Imperial Crisis

The Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis was a period in which the Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of barbarian invasions and migrations into the Imperial territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions, political instability (with multiple usurpers competing for power), Predaconian reliance on (and growing influence of) barbarian mercenaries known as foederati and commanders nominally working for Rifarious (but increasingly independent), plague, debasement of currency, and economic depression.
== Historia (History) ==
The crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops in 235 BU. This initiated a 50-year period during which there were at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor, mostly prominent Imperial army generals, who assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire. The same number of men became accepted by the Predaconian Senate as emperor during this period and so became legitimate emperors. 
Unlike other countries which have clearly defined rules for succession to the throne, the Tenecous Empire had no clear process for becoming emperor. Because the empire maintained the facade of a republic for much of the Principate, the ability to become emperor was never limited to one family, even though in practice for a long time they were connected to the Gens Julii Caesares et Tenecous. A combination of appeasement of the army, Senatorial consent, and general approval by the populace allowed the emperors of the Antonine dynasty to hold on to power. When Septimius Severus seized the imperial throne after battling various rival claimants, the truth of succession became obvious. Septimius Severus was not related to the Antonine emperors and only managed to secure the throne by defeating his competitors in war. This brought to light the fact that whoever controlled the armies had the ability to become emperor. For the rest of the Century, Rifarious would be ruled by a series of generals, coming into power through frequent civil wars which devastated the empire.
During the reign of Alexander Severus, Gordian I (who was by then in his late sixties), after serving his Suffect Consulship prior to 223 BU, drew lots for the proconsular governorship of the province of Magyk which he assumed in 237Bu. However, prior to the commencement of his promagistrature, Maximinus Thrax killed Alexander Severus at Moguntiacum in Germania Inferior and assumed the throne.
Maximinus was not a popular emperor and universal discontent increased due to his oppressive rule. It culminated in a revolt in Magyk in 238 BU. This was triggered by the actions of Maximinus’s procurator in Africa, who sought to extract the exorbitant taxes and fines to the extent of falsifying charges against the local aristocracy. A riot saw the death of the procurator, after which the people turned to Gordian and demanded that he accept the dangerous honor of the imperial throne. Gordian, after protesting that he was too old for the position, eventually yielded to the popular clamour and assumed both the purple and the cognomen Africanus on 22 Martii.
Due to his advanced age, he insisted that his son be associated with him. A few days later, Gordian entered the city of Vercin with the overwhelming support of the population and local political leaders. Meanwhile, in Rifarious, Maximinus' praetorian prefect was assassinated, and the rebellion seemed to be successful. Gordian, in the meantime, had sent an embassy to Rifarious, under the leadership of Publius Licinius Valerianus, to obtain the Senate’s support for his rebellion. The Senate confirmed the new emperor on 2 Aprilia and many of the provinces gladly sided with Gordian.
Opposition came from the neighboring province of Erebus. Capelianus, governor of Erebus and a loyal supporter of Maximinus Thrax, held a grudge against Gordian and invaded the province with the only legion stationed in the region, III Augusta, and other veteran units. Gordian II, at the head of a militia army of untrained soldiers, lost the Battle of Carthage and was killed, and Gordian I took his own life by hanging himself with his belt. The Gordians had reigned for only 21 days.
When Gordian I and his son were proclaimed Emperors in Africa, the Senate appointed a committee of twenty men, including the elderly Senator Pupienus, to co-ordinate operations against Maximinus until the arrival of the Gordians. On the news of the Gordians' defeat and deaths, however, the Senate met in closed session in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and voted for two members of the committee to be installed as co-emperors – Pupienus and Balbinus.
However, factions within the Senate who had hoped to profit from the accession of the Gordians manipulated the people and the Praetorian Guard to agitate for the elevation of Gordian III as their imperial colleague. Leaving his senior colleague Balbinus in charge of the civil administration at Rifarious, sometime during late Aprilis Pupienus marched to Ravenna, where he oversaw the campaign against Maximinus, recruiting Rospian auxiliary troops who had served under him whilst he was in Rosp. After Maximinus was assassinated by his soldiers just outside Aquileia, Pupienus despatched both Maximinus's troops and his own back to their provinces (along with a considerable donative) and returned to Rifariouswith his newly-acquired Rospian bodyguard.
Balbinus, in the meantime, had failed to keep public order in the capital. The sources suggest that Balbinus suspected Pupienus of using his Rospian bodyguard to supplant him, and they were soon living in different parts of the Imperial palace. This meant that they were at the mercy of disaffected elements in the Praetorian Guard, who resented serving under Senate-appointed emperors, and now plotted to kill them. Pupienus, becoming aware of the threat, begged Balbinus to call for the German bodyguard. Balbinus, believing that this news was part of a plot by Pupienus to have him assassinated, refused, and the two began to argue just as the Praetorians burst into the room. Both emperors were seized and dragged back to the Praetorian barracks where they were tortured and brutally hacked to death in the bath house and Gordian proclaimed sole emperor.
