Njinzo

==Phonology and Phonotactics==
As the Teńku nation expands, a dialect continuum emerges. The phonemic inventory, phonotactics, and stress below are representative to the dialect of Njinzo /ˈnʒi.nzo/ spoken in Unbamo Uńdako. For information on other dialects, see the Njinzo Dialects page. 
===Phonemic Inventory===
Consonants 	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal 	Velar
Nasal 	m 	n 	ɲ ⟨ñ⟩ 	ŋ ⟨ń⟩
Stop 	p, b 	t, d 	 	k, g
Fricative 	f, v 	s, z 	ʃ~ɕ, ʒ~ʑ ⟨c, j⟩	x, ɣ ⟨ǵ⟩
Approximant	w 	r, l 	j ⟨y⟩ 	(w)
* /r/ is realized as [ɾ] in unstressed syllables and before a syllable that begins with another /r/
Vowels	Front	Central	Back
Close 	i 	ɨ ⟨y⟩ 	u
Mid 	e 	ə ⟨ý⟩ 	o
Open 	 	a 	
Diphthongs	Front 	Central	Back
High 	i̯e ⟨ie⟩	ɨ̯ə ⟨iý⟩	u̯o ⟨uo⟩
Low 	i̯a ⟨ia⟩	ɨ̯a ⟨ya⟩	u̯a ⟨ua⟩
===Phonotactics===
Syllable Structure : (N)(C)V(V)
*C = all consonants
*V = all vowels
*N = nasals
Even when a word with two syllables has a consonant cluster in the middle of the word, the nasal is still pronounced as part of the onset of the second syllable. Codas are forbidden.
Besides the specified diphthongs, vowels are not allowed to cluster. Instead, an epenthetic /l/ is inserted between the vowels. Long vowels are not distinguished from short vowels.
===Stress===
Word stress is predictable in Njinzo. If the penultimate syllable contains a consonant cluster in the onset, then stress falls on that syllable. Otherwise, stress falls on the ultimate syllable. When a word has three or more syllables, then there will be secondary stress two syllables before the primary stress, if applicable. In Njinzo, a stressed syllable is louder in volume and longer in duration.
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
=====Noun Class and Number=====
There are eight different noun classes, and each is marked with a different prefix. Root words may not occur without a class prefix, although alternate class prefixes can be added to root words in order to create new words. Noun number is shown through reduplicated forms of the class prefixes. Below is one of the more common declensions of the noun class prefixes:
Group I	Group I 	Singular	Plural
1 	God/Sky 	utý 	utýtý
2 	Human/Name 	te 	nde
3 	Animal 	gya 	njoka
4 	Body Part/Family	ńie 	ñeńe
5 	Plant/Food 	mse 	mseze
6 	Liquid 	ua 	ula
7 	Collective 	jirý 	riý
8 	Tool 	talý 	tandý
Group II	Group II 	II.a. 	II.a. 	II.b. 	II.b.
Group II	Group II 	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1 	God/Sky 	uatý 	utýtý 	uatý 	utýtý
2 	Human/Name 	n 	tedý 	n 	ten
3 	Animal 	njo 	gyaka 	njo 	gyaka
4 	Body Part/Family	ñe 	ńieńý 	ñe 	ńień
5 	Plant/Food 	msý 	msezý 	msý 	mse...z
6 	Liquid 	u 	uala 	u 	uo
7 	Collective 	riýrý 	ji 	rie 	ji
8 	Tool 	tolý 	talýlý	tu 	talo
Group III	Group III 	III.a. 	III.a.	III.b. 	III.b.
Group III	Group III 	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1 	God/Sky 	utý 	utýtý 	utý 	utýtý
2 	Human/Name 	n 	ndý 	n 	týn
3 	Animal 	njo 	njoka 	njo 	njoka
4 	Body Part/Family	ñe 	ñeńý 	ñe 	ñeń
5 	Plant/Food 	msý 	msýzý 	msý 	msý...z
6 	Liquid 	u 	ula 	u 	uo
7 	Collective 	jirý 	ji 	jie 	ji
8 	Tool 	talý 	tandý 	to 	tandý
=====Noun Possession=====
Noun possession is marked by pronominal suffixes attached to the possessed noun. If the possessor is not a subject pronoun, then it is placed before the possessed noun and a pronominal suffix that matches the class of the possessor is added to the possessee.
Pronominal Prefixes	Singular	Plural
1st 	ce- 	ńce-
2nd 	m-/be- 	pe-
3rd Animate (1-2) 	ńde- 	nja-
3rd Lesser (3-6) 	mu- 	mu-
3rd Inan. (6-8) 	la- 	la-
===Pronouns===
Njinzo has personal, demonstrative, and interrogative pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as determiners with zero derivation.
Subject Pronouns 	Singular	Plural
1st 	nceba 	kimba
2nd 	mpe 	mbe
3rd Animate (1-2, 4)	ńdia 	njada
3rd Lesser (3-6) 	nfuo 	nfuo
3rd Inanimate (6-8)	ndo 	ndo
The 3rd animate subject pronouns are only used for class 4 nouns if they refer to family members.
