Hurricane Sandy

Hurricane Sandy was the deadliest and most destructive hurricane of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season, as well as the second-costliest hurricane in United States history. Classified as the eighteenth named storm, tenth hurricane and second major hurricane of the year, Sandy was a Category 3 storm at its peak intensity when it made landfall in Cuba.[1] While it was a Category 2 storm off the coast of the Northeastern United States, the storm became the largest Atlantic hurricane on record (as measured by diameter, with winds spanning 1,100 miles (1,800 km)).[2][3] Estimates as of June 2013 assess damage to have been over $68 billion (2013 USD), a total surpassed only by Hurricane Katrina.[4] At least 286 people were killed along the path of the storm in seven countries.[5] The severe and widespread damage the storm caused in the United States, as well as its unusual merge with a frontal system, resulted in the nicknaming of the hurricane by the media and several organizations of the U.S. government "Superstorm Sandy".[6][7][8][9]
Sandy developed from a tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea on October 22, quickly strengthened, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Sandy six hours later. Sandy moved slowly northward toward the Greater Antilles and gradually intensified. On October 24, Sandy became a hurricane, made landfall near Kingston, Jamaica, re-emerged a few hours later into the Caribbean Sea and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane. On October 25, Sandy hit Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane, then weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 26, Sandy moved through the Bahamas.[10] On October 27, Sandy briefly weakened to a tropical storm and then restrengthened to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 29, Sandy curved north-northwest and then[11] moved ashore near Brigantine, New Jersey, just to the northeast of Atlantic City, as a post-tropical cyclone with hurricane-force winds.[1]
In Jamaica, winds left 70% of residents without electricity, blew roofs off buildings, killed one, and caused about $100 million (2012 USD) in damage. In Haiti, Sandy's outer bands brought flooding that killed at least 54, caused food shortages, and left about 200,000 homeless. In the Dominican Republic, two died. In Puerto Rico, one man was swept away by a swollen river. In Cuba, there was extensive coastal flooding and wind damage inland, destroying some 15,000 homes, killing 11, and causing $2 billion (2012 USD) in damage. In The Bahamas, two died amid an estimated $700 million (2012 USD) in damage. In Canada, tw
==Meteorological history==
Main article: Meteorological history of Hurricane SandyStorm pathHurricane Sandy began as a low pressure system which developed sufficient organized convection to be classified as Tropical Depression Eighteen on October 22 south of Kingston, Jamaica.[16] It moved slowly at first due to a ridge to the north. Low wind shear and warm waters allowed for strengthening,[16] and the system was named Tropical Storm Sandy late on October 22.[17] Early on October 24, an eye began developing, and it was moving steadily northward due to an approaching trough.[18] Later that day, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) upgraded Sandy to hurricane status about 65 mi (105 km) south of Kingston, Jamaica.[19] At about 1900 UTC that day, Sandy made landfall near Kingston with winds of about 85 mph (140 km/h).[20] Just offshore Cuba, Sandy rapidly intensified to winds of 115 mph (185 km/h),[1] and at that intensity it made landfall just west of Santiago de Cuba at 0525 UTC on October 25.[21]
After Sandy exited Cuba, the structure became disorganized,[22] and it turned to the north-northwest over the Bahamas.[23] By October 27, Sandy was no longer fully tropical, and despite strong shear, it maintained convection due to influence from an approaching trough; the same trough turned the hurricane to the northeast.[24] After briefly weakening to a tropical storm,[25] Sandy re-intensified into a hurricane,[26] and on October 28 an eye began redeveloping.[27] The storm moved around an upper-level low over the eastern United States and also to the southwest of a ridge over Atlantic Canada, turning it to the northwest.[28] Sandy briefly re-intensified to Category 2 intensity on the morning of October 29, around which time it had a wind diameter of over 1,150 miles (1,850 km).[29] The convection diminished while the hurricane accelerated toward the New Jersey coast,[30] and the hurricane was no longer tropical by 2100 UTC on October 29.[31] About 2 1/2 hours later, Sandy made landfall near Brigantine, New Jersey,[32] with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h).[33] The remnants weakened over western Pennsylvania, degenerating into a remnant trough on October 31.[34]
==Forecasts==
On October 23, 2012, the path of Hurricane Sandy was correctly predicted by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) headquartered in Reading, England nearly eight days in advance of its striking the American East Coast. The alert noted that the storm would turn west towards land and strike the New York/New Jersey region on October 29, rather than turn east and head out to the open Atlantic as most hurricanes in this position do. By October 27, four days after the ECMWF made its prediction, the National Weather Service and National Hurricane Center confirmed the path of the hurricane predicted by the European model. The National Weather Service was criticized for not employing its higher-resolution forecast models the way that its European counterpart did. A hardware and software upgrade completed at the end of 2013 enabled the weather service to make more accurate predictions, and do so far more in advance than the technology in 2012 had allowed.[35]