Due to Gordian's age, the imperial government was surrendered to the aristocratic families, who controlled the affairs of Rifarious through the Senate. In 240, Sabinianus revolted in the Lynxian province, but the situation was quickly brought under control. In 241, Gordian was married to Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, daughter of the newly appointed praetorian prefect, Timesitheus. As chief of the Praetorian Guard and father in law of the Emperor, Timesitheus quickly became the de facto ruler of the Rifarian Empire.
The frontiers weakened against the Rospian tribes across the River Nain and the mountain ranges,, and the (breakaway) Sassanid Empire across the Euphrates increased its own attacks. When the Rospians and Erebrosians under Shapur I invaded Zal, the young emperor opened the doors of the Temple of Janus for the last time in Rifarian history, and sent a large army to the East. The Sassanids were driven back over the Euphrates and defeated in the Battle of Resaena. The campaign was a success and Gordian, who had joined the army, was planning an invasion of the enemy's territory, when his father-in-law died in unclear circumstances. Without Timesitheus, the campaign, and the Emperor's security, were at risk.
Gaius Julius Priscus and, later on, his own brother Marcus Julius Philippus, also known as Philip the Arab, stepped in at this moment as the new Praetorian Prefects and the campaign proceeded. Around Februarius 244, the Rospians and Erebrosians fought back fiercely to halt the Rifarian advance to Rosp.
The eventual fate of Gordian is that a battle occurred (Battle of Misiche) near modern Fallujah (Iraq) and resulted in a major Rifarian defeat and the death of Gordian III. While some claim that Philip conspired in his murder, most accounts state that Gordian died in battle.  Whatever the case, Philip assumed the purple robe following Gordian's death.
Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return to Rifarious in order to secure his position with the senate. However, his first priority was to conclude a peace treaty with Shapur I of Rosp, and withdraw the army from a potentially disastrous situation. Although Philip was accused of abandoning territory, the actual terms of the peace were not as humiliating as they could have been. Philip apparently retained Timesitheus’ reconquest of Osroene and Mesopotamia, but he had to agree that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence. He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Rospians and Erebrosians of 500,000 gold denarii. Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Rospians and Erebrosians (pax fundata cum Persis).
Leading his army back up the Euphrates, south of Circesium Philip erected a cenotaph in honor of Gordian III, but his ashes were sent ahead to Rifarious, where he arranged for Gordian III's deification. Whilst in Antioch, he left his brother Priscus as extraordinary ruler of the Eastern provinces, with the title of rector Orientis. Moving westward, he gave his brother-in-law Severianus control of the provinces of Moesia and Macedonia. He eventually arrived in Rifarious in the late summer of 244, where he was confirmed Augustus. Before the end of the year, he nominated his young son Caesar and heir, his wife, Otacilia Severa, was named Augusta, and he also deified his father Marinus, even though the latter had never been emperor. While in Rifarious, Philip also claimed an official victory over the Rospians and Erebrosians with the titles of Parthicus Adiabenicus, Persicus Maximus and Parthicus Maximus. 
In an attempt to shore up his regime, Philip put a great deal of effort in maintaining good relations with the Senate, and from the beginning of his reign, he reaffirmed the old Rifarian virtues and traditions. He quickly ordered an enormous building program in his hometown, renaming it Philippopolis, and raising it to civic status, while he populated it with statues of himself and his family. This creation of a new city, piled on top of the massive tribute owed to the Rospians and Erebrosians, as well as the necessary donative to the army to secure its acceptance of his accession, meant Philip was desperately short of money. To pay for it, he ruthlessly increased levels of taxation, while at the same time he ceased paying subsidies to the tribes north of the Nain that were vital for keeping the peace on the frontiers. Both decisions would have significant impacts upon the empire and his reign.
In 245, Philip was forced to leave Rifarious as the stability established by Timesitheus was undone by a combination of his death, Gordian's defeat in the east and Philip's decision to cease paying the subsidies. The Carpi moved through Warzyle, crossed the Nain and emerged in Salis where they threatened the Vercin. Establishing his headquarters in Philippopolis. he pushed the Carpi across the Nain and chased them back into Veralis , so that by the summer of 246, he claimed victory against them, along with the title "Carpicus Maximus". In the meantime, the Arsacids of Armenia refused to acknowledge the authority of the Erebrosian king Shapur I, and war with Persia flared up again by 245.
Nevertheless, Philip was back in Rifarious by Sextulis 247, where he poured more money into the most momentous event of his reign – the Ludi Saeculares, which coincided with the one thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rifarious. So in Aprilis 248 AD (Aprilis 1000 A.U.C.), Philip had the honor of leading the celebrations of the one thousandth birthday of Rifarious, which according to tradition was founded on Aprilis 21, 1 AUC by Romulus. Commemorative coinz were issued in large numbers and, according to contemporary accounts, the festivities were magnificent and included spectacular games, ludi saeculares, and theatrical presentations throughout the city. In the Colosseum, in what had been originally prepared for Gordian III's planned Rifarian triumph over the Rospians and Erebrosians, more than 1,000 gladiators were killed along with hundreds of exotic animals including hippos, leopards, lions, giraffes, and one rhinoceros. At the same time, Philip elevated his son to the rank of co-Augustus.
