Werewolf

Category:Species
== Human Form ==
== Wolf Form ==
== Partial-Wolf Form ==
== Weaknesses ==
Called "Children of the Moon". Infected with a disease. Transform into powerful wolves, changing under the influence of the full moon or at will. Strength, speed, strong claws and canines. Grace and reflexes, heal fast. Grow slightly faster, retain much of their strength in old age. Keen sense, can see well at night. Look like humans, but retain their strength. Can change partially, wolf ears, taloned hands, muzzle, some fur, but can speak. Gold-ringed pupils in human form. Good eyesight in wolf form but normal as humans. As a wolf, eye colors of blue, yellow, yellow-green, orange, or gold. Coats color and pattern resembles them as a human. Can be turned by being bitten or scratched. A person with a human and werewolf parent has a chance of being infected, but may fight it off in the womb, born human but stronger and faster, and can pass on the virus but never turn. Can be born from two werewolf parents, but some may be born human. First few years are crucial, uncontrollable aggression, inability to control rage, suicidal anger, despair, many turn violent against others or themselves when overwhelmed. High suicide rate and domestic violence, often shot by cops, or starve in the woods or die in fights with bears. Many train themselves to be impervious to the effects of the moon but are still forced to turn during a full moon. Werewolves that Turn during the full moon lose control over their actions and even experience a complete blackout, retaining no memory of what they did during this time. They occasionally hunt demons. Immune to vampirism. Clothes tear when they turn. Wolfsbane harms them. Can turn others with a bite in human form. 75 percent change of being turned when bitten. Can be born. Mortal enemies of vampires. A new pack leader must kill the previous, or they depart and name a new one. There are some lone wolves. Organization that takes in newbies and helps them. Lone wolves travel at night, keeping to byways and country roads.
Werewolves are humanoid creatures resembling wolves. They possess higher intelligence than other animals, but their bestial nature will typically overcome them. Often have plagued the countryside, by being possessed by demons. The transformation is permanent. The transformation happens uncontrollably. There was a crusade to eliminate them, but stories of some pockets in forests survive. Random outbreaks of the werewolf curse or virus. Eventually lose themselves to their bestial nature. If someone is bitten, they know within a matter of days if the curse has taken hold, sweating, vomiting, then a high fever. Deadly, impulse, unable to return to human form even in death. Normal dogs can detect a werewolf even in human form, thus they became popular. Some werewolves have developed an uncanny willpower and intelligence. Those that are bitten are driven mad with unthinking fury, in this state, they can become possessed themselves and turned into a feral wolf-like beast. Wolves possessed by demons of rage turn to humanoid monsters that spread the curse with a bite. Werewolves either lack the opposable thumbs to wield weapons or refuse to do so, instead engaging opponents with nothing but claw and fang. A werewolf is taller than most people, and their strength far outmatches them. They lose all resemblance to their former self upon transformation, growing fur, a snout and claws. But perhaps worst of all is the change to the mind. A full Werewolf is truly like a beast. Hunting, mating, and surviving are their only considerations. Although werewolves can maintain or even regain some semblance of their minds (through strong willpower or external magic), it is always a challenge to keep from killing. A beast's true nature is hard to change. Werewolves strike with their claws to cut deep into the flesh, and deliver a final bite to the throat. For the werewolf, this would ideally be the end of it, but unfortunately (or fortunately, as the case may be) very few people will let themselves be hunted like a common rabbit. Werewolves wear no armor beyond their naturally thick hide, which can still be pierced by blade or bow. With no particularly strong means of defense, a werewolf will usually try to strike swiftly and hard, rather than wait for the opponent to make the first move. Their hides serve no defense against magic, making that as good an option as any if the werewolf's prey has the talent.
Can only be killed with magic. Minimal control of the wolf when first turned, fangs emerge painfully from gums and claws thrust out of nail beds. Anger is the biggest trigger for transformations. Partial transformations are common, such as eyes changing to light blue, or claws and fangs emerging and growling. Transforming takes a matter of seconds, initially one has no control, but that changes with time, each person has their own trigger to bring out the wolf on command, the wolf takes over if the human body is in mortal danger. Wolf spirit possesses them when they wear the wolves skin, head, and fur. Feral and predatory appearance, hulking, muscular, black-furred beasts with glowing white eyes, bipedal, large paws, clawed human-like hands, dozens of razor-sharp teeth. Each wolf has slightly different coloring or appearance. Often feed on their latest kills, especially the heart. Only go after magic-users. Usually maul humans but don't consume the corpse. They do not stop being a werewolf until they die, then the hide and spirit (and memories) of their wolf wait for another champion. Humans bonded with a hide, allowing them to become wolf-human hybrids. Hears a painful high-pitched ringing when magic is cast nearby, and sometimes it causes them to turn (the magic not sound). Resilient to magic and physical trauma. Over time their sense become more acute, comparable to a wolf, with scent being the strongest. Heal fast. Strong as a human when emotions are heightened. Order of Knights, dedicated themselves to ending dark magic and its practitioners, have den, operate by a loose code of morals. At first the wolf is in full control of when to turn, and the champion will not be conscious of their actions when turned, or remember, once they accept it, they can turn at will.
A werewolf, also known as a lycanthrope, was a creature who normally resembled human being but, upon the complete rising of the full moon, became an uncontrollable, fearsome and deadly wolf. There were various differences between werewolves' wolf form and actual wolves, making it easier to detect one. A werewolf could not choose whether or not to transform and would no longer remember who they were once transformed and were very aggressive; multiple werewolves were known to kill their best friends or loved ones while in wolf form if they were given the chance. Despite this, they were able to recall everything they had experienced throughout their transformation upon reverting to their human form. A pregnant werewolf's transformations affect their ability to carry to term. If two werewolves were to mate at the full moon, in their animal forms, it was possible for them to conceive. This was an extremely rare occurrence. Any offspring were full wolves that were indistinguishable from mundane wolves except for their near-human intelligence and their beauty. They did not inherit the sadistic behaviors associated with Lycanthropy, being no more sadistic than regular wolves. Rarely have children due to fear of passing on their condition and the danger and prejudice that goes along with it. Saliva mixed with blood causes contamination. Some beg to die rather than be turned by a bite. Powdered silver to heal wounds inflicted by them. A spell can force them into human form again. No cure. A potion helps them keep their human mind while transformed. Very difficult potion with many complicated ingredients, tastes disgusting, but sugar makes it useless, very costly ingredients. Only pose a danger to humans, animal companions while they are turned is soothing. Head and body lengthen, shoulders hunch, hair sprouts on face and hands, hands curl into clawed paws. The monthly transformation of a werewolf was extremely painful if untreated and was usually preceded and succeeded by a few days of pallor and ill health. The werewolf could display irritation towards people while in the ill following state. While in their wolfish form, the werewolf would entirely lose its human sense of right or wrong. While human, the werewolf could be as good or kind as the next person. Alternatively, they could be dangerous even while human. Though werewolves usually only infected their victims through biting, they sometimes took it too far and killed their victims. Without any humans nearby to attack, or other animals to occupy it, the werewolf would attack itself out of frustration. This would leave many werewolves with self-inflicted scars and premature ageing from the difficult transformations. Shorter snout, more human-like eyes, the tufted tail, and their mindless hunting of humans and thus more sadistic tendencies whilst in wolf form. At all other times, they appeared as normal humans, although they would age prematurely, and would gain a pallor as the full moon approached and then waned. It's unclear if the premature appearance of ageing is due to the affliction or the physical and mental stress it causes. Very few have married or had children due to the centuries long extreme stigma. Generally regarded with fear and disgust, and thought to pose a danger even in human form. Shunned. Fur the same color as their hair. Have to resign and move on before coworkers notice the signs of the condition. Not even allowed to attend school. Created their own society. Worked to infect as many as possible, such as children. Gaunt, humanoid, hairless appearance, with a coyote-like face and no tail. Eternally damned and cannot move on if they have tasted human blood. Less patient and harsher on the first night of the cycle (the new moon), illness during the week leading up to the full moon. Two werewolves in wolf form that mate during the full moon will produce beautiful and highly intelligent wolves, unicorns are faster. Some die from the injuries of an attack. When attacked by one in human form, their scars will not heal, and they obtain some lupine tendencies. Some that are attacked may be believed to be dead, but later discovered to be alive and turned. Heavily discriminated against. almost impossible for them to find a job. Laws for them to not attack or bite non-werewolves, and lock themselves away during the full moon. Failed attempts at a registry and regulations. Ostracized . A potion of wolfsbane can prevent them from turning. Oppression. Many live in poverty or take jobs far below their abilities.
Turn into savage, wolf-like beasts on a full moon. The transformation is not severe, look humanoid, but large and with wolf-like eyes, ears, claws, and fangs. The transformation can be fought but not prevented. Mindless predators when turned, prey on animals and humans for food, severely mutilate, dismembered limbs. Strong and ferocious predators, unable to turn outside of a full moon, no control over their nature once transformed. Effortlessly rip through flesh, throw grown men through the air, break through wooden walls. Strong steel chains can restrain them. Can kill and maim a large number of people in rapid succession. Tough. Sharp claws, pronounced canine fangs, can easily crush bones. Can turn others through blood contact. Indiscriminate killings and slaughtering rooms full of people.
Werewolf was a human who suffered from lycanthropy, an infection that caused them to transform into lupine creatures, particularly during full-moon nights. They act on pure instinct, with no conscience, predatory, and aggressive. A person became a werewolf after they were bitten by another werewolf, infecting the blood with werewolf saliva. It did not matter if the original werewolf was transformed or not at the moment the bite took place. Scratches did not change a person, nor was the condition genetically passable to offspring. From the point of being bitten and on, the victim transformed into a lupine creature and remained so from sunset to sunrise during the three nights of the full moon, or alternatively from moonrise to moonset in the case of the less common breed. If the bite was received during a night of the full moon, the newly-bitten werewolf would only be able to transform by the time of the next full moon night. When transmuted, the human side of the psyche was completely dormant, taken over by a feral predatory mentality that knew only the hunt. Werewolves were capable of sensing strong emotions, sometimes from miles away, and were attracted by sexual heat. The werewolf's sense of smell was highly developed, eventually remaining so even when in human form. It was enhanced enough to track and distinguish between the scents of individual people, and enabled the werewolf to smell if someone was afraid. Some showed increased hearing as well, and craved meat. Werewolves could perceive the presence of other werewolves and had a primal, physical attraction to one another. The psyche of a newly-bitten werewolf remained separate between the human self and the feral side. The traumatic and painful experience of the transformation caused the werewolf to lose memory of it, until some sort of evidence provided conscious knowledge of the person's condition, such as waking up naked in a different place from the one in which the transformation took place. Even after the werewolf acknowledged its condition, they retained no memories of whatever action they might have taken during the transformation. The lupine beast, completely dominated by instinct, was incapable of recognizing loved ones or friends. It did, however, retain some of its intelligence, being able to recognize certain words and reacting to them, often violently. The wolf side also exerted influence on the basic instincts and impulses of the werewolf while in human form. As the time a person has been a werewolf lengthened, he or she would begin to retain memories of the time spent in wolf form. Prior to this phase of the werewolf's life, it was also possible for the werewolf to exert certain influence on its actions during the feral phase. Susceptible to drugs and tranquilizers, bullets or severe injuries. Impossible to cure. The transformation could be controlled. Monks teach meditation techniques combined with dietary herbs, chanting, and charms, allowing one to roam about under the full moon with ease and comfort. This technique means the transformation is now triggered, even during the day, from overly stressful situations or great physical pain. If one does not bottle up the wolf, but allows the energy of it to flow out of them and into the world around them, then the wolf is pulled into the earth, and this consists of connecting with the land and their own mortal bodies, and invoking wrathful goddesses dwelling deep inside the earth that accept the offering of power in exchange for their protection. While some werewolves tried to hold their animalistic impulses in check, other werewolves believed that their human side was merely a disguise, a cage for their true selves, and did not restrain in any way. Some lose their humanity without social support. Some kidnap young werewolves to increase their ranks. There are more than one species. The common breed is smaller, with a heavy coat of fur, no large mouth or canine set of teeth, but still very dangerous. The other species walks on two legs, with longer more powerful arms, larger, and has a canine-like head and fangs. Their flesh is considered a delicacy to some, the species coveted for its meat reverts to a human upon dying and so are eaten alive. Some think them abominations, and seek to eliminate them. Some sporting groups capture them to hunt them in evens or use them as hunting dogs for vampire hunting. Some hunters sell their fur abroad.
== Cure ==
Various methods have existed for removing the werewolf form. In antiquity, the Ancient Greeks and Romans believed in the power of exhaustion in curing people of lycanthropy. The victim would be subjected to long periods of physical activity in the hope of being purged of the malady. This practice stemmed from the fact that many alleged werewolves would be left feeling weak and debilitated after committing depredations.
In medieval Europe, traditionally, there are three methods one can use to cure a victim of lycanthropy; medicinally (usually via the use of wolfsbane), surgically, or by exorcism. However, many of the cures advocated by medieval medical practitioners proved fatal to the patients. A Sicilian belief of Arabic origin holds that a werewolf can be cured of its ailment by striking it on the forehead or scalp with a knife. Another belief from the same culture involves the piercing of the werewolf's hands with nails. Sometimes, less extreme methods were used. In the German lowland of Schleswig-Holstein, a werewolf could be cured if one were to simply address it three times by its Christian name, while one Danish belief holds that merely scolding a werewolf will cure it. Conversion to Christianity is also a common method of removing lycanthropy in the medieval period; a devotion to St. Hubert has also been cited as both cure for and protection from lycanthropes.
It is well known that lycanthropy can be prevented by curing the disease that causes it, which must be done before the subject's first transformation. After this point, it becomes extremely difficult to obtain a cure. The witches of the Glenmoril Wyrd are the only beings known to have possessed cures of a conventional nature, potions and scrolls that are relatively free of side effects. Unfortunately, they seem to guard their secrets closely, and do not openly offer these cures.
The Silvenar, being a living representation of the Green Pact that fixed the form of the Bosmer, has the ability to instantly cure Green Pact Bosmer who unwillingly contract lycanthropy. In 2E 582, an alchemist from Camlorn successfully developed a cure for the strain of lycanthropy spread by Faolchu the Reborn, using blood from infected werewolves.