===Relation to global warming===
See also: Tropical cyclones in relation to global warmingAccording to IPCC SREX 2012, "attribution of single extreme events to anthropogenic climate change is challenging".[36] According to NCAR senior climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth, "The answer to the oft-asked question of whether an event is caused by climate change is that it is the wrong question. All weather events are affected by climate change because the environment in which they occur is warmer and moister than it used to be."[37] Although NOAA meteorologist Martin Hoerling attributes Sandy to "little more than the coincidental alignment of a tropical storm with an extratropical storm",[38] Trenberth illustrates by pointing out that steroids in a baseball player's system do not cause home runs all by themselves but do make home runs more likely.[39] Trenberth does agree that the storm was caused by "natural variability" but adds that it was "enhanced by global warming".[40] One factor contributing to the storm's strength was abnormally warm sea surface temperatures offshore the East Coast of the United States—more than 3 °C (5 °F) above normal, to which global warming had contributed 0.6 °C (1 °F).[40] As the temperature of the atmosphere increases, the capacity to hold water increases, leading to stronger storms and higher rainfall amounts.[40]
As they move north, Atlantic hurricanes typically are forced east and out to sea by the jet stream's prevailing winds.[41] In Sandy's case, this typical pattern was blocked by a ridge of high pressure over Greenland resulting in a negative North Atlantic Oscillation, forming a kink in the jet stream, causing it to double back on itself off the East Coast. Sandy was caught up in this northwesterly flow.[41] The blocking pattern over Greenland also stalled an arctic front which combined with the cyclone.[41] Mark Fischetti of Scientific American said that the jet stream's unusual shape was caused by the melting of Arctic ice.[42] Jeff Masters of Weather Underground said that three studies in 2011 found "that the recent record decline in Arctic sea ice could be responsible, since this heats up the pole, altering the Equator-to-pole temperature difference, forcing the jet stream to slow down, meander, and get stuck in large loops."[41] Trenberth said that while a negative North Atlantic Oscillation and a blocking anticyclone were in place, the null hypothesis remained that this was just the natural variability of weather.[38] Sea level at New York and along the New Jersey coast has increased by nearly a foot over the last hundred years,[43] which contributed to the storm surge.[44] Harvard geologist Daniel P. Schrag calls Hurricane Sandy's 13-foot storm surge an example of what will, by mid-century, be the "new norm on the Eastern seaboard".[45]
==Preparations==
===Caribbean and Bermuda===
After the storm became a tropical cyclone on October 22, the Government of Jamaica issued a tropical storm watch for the entire island.[46] Early on October 23, the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch was issued.[47] At 1500 UTC, the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning, while the tropical storm warning was discontinued.[48] In preparation of the storm, many residents stocked up on supplies and reinforced roofing material. Acting Prime Minister Peter Phillips urged people to take this storm seriously, and also to take care of their neighbors, especially the elderly, children, and disabled. Government officials shut down schools, government buildings, and the airport in Kingston on the day prior to the arrival of Sandy. Meanwhile, numerous and early curfews were put in place to protect residents, properties, and to prevent crime.[49] Shortly after Jamaica issued its first watch on October 22, the Government of Haiti issued a tropical storm watch for Haiti.[50] By late October 23, it was modified to a tropical storm warning.[51]
The Government of Cuba posted a hurricane watch for the Cuban Provinces of Camagüey, Granma, Guantánamo, Holguín, Las Tunas, and Santiago de Cuba at 1500 UTC on October 23.[48] Only three hours later, the hurricane watch was switched to a hurricane warning.[52] The Government of the Bahamas, at 1500 UTC on October 23, issued a tropical storm watch for several Bahamian islands, including the Acklins, Cat Island, Crooked Island, Exuma, Inagua, Long Cay, Long Island, Mayaguana, Ragged Island, Rum Cay, and San Salvador Island.[48] Later that day, another tropical storm watch was issued for Abaco Islands, Andros Island, the Berry Islands, Bimini, Eleuthera, Grand Bahama, and New Providence.[52] By early on October 24, the tropical storm watch for Cat Island, Exuma, Long Island, Rum Cay, and San Salvador was upgraded to a tropical storm warning.[53]
At 1515 UTC on October 26, the Bermuda Weather Service issued a tropical storm watch for Bermuda, reflecting the enormous size of the storm and the anticipated wide-reaching impacts.[54]
===United States===
White House conference with FEMA and Department of Homeland Security in preparation for arrival of the hurricane.
