Lhóss

Lhóss is spoken in Lhóssok, in the southeastern lands. Currently there is only one dialect, but with recent expansions, new ways of speaking should arise
Phonology and Romanization
Consonants
 	BILABIAL 	LAB.DENT. 	DENTAL 	ALVEOLAR	P. ALVEOLAR	RETROFLEX	PALATAL	VELAR 	UVULAR
PLOSIVE 	pʲ pʷˠ, bʲ bʷˠ	 	t̪ʰ t̪ʲ t̪ʷˠ, d̪ʰ d̪ʲ d̪ʷˠ	 	 	 	c ɟ 	kʰ kʲ kʷ, gʰ gʲ gʷ	
NASAL 	m mʲ mʷˠ 	 	 	n nʷˠ 	 	 	ɲ 	ŋ 	
TRILL 	 	 	 	r rʲ rˠ 	 	 	 	 	ʀ:
TAP/FLAP 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
FRICATIVE 	 	fʲ fʷ, vʲ vʷ	θ θʲ θʷ, ð ðʲ ðʷ 	s sʲ 	ʃ 	ʂ 	ç 	x xʷ, ɣ ɣʷ 	
LAT FRIC 	 	 	 	ɬ ɬʷˠ 	 	 	 	 	
GLIDES AND APPROX	(w) 	 	 	lʲ ɫʷ 	 	 	j 	(w) 	
Vowels
 	FRONT 	CENTRAL	BACK
CLOSE 	i: 	ʉ: 	u
CLOSE MID	ɪ e: ø 	 	o
OPEN MID 	ɛ œ: æ:	 	ɔ:
OPEN 	 	 	ɑ
Romanization
Consonants	Consonants 	Vowels 	Vowels
Phoneme 	Roman letter	Phoneme	Roman Letter
pʲ 	p 	i: 	í
pʷˠ 	ph 	ɪ 	i
bʲ 	b 	e: 	é
bʷˠ 	bh 	ø 	ø
t̪(ʰ) 	t 	ɛ 	e
t̪ʲ 	ty 	œ: 	oe
t̪ʷˠ 	th 	æ: 	ae
d̪(ʰ) 	d 	ʉ: 	ú
d̪ʲ 	dy 	u 	u
d̪ʷˠ 	dh 	o 	o
c 	cy 	ɔ: 	ó
ɟ 	jy 	ɑ 	a
kʰ 	k 	 	
kʲ 	ky 	 	
kʷ 	kh 	 	
gʰ 	g 	 	
gʲ 	gy 	 	
gʷ 	gh 	 	
m 	m 	 	
mʲ 	my 	 	
mʷˠ 	mh 	 	
n̪ 	n 	 	
n̪ʷˠ 	nh 	 	
ɲ 	ny 	 	
ŋ 	ng 	 	
r: 	r 	 	
r:ʲ 	ry 	 	
r:ˠ 	rh 	 	
ʀ: 	rr 	 	
fʲ 	f 	 	
fʷ 	fh 	 	
vʲ 	v 	 	
vʷ 	vh 	 	
θ 	þ 	 	
θʲ 	þy 	 	
θʷ 	þh 	 	
ð 	ð 	 	
ðʲ 	ðy 	 	
ðʷ 	ðh 	 	
s 	s 	 	
sʲ 	sy 	 	
ʃ 	sh 	 	
ʂ 	ss 	 	
ç 	c 	 	
x 	cc 	 	
xʷ 	cch 	 	
ɣ 	gc 	 	
ɣʷ 	gch 	 	
ɬ 	ll 	 	
ɬʷˠ 	llh 	 	
lʲ 	l 	 	
ɫʷ 	lh 	 	
w 	w 	 	
j 	j 	 	
-Light consonants are normal (t) (l)
-Soft consonants are palatalized (ty) (ly)
* p, b are always soft
-Dark consonants are labialized and/or velarized (th) (lh)
* Some are always labio-velarized, some are just labialized, fewer are only velarized
* ph, bh, th, dh, nh, mh, llh, lh are labio-velarized syllable initial and  just velarized syllable end (or end of words)
* vh, fh, kh, gh, gch, cch, þh, ðh are only ever labialized
* rh is always velarized
- ‘nj’ acts like a soft ‘n’ and ‘ss’ acts like a dark ‘sh’
- ‘c’, ‘j’, ‘ch’, ‘jh’ 
* ‘ch’ acts like a soft ‘c’
* ‘jh’ acts like a soft ‘j’
- ‘gc’, ‘cc’, ‘ll’, ‘w’, ‘rr’ are always light
- ‘p’, ‘b’, ‘f’, ‘v’ are soft and can be dark, never light
- ‘þ’, ‘ð’, ‘s’ are light and can be soft, never dark
- ‘ø’, ‘a’, ‘u’, ‘i’, ‘e’, ‘o’are always short
- ‘oe’, ‘ae’, ‘ú’, ‘í’, ‘ó’ are always long
-Diphthongs are always long
- stressed syllables have a long vowel
-Diphthongs are always long, but this is may or may not be related to stress
-Stress (kinda boring)
* First syllable for 1 and 2 syllable words
** troa [ troɑ ]
** soto [ so.t̪ʰo ]
* Second syllable for 3 or 4 syllable words or 2 syllable words with a long vowel in the second syllable. This all words, with or without affixes, not just roots/stems
** troavhéiauwb [ t̪roɑ.ˈvʷeɪ:.ɑuwbʲ ]
** okbean [ okʰ.ˈbʲɛɑ:n̪ ]
Morphology and Syntax
-Basic word order is VOS
* VSO is acceptable and used often. Verbs typically go first… OVS isn’t too common and SVO is not common at all
-Nouns (and ADJ)
* There are 12 cases; 