Most cures require the lycanthrope to find a way to exorcise their inner beast. One example includes transmitting the condition to someone who already has dormant, hereditary lycanthropic genes. Infecting such a person will cause the one offering their blood to be cured due to the intensity of its blossoming in the victim. Undergoing a ritual performed by the Glenmoril witches is another way to cure lycanthropy. The witches sacrifice an innocent, infect the victim's flesh with the client's curse, and resurrect the sacrifice. The original lycanthrope must then kill the victim a second time, which will permanently destroy their inner beast. A third method for curing lycanthropy involves using the magic from the head of a Glenmoril witch to summon one's inner beast as a spirit, then destroying that spirit.
Finally, lycanthropy can be supplanted by vampirism. Under normal circumstances, this is impossible, because lycanthropes are immune to disease. However, a pure-blooded vampire can convert a lycanthrope into a vampire lord, instantly replacing Hircine's gift with that of Molag Bal. In general, lycanthropes do not revert to their original form upon death, but there may be some exceptions to this rule.
=== Other Treatments ===
Aside from capturing, killing, or curing lycanthropes, there are few methods of preventing them from harming others if they are unable to control their lust for blood. The simplest solution is isolation. Lycanthropes that live far from any settlements, especially when well fed, are less likely to harm other people. Despite their bloodlust, it seems that some lycanthropes can manage to live on a mostly plant-based diet. Those that do not wish to consume mortal flesh can resort to eating mere beasts. Those that cannot morally bring themselves to kill another living creature can subsist on recently deceased animals and carrion left by other predators. Berries, nuts, and roots have been found in the stomachs of dissected werewolves, suggesting that they don't even need to consume manflesh to survive. In fact, lycanthropes have an easier time finding food while transformed than they do in human form. While transformed, a werewolf's senses are so acute that they can detect food of all sorts.
Another way lycanthropes can control themselves is to use the Ring of Hircine to grant control over transformation. However, relatively few lycanthropes have ever been able to obtain the ring. A third, perhaps unique method, was employed by the werewolves of Kerbol's Hollow in the Second Era. There, an entire village of werewolves was bound together in a ritual that suppressed their bloodlust and transformations entirely, leading to the appearance of a cure. However, this state was fragile, since if an initiate were to transform, the spell would be broken. Furthermore, the ritual had troubling side effects, as it subjected the minds of those affected to the will of the caster and changed their personalities. The mayor kept a jug filled with blood for emergencies.
: "The many Muggle myths and legends surrounding werewolves are, in the main, false, although some contain nuggets of truth. Silver bullets do not kill werewolves, but a mixture of powdered silver and dittany applied to a fresh bite will ‘seal’ the wound and prevent the victim bleeding to death (although tragic tales are told of victims who beg to be allowed to die rather than to live on as werewolves)."
: — Treatments that could be done in order to prevent death[src]
:
Unfortunately, there was no cure for lycanthropy. However, some of the worst effects could be mitigated by consuming Wolfsbane Potion, which allowed a werewolf to retain their human mind while transformed, thus freeing them from the worry of harming other humans or themself. It was a very difficult potion to make, with many complicated ingredients. According to Remus Lupin, it tasted disgusting, but sugar made it useless. The high cost of the ingredients made it virtually impossible for werewolves to brew the potion for themselves, as most were reduced to poverty and could not taste the potion without revealing their statuses. Because werewolves only posed a danger to humans, companionship with animals whilst transformed was known to make the experience more bearable as the werewolf would have no-one to harm and would be less willing to harm themself.
According to Gilderoy Lockhart, the Homorphus Charm could permanently force a werewolf back into human shape. However, due to Lockhart's reputation as a liar, and the many falsehoods he told to inflate his popularity, his information is highly suspect — as is the very existence of a Homorphus Charm in the first place. However, as many of Lockhart's claims were also based on the accounts of more trustworthy wizards (accomplishments he would claim for himself, following the disposal of the originating witch or wizard), there is a chance that the charm did, in fact, exist.
In the 1980s, Cecil Lee, a wizard working for the Ministry of Magic's Werewolf Capture Unit, told Jacob's sibling that he had used the Homorphus Charm during his job. However, for him, the charm "only" forced the werewolf to temporarily revert to human form rather than permanently curing them as Lockhart claimed. Though as Lee was a fan of Lockhart's, he believed that this was due to his own inability to perfectly cast the charm.
Contrary to what the Muggle world believed, werewolves were not affected by silver, except in that it could be used in the mixture of powdered silver and dittany to prevent bite victims' death and would merely close their wounds to prevent bleeding after a severe werewolf attack. There may certainly have been several other ways and solutions to prevent and heal werewolf injuries, as Quirinus Quirrell taught about the topic in first year Defence Against the Dark Arts class. None of them, of course, could completely cure an afflicted person once they were bitten, but could merely prevent and close the physical wounds on the skin.
Lycanthropy is believed among the supernatural community to be incurable. A virtual dream reality engineered by Captain Hatch depicted that since lycanthropy originates from the Devil, destroying him would cause werewolves to become human again; but as this world was an illusion, it is unknown whether or not killing the Devil would have cured lycanthropy in reality. (The Last Broadcast)
If a werewolf kills their maker while in human form, they are cured of their lycanthropy, though if the now-cured werewolf had turned others into werewolves before curing themself, those werewolves will remain infected. Liam has stated that there are a very few ways to repress the wolf full-time, and that "none of them occur in a lab."
The werewolf curse was impossible to cure as a whole: once a person had been bitten, he or she could not be unmade a werewolf. However, it was possible to control the transformation. During his first visit to Tibet, Buddhist monks taught Oz meditation techniques that they combined with herbs in his diet, along with chanting and charms. After this he was able to roam about under a full moon in apparent ease and comfort. However, with this technique intense negative stimulation such as great physical pain or overly stressful social situations could trigger the transformation, even during the day.
Returning to Tibet a second time, Oz and Bayarmaa found a more wholesome way to refrain from turning into a werewolf during the full moon, based on the original Tibetan religion Bon. This time, rather than bottling up the wolf, they allowed the energy of it to flow out of them and into the world around them: "the wolf is pulled into the earth." This technique took about a year to get right and consisted, among other things, of connecting with the land with their own mortal bodies. Later it was revealed the necessary chants that were part of the method were actually an invocation of wrathful goddesses Ekajati, Remati, and Vajrayogini dwelling deep inside the earth, who accepted the werewolves' offering of their power in exchange for the deities' protection.
There is only one known way to turn a vargulf back into a werewolf, while in their wolf form, someone with extreme strength must open up and destroy the wolf body and pull the human body out of it.
==Appearance==
=== Human Form ===
In human form they have gold ringed pupils signifying Lycanthropy.
It is said by Christina that if a person's middle and pointer fingers are the same length, it shows them to be a werewolf. Peter does, in fact, happen to have this trait.
The wolves become similar in their human forms, partly due to their appearances (hard-muscled bodies, unusual height and short hair) and the synchronization of their movements, so that they could be mistaken for biological siblings.
Except on the night of the full moon, werewolves are visually indistinguishable from humans, though they may bear the scars of the attack that cursed them. Werewolves give off a dog-like odor that is noticeable to vampires and some other werewolves, though humans are unable to smell it.
In human form, werewolves' appearance is entirely indistinguishable from humans', although they can be identified by a scar left from the werewolf attack that infected them. Werewolves also seem to tend to be muscularly-built in human form, most likely due to their bodies adapting to the massive physical trauma and healing it goes through during the werewolf's monthly transformation.
As humans, they are between 6'0" and 7'0" tall, and before phasing become bigger, more muscular, and harder in look and substance. Their voices also deepen considerably,
Werewolves are indistinguishable from humans while in human form, though they typically have a higher percentage of body hair and or muscle. Active shape-shifters cut their hair short, as the length of their hair correlates with the length of their fur.
She describes the shapeshifters as "four really big half-naked boys."
=== Wolf Form ===
Each wolf's distinctive color and characteristics correlates with each wolf's true self. Quil Ateara V and Sam Uley joke with one another that Sam's black fur is due to his "black heart", while Quil's chocolate-brown fur reflects how "sweet" he is. No real explanation of this phenomenon is given; none, perhaps, should be sought for - variability is the one fundamental of living beings. 
The "monstrous size" of these creatures is emphasized repeatedly. and they develop bigger appetites.
Werewolves in their wolf form are quite similar to natural wolves, although unlike natural wolves, werewolves have glowing yellow or orange eyes, wicked fangs, a larger size, and a much more feral and predatory appearance. They can also be distinguished from regular wolves by their displays of supernatural strength, blurred speed, and size which is comparable to fully grown humans. The fur color of wolf forms differs from one to the other (e.g., Tyler Lockwood's fur color is dark brown, Mason Lockwood's is white and grey, Jules' is light brown with a hint of white, and Hayley's is tan and brown). Werewolves appear the same as any other human the rest of the month, aside from their enhanced abilities of speed, strength, and healing.
Vargulf as just like werewolves when it comes to their appearance. They are much bigger than regular wolves—about as big as a tiger—with an almost bear- or feline-like build. Their eyes glow a bright yellow, though sometimes their eyes look blurred in color.
The fur of a vargulf mainly depends on of the color of their hair in their human form. Christina's vargulf form's fur was black at first, but the stress of her traumatic experiences, loss of her friends, and subconscious guilt and confusion over her wolf's actions caused her human and vargulf's hair to turn white.
A vargulf's teeth are all similar in size and are shaped like stalagmites, and they have more humanoid limbs. Peter's vargulf eyes had far a more blue-red look to them and had a darker yellow as did Christina's, both in the second season. They appear to have much more fur than usual, causing a "wilder" appearance.
=== Human ===
It is possible that the more unstable a vargulf becomes, the more their lycanthropy affects their bodies. For example, Christina's hair gradually turned completely white during her days as a vargulf (and she became insane), although some of this transformation might have been caused by her traumatic experiences with the corpse of one of her victims. 
=== Wolf ===
Werewolves in wolf form are cougar-or leopard-sized wolves with some bear characteristics in their build and with paws and similar to that of a bear or lion. Their forelegs also almost look like human arms. Each werewolf has a distinct form, which differs mainly in fur. So far in the series, yellow is the only werewolf eye color. The wolf's coloring does not necessarily resemble that of the human form, but if the hair of the werewolf changes like Christina's did, their wolf's hair would change accordingly. Also, other werewolves featured in the show have greener eyes, and some of them have whiter fur, while their human form had some streaks of white hair, or even having one eye brown and the other white. Vargulfs have less wolf-like characteristics, as due partially transformed werewolves, though that might only be during wrong moons or whenever a full moon is not in the sky. Their wolf form is as feral and as instinctively as a regular animal but with the memories and somewhat the personalities of their human form.
Werewolves in their natural form differ greatly from real wolves. They have a feral and predatory appearance. They turn into hulking, muscular, black-furred beasts with glowing white eyes. They walk on two-legs, similar to that of humans, and have large paws paired with clawed hands that resemble that of humans. They have dozens of razor-sharp teeth that can easily tear through flesh and even cars. Each wolf has a slightly different coloring or appearance that distinguishes them from each other.
Wolf Hides are the skin, head, and fur of a wolf. The Hide then inhabits a vessel and turns them into a wolf.
In their wolf form, werewolves are large, bipedal, powerfully-built, wolf-like monsters; with yellow eyes, dark skin, long brown-grey hair, particularly powerful arms, wolf-like heads, and a hunched stance.
The transformation itself is not severe; they remain essentially humanoid in appearance, but of larger stature and with wolf-like eyes, ears, claws and fangs.
In most cases, the transformation from human to wolf form is extremely painful, especially for mutts. The morphological aspects of the transformation differ from person to person. For example, when Josh transforms, his face is one of the last parts of his body to change. For other werewolves such as Nora and Liam, their faces would begin to change much earlier in their transformations. The speed of the transformation also seems to vary slightly; werewolves who are transforming for the first time tend to change earlier and faster than other werewolves who have transformed before.
Transformed werewolves look significantly different from mundane wolves. They are quadrupedal, with the spine extending to form a tail. They possess a vaguely human bone structure in the limbs, hands and feet, but have a canine muzzle with extremely long, jagged teeth. Their fur is similar in hue to their human hair color and is sparsely distributed, except around the face and neck where it forms a thick mane. Their eye color is also retained from their human form.
Aside from being extremely painful, the transformations are detrimental to a werewolf's health, potentially resulting in faster aging over long periods of time. Pete, a werewolf who had been afflicted with his condition since childhood, appeared to be significantly older than his true age of about 40. Some werewolves, especially purebreds, seem to take to the transformation much better than the others and don't suffer this deterioration.
==Abilities==
A transformed vargulf's physical abilities seem greater than that of a regular werewolf, allowing them to overpower and kill animals, humans, and other werewolves. Shelley and a full upir, no matter the age, can more than easily overpower and kill Vargulf's, as Shelley killed Christina twice and Roman ripped open a vargulf's body to remove a transformed Peter from the body.
* Mesmerisation Resistance: Vargulfs can resist the mesmerizing of upirs because of their insanity there is not much to mesmerize.
* Shape-Shifting: Vargulfs can turn at will, though they will not consciously control it as they are mentally unstable.
* Enhanced Strength: Vargulfs only have their strength when they are in their wolf form, and then they can overpower almost every living creature and be at equal or nearly equal strength to that of a Full upir and that of Shelley. It can seemingly affect human strength as Peter was in a fist-fight with Roman and fought him on equal grounds, though Roman probably held back some of his strength to not kill Peter.They are more vulnerable in a fight with such species due to their quadrupedal bodies and being forced to lunge directly at their victims, leaving openings in their attacks. They would be equal in strength with upir and Shelley if it were not for their body shape and limited movement. Roman demonstrated this when he grabbed Peter's vargulf body by the jaws and torn it apart when it tried to attack. Shelley came at Christina from behind and picked her up, leaving her helpless as her neck was broken. Also, due to her non-humanoid shape, Shelleywas able to smack her aside while she was in mid-air after lunging at her. Shelley used a rock in a downward strike while Christina lunged at her, pushing her right to the ground and helpless while her neck was crushed and her head pulled off. Peter's vargulf fought Roman on equal grounds, with Roman's distraction by Destiny's ghost allowing Peter to tackle them both out the window, leaving Roman with several injuries and broken bones, allowing Peter to kill him by ripping out his heart.
* Heightened Senses: Vargulfs can see, hear and smell much better than humans.
* Enhanced Speed: Vargulfs' speed is increased when they are in their wolf form.