	Wikinews has related news: U.S. prepares for arrival of Hurricane Sandy
Much of the East Coast of the United States, in Mid-Atlantic and New England regions, had a good chance of receiving gale-force winds, flooding, heavy rain and possibly snow early in the week of October 28 from an unusual hybrid of Hurricane Sandy and a winter storm producing a Fujiwhara effect.[55] Government weather forecasters said there was a 90% chance that the East Coast would be impacted by the storm. Jim Cisco of the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center coined the term "Frankenstorm", as Sandy was expected to merge with a storm front a few days before Halloween.[56][57][58] As coverage continued, several media outlets began eschewing this term in favor of "superstorm".[59][60] Utilities and governments along the East Coast attempted to head off long-term power failures Sandy might cause. Power companies from the Southeast to New England alerted independent contractors to be ready to help repair storm damaged equipment quickly and asked employees to cancel vacations and work longer hours. Researchers from Johns Hopkins University, using a computer model built on power outage data from previous hurricanes, conservatively forecast that 10 million customers along the Eastern Seaboard would lose power from the storm.[61]
 President Obama discusses preparations for Hurricane SandyThrough regional offices in Atlanta, Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) monitored Sandy, closely coordinating with state and tribal emergency management partners in Florida and the Southeast, Mid-Atlantic, and New England states.[62] President Obama signed emergency declarations on October 28 for several states expected to be impacted by Sandy, allowing them to request federal aid and make additional preparations in advance of the storm.[63] Flight cancellations and travel alerts on the U.S. East Coast were put in place in the Mid-Atlantic and the New England areas.[64] Over 5,000 commercial airline flights scheduled for October 28 and October 29 were canceled by the afternoon of October 28[65] and Amtrak canceled some services through October 29 in preparation for the storm.[66] In addition, the National Guard and U.S. Air Force put as many as 45,000 personnel in at least seven states on alert for possible duty in response to the preparations and aftermath of Sandy.[67]
====Southeast====
A satellite image of the storm on October 29, with most of the U.S. coastline artificially highlighted. The entire east coast is visible, with a cloudless Florida coast seen at the bottom of the image and the outline of the coast of Maine at the top right.=====Florida=====
Sandy brought tropical-storm force winds and rain to South Florida from October 25–27,[68][69] causing some closures and some cancellations of activities at schools in Palm Beach, Broward and Miami-Dade counties.[70] Schools on the Treasure Coast also announced closures for October 26, in anticipation of Sandy.[71] Storm surge from Sandy also caused flooding and beach erosion along coastal areas in South Florida.[72] A Russian intelligence-gathering ship was allowed to stay in Jacksonville to avoid Sandy; the port is not far from Kings Bay Naval Submarine Base.[73]
=====Carolinas=====
At 0900 UTC on October 26, a tropical storm watch was issued from the mouth of the Savannah River in South Carolina to Oregon Inlet, North Carolina, including Pamlico Sound.[74] Twelve hours later, the portion of the tropical storm watch from the Santee River in South Carolina to Duck, North Carolina, including Pamlico Sound, was upgraded to a warning.[75] Governor of North Carolina Beverly Perdue declared a state of emergency for 38 eastern counties on October 26, which took effect on the following day.[76] By October 29, the state of emergency was extended to 24 counties in western North Carolina, with up to a foot of snow attributed to Sandy anticipated in higher elevations. The National Park Service closed at least five sections of the Blue Ridge Parkway.[77]
=====Virginia=====