** Nominitive (subject/agent)
** Accusative (direct object)
** Dative (indirect object)
** Genitive (possession)
** (Comitive) (along/together with)
** Instrumental (by means of instrument)
** Locative (located at)
** Causative (for the purpose of)
** Translative (turns into)
** Vocative (being addressed)
** Ablative (movement away from)
** Elative (movement towards from)'
* Nouns are inflected for case, plurality (SG, DU, PL), respect/honorific
** Noun classes decide what case ending the noun receives
** singular, 1; dual, 2; plural, 3 or more
** plurality is marked on case endings and definite markers
* Nouns are also split into different noun classes based on semantic meaning
** Class I [CI]: Royalty, Warriors, Priests, Scholars, Deities, Ancestors, Dead People, Spirits
** Class II [CII] : All other peoples
** Class III [CIII]: Casteless, Slaves, Animals (animals that are not spirits)
** Class IV [CIV]: Tools, Instruments, Weapons, Modes of Transport
** Class V [CV]: Everything Else
* Adjectives are inflected for case and number as well, using the same case markers as the ones used on nouns
* NP order is: noun + definite marker/demonstrative + numeral + adjective(s)
** Adjectives are ordered for emphasis
Royalty, Warriors, Priests, Scholars, Dieties, Ancestors, Dead People, Spirits	Royalty, Warriors, Priests, Scholars, Dieties, Ancestors, Dead People, Spirits	Royalty, Warriors, Priests, Scholars, Dieties, Ancestors, Dead People, Spirits	Royalty, Warriors, Priests, Scholars, Dieties, Ancestors, Dead People, Spirits
CLASS I 	Singular 	Dual 	Plural
Nominitive 	x 	-(sy)oe 	-(sy)í
Accusative 	-(sy)u 	-(sy)ú 	-(sy)eu
Dative 	-(sy)a 	-(sy)ae 	-(sy)ai
Genitive 	-(sy)ak 	-(ny)aek 	-(ny)iak
(Comitive) 	-(sy)all 	-(sy)aell 	-(sy)aill
Instrumental 	-(sy)ek 	-(sy)iak 	-(sy)iuk
Locative 	-(sy)em 	-(sy)iam 	-(sy)ium
Causative 	 	 	
Translative 	 	 	
Vocative 	 	 	
Ablative 	-(sy)eva 	 	
Elative 	 	 	
definite markers; (vh)an SG, en DU, un PL... goes after the noun ; this/that; wélh SG, syov DU, ghir PL
All other peoples	All other peoples	All other peoples	All other peoples
CLASS II 	Singular 	Dual 	Plural
Nominitive 	x 	-(ty)oe 	-(ty)í
Accusative 	-(ty)u 	-(ty)ús 	-(ty)eus
Dative 	-(ty)ap 	-(ty)aep 	-(ty)aip
Genitive 	-(ty)ak 	-(ny)aek 	-(ty)iak
(Comitive) 	-(ty)alh 	-(ty)aelh 	-(ty)ailh
Instrumental 	-(ty)er 	-(ty)iar 	-(ty)iur
Locative 	-(ty)em 	-(ty)iam 	-(ty)ium
Causative 	 	 	
Translative 	 	 	
Vocative 	 	 	
Ablative 	 	 	
Elative 	 	 	
definite markers; (vh)an SG, en DU, un PL... goes after the noun ; this/that; wélh SG, syov DU, ghir PL
Castless, Slaves, Animals	Castless, Slaves, Animals	Castless, Slaves, Animals	Castless, Slaves, Animals
CLASS III 	Singular 	Dual 	Plural
Nominitive 	x 	-woi 	-wí
Accusative 	-(jy)uk 	-(jy)úk 	-(jy)euk
Dative 	-(jy)ak 	-(jy)aek 	-(jy)aik
Genitive 	-(jy)u 	-(jy)ú 	-(jy)i
(Comitive) 	-(jy)ulh 	-(jy)úlh 	-(jy)eulh
Instrumental 	-(jy)aky 	-(jy)aeky 	-(jy)aiky
Locative 	-(jy)amy 	-(jy)aemy 	-(jy)aimy
Causative 	 	 	
Translative 	 	 	
Vocative 	 	 	
Ablative 	 	 	
Elative 	 	 	