* Shape-Shifting - Werewolves have the ability to shift into wolves. They can use this power at will, however, they only use it during the full moon, or else they become mentally and physically unstable and rabid, both in human and wolf form. The transformation causes them to become weak and tired, almost like a hangover. If they were to shape-shift too many times without the full moon, they would turn into a vargulf, either immediately, if a full transformation is performed and not partial or simply over time. It is possible for a werewolf to utilize their transformation to heal themselves, either in human or wolf form, sometimes even from fatal damage, such as having one's face stripped of flesh to the skull, as transform back to a human form with no damage at all, as if their transformation effectively rebirths them each time they transform. Also, when a werewolf's wolf body is killed, such as Peter's wolf was killed by Christina's wolf, and seemingly died but came back as Peter's human form. Also, when Peter transformed his internal body into the wolf's and transformed the inside of his head into that of the wolf, he transformed back after his upper body developed open wounds from the transformation, along with his human head being reduced to a skin mask. These wounds immediately vanish as he transformed back and his wolf head retreated into his mouth, and his head was complete again. Also, the wolf can appear in several different ways, all of which are controlled by the werewolf. Peter partially transformed and made claws without paws come out of his wrists so that he could cut off his plastic restraints when he was a prisoner of the Caul. Transformation could be used to survive and instantly recover and heal from mortal injuries and severe mutilations, as Peter has survived being shot with arrows, being hit by a truck, having his face eaten by a vargulf and the fact that his transformations destroy his human body. Transformations can happen as fast as the user wishes, with Peter being able to transform in seconds as of Season 3, causing his human flesh to disintegrate off of him. Also, he can now make his irises become like that of his werewolf forms and even growl like his wolf form. Despite their ability to avoid death, they can die of suffocation, though vargulfs are immune to this as their corpses with transform involuntarily.
* Enhanced Strength - Transformed werewolves are shown to be stronger than half-upir. In their transformed state, they can easily shred human flesh or break their bones without effort. They are shown to overpower humans and easily rag-doll them, but can be fought off, such as when Roman held a transformed Christina at bay with an axe handle he shoved in her mouth. They are stronger than a regular wolf and other predatory animals and can shred a human in less than minute. A werewolf in human form can exert the same force of a regular human and can be beaten up to the point of needing medical attention. Peter could tap into his wolf, transforming his muscles, and enhance his strength for a minute or less. He used this to break the nose of a drug dealer that attack him. He only needed one punch to completely break it, with no effect to his body at all.
* Heightened Senses - Even in human form a werewolf possesses wolf-like senses and instincts; particularly their senses of smell and hearing, as well as being able to see in the dark. They're able to sense and smell things normal humans can't.
* Enhanced Speed - While in their wolf forms werewolves have shown to be incredibly fast that they often use to catch their prey. While in the woods Peter was able to move swiftly to catch his prey. Vargulfs seem to move faster than regular werewolves. An average wolf can run at one-third the speed of a car, but they are likely faster than an average wolf.
* Werewolf Transformation: The Hide can turn their champion into a werewolf. Unlike what is believed, the transformation does not occur in the full moon. At first, a champion can not control when the werewolf transforms, nor is the champion conscious of the wolf's actions during the transformation. After learning to accept and let out their Hide, a champion can transform at will. Each champion has their own experience with transforming, for example, Randall "goes with the flow" while Jack's transformation is triggered by concern for someone's well-being.
* Magic Detection: The Hide can detect when someone uses dark magic, alerting the Werewolf and sometimes triggering a transformation.
* Lycanthropic Enhancement: The Hide also develops a werewolf's physical capabilities, such as their strength, senses, and resilience while in their human form. However, it seems that some of these attributes are only present during states of heightened emotion.
* Enhanced Strength: Usually during a state of heightened emotion, werewolves in their human form possess significantly enhanced physical strength. They can perform physical feats such as sending people flying through the air, knocking doors off of their hinges or effortlessly bending a steering wheel.
* Enhanced Senses: Over time, a werewolf's senses of sight, smell and hearing will become significantly more acute, being comparable to certain animals. Their sense of smell is so acute that they can detect someone approaching by scent before they see or hear them.
* Enhanced Resilience: Werewolves, both in their human form and transformed state, are more resilient to physical trauma, as well as certain magical effects. They are far more resilient to the effects of magic than humans.
* Accelerated Healing: Werewolves can heal and recover from injuries at a faster rate than normal human beings; this has allowed them to recover from withdrawal more quickly and regenerate injuries such as being stabbed in the eye almost instantly.
==== Common Abilities ====
* Enhanced Vitality - In human form, werewolves, in even as old an age as their 70s have the stamina, strength, vitality and capabilities of a human in their physical prime. A mutt werewolf's strength increases when the full moon is near, to the point of being able to fight off moderately-weakened vampires or even to overpower inebriated vampires. Purebred werewolves seemingly have this vitality all the time due to being mentally and metaphysically closer to their wolf than regular werewolves are. This makes them able to physically exert themselves for hours in any way, though they can eventually become exhausted and need rest, as humans do.
* Enhanced Strength - Werewolves are incredibly physically strong, both when transformed and in human form, though their strength waxes and wanes with the moon, and they are almost human for most of the month. On the night of the full moon, Josh was able to shove Will through the air. A werewolf in their wolf form is arguably one of the physically strongest supernatural beings known, as even a werewolf on their first transformation can overpower and kill a vampire as old as Heggeman. A werewolf's strength on the day before their transformations is heightened to the point where they can challenge a vampire, but only when said vampire is weakened. Werewolves have the strength to shove, strike and grab humans of seemingly higher muscle mass and size and with staggering, stunning, and incapacitating force and can easily overpower humans. Their strength is inferior to that of a fully-powered vampire or the powers of a ghost or witch. It depends on natural size and mass to determine a werewolf's strength over another. A purebred who is close to a full moon could potentially be strong enough to overpower a vampire, as Liam McLean was able to effortlessly restrain Blake by grabbing her neck with one hand. They are even strong enough to overpower vampires who are weakened or blood intoxicated, especially when nearing their transformation.
* Enhanced Senses - Werewolves have a well-developed sense of smell, which also intensifies in the days before and a few hours after the full moon. Werewolves seem to also have night vision in wolf form. In human form, werewolves have the smell of domestic dogs and can smell things distinctly over yards away from them and can hear with that same effectiveness.
* Enhanced Speed - In wolf form, werewolves are faster than humans and some vampires, though vampires have a good chance of escaping a transformed werewolf on foot due their particular speed capabilities. The third-type of werewolf is much faster than mutts and purebreds and gains more speed at a quicker rate, almost matching the speed of a vampire. While it may be a result of their vitality, werewolves, when close to the full moon, are able to quickly run across long distances and can rapidly catch up to others in a chase.
* Clairvoyance - As supernatural creatures, werewolves can see and hear ghosts the same way vampires and other ghosts can. It should be noted that the ability to perceive ghosts only takes effect after a werewolf's first transformation.
* Vampire-toxic Blood - Werewolf blood is toxic to vampires, causing them severe bleeding and seizures when ingested, but it is not fatal in small doses. It does, however, remain in the vampire's system, for an unknown amount of time, and causes any new vampires who that vampire turns during this time to develop horrible mutations.
* Transformations - For most werewolves, they are forced to endure a grueling transformation into a wolf like beast every full moon. The transformation is extremely physically traumatic, causing the werewolf's bones to break and reshape, the skin to tear and reform into an extremely tough hide covered in fur. While in this state, werewolves possess far greater physical attributes. They are immensely strong, and can move at faster speeds than most animals, their senses are even further enhanced, and they possess near limitless stamina and endurance. The transformation also initiates a healing process that allows werewolves to heal all injuries while transformed.
* Enhanced Healing - During their transformations, a werewolf's ability to heal is enhanced. This healing factor allows them to survive their transformations, and is likely the reason why they do not suffer traumatic injuries like skin ripping or skeletal damage from transforming. Consequently, it is extremely difficult to slow down a transformed werewolf with anything less than silver. Werewolves have shown to heal minor wounds like scratches, other wounds like silver bullets will heal the next day, as proven by Josh. Werewolves can completely heal their wounds after they transform, as Josh once healed from a silver bullet wound over one night when he transformed. Formerly permanent ailments such as sterility can be cured, making humans fertile again.
* Enhanced Resilience - Werewolves when transformed are amazingly resilient, allowing them to take hits from vampires or other werewolves. They are able to endure almost any form of physical punishment without sustaining permanent, if any injury. It is likely that, when transformed, a werewolf is only susceptible to harm from silver weaponry.
* Enhanced Stamina - Transformed werewolves can chase down their prey all night, until they change back to human form. It has also been shown that if a werewolf does not transform back into their human form, they still possesses the same energy throughout the day, allowing them to run across great distances for hours without tiring.
* Teeth and Claws - While they are transformed, werewolves possess extremely sharp claws and wicked fangs. A werewolf's greatest weapons are their sharp teeth and sharp claws which can rend through most materials, including steel, wood, and easily rip apart human flesh.
==== Purebreds ====
Unlike mutts, purebreds have their senses heightened all the time and they are more connected with their wolves. The McLean twins and their father Liam have shown themselves to be strong enough to challenge, defeat, beat and kill vampires. Purebreds also have a stronger healing factor than mutts, as Liam was able to withstand several gunshots from silver bullets without slowing down. The teeth of a purebred in wolf form are capable of tearing open steel doors with ease.
==== Mutts ====
29 days out of the month, mutts are practically human, but in the days and hours leading to the full moon, a mutt's senses and physical capabilities heighten.
==== Third-Type ====
The third werewolf type was possibly the second most powerful werewolf, building up speed and strength at a faster rate than mutts and even purebreds.
==== Spellbound Werewolves ====
These werewolves are more powerful than the others. These wolves are able to shape-shift either impartially or fully anytime they please. They do not have full control of their wolf and can lose control to instinct and negative emotions.
*Shapeshifting: Werewolves are able to turn into hybrids of men and wolf when the full moon is high in the sky.
**Enhanced Strength: A transformed werewolf is strong enough to effortlessly rip through flesh, throw grown men through the air and break through wooden walls. Strong steel chains can restrain them, but common handcuffs have proven too fragile to hold for long.
**Enhanced Agility: A werewolf was shown to be able to kill and maim a large number of humans in rapid succession, before they could react.
**Enhanced Resistance: It has been implied that werewolves are tough and that trauma from a silver weapon might be one of the few ways to kill one.
**Wolf Physiology: In their transformed state werewolves posses sharp claws capable of rending human flesh and a set of pronounced canine fangs, casually able to crush bones.
*Lycanthropy: Werewolves are able to turn humans into another werewolf. Though the method is unknown, it is heavily implied to be through blood contact. Ethan promptly refused when his blood was requested to help Fenton, and Kaetenay was able to turn Ethan into a werewolf in order to "give him the power to save all people".
A Werewolf possesses a number of physical and passive powers, and the strength of their individual powers are generally based on their rank, though it can also be influenced by other factors. In terms of the Werewolf hierarchy, Alphas are the strongest, followed by Betas, and then Omegas at the weakest end of the spectrum. An Alpha Werewolf also typically possesses additional powers not seen in the lower ranks.
* Super Strength: Werewolves possess superhuman levels of strength that allow them to break through chains and deadbolt locks, punch through brick and marble walls, and throw grown men across a room with ease. Werewolves have been seen using their strength to snap a person's neck with one hand, flipping overturned vehicles back on their wheels, and bending rebar with their bare hands to use as weapons.
* Super Speed: Werewolves can run much faster than even the most athletic human beings, being able to keep up with vehicles such as motorcycles that are driving at top speeds. They can also run on all fours (hands and feet) in both human and in Werewolf form.
* Super Agility/Reflexes: Werewolves possess supernaturally enhanced agility and reflexes that allow them to leap very high and across large distances, jump from several stories up and land lightly on their feet, and perform a multitude of acrobatic, gymnastic and martial feats such as flips, handsprings, and spinning kicks. They can also process moving objects much better than humans can, allowing them to catch projectiles in mid-air and dodge speeding bullets before they can be hit. Their use of this power is usually instinctive, and newly turned Werewolves have been seen performing impressive gymnastic routines with no training.
* Super Durability: Though Werewolves can still sustain open wounds like any other creature, they are much more durable to blunt force trauma than the regular human, allowing them to be thrown through walls and fall from tall heights without fatal injury. They can also endure a great deal more physical damage for a much longer period of time than an ordinary human, as Werewolves have been known to fight through dozens of gunshot wounds, stab wounds, burns, and broken bones that would normally incapacitate a regular person.
* Super Senses: Werewolves, like their wolf counterparts, have extremely sensitive senses of sight, hearing, and smell. They can see in total darkness and across large distances with great clarity, track scents for up to several miles and can hear whispered conversations across great distances and from outside of buildings with ease. Using their sense of smell in particular they can interpret the chemosignals that indicate identity and emotional states, a skill that, with practice, can be developed to the point of a supernatural sense of empathy; it has also been revealed that Werewolves can even sense sexual desire through scent. These abilities help Werewolves fight at night, hear approaching enemies, and locate missing people by scent. A Werewolf's glowing eyes can also be used to see mystical or supernatural phenomenon that cannot be perceived by human eyes, such as a Nemeton, or a Kitsune's aura.
* Accelerated Healing: Werewolves possess an extraordinarily enhanced healing factor that allows them to heal from most mild to moderate wounds within moments. They have been shown to heal quickly from gunshots, stab wounds through the chest, abdomen and extremities, and broken arms, legs, and spines, though most cannot heal from a broken neck; while varying among different ranks of Werewolves, broken bones can usually heal instantly after they've been reset, and depending on the severity, stab wounds and gunshots can usually resolve themselves in minutes to hours based on how deep the wounds are and whether or not vital organs were damaged in the process. Werewolves are also immune to the majority of human illnesses and conditions such as colds, cancer, epilepsy, asthma, etc. For this reason, they cannot get high on drugs or drunk on alcohol—because the "high" is technically caused by the substance inflicting some kind of damage on the body, the Werewolf can heal this damage faster than the effects can be felt. The only toxic substances that Werewolves are not immune to are wolfsbane, mistletoe and the modified canine distemper virus that was specifically designed to kill supernatural creatures. They are also vulnerable to the paralytic effects of Kanima venom, though, with concentration, their accelerated healing ability will allow them to process through the toxin and overcome its effects much more quickly than a normal human.