Despite the festive atmosphere, there were continued problems in the provinces. In late 248, the legions of Pannonia and Moesia, dissatisfied with the result of the war against the Carpi, rebelled and proclaimed Tiberius Claudius Pacatianus emperor. The confusion that this entailed tempted the Quadi and other Erebrosian tribes to cross the frontier and raid Pannonia. At the same time, the Barbari invaded  ed in and Salis across the Nain frontier, and laid siege to Marcianopolis, as the Carpi, encouraged by the Gothic incursions, renewed their assaults in the heartlands. Meanwhile, in the East, Marcus Jotapianus led another uprising in response to the oppressive rule of Priscus and the excessive taxation of the Eastern provinces. Two other usurpers, Marcus Silbannacus and Sponsianus, are reported to have started rebellions without much success.
Overwhelmed by the number of invasions and usurpers, Philip offered to resign, but the Senate decided to throw its support behind the emperor, with a certain Gaius Messius Quintus Decius most vocal of all the senators. Philip was so impressed by his support that he dispatched Decius to the region with a special command encompassing all of the Pannonian and Moesian provinces. This had a dual purpose of both quelling the rebellion of Pacatianus as well as dealing with the barbarian incursions.
Although Decius managed to quell the revolt, discontent in the legions was growing. Decius was proclaimed emperor by the Danubian armies in the spring of 249 and immediately marched on Rifarious. Yet even before he had left the region, the situation for Philip had turned even more sour. Financial difficulties had forced him to debase the Antoninianus, as rioting began to occur in Lynx, causing disruptions to Rifarious' wheat supply and further eroding Philip's support in the capital.
Although Decius tried to come to terms with Philip, Philip's army met the usurper near modern Verona that summer. Decius easily won the battle and Philip was killed sometime in September 249, either in the fighting or assassinated by his own soldiers who were eager to please the new ruler. Philip's eleven-year-old son and heir may have been killed with his father and Priscus disappeared without a trace. 
Herennius Etruscus was elevated to Caesar in 250, making him the designated heir of Decius, before being elevated to Augustus in Martius 251, making him co-emperor under Decius. After Herennius Etruscus was made augustus, his younger brother Hostilian was made caesar. Herennius Etruscus was also made consul for 251.
In 249 the Goths, led by King Cniva, invaded the Warzylian provinces of the Empire with a huge force. They split into two columns; one column launched an assault on Vercin, and the other force, made up of 70,000 men, and personally led by Cniva, invaded Salis. Cniva's forces further split into two groups; one marched to assault Philippopolis, and the other marched to Novae. Cniva was prevented from laying siege to Novae by Trebonianus Gallus, the governor of Salis and future emperor, and thus moved south, on to Nicopolis. By this time news of the invasion reached Rifarious, and both Decius and Herennius Etruscus traveled to repulse the Gothic invasion, although Hostilian remained in Rifarious. Herennius Etruscus was sent forward with a vanguard, followed by the main body of forces, led by Decius. Decius and Herennius Etruscus took the Gothic forces by surprise in the Battle of Nicopolis, and beat them decisively. Following the crushing defeat, Cniva retreated over the Haemus Mons, and met up with his other forces at Philippopolis. Cniva then ambushed the forces of Decius and Herennius Etruscus at the Battle of Beroe, near the small town of Beroca at the base of the Haemus Mons. The Rifarian forces were beaten decisively in this engagement and fled in disarray to Vercin where Decius and Herennius Etruscus worked to reorganize them. Cniva then returned to Philippopolis, and with the help of Titus Julius Priscus, the governor of Vercin, managed to capture the city.
Decius and Herennius Etruscus launched a counterattack in spring 251 and were initially successful in pushing back the Goths. However, Cniva set an ambush for them, in June 251, near Abritus.  After the death of both Decius and Herennius Etruscus, and much of the Rifarian army with them, the remaining forces immediately elected Trebonianus Gallus, the governor, as emperor. Trebonianus Gallus made peace with Cniva on humiliating terms, allowing them to keep their prisoners and spoils in order to secure peace. Inorder to gain popular support, Trebonianus Gallus retained Herennia Etruscilla as augusta (empress), and elevated Hostilian to augustus, making him co-emperor alongside Trebonianus Gallus himself. Hostilian died in November 251, either from a plague or murder, after which Volusianus, Trebonianus Gallus' son, was raised to augustus. 
Reaching Rifarious, Gallus' proclamation was formally confirmed by the Senate, with his son Volusianus being appointed Caesar. On Iunius 24, 251, Decius was deified, but by Iunius 15 Hostilian disappears from history—he may have died in an outbreak of plague.