definite markers; aty SG, ety DU, iuty PL... goes after the noun ; this/that; soelh SG, jov DU, wir PL
Tools, Instruments, Weapons, Modes of Transport, (fire)	Tools, Instruments, Weapons, Modes of Transport, (fire)	Tools, Instruments, Weapons, Modes of Transport, (fire)	Tools, Instruments, Weapons, Modes of Transport, (fire)
CLASS IV 	Singular 	Dual 	Plural
Nominitive 	x 	-(gy)oi 	-(gy)í
Accusative 	-(gy)uð 	-(gy)úð 	-(gy)euð
Dative 	-(gy)alh 	(gy)aelh 	-(gy)ailh
Genitive 	-(gy)uk 	-(gy)úk 	-(gy)ik
(Comitive) 	-(gy)ulh 	-(gy)úlh 	-(gy)eulh
Instrumental 	-(gy)ar 	-(gy)aer 	-(gy)air
Locative 	-(gy)amy 	-(gy)aemy 	-(gy)aimy
Causative 	 	 	
Translative 	 	 	
Vocative 	 	 	
Ablative 	 	 	
Elative 	 	 	
definite markers; aty SG, ety DU, iuty PL... goes after the noun ; this/that; soelh SG, jov DU, wir PL
Everything Else	Everything Else	Everything Else	Everything Else
CLASS V 	Singular 	Dual 	Plural
Nominitive 	x 	-(ny)oe 	-(ny)í
Accusative 	-(ny)uss 	-(ny)úsh 	-(ny)eush
Dative 	-(ny)av 	-(ny)aev 	-(ny)aiv
Genitive 	-(ny)ok 	-(ny)oek 	-(ny)ik
(Comitive) 	-(ny)alh 	-(ny)aelh 	-(ny)ailh
Instrumental 	-(ny)ev 	-(ny)iav 	-(ny)iuv
Locative 	-(ny)ew 	-(ny)iaw 	-(ny)iuw
Causative 	 	 	
Translative 	 	 	
Vocative 	 	 	
Ablative 	-(ny)uva 	 	
Elative 	-(ny)uw 	 	
definite markers; (vh)ón SG, oen DU, iun PL... goes after the noun ; this/that; soelh SG, jov DU, wir PL
-Pronouns
* Personal pronouns have forms for all cases
* They are separated between singular, dual, and plural
** Dual 1st person -- ‘we two’
** Dual 2nd -- ‘you two’
** Dual 3rd -- ‘them two’
** Plural implies three or more
* Possessive and reflexive pronouns... add these suffixes onto the personal ones
** possessive: -(ðh)ok
** reflexive: 
* Vocative case is used in certain grammatical constructions
** It is used instead of the NOM case sometimes for speakers in higher castes, especially the Emperor
Personal Pronouns	1SG 	2SG 	3SG 	1DU 	2DU 	3DU 	1PL INC	1PL EXC	2PL 	3PL
Nominitive 	íð 	þyu 	ísh 	wit 	ónskr	oit 	wér 	wíð 	þyuskr	oiss
Accusative 	lhanh	þyuny	rrók 	wos 	ínsr 	rroitr	lhwenh 	wainh 	oþyuk 	rróssa
Dative 	lér 	oþyí 	oll 	lhwit 	þyokr	oishal	lhwecc 	wícc 	oshkr 	rroilh
Genitive 	winh 	cyoet	írrik	ówit 	oeskr	órraty	ówaty 	úwas 	cyoekr	ccírra
(Comitive) 	aið 	oþ 	íshít	wait 	ókr 	oikat 	wair 	waið 	óþkr 	oissat
Instrumental 	wéi 	þye 	ísye 	weat 	þyoe 	iu 	wyt 	wytr 	þyia 	iuss
Locative 	lhamy	cyóþ 	rrish	lhwaith	óþkr 	iushr 	lhwir 	wamy 	cyók 	rroishr
Causative 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Translative 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Vocative 	lhéið	þyéi 	 	 	þyesk	 	 	 	þyeshk	
Ablative 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Elative 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
-Verbs
* Verbs are inflected for person, number, tense(/aspect), and mood