** Longevity: Because a Werewolf's rapid cellular healing prevents them from contracting any human illness or condition and replaces aging cells at a constant rate, Werewolves have a tremendously extended lifespan. It is unknown what the average life expectancy of a Werewolf is, but the oldest known Werewolf is Satomi Ito, an Alpha Werewolf who is over 110 years old and who maintains the physical appearance of a woman in her late 50s to early 60s. As a result, it can be assumed that Werewolves could potentially survive decades into their 100s so long as they are not injured or killed first.
* Shapeshifting: Werewolves have the ability to shape their features into that of a partially lupine form, which involves glowing eyes, fangs, claws, a ridged brow, pointed ears and large sideburns. With practice, Werewolves can learn how to only transform a few selective features as needed, such as only extending their claws to cut something, their fangs to bite something, or simply making their eyes glow to enhance their eyesight or display their supernatural nature.
** Advanced Shapeshifting: Some Werewolves, typically Alphas (though occasionally Betas and Omegas as well), can shapeshift into more animalistic forms, such as transforming into a full wolf, or into a more bestial humanoid form.
* Pain Absorption: Werewolves have the ability to absorb pain from animals, humans, and other creatures through tactile contact. This is usually done by touching the person who is in pain, or the injured body part and drawing the pain into themselves, which manifests as the Werewolf's veins darkening as their body processes it. Initially, a Werewolf can only essentially "take the edge off" of a person's pain level, but with practice, they can eventually learn to take it completely.
* Memory Manipulation Ritual: All Werewolves technically have the ability to perform a memory-sharing ritual, but it is most commonly performed by Alphas due to the level of control and practice required to avoid harm or death towards the target. By sticking their claws into the back of a person's neck, they can view the person's memories, share their own memories with the target, or even suppress or remove memories entirely.
* Animal Instincts: Werewolves are apex predators, and, as such, they can assert dominance over other animals such as dogs, cats and deer. They can use this ability to force them to be quiet or leave the area, or to stand down if they are acting aggressively. As a result, these animals can often be frightened by the presence of Werewolves. They also have natural animal instincts that allow them to think as true animals do, though some Werewolves are more in-tune with these instincts than others.
=== Unique Alpha powers ===
* Merging: Alpha twins have shown the ability to merge into one Super-Wolf. However, this ability was unique to the twins themselves as no other Alpha has this ability.
* Healing: Alpha Werewolves can perform a ritual to heal others, but at the cost of losing the spark of power that makes them Alphas to begin with, demoting them back to Beta or Omega status.
* Power Granting: Alphas have the ability to turn regular humans into Werewolves by biting them (or, in some rare cases, by scratching them very deeply with their claws). However, this transformation is not always successful, and depending on the condition of the human, there is a risk that they could die instead of becoming a Werewolf. It is also possible that an Alpha bite or scratch can cause a human to turn into a different kind of creature, such as a Kanima or Werejaguar.
* Alpha Roar: Alphas have the ability to roar so powerfully that they can scare away weaker creatures and force Betas and Omegas to submit, to transform into their Werewolf forms, or to return to their human forms. This roar can also empower the members of their pack, allowing them to fight through torture, serious injuries, or other painful experiences enough to access their powers, which are often weakened or inaccessible when the Werewolf is in extreme pain. This was demonstrated when Scott's roar allowed Isaac to transform enough to break the coyote trap on his ankle, ("More Bad Than Good") and allowed Liam to fight through the taser he was being injured with to defeat the Eichen House orderlies attacking him. ("Amplification")
* Healing Disruption: Alphas possess a mystical energy that causes injuries they inflict on lower-ranking supernatural creatures with accelerated healing abilities to take much longer to heal than a normal wound would.
* Super Strength: Werewolves possess supernatural strength that makes them far stronger than immortals, Supernatural Hunters, and humans, such as when Tyler pulled the door off his locker or when Diego ripped apart a bully. There have been several occasions to suggest that untriggered werewolves possess more strength than any average humans, which would indicate some form of enhanced strength even before the activation of their curse. However, werewolves in their human form are not as strong as a vampire and have even been shown to be far weaker on several occasions. They've also shown to be strong enough to at least defend themselves, such as when Mason punched Damon across the room or when Hayley pinned Diego up against a wall. When they are in their wolf form, their powers amplify to a degree that excels of the non-Original vampires, making them more powerful than non-Original vampires. In wolf form, a werewolf can overpower and kill any non-original vampire with ease, and are strong enough to overpower an Original vampire in small groups. Such examples in wolf form include: when Mason tackled and overpowered at the time newly-turned vampire Caroline; when Tyler overpowered Damon, a vampire over 170 years old; when Jules tackled and bit Rose, a 560-year-old vampire; or when four werewolves took down Rebekah, an Original vampire.
* Super Speed: Werewolves are much faster than humans and some other supernatural beings. They possess this ability both in and out of transformation, with an animalistic quickness. For example, while in human form, Rafael Waithe scaled up and down the side of a building in under twenty-seconds. Another example, Mason, while transformed was able to easily hunt down Caroline and Stefan in the woods, despite their vampire-enhanced speed. Some werewolves are shown to become nearly a blur like their vampire enemies; others have not.
* Super Agility: Werewolves possess superhuman agility. In both human and wolf form, they have demonstrated that they can move, jump very high, climb, flip, and run incredibly fast without difficulty or exhaustion. They can also jump down from incredible heights with almost gravity-defying grace.
* Super Durability: Werewolves can take far more trauma than humans without nearly as much discomfort or injury, however, not as much as vampires. They can also exert themselves for longer periods without tiring.
* Healing Factor: Werewolves possess superhuman regenerative abilities, meaning that if they are physically injured, their bodies will heal rapidly. Like vampires, werewolves can heal from the most grievous of injuries, even in human form, albeit more slowly in comparison to vampires. However, unlike vampires, when a werewolf's neck is broken, they stay dead.
* Super Senses: Werewolves have extremely keen and heightened senses of smell, sight, taste, hearing, and touch that exceed their wolf counterparts and that of regular canines. With this, experienced werewolves such as Jules could sniff out vampires - something vampires themselves are incapable of - and Tyler could taste vervain placed in his coffee, which would otherwise be impossible since coffee's intense flavor typically masks the taste of the herb. Untriggered werewolves are also gifted with more sensitive hearing such as when Tyler Lockwood was able to hear the Gilbert Device. When Jules first met Caroline in Daddy Issues, she knew Caroline was lying about Tyler's whereabouts, revealing it was another "wolf trick". This ability wasn’t expanded upon until This is What It Takes, when Hope reveals that Pinky was lying when his heart began to race.
* Lycanthrope Enhancement: Werewolves are able to make their eyes glow when angry or threatened, but only for a short amount of time. When a werewolf is furious or forced to defend themselves, their anger increases all their power and abilities for a short period of time, which allows them to access some of the power of their wolf form to give them an edge.
* Shapeshifting/Transformation Control: During a full moon, they will unwillingly transform from their human form and into their wolf form. However, if a female werewolf is pregnant, they will not turn for nine months as the transformation would kill the baby.
* Werewolf Bite: A werewolf's venom is extremely lethal to non-original vampires. While an Original vampire cannot die from the venom, they are not wholly immune to the effects of the bite. For non-Original vampires, the venom acts as an poison of sorts that will enter the bloodstream and deliver the toxin throughout the body, producing discomfort and weakness, developing uncontrollable hunger that progresses to delusions, hallucinations, rabid rage, and dementia, culminating in death. Original vampires undergo the same effects, but do not die and will eventually fully recover.
* Full Moon: A werewolf's strength, speed, agility, and all their powers are enhanced to their peak during a full moon.
* Immunity to Silver: Werewolves are immune to magic bonded to silver. Weapons made of silver might wound them, but the wound still heals at supernatural rates and will not be fatal to them.
==Weaknesses==
* Wolfsbane: When ingested, wolfsbane causes a werewolf to become severely weak and feverish. Also, If a werewolf's skin is exposed to wolfsbane, it will burn them.
* Mortality: In most situations, minor physical injuries such as gunshots, stab wounds, and broken bones will cause a werewolf pain and slow them down until they heal. However, they still share many of the same weaknesses as non-supernatural beings and can perish from extreme trauma (e.g. suffocation, extreme blood loss, a broken neck, decapitation, fire, heart extraction, etc.). They can also die from old age.
* Magic: Werewolves are susceptible to the powers of witchcraft. This is inclusive of mystical objects such as the Starling Necklace, Gilbert Device, and dark objects. Multiple spells have been performed by witches against werewolves to cause several effects against them, such as slowing down or speeding up a werewolf's transformation during a full moon, telekinetically ripping a heart from a werewolf's chest, or cursing a pack of werewolves to be trapped in their wolf form at all times except for a few short hours during the full moon when they return to their human forms.
=== Speed ===
Quileute wolves reach great speed, in excess of one hundred miles per hour, which allows them to outrun motor vehicles. According to Jacob, it is better and faster than a motorcycle, and that is "the best part" of being a wolf. Being compared to vampires, they are very similar in their supernatural speed. It is stated that a fast wolf can outrun an average vampire and, conversely, a fast vampire can outrun an average wolf. This indicates they are quite equal in their speed.
Even in their human forms, shape-shifters are easily faster and have greater endurance than all humans. They are described as being "swift and sleek as a deer", and Jacob mused how easy it would be for him to win in a race against professional athletes.
The wolves caught Laurent, showing that they are as fast as or faster than most vampires; however, they were unable to catch Victoria, who is an exceptionally fast vampire and gifted with self-preservation. Bella says: "I couldn't imagine the wolves running faster than a vampire. When the Cullens ran, they all but turned invisible with speed." This may have to do with the werewolves being quadrupeds (using four feet to run) as opposed to bipedal vampires. It seems that speed is their real weapon, along with the exchange of thoughts within the pack that makes them able to coordinate when they hunt.
Their reflexes are highly developed: "With stunning speed, Jacob yanked a can opener from the counter and launched it at Jared's head. Jared's hand flicked up faster than I would have thought possible, and he snagged the tool just before it hit his face." Also in Eclipse, at the Quileute bonfire, Paul harassed Jacob into giving him his hot dog. When Jacob flung it across the circle, Paul caught it easily before it landed in the sand.
Leah and Jacob are the fastest members of the pack, closely followed by Embry.
=== Strength ===
In their human forms, they possess enhanced strength superior to that of regular humans. However, they are supernaturally stronger when in their wolf forms: their strength is incredible and nearly equivalent to that of a vampire. A full pack can easily overpower and kill any vampire, and, as seen in Eclipse, is a formidable force when dealing with an army of newborns. Bella notes that Jake handles her "too roughly", and that, when he hugs her, it's so "crushing" that it nearly suffocates her. She also states to Jacob that "normal humans can't throw motorcycles around the way you can" when he remarks how more human he is compared to vampires. He doesn't seem as aware of his strength as the vampires, but this could be due to the newness of his phasing. In Breaking Dawn, Jacob snidely comments on how Rosalie would react if he threw her into a wall and took this notion even further when he kicked her across the room when she lost control of her thirst over Bella's blood during Renesmee's birth—even breaking the door in the process despite her indestructibility which he compares to "kicking concrete".
Discussing being a wolf with Bella in New Moon, Jacob explains, "It's what we're made for, Bella. We're strong, too," showing that the wolves are linked by both strength and ferocity.
=== Physiology ===
Shape-shifters have a body temperature of (42°C) 108.9°F. Bella feels it first at the movie theater in New Moon, when she believes Jacob has got a fever. Vampires' temperatures are lower than humans'; it is possible that the wolves' and vampires' physiological differences reflect the tension between the two species.
This high temperature allows the shape-shifters to withstand very cold weather and makes it difficult for them to become overheated. It also makes it very difficult for vampires to harm them in combat, due to vampires being extremely sensitive to high temperatures. After Bella becomes a vampire, she describes Jacob's skin as like "touching an open fire" and "unbearable to the touch."
The shapeshifters can heal and regenerate very fast and completely. While not immortal if they choose to quit phasing, these capabilities allow them to continue fighting even after serious injury. In some cases, however, this accelerated healing can be detrimental. After Jacob was crushed by a newborn in Eclipse, his skeleton healed before Carlisle could set his bones, forcing Carlisle to break a number of them to induce proper healing. In Breaking Dawn, Jacob comments that even a bullet through his temple might not be enough to kill him. However, this healing factor is not completely reliable and can be neutralized if vampire venom is inserted into the shapeshifter's system. While venom alone isn't generally enough to kill a healthy shape-shifter, it can be fatal in combination with other injuries.
The actual transformation between human and wolf is described in the greatest detail in New Moon. Certainly the initial transformation is not easy, and is very disconcerting and confusing. If shape-shifters don't phase for long periods of time, they slowly begin to age until their aging reaches normal human speed. However, they still retain their phasing abilities, even in their old age, as shown with Taha Aki and Ephraim Black.
While their skin is much more durable than that of a human being (to the degree that the bones in Bella's hand are broken when she punches Jacob in the face), it is not granite hard like a vampire's. In their wolf form, their fangs and claws are strong enough to penetrate a vampire's skin. Bella witnesses this for herself during the climatic battle in Eclipse when she sees Seth easily biting through Riley's skin.
The wolves bear an animal scent that makes them unappetizing to vampires, making it easier for vampires to resist the temptation caused by their blood. It is possible that their scent is less revolting to vampire hybrids due to their half-human sides. They also have sharp canine teeth in their human forms.
=== Senses ===
The senses of shapeshifters rival those of vampires. Like vampires, they can see, hear and smell things from miles away. Of special note, vampires have a distinctive scent that shape-shifters are aware of in both their human and wolf forms, finding their scent uncomfortable to the point of pain - a sickly sweet smell that burns. Each vampire has their own personal scent, which is easily distinguishable to shape-shifters. They can pick up this scent from a good distance or any item a vampire has touched.
However, some shape-shifters can get used to the smell of the vampires, such as Seth Clearwater and Jacob Black in Breaking Dawn. They both spent time with the Cullen family, and feel more comfortable than before around vampires.
Shapeshifters' eyes are extremely sharp and can see very far. Jared is known to have the best sight in the pack. Their sense of sight is known to be ten times better than the average human, twice as good as the average bird of prey's. It is unknown if shape-shifters can see into the invisible spectrum of light, like vampires. Even in their human form, a wolf can easily recognize a vampire. They see much more than the characteristic paleness, eye color, and beauty. To wolves, a vampire appears reflective and angular, almost like moving crystal.