The 3rd lesser and 3rd inanimate subject pronouns can be used with liquid class nouns depending on context and the general animacy of the object the noun describes. For example, speakers tend to use nfuo for the noun ureyeli "river," but they will use ndo for rielua "puddle."
Demonstratives	Demonstratives
Proximal 	rie
Distal 	ruo
Interrogative Pronouns	Interrogative Pronouns
Who 	teńo
What 	ńo
Which X 	nu-X
Which one 	nuńo
Where 	ǵonje
When 	ǵomzi
Why 	kono
How 	ǵongo
"Which" is a prefix to the noun in question. The "which" prefix can also be used as "some" if the statement is not a question.
===Adjectives and Adverbs===
Adjectives and adverbs act similarly in Njinzo. They come before the word they modify. 
Adjectives come from verbs, and they must agree in number and class with the noun they modify. Monosyllabic verbs take Group II class prefixes, bisyllabic verbs take Group I class prefixes, and polysyllabic verbs take Group 3 class prefixes. Adverbs do not agree in number or class with the word they modify.
For adjectival comparisons, a regular copular construction is made, and then a locative phrase follows.
msýbie	msenkeńke			nǵo			egi		lalulo
C5-tree		C5-grow.PRFV	person	LOC	3.LES-be.PRFV
The tree is taller than the person. (lit. The tree is tall to the person.)
===Numerals===
Njinzo uses a base-24 number system.
Base-10	Base-24	Numerals 	Base-10	Base-24	Numerals
1 	1 	ke 	15 	F 	nkamjo
2 	2 	rua 	16 	G 	nkaǵymke
3 	3 	ugi 	17 	H 	nkaǵymzua
4 	4 	cepo 	18 	I 	nkaǵybeki
5 	5 	tekata 	19 	J 	nkaǵymfo
6 	6 	nkotage 	20 	K 	tagamjo
7 	7 	nkotarua 	21 	L 	tańxymke
8 	8 	nkotaki 	22 	M 	tańxymzua
9 	9 	nkotavo 	23 	N 	tańxybeki
10 	A 	togata 	24 	10 	ńkiý or tańxymfo*
11 	B 	tagotage 	28 	14 	ńkiý cepo
12 	C 	tagotarua	36 	1C 	ńkiý tagotarua
13 	D 	tagotaki 	69 	2L 	rua ńkiý tańxymke
14 	E 	tagotavo 	576 	100 	ńecige
*Children often use this form to help learn counting.
===Verbs===
Besides a few auxiliaries, Njinzo verbs are highly analytical. They cannot receive any types of marking. However, each verb has a perfective and imperfective form. The imperfective form is the stem while the perfective form comes from an old reduplication strategy.
====Auxiliaries====
There are a few common auxiliary verbs that can encode tense or mood. The columns below refer to the aspect of the main verb.
 	Imperfective 	Perfective
luo 	present progressive/near future	present
udia 	imperfect 	recent past
lonjoda	past habitual 	remote past
ñebe 	distant future/optative 	
Unlike other verbs, auxiliaries are permitted to take marking for polypersonal agreement. Below is a chart of all possible person marker combinations in Njinzo:
Polypersonal Agreement
Prefixes	Object → 	None 	1st 	1st 	2nd 	2nd 	3rd 	3rd 	3rd 	3rd 	Reflexive/ Reciprocal	Indefinite/ Impersonal
Polypersonal Agreement
Prefixes	Object → 	None 	1st 	1st 	2nd 	2nd 	Animate (1-2)	Animate (1-2)	Lesser (3-6)	Inan. (6-8)	Reflexive/ Reciprocal	Indefinite/ Impersonal
Subject ↓ 	Subject ↓ 	None 	Singular	Plural 	Singular	Plural 	Singular 	Plural 	Lesser (3-6)	Inan. (6-8)	Reflexive/ Reciprocal	Indefinite/ Impersonal
1st 	Singular 	ce- 	-- 	ceńce- 	cepe- 	cem-/cebe- 	ceńde- 	cońja- 	co- 	cemu- 	ceze-/cezo- 	ceno-
1st 	Plural 	ńce- 	ńcenje- 	-- 	ńcepe- 	ńcem-/ńcebe-	ńceńde- 	ńcońja- 	ńco- 	ńcemu- 	ńceze-/ńcezo- 	ńceno-
2nd 	Singular 	m-/be-	benje- 	beńce- 	-- 	mbe- 	beńde- 	wonja- 	bu- 	mbu- 	mve-/mvo- 	nbo-
2nd 	Plural 	pe- 	penje- 	peńce- 	mpe- 	-- 	peńde- 	monja- 	po- 	pomu- 	peze-/pozo- 	pono-
3 Animate (1-2) 	Singular 	ńde- 	ńdenje- 	geńce- 	ńdepe- 	ńdem-/ńdebe-	geńde- 	gonja- 	ńdo- 	ńdomu- 	ńdeze-/ńdozo- 	ńdono-
3 Animate (1-2) 	Plural 	ńja- 	ńonje- 	ńjańce-	ńjape- 	ńjam-/ńjabe-	ńońde- 	ńońja- 	ńjo- 	ńjamu- 	ńjaze-/ńjazo- 	ńjano-
3 Lesser (3-6) 	3 Lesser (3-6) 	la- 	unje- 	uńce- 	upe- 	um-/ube- 	uńde- 	unja- 	nda- 	umu- 	uze-/uzo- 	uno-
3 Inan. (6-8) 	3 Inan. (6-8) 	mu- 	munje- 	muńce- 	mupe- 	mum-/mube- 	muńde- 	munja- 	muo- 	mumu- 	muze-/muzo- 	muno-
Indefinite/Impersonal	Indefinite/Impersonal	nu- 	nonje- 	nońce- 	nope- 	nom-/nobe- 	nońde- 	nonja- 	nuo- 	nomu- 	-- 	--
==== Negation====
Negation is shown through a negating adverb. It may precede the main verb or the auxiliary.
