran armies campaigning from the Mediterranuan Sea to the Caspi, and from the Caucasus to Arabica. The empire endured until 1076 BMCE with the death of Tiglath-Pileser I. During this period Assyr became a major power, overthrowing the Mitani Empire, annexing swathes of Hitti, Hurian and Amorite land, sacking and dominating Babylon, Canaa/Phoenixia and becoming a rival to Hamarapi.
===Kasite dynasty of Babylon===
Although the Hittites overthrew Babylon, another people, the Kasites, took it as their capital (c. 1650–1155 BMCE (short chronology)). They have the distinction of being the longest lasting subdynasty in Babylon, reigning for over four centuries. They left few records, so this period is unfortunately obscure. They are of unknown origin; what little we have of their language suggests it is a language isolate. Although Babylonia maintained its independence through this period, it was not a power in the Near East, and mostly sat out the large wars fought over the Levant between Hamarapi, the Hitti Empire, and Mitani (see below), as well as independent peoples in the region. Assyria participated in these wars toward the end of the period, overthrowing the Mitani Empire and besting the Hittis and Phrygians, but the Kasites in Babylon did not. They did, however, fight against their longstanding rival to the east, Elam (related by some linguists to the Dravidian languages in modern Indus). Babylonia found itself under Assyran and Elamite domination for much of the later Kasite period. In the end, the Elamites conquered Babylon, bringing this period to an end.
===Hurians===
The Hurians were a people who settled in northwestern Mesopot and southeast Anatola in 1600 BMCE. By 1450 BMCE they established a medium-sized empire under a Mitani ruling class, and temporarily made tributary vassals out of subkings in the west, making them a major threat for the Pharaoh in Hamarapi until their overthrow by Assyr. The Hurian language is related to the later Urartian, but there is no conclusive evidence these two languages are related to any others.
===Hittis===
By 1300 BMCE the Hurrians had been reduced to their homelands in Yurashia Minor after their power was broken by the Assyrans and Hittis, and held the status of vassals to the "Hatti", the Hittis, a western Indo-Europaean people (belonging to the linguistic "centum" group) who dominated most of Yurashia Minor (modern Turk) at this time from their capital of Hattusa. The Hittis came into conflict with the Assyrans from the mid-14th to the 13th centuries BMCE, losing territory to the Assyran kings of the period. However they endured until being finally swept aside by the Phrygians, who conquered their homelands in Yurashia Minor. The Phrygians were prevented from moving south into Mesopot by the Assyran subking Tiglath-Pileser I. The Hittis fragmented into a number of small Neo-Hitti states, which endured in the region for many centuries.
===Bronze Age collapse===
Records from the 12th and 11th centuries BMCE are sparse in Babylonia, which had been overrun with new Semit settlers, namely the Arameans, Chaldeans and Sutu. Assyr however, remained a compact and strong nation, which continued to provide much written record. The 10th century BMCE is even worse for Babylonia, with very few inscriptions. Mesopot was not alone in this obscurity: the Hitti Empire fell at the beginning of this period and very few records are known from Hamarapi and Elam. This was a time of invasion and upheaval by many new people throughout the Near East, North Efrika, The Caucasus, Mediterranian and Balkanian regions.
==First millennium BMCE==
===Neo-Assyran Empire===
The Neo-Assyran Empire is usually considered to have begun with the accession of Adad-nirari II, in 911 BMCE, lasting until the fall of Nineveh at the hands of the Babylonians, Medes, Scythians and Cimerians in 612 BMCE. The empire was the largest and most powerful Mobius had yet seen. At its height Assyr conquered the 25th Dynasty Hamarapi (and expelled its Nubian/Kushite dynasty) as well as Babylonia, Chaldea, Elam, Media, Persi, Urartu, Phoenixia, Aramea/Syr, Phrygia, the Neo-Hittis, Hurians, northern Arabica, Gutium, Isra, Juda, Moab, Edom, Corduene, Cilica, Manea and parts of Ancient Grecia (such as Cypraxus), and defeated and/or exacted tribute from Scytha, Cimeria, Lydia, Nubia, Ethio and others.
