Russian Federation

Sport, Politics and The Cold War
 
 Meredith Pavia
 History 20.4s
 Professor Silbey
 March 12, 1998
 
 
 
 
The United States and the Soviet Union are fundamentally different
nations. Extreme political and economic differences exist as a result
of opposing national ideologies. These differences manifested
themselves in many ways following the end of World War II resulting in
a precarious state now referred to as the Cold War. The advent of
nuclear weapons prevented military confrontation between the worlds
superpowers, yet a constant power struggle and an atmosphere riddled
with tension remained. The Cold War was ripe with potential political
or military crises of international magnitude; the Bay of Pigs, Cuban
missile crisis, problems with the Suez canal, invasions of Hungary and
Afghanistan, issues with China and Vietnam and the space race. Often
overlooked is the role sport, specifically the Olympic Games, played in
the Cold War between these two superpowers.
In world politics and international affairs sport is an intrinsic part
of each nation in addition to being an entity that nation can use.
Sport reflects the personality and politics of each nation and at the
same time sport can be wielded as a political tool or weapon.
International sports and the Olympic competitions which showcase
nations athletes paralleled the trends of the Cold War, as well as
interactions and relations between the United States and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics.
In proposing that sport reflects the politics of the times, it is
necessary to present some background depicting sport as representative
of differing societies. The Soviet Unions dominance in athletics is a
fairly recent phenomenon. Russia participated in international sporting
competitions throughout her history. With the creation of the Soviet
Union this international interaction ceased. The Soviets believed in
isolating themselves from Western, capitalist nations and kept their
athletic endeavors strictly regional and with other "friendly"
socialist nations. Despite this the Soviets did not lessen there
commitment to physical fitness. To the Soviets, sport was a crucial
element in the equation which produced military prowess. Shooting,
skiing and other athletic events were vital in developing a strong body
which in turn made for a more productive fighting force. Introducing
sport to society in the USSR served many functions: "Training the
citizen in military techniques, improving his health and exercising his
muscles to raise labor productivity, instilling Communist mores through
collective play activity, and generally supervising and controlling his
leisure time." ( Morton, Henry. Soviet Sport. New York: Collier Books,
1963. 68.)Soviet performance in the second world war reaffirmed to
Sovietleadership that the investment in sport had been worthwhile. The
Party perceived more advantages to sport with international involvement
and as a result sent a team from the USSR to its first Olympics in 1952.
The Soviets viewed success in international sports competitions to be
indicative of success as a nation. Excellence in athletics would
demonstrate to the world that socialism is the best way of life. Sports
was a facet of life which the Soviets could be viewed as equals with
their Western counterparts.
	Athletics are capable of crossing cultural boundaries and can create a
forum for peaceful international interaction. Athletics can also be
manipulated to serve a nation. The communist thesis maintains "sport
superiority signifies the superiority of the political culture which
spawns it." ( Hoberman, John. The Olympic Crisis. New York: Aristide
Caratzas, 1986. 10.) The Soviets joined the Olympic movement, not to
advocate peace and the high ideals of its founders, but to legitimize its place
in international circles.
	With this goal in mind the Party set up a system which produced some
of the finest athletes the world has seen. At an extremely young age
children are screened for athletic potential. They are nurtured and
sent to sports boarding school for the best training. "By operating a
comprehensive, centrally controlled, heavily subsidized sports program;
by coaching selected athletes in the latest methods gathered from
domestic and foreign experiences in special sport schools and at
climatically favorable training sites for long periods; and by offering
them material rewards, prestige, and opportunities beyond their sports
prime (on a parallel with other privileged groups of Soviet society),
they have achieved a glowing Olympic and international sport record."(
Morton, Henry. Soviet Sport. New York: Collier Books, 1963. 90-91.)
	Sport in Soviet society is not a pastime, not a leisure activity. It
is a way of life, ingrained by the Party and as intricate a part of
socialism and society as anything else. It serves to further the Party,
further the state. Sport is a microcosm of Soviet society. The gifted
are selected at an early age and achieve a high level in society. If
you can aid the party you are viewed as useful and treated extremely
well, reaping many economic, social, and political benefits. If you
cannot you are most likely poor and receive no aid or support from the
government. This does not fit the theory behind socialist society where
everyone is taken care of by the state, but realistic Soviet society is
not the ideal. The Party protects it own. Again, sport is a mirror of
society. 	The United States, the superpower standing opposite the USSR
following World War II, is a capitalist nation with a completely
different ideology. Sport is perceived as a leisure activity. It is fun
and it is enjoyable, which is not to say it is not competitive. Sport is
taken seriously by those athletes that are the nations best; however,
sport is not financed by the government. The most talented swimmer in
the country could elect not to participate in any competition and the
government would not intervene, nor would it know. National athletics
are not dominated by ideology. There is no central source nor are
athletes required to serve the nation. All clubs, tournaments and
schools are initiated by the individual or individual corporation. This
goes along with the theory of capitalism our society is predicated upon.
