Marguerite d'Angleterre

Marguerite d'Angleterre (24th December 1598—present), also known as Margaret Stuart was Reine de Navarre during her marriage to Antoine II from 20th June 1632 until his untimely death on 31st December 1637. The daughter of James VI & I and Anne of Denmark, she was a princess of Scotland and later England and Ireland. Hours after Antoine II died, Marguerite delivered a daughter who was proclaimed Catherine II. Marguerite ruled as queen-regent from 1637 onward on behalf of her daughter. Her regency was characterized as a period of tumultuous diplomacy and extensive religious reform.
== Early Life ==
=== Infancy ===
Marguerite was born just after three o'clock on the morning of 24th December 1598 to James VI of Scotland and his consort Anne of Denmark. Marguerite was their second daughter and third child overall. Queen Anne had been in confinement since September at Dalkeith Castle, where a nursery had been crafted by William Schaw and crew of local carpenters. The Countess of Huntly, among other household officials, attended her birth and cared for Queen Anne in her convalescence. As the daughter of the King of Scotland, she was styled Lady Margaret Stuart.
The winter of 1598-1599 was remarkably cold and thus her baptism was postponed. On 18th April 1599 the baptism was conducted at Holyrood Palace under exceptional pretenses; celebrations lasted several days with traditional tournaments and a banquet. King James wrote to the Scottish nobility with open invitations to the baptism. Notable attendants included Duke of Lennox, Earl of Huntly, Earl of Mar, and the incumbent Chancellor of Scotland. 
Along with her sister, Lady Elizabeth, Marguerite was charged to the care of Lord and Lady Livingston at Linlithgow Palace. Their retinue was expansive and included several capable staff members: Helena Crichton, wet nurse; Christian Scrimgeour and Marion Hepburn as cradle-rockers; Marion Bog as a linen washer; and Thomas Burnett as a confectionist. Despite being raised with her sister, Elizabeth preferred the company of their elder brother. Contemporaries asserted that Elizabeth "did not pay particular attention to this younger sister" in their adolescence.
=== Adolescence ===
Upon the death of Queen Elizabeth of England and the subsequent extinction of the House of Tudor, James VI (and I of England) acceded to the thrones of England and Ireland. The young family embarked southward to London for the coronation and settled in Winchester whilst a plague ravaged the capital. The Countess of Kildare acted as governess until King James entrusted Lord Harington and his wife with the care of the young princesses. 
Her father was a controversial figure in England. The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 sought to assassinate King James and the Prince of Wales in favor of Elizabeth as monarch. Elizabeth, being competent at court ceremony despite her juvenility, was effectively set to rule as a puppet of the Catholic faction at court. Guy Fawkes, one of the instigators of the plot, was arrested before he could cause an explosion that would take the life of King James. Marguerite was too young to have been of service to the conspirators and it was speculated she would have been a mere accessory to her elder sister. 
=== Education ===
As a princess, her education was comprehensive and encompassed a variety of fields. Marguerite was well-versed in several languages, reading, writing, geography, natural history, and Protestant theology. Though she shared a thorough comprehension of religion with her sister, she was oriented to more pragmatic subjects. It became apparent from a young age that she was a tactful young woman. Nevertheless, she was engaged in frivolities such as dancing, musical composition, and equestrianism. 
== Marriage ==
Marguerite was the subject of several courtships, often being sought by suitors her elder sister had previously rejected. A serious prospect arose in Philip III of Spain who had been widowed after the death of Margaret of Austria in 1611. King Philip was twenty years older than Marguerite and had several children; it was believed that this marriage would serve to diminish the frosty relations between England and Spain rather than secure dynastic integrity. Marguerite was averse to the idea, preferring to remain in England with her family. The marriage never materialized to her relief and she continued to live at the court of her father with no intention of marrying.
Antoine II of Navarre had long been at odds with the Habsburgs in Spain. As diplomatic tensions crescendoed between the dominant Spanish empire and the minuscule Navarrese kingdom, Antoine II sought to establish an alliance through marriage with another European superpower. In 1630, he turned to King Charles of England to discuss a potential union. King Charles proposed his sister. Despite being thirty-two years of age and considered past her prime, Antoine II agreed to marry Marguerite. Deliberations lasted two years and Marguerite twice aimed to cancel any plans of marriage. In this conquest, she failed, and a marriage contract was drawn up.