They all have excellent hearing even in their human forms, although not the same extent as their wolf forms. In Breaking Dawn, Jacob was able to hear Quil playing with Claire at First Beach from his bedroom. Seth Clearwater is known to have the best hearing in the pack.
== Former Weaknesses ==
* Doppelgänger Blood Magic: If blood from the last pair of doppelgängers is used in the Magic Purification Spell, all activated werewolves revert back to being a mortal with an untriggered wolf gene like Tyler. Kai absorbed the magic purification spell and as such, it no longer exists.
* Turning: Once someone has become a vargulf they are unable to control their turning. Each time it seems, their bodies can become more unstable and eventually leave transformation related injuries that can be fatal though they come back to life unless their heads are destroyed. It is possible they can be trapped in their wolf form permanently as their wolf becomes in control of its turning, but have no intellect to control it. They may turn back and have no memory of what they did in wolf form or only subconsciously know and believe something else. Christiana seemed to have developed a split personality from the vargulf condition, with her split personality controlling her wolf and stemming from her seeing others as promiscuous and sexually threatening to herself.
* Mortality: As they do not have enhanced healing factors, vargulfs can be killed any way a normal human can be killed. Although, they come back to life if their head is not destroyed or removed.
* Mercury: Mercury is a liquid that can burn the skin of a werewolf.
* Decapitation: If a vargulf's brain and head are completely or partly destroyed or even severed, they will be permanently destroyed.
* Non-Humanoid Body: Due to their non-humanoid shape and their lack of joints that provide the movement that humanoids possess, vargulfs are exposed at certain parts of their bodies, and be attacked from the sides or be picked up and killed. They are limited in their attacks due their quadrupedal bodies, which only allow them to lunge forward and slightly reach to the sides. They can, however, turn as fast as humanoids and can be overwhelmed and killed due to their predictable movements.
While incredibly powerful, Werewolves possess a number of weaknesses which can be exploited by hunters, humans and other creatures.
* Wolfsbane: Wolfsbane, also known as aconite, is an extremely toxic herb for Werewolves, though different strains have different effects. Most forms of wolfsbane will kill a Werewolf if the infection it causes reaches their heart, though there are ways of expelling the herb from their bodies, such as ingesting ashes of the strain in question, literally burning the wolfsbane-infected wound, or surgically excising the vapor from their chests.
* Electricity: Werewolves are incredibly vulnerable to electricity, which, for unknown reasons, seems to interfere with the nature of their abilities. For this reason, Hunters have been known to use cattle-prod tasers to incapacitate wolves in order to capture them, and will hook them up to car batteries with electrical wires in order to torture them. Lower voltages will simply prevent a wolf from transforming or healing, while higher voltages can easily knock out or even kill a Werewolf.
* Letharia Vulpina: Letharia Vulpina, a species of lichen known as "wolf lichen," is a neon-green moss that has been used for centuries to poison wolves, foxes, and coyotes by mixing it in with their food. Though this lichen does not appear to be fatal to Werewolves, Werecoyotes, and Kitsune, it does seem to weaken them considerably for several days until it wears off.
* Modified Canine Distemper Virus: An assassin in the Deadpool named The Chemist invented a modified version of the canine distemper virus that can weaken and kill Werewolves. Those who are exposed to this virus will begin to sweat before slowly losing control over their transformations, either because they can't transform into a Werewolf or because they can't transform back from the Werewolf form into their human one. It then starts to cause them to begin bleeding black blood from their noses, ears, mouths, and nail-beds, and to develop darkened veins around their eyes, mouth, and temples. From there, the Werewolf is then stricken completely blind, after which point they will only have minutes to live. Fortunately, it has been discovered that ingesting wild purple reishi mushrooms are both a cure and a vaccine for this virus.
* Full Moon: Though being a Werewolf is considered a gift in the supernatural community due to the increased strength, speed, durability, and stamina, and healing abilities that it provides, it also comes with a price, which is that the Werewolf becomes extremely feral, bloodthirsty, and easy to anger on the full moon, when they are at the height of their power. For this reason, Werewolves must be trained to control themselves on full moons in order to prevent harm and exposure to bystanders and to avoid the wrath of the Werewolf Hunters who patrol wooded areas during the nights of the full moon for just such a loss of control.
* Intense Emotions: The transformation into a wolf can be easily triggered by intense emotions such as anger, fear, stress, or any other sensation that increases the heart rate, which, especially for newly bitten Werewolves, puts them at risk of losing control and can result in harm to innocent civilians, exposure to the human world, and can also put the Werewolf at risk of being killed by a Hunter as punishment for anything they did while transformed.
* Loud Noises: Because of a Werewolf's very heightened sense of hearing, they can be incapacitated by noises at extremely loud decibels, as well as sounds at ultrasonic and subsonic frequencies. Examples of the former cases would be a Banshee's scream ("The Girl Who Knew Too Much") or microphone feedback ("A Credible Threat"), and examples of the latter would be the ultra-sonic emitters used by the Argent Hunters to disorient and lure a Werewolf into a trap ("Chaos Rising"), or the subsonic music used by the Deadpool assassins that made Liam, Malia, and Scott behave as though they were drunk. ("Perishable")
* Lunar Eclipse: During the phase of a lunar eclipse where the moon is completely covered by the Earth's umbral shadow, Werewolves will be cut off from the source of their powers and will be subsequently reverted the state of a normal human for the duration. Though this phase typically only lasts ten to twenty minutes, it is still a very vulnerable period for Werewolves, which makes it an excellent opportunity for hunters and less-powerful supernatural creatures to attack, as a Werewolf will be unable to access their enhanced strength, shapeshifting, and healing abilities.
* Mountain Ash: Rowan wood, or the ashes that result from burning it (known as mountain ash), are effective barriers against the supernatural, including Werewolves. If a building is surrounded by rowan or mountain ash in an unbroken circle, a Werewolf will be unable to enter it, nor will they be able to leave it if they are in the building when the circle was created. For this reason, many Druids, Banshees, Chimeras, and other humans who are "in the know" and can safely handle mountain ash use it in order to protect themselves or to create traps for Werewolves and other supernatural creatures.
* Magic: Werewolves, and their human counterparts, are susceptible to the powers of witchcraft. When dark magic is being practiced nearby, the human counterpart hears a high-pitched ringing that is physically painful for them to endure. Their supernatural healing ability makes it difficult for them to be killed or mortally wounded by magic. For instance, the glove inflicted immense pain on Lilith, however, she wasn't crippled by it the way humans were. Additionally, Kepler enchanted heavy chains to stop Lilith from transforming into Timber.
** Magical Blade: The only weapon that can truly kill a Werewolf is a blade infused with dark magic. Even the smallest of cuts from the blade will cause a werewolf to suffer an excruciating, yet quick, death. However, when Hamish was stabbed with the blade, Lilith and Randall were able to manufacture a cure using herbs. When Lilith's palm was cut with the blade, Vera Stone healed her using magic.
* Physical Trauma: Minor physical injuries such as stab wounds will cause a werewolf and human counterpart pain and slow them down. This is only temporary, as they will heal completely within seconds or minutes, depending on the extent of the injury.
Werewolves are unable to cross running water while in wolf form. It is not known if silver has any effect on werewolves. A werewolf in wolf form can be killed by cutting the eye or throat with a knife, as seen when McNair killed the werewolf that infected him, and when Herrick killed a transformed McNair. If a werewolf suffers a fatal injury in wolf form, it will not recover in human form, although their ability to heal in both states is still far above a human's.
It has been shown that as a werewolf gets older, their transformations become more damaging to their health; as seen with Leo, with Hal Yorke and Pearl believing that he wouldn't have survived another transformation before his death in 2012. (Eve of the War)
* Silver - Silver is very harmful to werewolves; direct contact with silver burns werewolves in wolf form, and silver-inflicted wounds take much longer for werewolves to heal.
* Mortality - As they are living beings, it is technically possible to kill werewolves in mundane ways such as; decapitation, suffocation, bludgeoning, impalement; although werewolves are much more resilient against mundane methods of killing when in wolf form.
* Wolfsbane - Wolfsbane can suppress a werewolf's heightened senses.
* Tranquilizers - Even in wolf form, a werewolf can be affected by tranquilizers and rendered unconscious, as was demonstrated on Josh.
Animal Atavism: Werewolves who may be good-natured in a fully human state can suffer an acute loss of control when their bestial nature takes hold. The snarling rage of a werewolf has been observed to result in indiscriminate killings where the beast will slaughter rooms full of people.
The only ways to permanently wound or kill a werewolf are either through a seraph blade or with pure silver. Silver is associated with the moon, and wounds made with silver weapons will not only cause permanent damage to the wounded but will also cause them great pain, as even their enhanced healing abilities are not effective when a wound is inflicted by silver. Institutes have a cache of silver weapons in place for just this reason.
Werewolves that Turn during the full moon lose control over their actions and even experience a complete blackout, retaining no memory of what they did during this time.
== General ==
: “They're suckers for that whole sexual heat thing. Sense it miles away.”
: ―Gib Cain[src]
Werewolves were capable of sensing strong emotions, sometimes from miles away, and were attracted by sexual heat. The werewolf's sense of smell was highly developed, eventually remaining so even when in human form. It was enhanced enough to track and distinguish between the scents of individual people, and enabled the werewolf to smell if someone was afraid. Nina showed increased hearing as well, and craved meat. Werewolves could perceive the presence of other werewolves and had a primal, physical attraction to one another.
The psyche of a newly-bitten werewolf remained separate between the human self and the feral side. The traumatic and painful experience of the transformation caused the werewolf to lose memory of it, until some sort of evidence provided conscious knowledge of the person's condition, such as waking up naked in a different place from the one in which the transformation took place.
Even after the werewolf acknowledged its condition, he or she retained no memories of whatever action they might have taken during the transformation. The lupine beast, completely dominated by instinct, was incapable of recognizing loved ones or friends. It did, however, retain some of its intelligence, being able to recognize certain words and reacting to them, often violently. The wolf side also exerted influence on the basic instincts and impulses of the werewolf while in human form.
As the time a person has been a werewolf lengthened, he or she would begin to retain memories of the time spent in wolf form. Prior to this phase of the werewolf's life, it was also possible for the werewolf to exert certain influence on its actions during the feral phase.
Silver was the most effective way to kill a werewolf, but other severe injuries were enough to do the job as well: Oz was able to kill Veruca by tearing into her throat with his fangs, and during the battle against Twilight's army members of Monroe's pack were seen lying dead with (regular) bullet wounds riddling their chest. Like vampires, werewolves could be affected by drugs (such as Haldol) and tranquilizers (such as Phenobarbital), although the exact dosage required for both cases was never specified. A tranquilizer meant for Oz was once used on Giles without any lasting ill effect, so whatever the dosage was, it wasn't lethal to humans. Tranquilizers were sometimes employed to restrain free-roaming werewolves without injuring them.
Like vampires, werewolves are humans infected with a demonic disease—Lycanthropy in their case—which gives them the ability to transform into powerful wolves, Changing either under the influence of the full moon or at will. In their lupine and human forms, werewolves possess inhuman strength, speed, and other enhanced capabilities, with strong claws and canines.
Werewolves are also able to Change partially, "half in and half out of wolf form", with their wolf ears, taloned hands, muzzle, and some fur, but giving them the ability to speak. While Turned, they can bear a little bit of resemblance to their human selves through their coat's color or pattern, though their eyes become that of a wolf's; their eye color changes to either blue, or a bright color ranging from yellow or yellow-green, to orange or gold. In human form they have gold ringed pupils signifying Lycanthropy. They also develop much sharper senses, able to see, hear, and smell very well. A werewolf's eyesight problems also improve when in their wolf form, though the defect returns while in human form.
In addition to their supernatural strength, grace, and reflexes, werewolves have the same unnaturally accelerated healing abilities as most other Downworlders. They cannot regenerate a severed limb, but they can recover quickly from most mundane wounds.
In human form, they look like they would as mundanes, and retain their superhuman capabilities. Werewolves are also mortal; they age and die normally like ordinary humans, though they do grow slightly faster.
With their keen senses, werewolves can still see well at night or in dark places, much like vampires.
When werewolves grow old, they still retain much of their physical strength. Even werewolves that have reached a very old age can still be strong enough to fend off a Shadowhunter.
== Trivia ==
* Wolfsbane is a plant known to have a negative effect against werewolves in various lores, but it is unknown what wolfsbane does to werewolves in the Shadowhunter Chronicles. The werewolf Jordan Kyle was known to have been growing them on his balcony, and werewolves buy them from the Shadow Market. Simon noticed Jordan's wolfsbane and once commented on the fact that it had silvery leaves.
* Refined sugar is supposedly harmful to werewolves.
* Their clothes are torn off whenever they Turn.
* While it has been established that it is possible for a werewolf to be born infected with lycanthropy, the Shadowhunter's Codex states that werewolf parents do not pass lycanthropy to their children. This may, however, be due to the fact that the Codex contains mostly knowledge earned by the Shadowhunters, and that most of them simply do not know or believe this.
* To become a werewolf, a mundane must be bitten. But the biting werewolf doesn't have to be transformed. This is how Jordan became a werewolf after a werewolf bit him in his human form.
* Officially, it is said that the probability of becoming a werewolf after a bite is fifty percent. However, Jocelyn is of the opinion that the probability is closer to seventy-five percent.
* Werewolves are naturally immune to the virus that causes vampirism; so if bitten by a Vampire, they will not Turn.
* Jace once mentions that werewolves occasionally hunt demons. However, this was only addressed once and then never taken up again.
** Contrary to popular belief, werewolves are not harmed by silver. However, they can be harmed by a silver bullet, but only because it's still a bullet.
** They do not need a full moon to transform.
* There are seven original Wolf Packs, with each bloodline having their own unique strain of werewolf venom.
* Werewolves procreate sexually, and the werewolf gene or curse is carried down through their bloodlines.
* Hayley is the first pregnant werewolf in the series.
** This also makes her the first werewolf to not transform during a full moon without being a hybrid, an evolved werewolf, or while wearing a moonlight ring.
* A werewolf could also be a witch if one of their parents were a witch, such as Klaus when he was alive. However, Klaus was untapped prior to triggering his curse. In the television series, it remains unknown if triggering the werewolf curse would allow witches to continue to practice witchcraft.