On October 26, Governor of Virginia Bob McDonnell declared a state of emergency. The U.S. Navy sent more than twenty-seven ships and forces to sea from Norfolk Naval Base, for their protection.[78] Governor McDonnell authorized the National Guard to activate 630 personnel ahead of the storm.[79] Republican Party presidential candidate Mitt Romney canceled campaign appearances scheduled for October 28 in Virginia Beach, Virginia, and New Hampshire October 30 because of Sandy. Vice President Joe Biden canceled his appearance on October 27 in Virginia Beach and an October 29 campaign event in New Hampshire.[80] President Barack Obama canceled a campaign stop with former President Bill Clinton in Virginia scheduled for October 29, as well as a trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, the next day because of the impending storm.[81]
====Mid-Atlantic====
=====Washington, D.C.=====
On October 26, Mayor of Washington, D.C. Vincent Gray declared a state of emergency,[82] which President Obama signed on October 28.[83] The United States Office of Personnel Management announced federal offices in the Washington, D.C. area would be closed to the public on October 29–30.[84] In addition, Washington D.C. Metro service, both rail and bus, was canceled on October 29 due to expected high winds, the likelihood of widespread power outages, and the closing of the federal government.[85] The Smithsonian Institution closed for the day of October 29.[86]
=====Maryland=====
Governor of Maryland Martin O'Malley declared a state of emergency on October 26.[78] By the following day, Smith Island residents were evacuated with the assistance of the Maryland Natural Resources Police, Dorchester County opened two shelters for those in flood prone areas, and Ocean City initiated Phase I of their Emergency Operations Plan.[87][88][89] Baltimore Gas and Electric Co. has been putting workers on standby and making plans to bring in crews from other states.[90] On October 28, President Obama declared an emergency in Maryland and signed an order authorizing the Federal Emergency Management Agency to aid in disaster relief efforts.[91] Also, numerous areas were ordered to be evacuated including part of Ocean City, Worcester County, Wicomico County, and Somerset County.[92][93] As of October 27, 2012, there are serious possibilities that more than a hundred million tons of dirty sediment mixed with tree limbs and debris floating behind Conowingo Dam may be eventually poured into the Chesapeake Bay, posing a potential environmental threat.[94]
The Maryland Transit Administration canceled all service for October 29 and October 30. The cancellations applied to buses, light rail, Amtrak and MARC train service.[95] On October 29, six shelters opened in Baltimore, and early voting was canceled for the day.[86] Maryland Insurance Commissioner Therese M. Goldsmith activated an emergency regulation requiring pharmacies to refill prescriptions regardless of their last refill date.[96] On October 29, the Chesapeake Bay Bridge over the Chesapeake Bay and the Millard E. Tydings Memorial Bridge and Thomas J. Hatem Memorial Bridge over the Susquehanna River were closed to traffic in the midday hours.[97]
=====Delaware=====
On October 28, Governor Markell declared a state of emergency, with coastal areas of Sussex County evacuated. Delaware Route 1 through Delaware Seashore State Park was closed due to flooding.[98] Delaware roads were closed to the public, except for emergency and essential personnel,[99] and tolls on I-95 and Delaware Route 1 were waived.[100]
=====New Jersey=====
Airmen of the New Jersey National Guard's 108th Wing assemble before being sent to assist at various emergency shelters.A downed tree in Cheltenham Township, Pennsylvania.Preparations began on October 26, when officials in Cape May County advised residents on barrier islands to evacuate. There was also a voluntary evacuation for Mantoloking, Bay Head, Barnegat Light, Beach Haven, Harvey Cedars, Long Beach, Ship Bottom, and Stafford in Ocean County.[101][102][103] Governor of New Jersey Chris Christie ordered all residents of barrier islands from Sandy Hook to Cape May to evacuate and closed Atlantic City casinos. Tolls were suspended on the northbound Garden State Parkway and the westbound Atlantic City Expressway starting at 6 a.m. on October 28.[104] President Obama signed an emergency declaration for New Jersey, allowing the state to request federal funding and other assistance for actions taken before Sandy's landfall.[105]