** Mythical/Historical past, Past, Present, Future
** Perfective, “unsuccessful” perfective, imperfective (ongoing, repeated, habitual, incomplete actions)
** Conditional, subjunctive, imperative, optative
** Suffix order is negative + passive + directional+ (incomplete) + root + im/perfective 
* Verbs have aux verbs that show evidentiality, modality, and how the speaker (or others) feel about the event (often paired with conditional and subjunctive)
** Evidentials
**Modals:
***Aux word used right after the verb it modifies. Implied to be the opinion/ability/want... of the speaker of the action
***Used to convey something about the action/event based on…
**** Obligation: Somewhat equal to ‘must’. This shows that the event is required to happen, whether or not the agent wants to do the action. This implies that the agent is bound to do the action by law, morals, religion, promises, work, or prophecy. If NEG is used on the verb, the agent does not have to do the action and is not bound to perform it
**** Desire: Somewhat equal to ‘want/need’. This shows that the event is not required but is desirable. Another equality could be ‘wishes to’ -- this is different from the POT mood ‘hope/wish’ suffix, they cannot be used in the same word. The Desire suffix is used for actions/events that will happen (ex, I want you to bring me food), not ones where the agent wishes it would happen, then POT is used (I wish you would bring me food). The line can be blurry on whether to use this  If NEG is used, then the event is not desired
**** Recommended: Somewhat equal to ‘ought to’. This shows that the event is recommended to occur, typically implying that the event should be done. This is different from obligation because the thing performing the action is not obligated to do it
**** Ability: Mostly equal to ‘can’. This shows the agent’s ability to do the action. If the agent is unsure whether they can perform the action, POT mood ‘could’ will be used instead. If NEG is used, the agent is not able to do the action/event
**** Permissive: Mostly equal to ‘let/allow’. This shows that the agent is allowed to perform the event. They are not required to do the event, but their ability to perform the event is not hindered. NEG shows that the event is not allowed to happen
**** Necessity: Somewhat like ‘need’. This shows that the event needs to happen, somewhat similar to obligation. However, this requirement is not bound by anything and can be used with general statements (ex. We need to buy more sugar) while using obligation with this example would imply that they were bound to perform that action. NEG shows that the action does not need to happen
**** Naturality: No English equivalent, ‘according to law’. This shows that the action happening is ‘natural’ based on known natural law, legal law, cultural law, and prophecy. The action is bound to ‘naturality’, similar to how obligation is bound. The event is implied to happen. It is used in specific situations (ex. The water rises (according to law);... ex. The problem will be fixed (naturally/according to law)). NEG shows that the action is ‘not according to law’, or ‘unnatural’ (ex. The water rises unnaturally/not according to law; ex. The problem will be fixed unnaturally... could be implying witchcraft or something impossible to happen, as well)
** Feelings/Opinions:
-Verbs of motion (VoM) require a directional prefix