Traveling southward, the English party connected from the Atlantic to a river in Navarre and covertly smuggled Marguerite into the country. Marguerite and Antoine II were introduced at the border in an elaborate handover that infuriated neighboring Spain. They traveled together to Pamplona, the ancient former capital of the small kingdom. They were married on 20th June 1632 at the Cathédrale de Saint-Marie de l'Assomption in Pampelune and Marguerite was subsequently coronated as queen later that day in an intimate ceremony. The celebrations for the marriage lasted two weeks and concluded with the return of the newlywed king and queen to court.
== Queen of Navarre ==
Her early years were tumultuous and riddled with diplomatic hurdles. Upon her arrival in the Kingdom of Navarre, Marguerite was afforded a dismal annuity from parliament and received a modest household. Her household and her ladies-in-waiting were all from prominent Basque families. Though it was customary for foreign consorts to bring ladies-in-waiting of their native heritage upon marriage, Marguerite was prohibited from doing so. The Navarrese court and government almost exclusively spoke Basque and maintained ancient traditions that were akin to the austere nature of the Spanish court. Being an Englishwoman who only spoke French—the second official language at court—she was often forced to circumvent the challenges of extreme xenophobia. It would not be until her final years as consort that she came into any sort of popularity.
=== Diplomacy ===
Antoine II had harbored religiously tolerant sentiments; however, his father had expelled virtually all Roman Catholic practices from the kingdom. Proselytization terrorized the country and any remaining non-Protestant subjects were forced to convert or migrate. Together, Antoine II and Marguerite were faced with pressure from various factions at court to maintain a staunch, anti-Catholic policy. Ambassadors from neighboring countries—particularly Grandelumière and Spain—urged the House of Albret to consider abandoning their Calvinist ideals. Keen to appease as many factions as possible, little changed in terms of religious, foreign, and domestic policies during the reign of Antoine II. 
Navarre entered a petite golden age under Antoine II and Marguerite. Peace had returned to the shattered kingdom after decades of conflict. As consort, Marguerite was integral in maintaining a sense of tranquility at court. She conveyed a heavy respect for ancient Basque tradition and, though she was only somewhat successful, sought to learn the language to better communicate with her courtiers. Ultimately, in the final years of her tenure, her popularity increased and served as an asset to preserving the rule of the House of Albret.
=== Family ===
On the night of their marriage, Antoine II and Marguerite consummated their union. It became apparent that fertility was a struggle when, after two years of attempting to conceive, no child was produced. Antoine II had two natural children during their marriage and thus it was assumed Marguerite was incapable of carrying children. On the advice of the royal physician, she tried a variety of ancient fertility inducements. However, it was determined that the herbal treatments and elixirs prescribed to her had actually worsened her fertility and all treatment was abandoned shortly thereafter. 
Their inability to produce a family was a frequent source of discord between Antoine II and Marguerite. A serial romantic, he was unfaithful to Marguerite during their marriage—a fact which was poorly hidden. The marriage remained unhappy and it was believed no attempts at conception were made after three years of marriage. Antoine II remained devoted to his mistresses and Marguerite battled her way through diplomatic red tape. During this time, Marguerite was regularly in ill health.
=== Death of Antoine II ===
In Autumn 1637, it was discovered that Marguerite was pregnant after she complained of irregular menstrual activity. Reconciliation with her husband seemed imminent and the court prepared to welcome an heir to the throne. Antoine II had abandoned his many mistresses in favor of his heavily pregnant wife. With her popularity rising and a child on the way, Marguerite was reportedly the happiest she had ever been since arriving in Navarre. At the advice of her physician, Marguerite entered confinement during her third trimester.
Antoine II fell ill with pneumonia two weeks before Christmas. Fearful that the court would be susceptible to intrigue with both its sovereign and consort on bedrest, Antoine II defied the orders of his physicians and continued to work through his illness. By Christmas, it seemed he would recover, and thus he continued to govern from bed. The stress became a physical burden and this decision costed him his life. Aged fifty-five, Antoine II of Navarre succumbed to pneumonia. 
Upon hearing the news, Marguerite went into labor. Hours passed and, on the morning of New Year's Day 1638, Marguerite delivered a daughter. Expeditiously, the Estates of Navarre proclaimed her Catherine II, Reine de Navarre. 