Each individual has equal opportunity for economic and social
advancement. The government exists to protect certain rights and to
maintain order. Colleges and universities choose to reward students
with athletic talent with scholarships and some of the funding for this
does come from the federal government. The difference, however, lies in
the path an athlete travels before gaining money for his talents.
Participation in the sport he excels at was a personal choice made
independent of the government.
	With sport being so fully intertwined within the fabric of both U.S.
and Soviet society it is not surprising that it was significant in the
cold war interaction between these two nations. "The modern
games...have been utilized not so much for international fair play,
peace and understanding as for national self interest, survival and
pride."( Espy, Richard. The Politics of the Olympic Games. Los Angeles:
University of California Press. VII.) The nineteen seventies, as lead up
to the 1980 Olympic boycott, present an opportunity to analyze
international politics in relation to sport. The first noteworthy
example of the decade was the United States attempt at diplomatic
relations with China through a series of Ping-Pong matches. Communist
China had been previously unrecognized by the United States. There was
lingering distrust between the two nations and China had been fairly
isolationist. The olive branch of sport was a large step in bridging
the gap between these dichotomous nations. 
	Munich was the next stage for international politics in 1972 shifting
nations Cold War alignments. The Olympic games brought the world
together and the Arabs utilized this forum for terrorism, killing
eleven Israelis. The Soviets were the only nation at the games which
did not have a delegation at the memorial service. This action
furthered the Soviet image as a cold, removed nation. The terrorist act
also prompted a realignment of nations. The Soviet relations with Egypt,
previously strained, were restored and the Soviets resumed military
presence in Egypt. West German relations with Egypt broke down and arms
were again supplied to the Palestinians. Any hopes of a resolution to
the Arab-Israeli conflict was completely removed. It can be claimed
that the oil embargo staged by the Arabs in 1973 was a retaliation for
the anti-Arab sentiment following the games. The Munich Olympics also
underscored tensions between the Soviets and Americans. The U.S. lost
in the gold medal basketball game to the Soviets on the games last play
amid much controversy. The United States players refused their silver
medals and bad feelings persisted between the two nations. The USSR
claimed that the medal totals demonstrated "the triumph of the
personality liberated by socialism."( Espy, Richard. The Politics of
the Olympic Games. Los Angeles: University of California Press. 133.)
	Conflict and ill will continued with the selection of the host of the
1976 Games. The Soviet Union (Moscow), the United States (Los Angeles)
and Canada (Montreal) were all vying for the right to host the games.
Montreal was awarded the Games on the second ballot even though the
USSR had had the most votes on the first ballot. The Soviets protested
that the North American nations were conspiring against them and that
there was a conspiracy to keep the Games out of a socialist state. With
the 1976 Olympic Games came the question of communist China. The Peoples
Republic of China was a member of very few international sports
organizations. Taiwan was more commonly recognized by the international
community. In the years leading up to the games, however, the Peoples
Republic of China was gaining support and had been admitted to nine
sports federations. Canada, the host of the games, refused to allow
Taiwan (Republic of China) to compete. Compromises were discussed, but
in the end Taiwan did not attend. The U.S. and the Soviet Union were
both in uproar about the situation. Once again political agendas
permeated the games as Canada used the Olympics as a means of
recognizing on the Peoples Republic as a viable nation. 1976 also
served as a political sensor for Rhodesia, New Zealand, and South
Africa. Multiple nations were in favor of banning the countries from
the games because of their practice of racial discrimination. Numerous
countries boycotted the games due to the International Olympic
Committees refusal to ban New Zealand from the games.