* It is established through Ansel in Chasing the Devil's Tail that at least some werewolves can sense and be drawn to the newly born members of their bloodlines in their wolf form; this is how Ansel knew Hope is alive.
* The Originals writer Carina MacKenzie confirmed that temporarily killing a vampire, such as breaking their necks, would not trigger the werewolf curse.
== Status and conservation ==
Further information: List of gray wolf populations by country
The global wild wolf population in 2003 was estimated at 300,000. Wolf population declines have been arrested since the 1970s. This has fostered recolonization and reintroduction in parts of its former range as a result of legal protection, changes in land use, and rural human population shifts to cities. Competition with humans for livestock and game species, concerns over the danger posed by wolves to people, and habitat fragmentation pose a continued threat to the wolf. Despite these threats, the IUCN classifies the wolf as Least Concern on its Red List due to its relatively widespread range and stable population. The species is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), meaning international trade in the species (including parts and derivatives) is regulated. However, populations of Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan are listed in Appendix I which prohibits commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens.
=== North America ===
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mexican_Wolf_2_yfb-edit_1.jpg|alt=Photograph of a wolf running on a grassy plain with enclosing fence in background|right|thumb|Captive Mexican wolf at Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge in New Mexico, as part of reintroduction
In Canada, 50,000–60,000 wolves live in 80% of their historical range, making Canada an important stronghold for the species. Under Canadian law, First Nations people can hunt wolves without restrictions, but others must acquire licenses for the hunting and trapping seasons. As many as 4,000 wolves may be harvested in Canada each year. The wolf is a protected species in national parks under the Canada National Parks Act. In Alaska, 7,000–11,000 wolves are found on 85% of the state's 1,517,733 km2 (586,000 sq mi) area. Wolves may be hunted or trapped with a license; around 1,200 wolves are harvested annually.
In the contiguous United States, wolf declines were caused by the expansion of agriculture, the decimation of the wolf's main prey species like the American bison, and extermination campaigns. Wolves were given protection under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973, and have since returned to parts of their former range thanks to both natural recolonizations and reintroductions in Yellowstone and Idaho. The repopulation of wolves in Midwestern United States has been concentrated in the Great Lakes states of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan where wolves number over 4,000 as of 2018. Wolves also occupy much of the northern Rocky Mountains region and the northwest, with a total population over 3,000 as of the 2020s. In Mexico and parts of the southwestern United States, the Mexican and U.S. governments collaborated from 1977 to 1980 in capturing all Mexican wolves remaining in the wild to prevent their extinction and established captive breeding programs for reintroduction. As of 2023, the reintroduced Mexican wolf population numbers over 200 individuals.
=== Eurasia ===
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wolf_-_populations_in_Europe.png|alt=Map showing the wolf's range in Europe and surrounding areas|right|thumb
Europe, excluding Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, has 17,000 wolves in more than 28 countries. In many countries of the European Union, the wolf is strictly protected under the 1979 Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Appendix II) and the 1992 Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (Annex II and IV). There is extensive legal protection in many European countries, although there are national exceptions.
Wolves have been persecuted in Europe for centuries, having been exterminated in Great Britain by 1684, in Ireland by 1770, in Central Europe by 1899, in France by the 1930s, and in much of Scandinavia by the early 1970s. They continued to survive in parts of Finland, Eastern Europe and Southern Europe. Since 1980, European wolves have rebounded and expanded into parts of their former range. The decline of the traditional pastoral and rural economies seems to have ended the need to exterminate the wolf in parts of Europe. As of 2016, estimates of wolf numbers include: 4,000 in the Balkans, 3,460–3,849 in the Carpathian Mountains, 1,700–2,240 in the Baltic states, 1,100–2,400 in the Italian peninsula, and around 2,500 in the northwest Iberian peninsula as of 2007.
In the former Soviet Union, wolf populations have retained much of their historical range despite Soviet-era large scale extermination campaigns. Their numbers range from 1,500 in Georgia, to 20,000 in Kazakhstan and up to 45,000 in Russia. In Russia, the wolf is regarded as a pest because of its attacks on livestock, and wolf management means controlling their numbers by destroying them throughout the year. Russian history over the past century shows that reduced hunting leads to an abundance of wolves. The Russian government has continued to pay bounties for wolves and annual harvests of 20–30% do not appear to significantly affect their numbers.
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Desert_wolf_1.jpg|alt=Image of a wolf at night with glowing eyes|left|thumb|A wolf in southern Israel
In the Middle East, only Israel and Oman give wolves explicit legal protection. Israel has protected its wolves since 1954 and has maintained a moderately sized population of 150 through effective enforcement of conservation policies. These wolves have moved into neighboring countries. Approximately 300–600 wolves inhabit the Arabian Peninsula. The wolf also appears to be widespread in Iran. Turkey has an estimated population of about 7,000 wolves. Outside of Turkey, wolf populations in the Middle East may total 1,000–2,000.
In southern Asia, the northern regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan are important strongholds for wolves. The wolf has been protected in India since 1972. The Indian wolf is distributed across the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. As of 2019, it is estimated that there are around 2,000–3,000 Indian wolves in the country. In East Asia, Mongolia's population numbers 10,000–20,000. In China, Heilongjiang has roughly 650 wolves, Xinjiang has 10,000 and Tibet has 2,000. 2017 evidence suggests that wolves range across all of mainland China. Wolves have been historically persecuted in China but have been legally protected since 1998. The last Japanese wolf was captured and killed in 1905.
== Relationships with humans ==
=== In culture ===
==== In folklore, religion and mythology ====
Main article: Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology
See also: Wolves in heraldry
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg|alt=Photograph of the sculpture Capitoline Wolf showing of the mythical she-wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus|left|thumb|The Capitoline Wolf, sculpture of the mythical she-wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus, from the legend of the founding of Rome, Italy, 13th century AD. (The twins are a 15th-century addition.)
The wolf is a common motif in the mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout its historical range. The Ancient Greeks associated wolves with Apollo, the god of light and order. The Ancient Romans connected the wolf with their god of war and agriculture Mars, and believed their city's founders, Romulus and Remus, were suckled by a she-wolf. Norse mythology includes the feared giant wolf Fenrir, and Geri and Freki, Odin's faithful pets.
In Chinese astronomy, the wolf represents Sirius and guards the heavenly gate. In both Hinduism and Buddhism, the wolf is ridden by gods of protection. In Vedic Hinduism, the wolf is a symbol of the night and the daytime quail must escape from its jaws. In Tantric Buddhism, wolves are depicted as inhabitants of graveyards and destroyers of corpses.
Often seen as greedy and cruel, lecherous, and untrustworthy.
In the Pawnee creation myth, the wolf was the first animal brought to Earth. When humans killed it, they were punished with death, destruction and the loss of immortality. For the Pawnee, Sirius is the "wolf star" and its disappearance and reappearance signified the wolf moving to and from the spirit world. Both Pawnee and Blackfoot call the Milky Way the "wolf trail". The wolf is also an important crest symbol for clans of the Pacific Northwest like the Kwakwakaʼwakw.
The concept of people turning into wolves, and the inverse, has been present in many cultures. One Greek myth tells of Lycaon being transformed into a wolf by Zeus as punishment for his evil deeds. The legend of the werewolf has been widespread in European folklore and involves people willingly turning into wolves to attack and kill others. The Navajo have traditionally believed that witches would turn into wolves by donning wolf skins and would kill people and raid graveyards. The Dena'ina believed wolves were once men and viewed them as brothers.
==== In fable and literature ====
See also: List of fictional wolves
Aesop featured wolves in several of his fables, playing on the concerns of Ancient Greece's settled, sheep-herding world. His most famous is the fable of "The Boy Who Cried Wolf", which is directed at those who knowingly raise false alarms, and from which the idiomatic phrase "to cry wolf" is derived. Some of his other fables concentrate on maintaining the trust between shepherds and guard dogs in their vigilance against wolves, as well as anxieties over the close relationship between wolves and dogs. Although Aesop used wolves to warn, criticize and moralize about human behaviour, his portrayals added to the wolf's image as a deceitful and dangerous animal. The Bible uses an image of a wolf lying with a lamb in a utopian vision of the future. In the New Testament, Jesus is said to have used wolves as illustrations of the dangers his followers, whom he represents as sheep, would face should they follow him.
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dore_ridinghood.jpg|alt=An illustration of Red Riding Hood meeting the wolf|right|thumb|Little Red Riding Hood (1883), Gustave Doré
Isengrim the wolf, a character first appearing in the 12th-century Latin poem Ysengrimus, is a major character in the Reynard Cycle, where he stands for the low nobility, whilst his adversary, Reynard the fox, represents the peasant hero. Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard's wit and cruelty, often dying at the end of each story. The tale of "Little Red Riding Hood", first written in 1697 by Charles Perrault, is considered to have further contributed to the wolf's negative reputation in the Western world. The Big Bad Wolf is portrayed as a villain capable of imitating human speech and disguising itself with human clothing. The character has been interpreted as an allegorical sexual predator. Villainous wolf characters also appear in The Three Little Pigs and "The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats". The hunting of wolves, and their attacks on humans and livestock, feature prominently in Russian literature, and are included in the works of Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Ivan Bunin, Leonid Pavlovich Sabaneyev, and others. Tolstoy's War and Peace and Chekhov's Peasants both feature scenes in which wolves are hunted with hounds and Borzois. The musical Peter and the Wolf involves a wolf being captured for eating a duck, but is spared and sent to a zoo.
Wolves are among the central characters of Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book. His portrayal of wolves has been praised posthumously by wolf biologists for his depiction of them: rather than being villainous or gluttonous, as was common in wolf portrayals at the time of the book's publication, they are shown as living in amiable family groups and drawing on the experience of infirm but experienced elder pack members. Farley Mowat's largely fictional 1963 memoir Never Cry Wolf is widely considered to be the most popular book on wolves, having been adapted into a Hollywood film and taught in several schools decades after its publication. Although credited with having changed popular perceptions on wolves by portraying them as loving, cooperative and noble, it has been criticized for its idealization of wolves and its factual inaccuracies.
They are stressed by the presence of humans near their territory. 
==== Predation on livestock ====
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Allendale_Wolf.jpg|alt=Black and white photograph of a dead wolf with "The Allendale Wolf" written on the bottom|left|thumb|A 1905 postcard of the Hexham wolf, an escaped wolf shot for killing livestock in England
Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation. As well as causing economic losses, the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers, and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found. Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programs or state insurance. Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves, as they have been bred under constant human protection, and are thus unable to defend themselves very well. Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted. In Eurasia, a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock, while such incidents are rare in North America, where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored.
The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period, untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation. The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep (Europe), domestic reindeer (northern Scandinavia), goats (India), horses (Mongolia), cattle and turkeys (North America). The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species: most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death, while turkeys, sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus. Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing, though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures.
==== Competition with dogs ====
A review of the studies on the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Competition would favour the wolf, which is known to kill dogs; however, wolves usually live in pairs or in small packs in areas with high human persecution, giving them a disadvantage when facing large groups of dogs.
Wolves kill dogs on occasion, and some wolf populations rely on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behaviour when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin. Although the number of dogs killed each year by wolves is relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to prey on them. In many cultures, dogs are seen as family members, or at least working team members, and losing one can lead to strong emotional responses such as demanding more liberal hunting regulations.
Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human–wolf conflicts, and are often proposed as one of the non-lethal tools in the conservation of wolves. Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive, but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviours, such as barking, social greeting, invitation to play or aggression. The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation, especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock guardian dogs. Shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves.
==== Attacks on humans ====
Main articles: Wolf attack and List of wolf attacks
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grenier_Saint_Martin_loup_MdlaC.jpg|alt=Painting of a wolf snarling at three children|thumb|Country children surprised by a wolf (1833) by François Grenier de Saint-Martin
The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies, though humans are not part of the wolf's natural prey. How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people: wolves lacking any negative experience of humans, or which are food-conditioned, may show little fear of people. Although wolves may react aggressively when provoked, such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities, and the attacks are not pressed.
Predatory attacks may be preceded by a long period of habituation, in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face, and are then dragged off and consumed unless the wolves are driven off. Such attacks typically occur only locally and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock grazing or berry and mushroom picking) increase. Cases of non-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in Belarus, Kirov and Irkutsk oblasts, Karelia and Ukraine. Also, wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period. The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and, in the rare cases where adults are killed, the victims are almost always women. Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called "child-lifting". They may be taken primarily in the spring and summer periods during the evening hours, and often within human settlements.
Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species, as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease, but can be infected by animals such as dogs, jackals and foxes. Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America, though numerous in the eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East and Central Asia. Wolves apparently develop the "furious" phase of rabies to a very high degree. This, coupled with their size and strength, makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals. Bites from rabid wolves are 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs. Rabid wolves usually act alone, travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals. Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods. Unlike with predatory attacks, the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten, and the attacks generally occur only on a single day. The victims are chosen at random, though most cases involve adult men. During the fifty years up to 2002, there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia, and more than two hundred in southern Asia.
==== Human hunting of wolves ====
Main articles: Wolf hunting and Wolf hunting with dogs
See also: Human uses of hunted wolves
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Provedenie_meropriyatii_po_otstrelu_vrednyh_givotnyh_na_territorii_Kamyshinskogo_raiona_Volgogradskoi_oblasti.jpg|alt=Two men with guns behind nine carcasses of hunted wolves|thumb|Carcasses of hunted wolves in Volgograd Oblast, Russia
Theodore Roosevelt said wolves are difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness, sharp senses, high endurance, and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs. Historic methods included killing of spring-born litters in their dens, coursing with dogs (usually combinations of sighthounds, Bloodhounds and Fox Terriers), poisoning with strychnine, and trapping.
A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with fladry poles carrying a human scent. This method relies heavily on the wolf's fear of human scents, though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the odor. Some hunters can lure wolves by imitating their calls. In Kazakhstan and Mongolia, wolves are traditionally hunted with eagles and falcons, though this practice is declining, as experienced falconers are becoming few in number. Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective, due to increased visibility and direct lines of fire. Several types of dog, including the Borzoi and Kyrgyz Tajgan, have been specifically bred for wolf hunting.
Not tractable when living alongside humans, being generally less responsive to human commands and more likely to act aggressively. People are more likely to be fatally mauled by them.