== Regent of Navarre ==
Marguerite was elected as regent by a unanimous council vote. The House of Albret was on the verge of extinction and thus it was imperative that the transition of power should be smooth. To ensure the undisputed rule of her daughter, Marguerite adopted more resolute and concise policies than those enacted by her husband. It became apparent early on that she was a formidable opponent in the political arena. Her ambitious policies ushered forth an era of political stability and religious reform that allowed Catherine II to securely and undisputedly reign. 
Months prior to her coronation, Catherine II had been the subject of an assassination plot hatched by Roman Catholic courtiers. Allegedly, Philip IV of Spain had supported the plot under the pretext that the infant queen was a heretic. The plot was swiftly quelled. Catherine II was coronated on 9th July 1638 at the Église de Saint-Michel in Pau, carried in a ceremonial procession in which her regalia was born by noblemen on her behalf. This cemented her reign and the regency.
=== Foreign Policy ===
Grandelumière and Spain had long pressured Navarre over a variety of matters. When Roman Catholic practices were outlawed, the two superpowers were outraged and threatened diplomatic repercussions. Both countries were often in dispute and aimed to subjugate Navarre for territorial and political reasons. Marguerite did not capitulate and chastised attempts by Grandelumière and Spain to interfere with the domestic and religious affairs of the kingdom. With the support of her homeland and neighboring Protestant realms, she defied calls for cooperation with domineering empires that wished to diminish Navarrese sovereignty. At the advice of her ministers, Marguerite adopted a temporal attitude toward Grandelumière. 
Her brother Charles was deposed as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland in January 1649. Under the orders of Lord-Protector Oliver Cromwell, England became a republican state and the former king was executed. While Emperor Charles XI of Grandelumière continued diplomatic relations with England—with little regard for its anti-monarchism doctrine—Marguerite denounced the Cromwellian government for executing her brother. During this time, all cooperation with England ceased and Marguerite turned to other Protestant countries for diplomatic engagement.
==== Treaty of the Crowns ====
Faced with Spanish aggression and the threat of subjugation, Marguerite tactfully aimed to ally Navarre with Grandelumière. This task was monumental and took several years to come to fruition. In 1648 emissaries from Navarre met with Grandelumièrian officials to draft a treaty establishing an alliance between the two countries. After two years of deliberations, the so-called Treaty of the Crowns was signed in 1650. The terms were outlined as follows:
* Catherine II would reside in Grandelumière as a guest of Emperor Charles XI. Her mother would rule Navarre in her stead.
* If Catherine II were to die childless, her land holdings would be inherited by the reigning House of Valois-Anjou.
* Navarre would remain autonomous if it came under Valois-Anjou rule. The kingdom would be held in personal union and would not merge with the empire.
* Grandelumière and Navarre would enter a diplomatic, martial, and commercial alliance wherein any act of war between the two realms would violate and effectively dissolve the treaty.
The treaty went into effect immediately. Though it was a controversial act, contemporaries agreed Marguerite had secured Navarrese sovereignty for the foreseeable future against the threat of Spanish interference. 
=== Religious Reforms ===
For decades, Roman Catholicism had been banned in Navarre. This hardline policy greatly divided the kingdom and brought forth economic depression and cultural tensions. In 1639, Marguerite announced her intention to reverse the aggressive religious policies of her husband and his predecessors. The regency government encouraged religious tolerance. Formerly-expelled Roman Catholic subjects were welcomed back into the country and their practices were made legal. Abbeys that had been previously abandoned were restored. Within several years, visible progress was made and the economy recovered with support from both Calvinist and Catholic institutions.
While her policies were generally viewed as pragmatic, Marguerite faced opposition from zealous religious factions at court. Not dissimilar to the late Antoine II, she sought to appease her opposition rather than divide the court. In favor of compassionate Protestant forces, Marguerite decreed that Calvinism would remain the official state religion of Navarre and her daughter would be raised in that faith. The kingdom embarked on a period of tolerance that continued well into the later years of her regency.
== Titles and Styles ==
* 24th December 1598—24th March 1603: Lady Elizabeth Stuart
* 24th March 1603—20th June 1632: Her Royal Highness The Princess Margaret
* 20th June 1632—31st December 1637: Sa Majesté la Reine de Navarre, Princesse de Béarn, Princesse d'Andorre, Duchesse d'Albret, etc. 
* 31st December 1637—present: Sa Majesté la Reine-Mère de Navarre
** 31st December 1637–present: Sa Majesté la Reine-Régente de Navarre [as queen-regent]
Category:16th-century births
Category:Foreign Royals
Category:House of Albret