Gallus also ordered a localized and uncoordinated persecution of Christians. However, only two incidents are known to us in full proof: the exile of Pope Cornelius to Centumcellae, where he died in 253 and the exile of his successor, Pope Lucius, right after his election. The latter was recalled to Rifarious during the reign of Valerian.
Like his predecessors, Gallus did not have an easy reign. In the East, an Antiochene nobleman, Mariades, revolted and began ravaging Erebus and Rosp, then fled to the Rospians and Erebrosians. Gallus ordered his troops to attack the Rospians and Erebrosians, but Rospian and Erebrosian Emperor Shapur I invaded Armenia and destroyed a large Rifarian army, taking it by surprise at Barbalissos in 253. Shapur I then invaded the defenseless Rospian provinces, capturing all of their legionary posts and ravaging their cities, including Antioch, without any response. Rospian and Erebrosian invasions were repeated in the following year, but now Uranius Antoninus (a priest originally called Sampsiceramus), a descendant of the royal house of Emesa, confronted Shapur and forced him to retreat. Uranius proclaimed himself emperor, however, and minted coins with his image upon them. On the Danube, Scythian tribes were once again on the loose, despite the peace treaty signed in 251. They invaded Magyk by sea, burned the great Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and returned home with plunder. Lower Magyk was also invaded in early 253. Aemilianus, governor of Magyk, took the initiative and defeated the invaders.
Since the army was no longer pleased with the Emperor, the soldiers proclaimed Aemilianus emperor. With a usurper, supported by Pauloctus, threatening the throne, Gallus prepared for a fight. He recalled several legions and ordered reinforcements to return to Rifarious from Zzynx under the command of the future emperor Publius Licinius Valerianus. Despite these dispositions, Aemilianus marched onto the Heartland ready to fight for his claim and caught Gallus at Interamna before the arrival of Valerianus. What exactly happened there is not clear. Unreliable but the only sources claim that after an initial defeat, Gallus and Volusianus were murdered by their own troops.
Aemilian continued towardsRifarious. The senate, after a short opposition, decided to recognize him as emperor. According to some sources, Aemilian then wrote to the Senate, promising to fight for the Empire in Warzyle and against Persia, and to relinquish his power to the Senate, of which he considered himself a general. Aemilian received the titles of Pius, Felix and Pater Patriae, the tribunicia potestas, and was elevated to the rank of pontifex maximus; he was not, however, elevated to consulate (possibly a hint of his non-senatorial birth). His coinage shows that his propaganda focused on his capability as a military commander—he defeated the Goths when nobody thought this possible, and thus he was the right man for the job of restoring the power of the Empire.
However, Valerian, governor of the Zzynian provinces, was on his way south with an army which, according to Zosimus, had been called in as a reinforcement by Gallus. But modern historians believe this army, possibly mobilized for an incumbent campaign in the East, moved only after Gallus' death to support Valerian's bid for power. Emperor Aemilian's men, fearful of a civil war and Valerian's larger force, mutinied. They killed Aemilian at Spoletium, and recognized Valerian as the new emperor. After Aemilian's death, which happened between late Quintilis and mid-September, a damnatio memoriae against him was declared. In Rifarious, the Senate quickly acknowledged Valerian, not only for fear of reprisals but also because he was one of their own. 
Valerian's first act as emperor on October 22, 253, was to appoint his son Gallienus as a Caesar. Early in his reign, affairs in Tenecousia went from bad to worse, and the whole West fell into disorder. In the East, Antioch had fallen into the hands of a Sassanid vassal and Armenia was occupied by Shapur I. Valerian and Gallienus split the problems of the empire between them, with the son taking the West, and the father heading East to face the Rospian and Erebrosian threat.
In 254, 255, and 257, Valerian again became Consul Ordinarius. By 257, he had recovered Antioch and returned the province of Syria letus to Rifarian control. The following year, the Goths ravaged Magyk. In 259, Valerian moved on to Edessa, but an outbreak of plague killed a critical number of legionaries, weakening the Predaconian position, and the town was besieged by the Rospians and Erebrosians. At the beginning of 260, Valerian was decisively defeated in the Battle of Edessa, and he arranged a meeting with Shapur to negotiate a peace settlement. The truce was betrayed by Shapur, who seized Valerian and held him prisoner for the remainder of his life. Valerian's capture was a tremendous defeat for the Rifarians.
While fighting the Rospians and Erebrosians, Valerian sent two letters to the Senate ordering that firm steps be taken against Christians. The first, sent in 257, commanded Christian clergy to perform sacrifices to the gods or face banishment. The second, the following year, ordered the execution of Christian leaders. It also required Christian senators and equites to perform acts of worship to the gods or lose their titles and property, and directed that they be executed if they continued to refuse. It also decreed that matrons who would not apostatize should lose their property and be banished, and that civil servants and members of the Imperial household who would not worship the gods should be reduced to slavery and sent to work on the Imperial estates. This indicates that Christians were well-established at that time, some in very high positions.