On October 28, Mayor of Hoboken Dawn Zimmer ordered residents of basement and street-level residential units to evacuate, due to possible flooding.[106] On October 29, residents of Logan Township were ordered to evacuate.[107] Jersey Central Power & Light told employees to prepare to work extended shifts.[90] Most schools, colleges and universities were closed October 29 while at least 509 out of 580 school districts were closed October 30.[108] Although tropical storm conditions were inevitable and hurricane force winds were likely, the National Hurricane Center did not issue any tropical cyclone watches or warnings for New Jersey, because Sandy was forecast to become extratropical before landfall and thus would not be a tropical cyclone.[109]
=====Pennsylvania=====
Preparations in Pennsylvania began when Governor Tom Corbett declared a state of emergency on October 26.[78] Mayor of Philadelphia Michael Nutter asked residents in low-lying areas and neighborhoods prone to flooding to leave their homes by 2 p.m. EDT October 28 and move to safer ground.[110] The Philadelphia International Airport suspended all flight operations for October 29.[111] On October 29, Philadelphia shut down its mass transit system.[86] On October 28, Mayor of Harrisburg Linda D. Thompson declared a state of disaster emergency for the city to go into effect at 5 a.m. October 29. Electric utilities in the state brought in crews and equipment from other states such as New Mexico, Texas and Oklahoma, to assist with restoration efforts.[112]
=====New York=====
Manhattan suffered a widespread power outage during the storm.Damage from Hurricane Sandy to house in Brooklyn, NYGovernor Andrew Cuomo declared a statewide state of emergency and asked for a pre-disaster declaration on October 26,[113] which President Obama signed later that day.[114] By October 27, major carriers canceled all flights into and out of JFK, LaGuardia, and Newark-Liberty airports, and the Metro North and Long Island Rail Roads suspended service.[115] The Tappan Zee Bridge was closed,[116] and later the Brooklyn Battery Tunnel and Holland Tunnel were also closed.[117] On Long Island, an evacuation was ordered for South Shore, including areas south of Sunrise Highway, north of Route 25A, and in elevations of less than 16 feet (4.9 m) above sea level on the North Shore.[118] In Suffolk County, mandatory evacuations were ordered for residents of Fire Island and six towns.[119] Most schools closed in Nassau and Suffolk counties on October 29.[120]
The Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel remained flooded on the Tuesday morning after the storm.New York City began taking precautions on October 26. Governor Cuomo ordered the closure of MTA and its subway on October 28, and the MTA suspended all subway, bus, and commuter rail service beginning at 7 p.m. EDT.[121] After Hurricane Irene nearly submerged subways and tunnels in 2011,[122] entrances and grates were covered just before Sandy, but were still flooded.[123] PATH train service and stations as well as the Port Authority Bus Terminal were shut down in the early morning hours of October 29.[124][125]
Later on October 28, officials activated the coastal emergency plan, with subway closings and the evacuation of residents in areas hit by Hurricane Irene in 2011. More than 76 evacuation shelters were open around the city.[113] On October 29, Mayor Michael Bloomberg ordered public schools closed[124] and called for a mandatory evacuation of Zone A, which comprises areas near coastlines or waterways.[126] Additionally, 200 National Guard troops were deployed in the city.[125] NYU Langone Medical Center canceled all surgeries and medical procedures, except for emergency procedures.[125] Additionally, one of NYU Langone Medical Center's backup generators failed on October 29, prompting the evacuation of hundreds of patients, including those from the hospital's various intensive care units.[127] U.S. stock trading was suspended for October 29–30.[128]
====New England====
Some were killed in Ontario and an estimated $100 million (2012 CAD) in damage was caused throughout Ontario and Quebec.[12]
In the United States, Hurricane Sandy affected 24 states, including the entire eastern seaboard from Florida to Maine and west across the Appalachian Mountains to Michigan and Wisconsin, with particularly severe damage in New Jersey and New York. Its storm surge hit New York City on October 29, flooding streets, tunnels and subway lines and cutting power in and around the city.[13][14] Damage in the United States amounted to $65 billion (2013 USD).[15]