Wolves are known for forming affiliative bonds within the pack hierarchy. Wolves in packs are known for "Play-Fighting" with one another. It has been observed that the playing between wolves is not random: it may be a reflection of the relationships present in the pack, reflecting any tension, cooperation, and competition present. Tensions are noted to become higher around breeding season where the cost and benefits are weighed against each other.[clarification needed] Female wolves are known for being the main initiators of affiliative interactions, though a small percentage of males will initiate affiliative interactions. The omega male is not a target of any affiliative interaction. In other studies, researchers have separated the most dominant wolf from the most subordinate wolves. It was recorded that the dominant wolf spent less time sleeping and showed more behavioral stress compared to the omega wolf. The dominant wolf was reported to rest in the section of his enclosure closest to his pack. Furthermore, researchers noted that younger, more subordinate wolves appear to have less attachment to their pack compared to their higher-ranking compatriots.
Wolves' cooperation is essential for tasks such as hunting and protecting the young, though the level of attachment present in the pack is not necessarily equal. The majority of wolves are known for dispersing from their birth pack; this makes measuring attachment behavior within the packs difficult. Though there are cases in which wolves leave their pack, typically when accompanying siblings of the same sex. This behavior is suggested to be a form of adaptive behavior that benefits both pack mates in future conflicts.
All individuals benefit from being a member of the wolf pack; the weak are supported by the efforts of stronger wolves,[better source needed] and higher-ranking individuals enjoy better and larger kills than could be taken on their own. Protection is granted by sheer number, and larger, more plentiful territory can be won and sustained. Care and protection of the young are shared, and knowledge can be passed down through generations, creating a unique culture within each group
The pack is typically a nuclear family unit. It often consists of 5–10 (though in areas of high prey abundance can be up to 20) mostly related individuals, specifically consisting of a typically unrelated breeding pair also known as the alphas, their offspring, and occasionally a handful of other wolves which can be related or not. Membership may be fluid and is subject to change. Outside wolves may be shunned or, more rarely, accepted, depending on the specific circumstances. Genetic variability can become limited within such an interrelated group, and so conditions for gene flow must exist. Outside wolves can provide these opportunities. A pack may be accepting of another wolf into their group if it is a distant relative, if reproduction rates are low due to the loss or infertility of an alpha, or if their numbers are significantly reduced.[failed verification]
Characterization of wolves into dominance hierarchies of alpha, beta, and omega was based on behavioral studies of unrelated wolves in captivity, and this assemblage largely does not apply to natural wolf packs, which are familial units.
=== Pack-less wolves[edit] ===
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Afr_wild_dog_pack_size.JPG|thumb|250x250px|Pack size distribution of the African wild dog.
These singular outside wolves, often referred to as lone wolves, are vulnerable to food scarcity and territorial attacks and generally comprise less than 15% of the total wolf population. Lone wolves usually result from sexually mature offspring leaving their parental pack, though may also occur if harassed subordinates chose to disperse. In times of prey scarcity, low-ranking wolves may choose to go off on their own if the pack cannot supply sufficient food. These lone wolves may then attempt to join an existing wolf pack or, more commonly, find a mate and begin a new pack family as the alphas.[obsolete source]
=== The breeding pair ("alphas")[edit] ===
Within the wolf pack, the breeding pair or the dominant breeding pair (in packs with multiples breeders), often referred to in familiar language as the "alpha pair" or the "alphas wolves", are typically the wolves in the family unit which breed and produce offspring; they are the matriarch and patriarch of the family. It was previously believed to be common for an aging or sick alpha to be replaced by one of their offspring, but more recent studies have shown this incestuous behavior to be very rare.
=== The pups[edit] ===
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coywolf_hybrids.jpg|thumb|A small pack of captive coywolf hybrids
The importance of the alpha is rivaled only by that of the pups.[better source needed] The fundamental purpose of the pack is the successful production of offspring, and so raising the litter is a collaborative venture – all members contribute to their development. In times of scarcity, the breeding pair will often prioritize the care of the pups, and preferentially feed the youngest wolves first. Despite this committed involvement, pup mortality is high, with researchers citing that only roughly 30% survive their first year of life. Those who survive, however, grow up with the added advantage of being surrounded by numerous caretakers and teachers. There exists a culture within wolf packs, and this is passed on to the offspring by the elders of the group.  Pups learn something from each member of the pack and attain the vital social skills required to create powerful bonds upon which the wolf's societal structure relies.
== Dominance and the "alpha wolf"[edit] ==
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wild_Dog_Kruger_National_Park_South_Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|A hunting pack of African wild dogs
Animals that typically predominate over others are associated with the term alpha. Among pack-living wolves, alpha wolves are the genetic parents of most cubs in the pack. Such access to mating females creates strong selective pressure for intra-sex competition.
Wolves show deference to the alpha pair in their pack by allowing them to allocate the distribution of food, typically preferentially feeding the youngest wolves. Wolves use eye contact and posture as an indicator of dominance or submission, which are largely age-based; these postures are rare except in relation to food, as described previously. The smaller and more nuclear a pack is, the less status of alpha is likely to be obtained through fighting, and young wolves instead leave the pack to find a mate and produce offspring of their own. Larger or less-nuclear packs may operate differently and possess more complex and flexible social structures.[better source needed]
In the case of other wild canids, the alpha male may not have exclusive access to the alpha female;[obsolete source] moreover, other pack members may guard the maternity den used by the alpha female; as with the African wild dog, Lycaon pictus.[full citation needed]
As dominant roles may be deemed normal among social species with extended parenting, it has been suggested that the additional term alpha is not required merely to describe dominance due to its ubiquity but should be reserved for where they are the predominant pack progenitor. For instance, wolf biologist L. David Mech stated:...calling a wolf an alpha is usually no more appropriate than referring to a human parent or a doe deer as an alpha. Any parent is dominant to its young offspring, so alpha adds no information. Why not refer to an alpha female as the female parent, the breeding female, the matriarch, or simply the mother? Such a designation emphasizes not the animal's dominant status, which is trivial information, but its role as pack progenitor, which is critical information. The one use we may still want to reserve for alpha is in the relatively few large wolf packs comprised of multiple litters. ... In such cases, the older breeders are probably dominant to the younger breeders and perhaps can more appropriately be called the alphas. ... The point here is not so much the terminology but what the terminology falsely implies: a rigid, force-based dominance hierarchy.
=== Use in dog training[edit] ===
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_huskies_dog_sledding.jpg|thumb|White huskies dog sledding
One of the most persistent but disputed theories in dog training literature is the idea of the alpha wolf, an individual gray wolf who uses body language and when needed, physical force to maintain its dominance within the wolf pack. The idea was first reported in early wolf research. It was subsequently adopted by dog trainers. Later research has disputed the theory, pointing out that it was based on the behavior of captive packs consisting of unrelated individuals, while in nature a pack is usually made up of members of a family.
The term alpha was popularized as early as 1976 in the dog training book How to Be Your Dog's Best Friend (Monks of New Skete), which introduced the idea of the alpha roll, a technique for punishing unwanted dog behaviors. Psychologist and dog trainer Stanley Coren in the 2001 book How to Speak Dog wrote, "You are the alpha dog... You must communicate that you are the pack leader and dominant".
It has been suggested that the use of such techniques may have more to do with human psychology than with dog behavior; "dominance hierarchies and dominance disputes and testing are a fundamental characteristic of all social groups... But perhaps only we humans learn to use punishment primarily to gain for ourselves the reward of being dominant.
Most leading veterinary and animal behavior associations and most contemporary trainers would agree to advocate the use of rewards to teach commands and encourage good communication between owners and their pets. Many modern practices dictate the abandonment of outdated "pack" methods. Some canine behaviorists suggest that kind, efficient training uses games to teach commands which can be utilized to benefit the owner's everyday life.
== Description ==
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Front_view_of_a_resting_Canis_lupus_ssp.jpg|alt=Photograph of a reclining North American wolf looking directly at the photographer|thumb|A North American wolf
The wolf is the largest extant member of the Canidae family, and is further distinguished from coyotes and jackals by a broader snout, shorter ears, a shorter torso and a longer tail. It is slender and powerfully built, with a large, deeply descending rib cage, a sloping back, and a heavily muscled neck. The wolf's legs are moderately longer than those of other canids, which enables the animal to move swiftly, and to overcome the deep snow that covers most of its geographical range in winter. The ears are relatively small and triangular. The wolf's head is large and heavy, with a wide forehead, strong jaws and a long, blunt muzzle. The skull is 230–280 mm (9–11 in) in length and 130–150 mm (5–6 in) in width. The teeth are heavy and large, making them better suited to crushing bone than those of other canids, though they are not as specialized as those found in hyenas. Its molars have a flat chewing surface, but not to the same extent as the coyote, whose diet contains more vegetable matter. Females tend to have narrower muzzles and foreheads, thinner necks, slightly shorter legs, and less massive shoulders than males.
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canis_lupus_italicus_skeleton_(white_background).jpg|alt=Photograph of a wolf skeleton|left|thumb|A wolf skeleton housed in the Wolf Museum, Abruzzo National Park, Italy
Adult wolves measure 105–160 cm (41–63 in) in length and 80–85 cm (31–33 in) at shoulder height. The tail measures 29–50 cm (11–20 in) in length, the ears 90–110 mm (3+1⁄2–4+3⁄8 in) in height, and the hind feet are 220–250 mm (8+5⁄8–9+7⁄8 in). The size and weight of the modern wolf increases proportionally with latitude in accord with Bergmann's rule. The mean body mass of the wolf is 40 kg (88 lb), the smallest specimen recorded at 12 kg (26 lb) and the largest at 79.4 kg (175 lb). On average, European wolves weigh 38.5 kg (85 lb), North American wolves 36 kg (79 lb), and Indian and Arabian wolves 25 kg (55 lb). Females in any given wolf population typically weigh 2.3–4.5 kg (5–10 lb) less than males. Wolves weighing over 54 kg (119 lb) are uncommon, though exceptionally large individuals have been recorded in Alaska and Canada. In central Russia, exceptionally large males can reach a weight of 69–79 kg (152–174 lb).
=== Pelage ===
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tibetan_Wolf_Canis_lupus_chanko_cropped.jpg|alt=Picture of a wolf standing on snowy terrain, turning its head at the camera|thumb|Wolf in Spiti Valley, northern India
The wolf has very dense and fluffy winter fur, with a short undercoat and long, coarse guard hairs. Most of the undercoat and some guard hairs are shed in spring and grow back in autumn. The longest hairs occur on the back, particularly on the front quarters and neck. Especially long hairs grow on the shoulders and almost form a crest on the upper part of the neck. The hairs on the cheeks are elongated and form tufts. The ears are covered in short hairs and project from the fur. Short, elastic and closely adjacent hairs are present on the limbs from the elbows down to the calcaneal tendons. The winter fur is highly resistant to the cold. Wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at −40 °C (−40 °F) by placing their muzzles between the rear legs and covering their faces with their tail. Wolf fur provides better insulation than dog fur and does not collect ice when warm breath is condensed against it.
In cold climates, the wolf can reduce the flow of blood near its skin to conserve body heat. The warmth of the foot pads is regulated independently from the rest of the body and is maintained at just above tissue-freezing point where the pads come in contact with ice and snow. In warm climates, the fur is coarser and scarcer than in northern wolves. Female wolves tend to have smoother furred limbs than males and generally develop the smoothest overall coats as they age. Older wolves generally have more white hairs on the tip of the tail, along the nose, and on the forehead. Winter fur is retained longest by lactating females, although with some hair loss around their teats. Hair length on the middle of the back is 60–70 mm (2+3⁄8–2+3⁄4 in), and the guard hairs on the shoulders generally do not exceed 90 mm (3+1⁄2 in), but can reach 110–130 mm (4+3⁄8–5+1⁄8 in).
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black_and_White_Wolves.jpg|alt=Photograph showing one black and one white wolf standing alongside each other|left|thumb|Wolves in the La Boissière-du-Doré Zoo, France
A wolf's coat colour is determined by its guard hairs. Wolves usually have some hairs that are white, brown, gray and black. The coat of the Eurasian wolf is a mixture of ochreous (yellow to orange) and rusty ochreous (orange/red/brown) colours with light gray. The muzzle is pale ochreous gray, and the area of the lips, cheeks, chin, and throat is white. The top of the head, forehead, under and between the eyes, and between the eyes and ears is gray with a reddish film. The neck is ochreous. Long, black tips on the hairs along the back form a broad stripe, with black hair tips on the shoulders, upper chest and rear of the body. The sides of the body, tail, and outer limbs are a pale dirty ochreous colour, while the inner sides of the limbs, belly, and groin are white. Apart from those wolves which are pure white or black, these tones vary little across geographical areas, although the patterns of these colours vary between individuals.
In North America, the coat colours of wolves follow Gloger's rule, wolves in the Canadian arctic being white and those in southern Canada, the U.S., and Mexico being predominantly gray. In some areas of the Rocky Mountains of Alberta and British Columbia, the coat colour is predominantly black, some being blue-gray and some with silver and black. Differences in coat colour between sexes is absent in Eurasia; females tend to have redder tones in North America. Black-coloured wolves in North America acquired their colour from wolf-dog admixture after the first arrival of dogs across the Bering Strait 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. Research into the inheritance of white colour from dogs into wolves has yet to be undertaken.
== Ecology ==
=== Distribution and habitat ===
Main article: Wolf distribution
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lupo_in_Sassoferrato.jpg|alt=Photograph of a wolf standing on snowy ground|thumb|An Italian wolf in a mountainous habitat in the Apennines in Sassoferrato, Italy
Wolves occur across Eurasia and North America. However, deliberate human persecution because of livestock predation and fear of attacks on humans has reduced the wolf's range to about one-third of its historic range; the wolf is now extirpated (locally extinct) from much of its range in Western Europe, the United States and Mexico, and completely in the British Isles and Japan. In modern times, the wolf occurs mostly in wilderness and remote areas. The wolf can be found between sea level and 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Wolves live in forests, inland wetlands, shrublands, grasslands (including Arctic tundra), pastures, deserts, and rocky peaks on mountains. Habitat use by wolves depends on the abundance of prey, snow conditions, livestock densities, road densities, human presence and topography.