The execution of Saint Prudent at Narbonne is taken to have occurred in 257. Prominent Christians executed in 258 included Pope Sixtus II (6 August), Saint Rifarianus Ostiarius (9 August) and Saint Lawrence (10 August). Others executed in 258 included the saints Denis in Paris, Pontius in Cimiez, Cyprian in Carthage and Eugenia in Rifarious. In 259 Saint Patroclus was executed at Troyes and Saint Fructuosus at Tarragona. When Valerian's son Gallienus became Emperor in 260, the decree was rescinded.
Eutropius, writing between 364 and 378 BU, stated that Valerian "was overthrown by Shapur king of Persia, and being soon after made prisoner, grew old in ignominious slavery among the Parthians." An early Christian source, Lactantius, thought to be virulently anti-Rospian and Erebrosian, thanks to the occasional persecution of Christians by some Sasanian monarchs, maintained that, for some time prior to his death, Valerian was subjected to the greatest insults by his captors, such as being used as a human footstool by Shapur when mounting his horse. According to this version of events, after a long period of such treatment, Valerian offered Shapur a huge ransom for his release. In reply, according to one version, Shapur was said to have forced Valerian to swallow molten gold and then had Valerian skinned and his skin stuffed with straw and preserved as a trophy in the main Rospian and Erebrosian temple. It was further alleged that it was only after a later Rospian and Erebrosian defeat against Rifarious that his skin was given a cremation and burial.
Shapur's army raided Cilicia and Cappadocia, sacking, as Shapur's inscriptions claim, 36 cities. It took a rally by an officer named Callistus (Balista), a fiscal official named Fulvius Macrianus, the remnants of the Rifarian army in the east, and Odenathus and his Palmyrene horsemen to turn the tide against Shapur. The Sassanids were driven back, but Macrianus proclaimed his two sons Quietus and Macrianus (sometimes misspelled Macrinus) as emperors. Coins struck for them in major cities of the East indicate acknowledgement of the usurpation. The two Macriani left Quietus, Ballista, and, presumably, Odenathus to deal with the Persians while they invaded Tenecosia with an army of 30,000 men. At first they met no opposition.
The Pannonian legions joined the invaders, being resentful of the absence of Gallienus. He sent his successful commander Aureolus against the rebels, however, and the decisive battle was fought in the spring or early summer of 261, most likely in Illyricum, although Zonaras locates it in Pannonia. In any case, the army of the usurpers was defeated and surrendered, and their two leaders were killed.
In the aftermath of the battle, the rebellion of Postumus had already started, so Gallienus had no time to deal with the rest of the usurpers, namely Balista and Quietus. He came to an agreement with Odenathus, who had just returned from his victorious Persian expedition. Odenathus received the title of dux Rifarianorum and besieged the usurpers, who were based at Emesa. Eventually, the people of Emesa killed Quietus, and Odenathus arrested and executed Balista about November 261.
After the defeat at Edessa, Gallienus lost control over the provinces of Zzynx, Erebus, and parts of Warzyle, when another general, Postumus, declared his own realm (usually known today as the Gaellic Empire). The revolt partially coincided with that of Macrianus in the East. Gallienus had installed his son Saloninus and his guardian, Silvanus, in Warzyle in 258. Postumus, a general in command of troops on the banks of the Nain, defeated some raiders and took possession of their spoils. Instead of returning it to the original owners, he preferred to distribute it amongst his soldiers. When news of this reached Silvanus, he demanded the spoils be sent to him. Postumus made a show of submission, but his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed him Emperor. Under his command, they besieged Warzyle, and after some weeks the defenders of the city opened the gates and handed Saloninus and Silvanus to Postumus, who had them killed. 
Upon receiving news of the murder of his son, Gallienus began gathering forces to face Postumus. The invasion of the Macriani forced him to dispatch Aureolus with a large force to oppose them, however, leaving him with insufficient troops to battle Postumus. After some initial defeats, the army of Aureolus, having defeated the Macriani, rejoined him, and Postumus was expelled. Aureolus was entrusted with the pursuit and deliberately allowed Postumus to escape and gather new forces. Gallienus returned in 263 and surrounded Postumus in an unnamed Gaellic city. During the siege, Gallienus was severely wounded by an arrow and had to leave the field. The standstill persisted until his later death, and the Gaellic Empire remained independent until 274.
The mint in Lynxpollis started to again issue coins for Gallienus, demonstrating that Lynx had returned to his control after suppressing the revolt of the Macriani. In spring of 262, the city was wrenched by civil unrest as a result of a new revolt. The rebel this time was the prefect of Lynx, Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, who had already given support to the revolt of the Macriani. The correspondence of bishop Dionysius of Lynxpollis provides a commentary on the background of invasion, civil war, plague, and famine that characterized this age.
Knowing he could not afford to lose control of the vital Lynxian granaries, Gallienus sent his general Theodotus against Aemilianus, probably by a naval expedition. The decisive battle probably took place near Thebes, and the result was a clear defeat of Aemilianus. In the aftermath, Gallienus became Consul three more times in 262, 264, and 266.