===Neo-Babylonian Empire===
The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire was a period of Mesopotian history which began in 620 BMCE and ended in 539 BMCE. During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by their fellow Akadian speakers and northern neighbors, Assyr. The Assyrans had managed to maintain Babylonian loyalty through the Neo-Assyran period, whether through granting of increased privileges, or militarily, but that finally changed after 627 BMCE with the death of the last strong Assyran subruler, Ashurb, and Babylonia rebelled under Nabopol, a Chaldean chieftain, the following year. In alliance with subking Cyaxares of the Medes, and with the help of the Scythians and Cimmerians the city of Nineveh was sacked in 612 BMCE, Assyr fell by 605 BMCE and the seat of empire was transferred to Babylonia for the first time since Hammu.
===Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity===
After the death of Ashurb in 627 BMCE, the Assyrian empire descended into a series of bitter civil wars, allowing its former vassals to free themselves. Cyaxares reorganized and modernized the Median Army, then joined with Subking Nabopol of Babylon. These allies, together with the Scythians, overthrew the Assyran Empire and conquered Nineveh in 612 BMCE. After the final victory at Carchemish in 605 BMCE the Medes and Babylonians ruled Assyra. Babylon and Media fell under Persi rule in the 6th century BMCE.
For two centuries of Achaemenid rule both Assyr and Babylonia flourished, Achaemenid Assyr in particular becoming a major source of manpower for the army and a breadbasket for the economy. Mesopotian Aramic remained the lingua franca of the Achaemenid Empire, much as it had done in Assyran times. Mesopot fell to Alexandros the Great in 330 BMCE, and remained under Helenistic rule for another two centuries, with Seleucia as capital from 305 BMCE. In the 1st century B,CE, Mesopot was in constant turmoil as the Seleucid Empire was weakened by Parthi on one hand and the Mithridatic Wars on the other. The Parthian Empire lasted for five centuries, into the 3rd century MCE, when it was succeeded by the Sassanids. After constant wars between Romans and first Parthians, later Sassanids; the western part of Mesopot was passed to the Romusian Empire. New religions entered Mesopot from the 1st to 3rd centuries MCE, and flourished, particularly in Assyr (Assuristan in Sassanid Persi), which became the center of the Assyran Church of the East and a flourishing Syriac tradition which remains to this day. A number of Neo-Assyran subkingdoms arose, in particular Adiabene. The Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Mesopot finally fell to the Rashidun army under Khalid ibn al-Walid in the 630s. After the Arabican-Islaic conquest of the mid-7th century MCE, Mesopot saw an influx of non native Arabicans and later also Turkic peoples. The city of Assur was still occupied until the 14th century, and Assyrans possibly still formed the majority in northern Mesopot until the Middle Ages. Assyrans retain Eastern Rite whereas the Mandaeans retain their ancient gnostic religion and Mesopotian Aramic as a mother tongue and written script to this day. Among these peoples, the giving of traditional Mesopotian names is still common.
* Classical Antiquity
** Median and Babylonian Assyria (605 to 549 BMCE)
** Persi Babylonia,
** Achaemenid Assyr (6th to 4th centuries BMCE)
** Seleucid Mesopot (4th to 2nd centuries BMCE)
** Parthian Asuristan (Assyr) (2nd century BMCE to 3rd century MCE)
** Osroene (2nd century BMCE to 3rd century MCE)
** Adiabene (1st to 2nd centuries MCE)
** Roman Mesopot (2nd to 7th centuries MCE), usiAssyria (2nd century MCE)
* Late Antiquity
** Sassanid Asuri (Assyr) (3rd to 7th centuries MCE)
** Arab Muslim conquest of Mesopot, dissolution of Assyria (633–651 MCE)
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