=== Diet ===
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wolf_with_Caribou_Hindquarter.jpg|alt=Photograph of a wolf carrying a caribou leg in its mouth|left|thumb|A wolf carrying a caribou hindquarter, Denali National Park, Alaska
Like all land mammals that are pack hunters, the wolf feeds predominantly on wild herbivorous hoofed mammals that can be divided into large size 240–650 kg (530–1,430 lb) and medium size 23–130 kg (51–287 lb), and have a body mass similar to that of the combined mass of the pack members. The wolf specializes in preying on the vulnerable individuals of large prey, with a pack of 15 able to bring down an adult moose. The variation in diet between wolves living on different continents is based on the variety of hoofed mammals and of available smaller and domesticated prey.
In North America, the wolf's diet is dominated by wild large hoofed mammals (ungulates) and medium-sized mammals. In Asia and Europe, their diet is dominated by wild medium-sized hoofed mammals and domestic species. The wolf depends on wild species, and if these are not readily available, as in Asia, the wolf is more reliant on domestic species. Across Eurasia, wolves prey mostly on moose, red deer, roe deer and wild boar. In North America, important range-wide prey are elk, moose, caribou, white-tailed deer and mule deer. Wolves can digest their meal in a few hours and can feed several times in one day, making quick use of large quantities of meat. A well-fed wolf stores fat under the skin, around the heart, intestines, kidneys, and bone marrow, particularly during the autumn and winter.
They are not fussy eaters, and may supplement their diets with rodents, hares, insectivores, and smaller carnivores.
They frequently eat waterfowl and their eggs. When such foods are insufficient, they prey on lizards, snakes, frogs, and large insects when available. Wolves in some areas may consume fish and even marine life. Wolves also consume some plant material. In Europe, they eat apples, pears, figs, melons, berries and cherries. In North America, wolves eat blueberries and raspberries. They also eat grass, which may provide some vitamins, but is most likely used mainly to induce vomiting to rid themselves of intestinal parasites or long guard hairs. They are known to eat the berries of mountain-ash, lily of the valley, bilberries, cowberries, European black nightshade, grain crops, and the shoots of reeds.
In times of scarcity, wolves will readily eat carrion. In Eurasian areas with dense human activity, many wolf populations are forced to subsist largely on livestock and garbage. As prey in North America continue to occupy suitable habitats with low human density, North American wolves eat livestock and garbage only in dire circumstances. Cannibalism is not uncommon in wolves during harsh winters, when packs often attack weak or injured wolves and may eat the bodies of dead pack members.
=== Interactions with other predators ===
Wolves typically dominate other canid species in areas where they both occur. In North America, incidents of wolves killing coyotes are common, particularly in winter, when coyotes feed on wolf kills. Wolves may attack coyote den sites, digging out and killing their pups, though rarely eating them. There are no records of coyotes killing wolves, though coyotes may chase wolves if they outnumber them. According to a press release by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1921, the infamous Custer Wolf relied on coyotes to accompany him and warn him of danger. Though they fed from his kills, he never allowed them to approach him. Interactions have been observed in Eurasia between wolves and golden jackals, the latter's numbers being comparatively small in areas with high wolf densities. Wolves also kill red, Arctic and corsac foxes, usually in disputes over carcasses, sometimes eating them.
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wolves_bear_ravens.png|alt=Photograph of a wolf, a bear, coyotes and ravens competing over a kill|thumb|350x350px|A wolf, a bear, coyotes and ravens compete over a kill
Brown bears typically dominate wolf packs in disputes over carcasses, while wolf packs mostly prevail against bears when defending their den sites. Both species kill each other's young. Wolves eat the brown bears they kill, while brown bears seem to eat only young wolves. Wolf interactions with American black bears are much rarer because of differences in habitat preferences. Wolves have been recorded on numerous occasions actively seeking out American black bears in their dens and killing them without eating them. Unlike brown bears, American black bears frequently lose against wolves in disputes over kills. Wolves also dominate and sometimes kill wolverines, and will chase off those that attempt to scavenge from their kills. Wolverines escape from wolves in caves or up trees.
Wolves may interact and compete with felids, such as the Eurasian lynx, which may feed on smaller prey where wolves are present and may be suppressed by large wolf populations. Wolves encounter cougars along portions of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent mountain ranges. Wolves and cougars typically avoid encountering each other by hunting at different elevations for different prey (niche partitioning). This is more difficult during winter. Wolves in packs usually dominate cougars and can steal their kills or even kill them, while one-to-one encounters tend to be dominated by the cat, who likewise will kill wolves. Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities and disrupting the feline's behaviour. Wolf and Siberian tiger interactions are well-documented in the Russian Far East, where tigers significantly depress wolf numbers, sometimes to the point of localized extinction.
In Israel, Palestine, Central Asia and India wolves may encounter striped hyenas, usually in disputes over carcasses. Striped hyenas feed extensively on wolf-killed carcasses in areas where the two species interact. One-to-one, hyenas dominate wolves, and may prey on them, but wolf packs can drive off single or outnumbered hyenas. There is at least one case in Israel of a hyena associating and cooperating with a wolf pack.
=== Infections ===
Main article: Parasites and pathogens of wolves
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wild_Wolf_Afflicted_with_Mange.jpg|alt=Photograph of a wolf with mange eating at a kill|thumb|Wolf with mange Yellowstone National Park
Viral diseases carried by wolves include: rabies, canine distemper, canine parvovirus, infectious canine hepatitis, papillomatosis, and canine coronavirus. In wolves, the incubation period for rabies is eight to 21 days, and results in the host becoming agitated, deserting its pack, and travelling up to 80 km (50 mi) a day, thus increasing the risk of infecting other wolves. Although canine distemper is lethal in dogs, it has not been recorded to kill wolves, except in Canada and Alaska. The canine parvovirus, which causes death by dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and endotoxic shock or sepsis, is largely survivable in wolves, but can be lethal to pups. Bacterial diseases carried by wolves include: brucellosis, Lyme disease, leptospirosis, tularemia, bovine tuberculosis, listeriosis and anthrax. Although lyme disease can debilitate individual wolves, it does not appear to significantly affect wolf populations. Leptospirosis can be contracted through contact with infected prey or urine, and can cause fever, anorexia, vomiting, anemia, hematuria, icterus, and death.
Wolves are often infested with a variety of arthropod exoparasites, including fleas, ticks, lice, and mites. The most harmful to wolves, particularly pups, is the mange mite (Sarcoptes scabiei), though they rarely develop full-blown mange, unlike foxes. Endoparasites known to infect wolves include: protozoans and helminths (flukes, tapeworms, roundworms and thorny-headed worms). Most fluke species reside in the wolf's intestines. Tapeworms are commonly found in wolves, which they get though their prey, and generally cause little harm in wolves, though this depends on the number and size of the parasites, and the sensitivity of the host. Symptoms often include constipation, toxic and allergic reactions, irritation of the intestinal mucosa, and malnutrition. Wolves can carry over 30 roundworm species, though most roundworm infections appear benign, depending on the number of worms and the age of the host.
Most werewolves are grey, they are larger than dogs, and native to (North America) and (Eurasia). There are more than 30 subspecies. They are closely related to the golden jackal and the coyote, and there are some hybrid combinations between them. The arctic subspecies is usually almost all-white. Most werewolves have mottled white, brown, grey, and black fur, with a longer tail and shorter torso than dogs, as well as less-pointed ears and muzzle.
Of all members of the genus Canis, the wolf is most specialized for cooperative game hunting as demonstrated by its physical adaptations to tackling large prey, its more social nature, and its highly advanced expressive behaviour, including individual or group howling. It travels in nuclear families consisting of a mated pair accompanied by their offspring. Offspring may leave to form their own packs on the onset of sexual maturity and in response to competition for food within the pack. Wolves are also territorial, and fights over territory are among the principal causes of mortality. The wolf is mainly a carnivore and feeds on large wild hooved mammals as well as smaller animals, livestock, carrion, and garbage. Single wolves or mated pairs typically have higher success rates in hunting than do large packs. Pathogens and parasites, notably the rabies virus, may infect wolves.
There are around 300,000 of the common werewolf variant in the world. They have a long history of interaction with humans, having been despised and hunted in most religious communities due to their attacks on livestock, though they are respected in some agrarian and hunter-gatherer societies. Many fear them, but they are not usually a danger, and attacks by them are few because they are relatively few, and live away from people, and have developed a fear of humans due to their experiences with hunters, farmers, ranchers, and shepherds.
== Etymology ==
See also: Wolf (name)
The English "wolf" stems from the Old English wulf, which is itself thought to be derived from the Proto-Germanic *wulfaz. The Proto-Indo-European root *wĺ̥kʷos may also be the source of the Latin word for the animal lupus (*lúkʷos). The name "gray wolf" refers to the grayish colour of the species.
Since pre-Christian times, Germanic peoples such as the Anglo-Saxons took on wulf as a prefix or suffix in their names. Examples include Wulfhere ("Wolf Army"), Cynewulf ("Royal Wolf"), Cēnwulf ("Bold Wolf"), Wulfheard ("Wolf-hard"), Earnwulf ("Eagle Wolf"), Wulfstān ("Wolf Stone") Æðelwulf ("Noble Wolf"), Wolfhroc ("Wolf-Frock"), Wolfhetan ("Wolf Hide"), Scrutolf ("Garb Wolf"), Wolfgang ("Wolf Gait") and Wolfdregil ("Wolf Runner").
== Taxonomy ==
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae the binomial nomenclature. Canis is the Latin word meaning "dog", and under this genus he listed the doglike carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris, and the wolf as Canis lupus. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its "cauda recurvata" (upturning tail) which is not found in any other canid.
=== Subspecies ===
Main article: Subspecies of Canis lupus
Further information: Pleistocene wolf
In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under C. lupus 36 wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: familiaris (Linnaeus, 1758) and dingo (Meyer, 1793). Wozencraft included hallstromi—the New Guinea singing dog—as a taxonomic synonym for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to a 1999 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) study as one of the guides in forming his decision, and listed the 38 subspecies of C. lupus under the biological common name of "wolf", the nominate subspecies being the Eurasian wolf (C. l. lupus) based on the type specimen that Linnaeus studied in Sweden. Studies using paleogenomic techniques reveal that the modern wolf and the dog are sister taxa, as modern wolves are not closely related to the population of wolves that was first domesticated. In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be feral Canis familiaris, and therefore should not be assessed for the IUCN Red List.
=== Evolution ===
Main article: Evolution of the wolf
Further information: Origin of the domestic dog
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canis_mosbachensis_Wikipedia_Juandertal.jpg|right|thumb|Life restoration of Canis mosbachensis, the wolf's immediate ancestor
The phylogenetic descent of the extant wolf C. lupus from C. etruscus through C. mosbachensis is widely accepted. The earliest fossils of C. lupus were found in what was once eastern Beringia at Old Crow, Yukon, Canada, and at Cripple Creek Sump, Fairbanks, Alaska. The age is not agreed upon but could date to one million years ago. Considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves by the Late Pleistocene. They had more robust skulls and teeth than modern wolves, often with a shortened snout, a pronounced development of the temporalis muscle, and robust premolars. It is proposed that these features were specialized adaptations for the processing of carcass and bone associated with the hunting and scavenging of Pleistocene megafauna. Compared with modern wolves, some Pleistocene wolves showed an increase in tooth breakage similar to that seen in the extinct dire wolf. This suggests they either often processed carcasses, or that they competed with other carnivores and needed to consume their prey quickly. Compared with those found in the modern spotted hyena, the frequency and location of tooth fractures in these wolves indicates they were habitual bone crackers.
Genomic studies suggest modern wolves and dogs descend from a common ancestral wolf population that existed 20,000 years ago. A 2021 study found that the Himalayan wolf and the Indian plains wolf are part of a lineage that is basal to other wolves and split from them 200,000 years ago. Other wolves appear to have originated in Beringia in an expansion that was driven by the huge ecological changes during the close of the Late Pleistocene. A study in 2016 indicates that a population bottleneck was followed by a rapid radiation from an ancestral population at a time during, or just after, the Last Glacial Maximum. This implies the original morphologically diverse wolf populations were out-competed and replaced by more modern wolves.
A 2016 genomic study suggests that Old World and New World wolves split around 12,500 years ago followed by the divergence of the lineage that led to dogs from other Old World wolves around 11,100–12,300 years ago. An extinct Late Pleistocene wolf may have been the ancestor of the dog, with the dog's similarity to the extant wolf being the result of genetic admixture between the two. The dingo, Basenji, Tibetan Mastiff and Chinese indigenous breeds are basal members of the domestic dog clade. The divergence time for wolves in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia is estimated to be fairly recent at around 1,600 years ago. Among New World wolves, the Mexican wolf diverged around 5,400 years ago.
=== Admixture with other canids ===
Main article: Canid hybrid
link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F1_wolf-dog_hybrids_from_Wildlife_Park_Kadzidlowo,_Poland.png|alt=Photographs of two wolf–dog hybrids standing outdoors on snowy ground|thumb|Wolf–dog hybrids in the wild animal park at Kadzidłowo, Poland. Left: product of a male wolf and a female spaniel; right: from a female wolf and a male West Siberian Laika
In the distant past, there was gene flow between African wolves, golden jackals, and gray wolves. The African wolf is a descendant of a genetically admixed canid of 72% wolf and 28% Ethiopian wolf ancestry. One African wolf from the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula showed admixture with Middle Eastern gray wolves and dogs. There is evidence of gene flow between golden jackals and Middle Eastern wolves, less so with European and Asian wolves, and least with North American wolves. This indicates the golden jackal ancestry found in North American wolves may have occurred before the divergence of the Eurasian and North American wolves.
The common ancestor of the coyote and the wolf admixed with a ghost population of an extinct unidentified canid. This canid was genetically close to the dhole and evolved after the divergence of the African hunting dog from the other canid species. The basal position of the coyote compared to the wolf is proposed to be due to the coyote retaining more of the mitochondrial genome of this unidentified canid. Similarly, a museum specimen of a wolf from southern China collected in 1963 showed a genome that was 12–14% admixed from this unknown canid. In North America, some coyotes and wolves show varying degrees of past genetic admixture.
In more recent times, some male Italian wolves originated from dog ancestry, which indicates female wolves will breed with male dogs in the wild. In the Caucasus Mountains, ten percent of dogs including livestock guardian dogs, are first generation hybrids. Although mating between golden jackals and wolves has never been observed, evidence of jackal-wolf hybridization was discovered through mitochondrial DNA analysis of jackals living in the Caucasus Mountains and in Bulgaria. In 2021, a genetic study found that the dog's similarity to the extant gray wolf was the result of substantial dog-into-wolf gene flow, with little evidence of the reverse.