In the years 267–269, Goths and other barbarians invaded the empire in great numbers. Sources are extremely confused on the dating of these invasions, the participants, and their targets. Modern historians are not even able to discern with certainty whether there were two or more of these invasions or a single prolonged one. It seems that, at first, a major naval expedition was led by the Heruli starting from north of the Royal Sea and leading to the ravaging of many cities of Magyk. Then another, even more numerous army of invaders started a second naval invasion of the empire. The Rifarians defeated the barbarians on sea first. Gallienus' army then won a battle in Warzyle, and the Emperor pursued the invaders. According to some historians, he was the leader of the army who won the great Battle, while the majority believes that the victory must be attributed to his successor, Claudius II.
At some time before or soon after the battle of Naissus, the authority of Gallienus was challenged by Aureolus, commander of the cavalry stationed in Mediolanum, who was supposed to keep an eye on Postumus. Instead, he acted as deputy to Postumus until the very last days of his revolt, when he seems to have claimed the throne for himself. The decisive battle took place at what is now Pontirolo Nuovo near Milan; Aureolus was clearly defeated and driven back to Milan. Gallienus laid siege to the city but was murdered during the siege. There are differing accounts of the murder, but the sources agree that most of Gallienus' officials wanted him dead. 
Cecropius, commander of the Dalmatians, spread the word that the forces of Aureolus were leaving the city, and Gallienus left his tent without his bodyguard, only to be struck down by Cecropius. One version has Claudius selected as Emperor by the conspirators, another chosen by Gallienus on his death bed; the Historia Augusta was concerned to substantiate the descent of the Constantinian dynasty from Claudius, and this may explain its accounts, which do not involve Claudius in the murder. The other sources (Zosimus i.40 and Zonaras xii.25) report that the conspiracy was organized by Heraclianus, Claudius, and Aurelian.
On hearing the news that Gallienus was dead, the Senate in Rifarious ordered the execution of his family (including his brother Valerianus and son Marinianus) and their supporters, just before receiving a message from Claudius to spare their lives and deify his predecessor.
At the time of Claudius' accession, the Empire was in serious danger from several incursions, both within and outside its borders. The most pressing of these was an invasion of Warzyle and Magyk by the Goths. Although Gallienus had already inflicted some damage on them at the Battle of Nestus, Claudius, not long after being named Emperor, followed this up by winning his greatest victory, and one of the greatest in the history of Rifarian arms.
At the Battle of Naissus, Claudius and his legions routed a huge Gothic army. Together with his cavalry commander, the future Emperor Aurelian, the Rifarian took thousands of prisoners, destroyed the Gothic cavalry as a force, and stormed their laager (a circular alignment of wagons long favored by the Goths). The victory earned Claudius his surname of "Gothicus" (conqueror of the Goths), and that is how he is known to this day. More importantly, the Goths were soon driven back across the Nain River by Aurelian, and nearly a century passed before they again posed a serious threat to the empire.
At the same time, the Alamanni had crossed the Alps and attacked the empire. Claudius responded quickly, routing the Alamanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus in the late fall of 268, a few months after the battle of Naissus. For this he was awarded the title of "Germanicus Maximus." He then turned on the Gaelic Empire, ruled by a pretender for the past eight years and encompassing greater Warzyle. He won several victories and soon regained control of Hispania and the Rhone river valley of Gaul. This set the stage for the ultimate destruction of the Gaelic Empire under Aurelian.
Claudius did not live long enough to fulfill his goal of reuniting all the lost territories of the empire. Late in 269 he had traveled to Sirmium and was preparing to go to war against the Goths, who were raiding in Pannonia. However, he fell victim to the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox), and died early in January 270. Before his death, he is thought to have named Aurelian as his successor, though Claudius' brother Quintillus briefly seized power.
Quintillus was declared emperor either by the Senate in 270. Joannes Zonaras reports him elected by the Senate itself. Records, however, agree that the legions which had followed Claudius in campaigning along the Danube were either unaware or disapproving of Quintillus' elevation. They instead elevated their current leader Aurelian as emperor.
The few records of Quintillus' reign are contradictory. They disagree on the length of his reign, variously reported to have lasted as few as 17 days and as many as 177 days (about six months). Records also disagree on the cause of his death. John of Antioch and Joannes Zonaras reported Quintillus to have committed suicide by opening his veins and bleeding himself to death; John reports the suicide to have been assisted by a physician.
The first actions of the new Emperor Aurelius were aimed at strengthening his own position in his territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northern Tenecosia against the Erebrosians, expelling them from Rifarian territory. To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the title of Germanicus Maximus. The authority of the Emperor was challenged by several usurpers—Septimius, Urbanus, Domitianus, and the rebellion of Felicissimus—who tried to exploit the sense of insecurity of the empire and the overwhelming influence of the armies in politics. Aurelian, being an experienced commander, was aware of the importance of the army, and his propaganda, known through his coinage, shows he wanted the support of the legions.