	The use of the Olympic games as a forum for international politics and
a tool for political debate reached its zenith with the Moscow Games in
1980. As early as 1978 the USSR began purges of the city of Moscow. The
Party wanted to be sure to remove all elements of the population which
might initiate demonstrations. The Soviets also evacuated the children
from the area so they would not be exposed to Western ideas. A great
concern of the Soviets was the potential for border crossing during the
Games. They feared the possibility of Western exposure prompting treason
or defection. With the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan another struggle
between East and West emerged. The U.S. was furious that the USSR was
invading another independent nation. Military force was not a plausible
course of action for voicing displeasure; however, President Carter
believed he must make some type of stand. A boycott of the Olympic
Games, first suggested by the West Germans, seemed like the best idea.
"We must make clear to the Soviet Union that it cannot trample upon and
independent nation and at the same time do business as usual with the
rest of the world. We must make clear that it will pay a heavy economic
and political cost for such aggressions."( Hoberman, John. The Olympic
Crisis New York: Aristide Caratzas, 1986. 66.)	Carter cited sports
competition as part of Soviet governmental policy, just as the invasion
of Afghanistan was a policy decision.
	The U.S., along with President Carter, hoped that the boycott would
serve two purposes: to punish the USSR for its invasion of Afghanistan
and to show the world that the US had the will to resist Soviet
aggression.( Hulme, Derick, L. The Political Olympics: Moscow,
Afghanistan, and the 1980 US Boycott. New York: Praeger, 1990. 21.) The
Cold War hinged upon demonstrations of power short of military
intervention and any method by which either nation could gain a
perceived upper hand was pounced upon. The United States was taking a
"moral stand" with its proposed boycott and was attempting to bring as
many nations to its side as possible. The US tried to appeal to its
allies as well as Third World countries to demonstrate the issue was
not East versus West, but right versus wrong. The Soviets used
propaganda to belittle the US. The USSR claimed that the US was using
the boycott as a means of preventing other peoples from seeing the
superior Soviet way of life. The Soviets also claimed that the US call
for a boycott was an attempt at shifting national attention away from
domestic troubles during an election year.
	The Moscow Olympics exhibited a debate between two political worlds;
like all other cold war battles neither nation won, and both nations
believed they had made significant gains. The boycott served to prevent
an influx of Westerners into USSR and helped keep ideas potentially
damaging to the Soviets out. The US had complete domestic support for
the boycott, however the allies appeared disunited when Britain and
France participated. Private industries in the US were hurt by the
boycott, although not as badly as the Soviets were. Sixty-two nations,
ten of which were medal winners in the last Olympics, did boycott the
Games which detracted from the Soviets world publicity. The Soviets
lost dearly economically. Hosting the Olympics is a huge investment and
the return on that investment was significantly reduced without Western
tourists. Most significantly perhaps, "Moscow would not be the focus of
world attention; neither would the Soviet Unions appeal as a rival state
and social system receive the corollary boost expected as a result of
the Games."( Hulme, Derick, L. The Political Olympics: Moscow,
Afghanistan, and the 1980 US Boycott. New York: Praeger, 1990. 76.) The
Cold War was deeply affected by international sentiment. It was
primarily affected by public opinion, image and propaganda. Sports
bring spectators; the Olympics bring a worldwide audience. Both nations
wished to capitalize on this opportunity. The US gave the Soviets an
ultimatum to pull out of Afghanistan. The USSR was never going to give
in to an American ultimatum. There were still no battles, but there
were no victories either. "The Olympic games, when viewed both as
microcosm of and as actor in international relations, provides a unique
opportunity to examine at one time the numerous forces on the
international scene."( Espy, Richard. The Politics of the Olympic
Games. Los Angeles: U of California Press, 1979. IX.) 
International sports, primarily as a result of intense
commercialization, have become vehicles for political maneuvering
globally. The Cold War and the Olympic troubles which came with it are
a defining example of this condition. Sport is an intrinsic facet of
national identity and it would follow that sport can be manipulated
internationally to achieve national political gains.
Espy, Richard. The Politics of the Olympic Games. Los Angeles: U of
California Press, 1979.
Guttmann, Allen. The Games Must Go On. New York: Colombia University
Press, 1984.
Hoberman, John. The Olympic Crisis: Sport, Politics and the Moral
Order. New York: Aristide Caratzas, 1986.
Hulme, Derick, L. The Political Olympics: Moscow, Afghanistan, and the
1980 U.S. Boycott. New York: Praeger, 1990.
Morton, Henry, W. Soviet Sport: Mirror of Soviet Society. New York:
Collier Books, 1963.
Riordan, James. Soviet Sport Background to the Olympics. New York:
Washington Mews Books, 1980.
Shaikin, Bill. Sport and Politics. New York: Praeger, 1988. 
Category:Dissolution of USSR