French Indochina

French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China), officially known as the Indochinese Union and after 1947 as the Indochinese Federation, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Mainland Southeast Asia until its end in 1954. It comprised Cambodia, Laos (from 1899), the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan (from 1898 until 1945), and the Vietnamese regions of Tonkin in the north, Annam in the centre, and Cochinchina in the south. The capital for most of its history (1902–1945) was Hanoi; Saigon was the capital from 1887 to 1902 and again from 1945 to 1954.
The Second French Empire annexed Cochinchina in 1862 and established a protectorate in Cambodia in 1863. After the French Third Republic took over northern Vietnam through the Tonkin campaign, the various protectorates were consolidated into one union in 1887. Two more entities were incorporated into the union: the Laotian protectorate and the Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan. The French exploited the resources in the region during their rule, but also contributed to improvements of the health and education system in the region. Nevertheless, deep divides remained between the native population and the colonists, leading to sporadic rebellions by the former. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. After the Japanese surrender, the Viet Minh, led by Hồ Chí Minh, declared Vietnamese independence, but France subsequently took back control of French Indochina with the help of the British. An all-out independence war, known as the First Indochina War, broke out in late 1946 between French and Viet Minh forces.
To counter the Viet Minh, the State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was proclaimed by the French in 1949. French efforts to retake Vietnam were unsuccessful, culminating in defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ. On 22 October and 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and Kingdom of Cambodia proclaimed their respective independences. Following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French were forced to withdraw from Vietnam, which had been split into the two countries (until 1976), and French Indochina was no more.
History
Background
French involvement in Vietnam traces back to the early 17th century when Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes arrived in the region. At this time, Vietnam was embarking on its "Push to the South," gradually occupying territories such as the Mekong Delta, which were formerly part of the Khmer Empire and, to a lesser extent, the kingdom of Champa.
First French Interventions
European engagement in Vietnam remained primarily focused on trade during the 18th century, with the Jesuit missionaries making significant strides. However, in 1787, French Catholic priest Pierre Pigneau de Behaine rallied French military volunteers to assist Nguyễn Ánh in reclaiming lost territories from the Tây Sơn. This effort culminated in the French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh, which lasted until 1802.
19th Century
The 19th century saw extensive French involvement in Vietnam, driven partly by the Paris Foreign Missions Society's work in the country. The Nguyễn dynasty perceived Catholic missionaries as a political threat, leading to tensions. In 1858, French Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly attacked Tourane (present-day Da Nang) under Napoleon III's orders, aiming to end Vietnam's persecution of Catholic missionaries.
French Conquest of Cochinchina
De Genouilly's forces captured Saigon in 1859, but their attempts to expand beyond the city were thwarted. Admiral Page replaced de Genouilly in 1859, tasked with securing a treaty protecting the Catholic faith without territorial gains. The Saigon campaign persisted until 1861 when the Vietnamese conceded, signing the Treaty of Saigon, ceding territories to France.
Establishment and Early Administration
In 1863, Cambodia requested a French protectorate, which was established after Siam renounced suzerainty. France gained control over northern Vietnam after the Sino-French War (1884–85), forming French Indochina in 1887, incorporating Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina, and Cambodia. Laos was added after the Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893.
Anti-French Revolts in the Early 20th Century
Despite French attempts at pacification, anti-French uprisings persisted in French Indochina during the early 20th century. The Cần Vương movement in Vietnam aimed to expel the French, while nationalist sentiments intensified, especially after World War I. Various secret societies and movements emerged, challenging French rule and advocating for independence.
Introducing French Education
In 1906, the Councils for the Improvement of Indigenous Education were established to oversee French education policies in Indochina. The French administration reformed the educational system, aligning it with French ambitions in the region. French influence extended to curriculum revisions and administrative control over education ministries.
World War I brought significant changes to French Indochina, both socially and politically. The period saw a surge in Vietnamese involvement in the conflict, with thousands of volunteers from Annam and Tonkin enlisting for service in Europe. These volunteers played crucial roles in various aspects of the war effort, from direct combat functions to logistics and support roles.
The experience of serving in Europe exposed the Vietnamese soldiers to new ideas and social norms, leading to a shift in their perceptions and aspirations. Many of them became exposed to political debates and ideals that fueled their desire for self-determination and autonomy from colonial rule.
However, despite the promises of collaboration and liberal reforms made by the French administration, the reality for the Vietnamese in French Indochina was one of increased economic exploitation and repression of nationalist movements. The gap between promises and actions led to growing disillusionment among the Vietnamese population.
The war also had significant economic impacts on French Indochina. The region was tasked with financing its own contributions to the war effort, leading to increased taxation and exploitation of local resources. While some economic sectors experienced growth, particularly those owned by the French, the majority of the indigenous population saw their livelihoods decrease due to taxation and colonial economic policies.
Moreover, the war sparked various uprisings and rebellions throughout French Indochina, fueled by grievances such as mandatory corvée and increased taxes. These rebellions, along with the experiences of Vietnamese soldiers in Europe, laid the groundwork for future nationalist movements and political activism.
Overall, World War I marked a pivotal period in the history of French Indochina, shaping the aspirations and political consciousness of the Vietnamese people and paving the way for future struggles for independence.