nziý			mǵo	ńdeñebe				cera
C2-baby	not		3S.AN-FUT/OPT	sleep.IMPF
The baby won't/doesn't want to sleep.
nziý			ńdeñebe				mǵo	cera			 
C2-baby 3S.AN-FUT/OPT	not		sleep.IMPF	 
The baby won't/doesn't want to sleep. (But it may (want to) do something else.) 
====Nominalisation====
Verbs can be nominalised using the same construction as they do for becoming adjectives (see Adjectives and Adjerbs).
If the nominalised verb has a perfective stem, then it refers to a general concept or a finished action. If it has an imperfective stem, then it will refer to an action in progress. If a the nominalised verb has the collective class prefix, then it may be used as a gerund.
==Syntax==
===Sentences===
====Word Order:====
Njinzo has SOV word order. Auxiliaries precede the main verb, and indirect objects follow the direct objects.
====Copular Constructions: ====
Copular constructions use the verb luo. The copula is the only verb that does not require an auxiliary in the present tenses. Phrases of the pattern "noun is adjective" only mark the copula for the subject, not the object.
tenda		tenkeńke	ńdeluo
C2-man	C2-grown	3S.AN-be.IMPF
The man is tall.
tenda		msýbie	egi
C2-man	C5-tree	LOC
The man is at the tree.
===Noun Phrases===
==== Postpositions====
Postpositions come after the noun they modify describing that noun.
====Relative Clauses====
Relative clauses are formed by putting a phrase before the noun the modify. A placeholder pronoun nu-C?-ǵo fills the place where the modified noun would go in the phrase. The placeholder pronoun must agree in number and class with the modified noun, so the appropriate class prefix fills the C? slot.
===Coordination===
Most coordination in Njinzo uses conjunction words. However, in order to say "X and Y," where X and Y are nouns, the instrumental postposition must be used. The auxiliary agrees with the number and class of the noun that is not followed by the instrumental postposition.
nceba	ceńieńǵi						oye	celuo		kogý
1S			1S.POS-C4-brother	INS	1S-PRS	run
My brother and I run (lit. I run with my brother)
===Questions===
====Yes/No Questions====
Yes/no questions are asked by placing the question particle at the beginning of a sentence. There are two question markers one used for non-past questions and the other for past questions.
Question Markers	Question Markers
Non-Past 	jiremǵo
Past 	jirudeńǵo
The the question markers can also be used to create "if... then..." statements. The applicable question marker heads the if phrase, and the word ńxy "so" heads the then phrase.
The past 
====WH-Questions====
Njinzo uses interrogative pronouns to form WH-questions. These pronouns go in the same place as corresponding nouns in indicative statements. When, why, and how are most often treated as indirect objects. WH-questions do not use the question markers. What and who are marked as indefinite pronouns for verb agreement. 
njada 	ńo 	 ńjanudia				mi 
3P.AN 	what	3P.AN-IDF-PST	do.IMPF
What were they doing?
njada 	ruo		kono 	ńjamudia						mi	 
3P.AN 	that	why		3P.AN-3,INAN-PST	do.IMPF
Why were they doing that?
==Semantics==
===People===
====Kinship====
====Formality====
Men and children must refer to women with the title "ńiembe" and then their first name. Only high ranking men are referred to as “ńienda” and their first name. Men and women do not generally have to use titles with members of the same sex unless they are clearly outranked. Chieftesses are referred to with the title “riýmbe,” and the head chief is solely called Ncimvambe despite any name she may have previously had. Additionally, names are put in the plural form to address someone formally.
====Idioms====
Idiom 	Meaning 	Literal Translation
mǵo njokaguzý	You're welcome/no problem/all clear	No inverted centaurs
Category:Languages