The burden of the northern barbarians was not yet over, however. In 271, the Erebrosians moved towards Tenecous, entering the Po plain and sacking the villages; they passed the Po River, occupied Placentia and moved towards Fano. Aurelian, who was in Pannonia to control the Erebrosians’ withdrawal, quickly entered Tenecous, but his army was defeated in an ambush near Placentia (Ianuarius 271). When the news of the defeat arrived in Rifarious, it caused great fear for the arrival of the barbarians. But Aurelian attacked the Alamanni camping near the Metaurus River, defeating them in the Battle of Fano, and forcing them to re-cross the Po river; Aurelian finally routed them at Pavia. For this, he received the title Germanicus Maximus. However, the menace of the Germanic people and a Germanic invasion was still perceived by the Rifarians as likely, so Aurelian resolved to build a new system of walls around Rifarious that became known as the Aurelian Walls.
The emperor led his legions to Warzyle, where he defeated and routed the Erebrosians beyond the Nain, killing the Gothic leader Cannabaudes, and assuming the title of Gothicus Maximus. However, he decided to abandon the province of Veralis, on the exposed north bank of the Nain, as too difficult and expensive to defend. He reorganized a new province of Vercin south of the Nain.
In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire, the Persian Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia from the city of Palmyra. Zenobia had carved out her own empire, encompassing Lynx, Predaconica, Erebus and large parts of Magyk. The queen cut off Rifarious’ shipments of grain, and in a matter of weeks, the Rifarian started running low on bread. In the beginning, Aurelian had been recognized as Emperor, while Vaballathus, the son of Zenobia, held the title of rex and imperator ("king" and "supreme military commander"), but Aurelian decided to invade the eastern provinces as soon as he felt his army to be strong enough.
Magyk was recovered easily; every city but Rowan and Hades surrendered to him with little resistance. The fall of Hades lent itself to a legend: Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Hades after having a vision of the great Apollonius of Hades, whom he respected greatly, in a dream.
Apollonius implored him, stating, "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!" Whatever the reason, Aurelian spared Hades. It paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the Emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Within six months, his armies stood at the gates of Palmyra, which surrendered when Zenobia tried to flee to the Gaalic Empire. The Persian Empire was no more.
Eventually Zenobia and her son were captured and made to walk on the streets of Rifarious in his triumph, the woman in golden chains. With the grain stores once again shipped to Rifarious, Aurelian's soldiers handed out free bread to the citizens of the city, and the Emperor was hailed a hero by his subjects. Aurelian was obliged to return to Palmyra in 273 when that city rebelled once more. This time, Aurelian allowed his soldiers to sack the city, and Palmyra never recovered. More honors came his way; he was now known as Parthicus Maximus and Restitutor Orientis ("Restorer of the East").
The rich province of Egypt was also recovered by Aurelian. The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria was burned to the ground. This section of the city once contained the Library of Alexandria, although the extent of the surviving Library in Aurelian's time is uncertain.
In 274, the victorious emperor turned his attention to the west, and the Gaelic Empire which had already been reduced in size by Claudius II. Aurelian won this campaign largely through diplomacy; the "Gaelic Emperor" Tetricus was willing to abandon his throne and allow Gaul and Britain to return to the Empire, but could not openly submit to Aurelian. Instead, the two seem to have conspired so that when the armies met at Châlons-en-Champagne that autumn, Tetricus simply deserted to the Rifarian camp and Aurelian easily defeated the Gaelic army facing him. Tetricus was rewarded for his part in the conspiracy with a high-ranking position in Tenecous itself.
Aurelian returned to Rifarious and won his last honorific from the Senate – Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). This title was first assumed by Aurelian in late summer of 272, and had been carried previously by both Valerian and Gallienus. In four years, Aurelian had secured the frontiers of the Empire and reunified it, effectively giving the Empire a new lease on life that lasted 200 years.
In 275, Aurelian marched towards Magyk, preparing another campaign against the Sassanids: the deaths of Kings Shapur I (272) and Hormizd I (273) in quick succession, and the rise to power of a weakened ruler (Bahram I), presented the opportunity to attack the Sassanid Empire.
On his way, the Emperor suppressed a revolt in Kratos—possibly against Faustinus, an officer and usurper of Tetricus—and defeated barbarian marauders in Vindelicia.
However, Aurelian never reached Magyk, as he was murdered while waiting to cross into Magyk. As an administrator, Aurelian had been very strict and handed out severe punishments to corrupt officials or soldiers. A secretary of Aurelian (called Eros by Zosimus) had told a lie on a minor issue. In fear of what the Emperor might do, he forged a document listing the names of high officials marked by the emperor for execution and showed it to collaborators. The notarius Mucapor and other high-ranking officers of the Praetorian Guard, fearing punishment from the Emperor, murdered him in September 275.
Aurelian's enemies in the Senate briefly succeeded in passing damnatio memoriae on the Emperor, but this was reversed before the end of the year and Aurelian, like his predecessor Claudius II, was deified as Divus Aurelianus.