PERFECTIVE 	1SG 	2SG 	3SG 	1DU 	2DU 	3DU 	1PL INC	1PL EXC	2PL 	3PL
Historical Past	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Past 	-aesy 	-aety	-aeky	-øsh	-øth	-økh	-iush 	-iuvh 	-iuth	-iukh
Future 	-aeðha	-aem 	-aeg 	-øcc	-øm 	-øk 	-iucc 	-iugc 	-ium 	-iug
Present tense is always imperfective. Perfective is implied to be a successfully completed action
INCOMPLETIVE 	singular	dual	plural
Historical Past	 	 	
Past 	syí- 	tyí-	kyí-
Future 	 	 	
Paired with perfective conjugations. Implies that the action is complete, but was not successfully completed i.e. the action was not completed as intended. EX: I chased the dog -- if this sentences used an incomplete marker, it implies that you chased the dog, but did not catch it, or you unsuccessfully chased the dog
IMPERFECTIVE 	1SG 	2SG 	3SG 	1DU 	2DU 	3DU 	1PL INC	1PL EXC	2PL 	3PL
Historical Past	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Past 	-aic 	-aiþ 	-aikh	-oish	-oity	-oiky	-iass 	-ias 	-iaty	-iaky
Present 	-as 	-at 	-ak 	-os 	-ot 	-ok 	-ís 	-ív 	-ít 	-ík
Future 	-oagc	-oalh	-oaky	-oesh	-oety	-oeky	-eis 	-eiv 	-eit 	-eik
Implied to be ongoing, repeated, habitual, or not yet complete actions
Honorific conjugations -- these are used when speaking with someone of a higher caste or status than themselves
PERFECTIVE - HONORABLE	1SG 	2SG 	3SG 	1DU 	2DU 	3DU 	1PL INC	1PL EXC	2PL 	3PL
Historical Past 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Past 	-eusy 	-euty	-euky	-úsh	-úth	-úkh	-úash 	-úavh 	-úath	-úakh
Future 	-euðha	-eum 	-eug 	-úcc	-úm 	-úk 	-úacc 	-úagc 	-úam 	-úag
IMPERFECTIVE - HONORABLE	1SG 	2SG 	3SG 	1DU 	2DU 	3DU 	1PL INC	1PL EXC	2PL 	3PL
Historical Past 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
Past 	-eic	-eiþ	-eikh	-ush	-uty	-uky	-úass 	-úas 	-iúay	-úaky
Present 	-es 	-et 	-ek 	-us 	-ut 	-uk 	-úas 	-úav 	-úat 	-úak
Future 	- 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	
MODALITY 	MODALITY
obligation (must/required) 	feu
desire (want/need) 	iarr
recommended (ought) 	dlhai
ability (able to) 	gyalh
permissive (allow) 	llík
necessity (something needed) 	nyoa
"according to law"/ "naturally"	nhúass
Aux used right after the main verb
EVIDENTIALITY	EVIDENTIALITY
non.visual 	llúk
visual 	lúk
inferential 	per
hearsay 	bót
Aux also used after the main verb
Some Sentence Examples
I hunt in the forest
Cchellkr-as  skyoa-nyew  ón  íð
/xʷɛɬ.kr:ɑs  skʲoɑ.ɲɛw  ɔ:n̪  i:ð/
hunt-1SG.IMPV  forest-LOC.CV.SG   DEF.CV.SG   1SG.NOM
We (two) killed them two in the forest with spears (perfective)
Klladhr-øsh gheagc-aer  rroitr  skyoa-nyew  ón  (wit)
/kɬɑ.d̪ʷr:øʃ  gʷɛɑɣ.æ:r:  ʀɔi.t̪r:  skʲoɑ.ɲɛw  ɔ:n̪  wɪt̪ʰ/
kill-1DU.PRFV  spear-INST.CIV.DU   3DU.ACC    forest-LOC.CV.SG  DEF.CV.SG   1DU.NOM
The man, who lives in the forest, ate meat and fruit with his wife
Ír-aeky rroil-eush ae soto-(ny)eush okbean-alh íshítok fhearr-∅ an, ó bhúwur-ak  skyoa-(ny)ew ón.