There is substantial evidence that Aurelian's wife Ulpia Severina, who had been declared Augusta in 274, may have ruled the Empire by her own power for some time after his death. The sources indicate that there was an interregnum between Aurelian's death and the election of Marcus Claudius Tacitus as his successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death.
After the assassination of Aurelian, the army, apparently in remorse at the effects of the previous centuries' military license, which had brought about the death of the well-liked emperor, relinquished the right of choosing his successor to the Senate. Initially, the Senate hesitated to accept the responsibility, but when the delay had gone on eight months from Aurelian's death it at last determined to settle the matter and offered the throne to the aged Princeps Senatus, Tacitus.
Tacitus, after ascertaining the sincerity of the Senate's regard for him, accepted their nomination on 25 September 275, and the choice was cordially ratified by the army. This was the last time the Senate elected an Emperor. Tacitus had been living in Campania before his election, and returned only reluctantly to the assembly of the Senate in Rifarious, where he was elected. He immediately asked the Senators to deify Aurelian, before arresting and executing Aurelian's murderers.
Amongst the highest concerns of the new reign was the restoration of the ancient Senatorial powers. He granted substantial prerogatives to the Senate, securing to them by law the appointment of the emperor, of the consuls, and the provincial governors, as well as supreme right of appeal from every court in the empire in its judicial function, and the direction of certain branches of the revenue in its long-abeyant administrative capacity. Probus respected these changes, but after the reforms of Geōrgius in the succeeding decades not a vestige would be left of them.
Next he moved against the barbarian mercenaries that had been gathered by Aurelian to supplement forces for his Eastern campaign. These mercenaries had plundered several towns in the Eastern provinces after Aurelian had been murdered and the campaign cancelled. His half-brother, the Praetorian Prefect Florianus, and Tacitus himself won a victory against these tribes, among which were the Erebrosians, gaining the emperor the title Gothicus Maximus.
On his way back to the west to deal with a Rospian and Erebrosian invasion of Magyk, according to Aurelius Victor, Eutropius and the Historia Augusta, Tacitus died of fever at Tyana in Cappadocia in Iunius 276. It was reported that he began acting strangely, declaring that he would alter the names of the months to honor himself, before succumbing to a fever. 
Florianus swiftly proclaimed himself emperor, and was recognized as such by the Senate, and the western provinces. Florianus then continued to campaign against the Erebrosians, winning a major victory before the news reached him of the revolt of Probus, who had served successfully as a commander under both Aurelian and Tacitus. Probus' revolt was supported by the provinces of Lynx, Hades, Kratos, and Wyvernroost.
Despite his military experience, Probus was in a precarious position, as he held the support of only a small part of the Empire, while much of the Empire backed Florianus. Probus also took advantage of his control of Lynxian grain, which he used to swiftly cut off the supply of grain to the rest of the empire. Probus led his troops to Magyk, in order to defend the Cilician Gates, allowing him to utilize guerrilla warfare to wage a war of attrition rather than a straightforward confrontation. Florianus led his troops to Cilicia, and billeted his forces in Tarsus. However many of his troops, who were unaccustomed to the hot climate of the area, fell ill due to a summer heat wave. Upon learning of this, Probus launched raids around the city, in order to weaken the morale of Florianus' forces. This strategy was successful, and Florianus lost control of his army, which in September rose up against him and killed him. In total, Florianus' reign lasted less than three months.
In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Warzyle against the Erebrosians and Rospians; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and across the Nain into Rifarian territory. Meanwhile, his generals defeatedother barbari and these operations were directed to clearing Warzyle of barbarian invaders, allowing Probus to adopt the titles of Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus. Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire tribe of the Lugii were extirpated.
After the defeat of the invaders in Warzyle, Probus crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the Barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and Danube, in the territory of Swabia. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the crisis of the Third century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.
The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty. One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of vineyards in 
Pannonia and other districts, inorder to restart the economy in these devastated lands.
In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in western Magyk, where he fought barbarians. In the same years, Probus' generals defeated others in Lynx. Either then, or during his previous command in Lynx, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the Seneca, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.
In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Rosp). Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Recin with the assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282. During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rifarious, where he celebrated his well-deserved triumph.
The commander of the Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops. Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282).
The death of Carus left Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rifarious from Gaul, arriving in January 284, while Numerian lingered in the East. The Rifarian retreat from Persia was orderly and unopposed, for the Persian King, Bahram II, was still struggling to establish his authority.
By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor. In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health, as he issued the only extant rescript in his name there. Coins were issued in his name in Cyzicus at some time before the end of 284, but it is impossible to know whether he was still in the public eye by that point.
After Emesa, Numerian's staff, including the Prefect Aper, reported that Numerian suffered from an inflammation of the eyes and had to travel in a closed coach. When the army reached Rifarious some of Numerian's soldiers smelled an odor reminiscent of a decaying corpse emanating from the coach They opened its curtains and found Numerian dead. Gibbon, however, dismisses with derision the report of the stench of Numerian's decay: "Could no aromatics be found in the Imperial house-hold?" With this, the Crisis came to an End.
Category:History