/i:r:.æ:kʲ  ʀ:ɔi.lʲɛuʃ  æ:  so.t̪ʰo.ɲɛuʃ  okʰ.bʲɛɑ.n̪ɑɫʷ  i:ʃ.i:t̪ʰ.okʰ  fʷɛɑʀ:  ɑn̪  ɔ:  bʷˠʉ.wur:.ɑkʰ  skʲoɑ.ɲɛw  ɔ:n̪/
eat-3SG.PRFV.PST   meat-ACC.CV.PL   and  fruit-ACC.CV.PL   wife-COM.CII.SG   3SG.COM-POSS   man-∅   DEF.CI.SG   REL.S   live.at-3SG.IMPV   forest-LOC.CV.SG   DEF.CV.SG
I (unsuccessfully/not complete) killed the man with my spear
Syí-klladhr-aesy gheagc-ar wéi-ðhok-ar fhearru (vh)an.
/sʲi:.kɬɑdˠ.r:æ:sʲ  gʷɛɑɣ.æ:r:  wei:.ðʷo.kʰɑr:  fʷɛɑ.ʀ:u  vʷɑn̪/
INCO-kill-1SG.PRFV    spear-INST.CIV.SG    1SG.INST-POSS-INST.CIV.SG   man-ACC.CI.SG    DEF.CI.SG
There is a big fat ugly snake in my pretty new boots
Bryoagc-iaw lhamy-ok nyúry-iaw bryeany-iaw nyaeþ dyeuw ccoll mhór 
/bʲrʲ:oɑɣ.iɑw  ɫʷɑmʲ.okʰ  ɲʉrˠ:.iɑw  bʲrʲeɑ.ɲiɑw  ɲæ:θ  d̪ʲɛuw  xoɬ  mʷˠɔ:r:/
boot-LOC.C5.DU  1SG.LOC-POSS  new.LOC.C5.DU  pretty.LOC.C5/DU   snake          fat         ugly     big  
My mother used to tell (to) me the story (about) referring to Greater Black Bear every night--before I slept
Ryaeskr-aikh lér ryaesk-uss ón pryécc vhorraeþghoi-(sy)a (vh)an úilhaow aþya íðok rroimh kyócyr-aic
/ʀ:æ:skʰ.r:ɑikʷ   lʲe:r:   rʲæs.kʰuʂ   ɔ:n̪   prʲe:x   vʷo.ˈʀ:æ:θ.gʷɔɪ.sʲɑ   ɑn̪   ʉɪ:.ɫʷɑow    ɑθʲɑ   i:ð.okʰ   ʀ:ɔɪmˠ   kʲɔ:c.r:ɑiç/
tell.a.story-3SG.IMPV.PST   1SG.DAT   story-ACC.CV.SG  DEF.CV.SG  referring.to  greater.black.bear-DAT.CI.SG  DEF.CI.SG   all.days  
The house was built (passive)
Ðye-thóglaer-aeky tyúgc ón
/ ðʲɛ.ˈtʷˠɔ:.glʲæ:r:.æ:kʲ   tʲʉ:ɣ  ɔ:n̪ /
PASS-build-3SG.PRFV.PST    house-∅    DEF.CV.SG
Hello (honor.greeting) sir! I heard that you built this house
Ccaty úrra þyéi! Thóglaer-euty bót tyúgc-uss soelh þyu
/ xɑt̪ʲ  ʉ:ʀ:ɑ   θʲeɪ:  -  tʷˠɔ:.glʲæ:r.ɛutʲ   bʲɔ:t̪ʰ   tʲʉ:.ɣuʂ  sœ:ɫ   θʲu /
power   honorable  2SG.VOC   build-2SG.PRFV.PST.HON   hearsay   house-ACC.CV.SG   this.CV.SG   2SG.NOM
Category:Languages