Nonuniversal Theory

== History ==
Nonuniversal theory is a theoretical framework of cognitive and intellectual developed by David Henry Feldman, Ph.D., a professor of applied child development, most recently at the Eliot Pearson School of Child Development at Tufts University.https://as.tufts.edu/people/faculty/david-henry-feldman It was first published with the release of the first edition of his book Beyond Universals in Cognitive Development in 1980.Feldman, D. H. (1980) Beyond universals in cognitive development. (Ed. 1). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. It posits an expanded notion of cognitive development theory with emphases on applied developmental psychology and increased attention paid to individuality, diversity, and the transmission of culture.Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., & Feldman, M. W. (1981). Cultural transmission and evolution: A quantitative approach. Princeton University Press.Feldman, D. H. (1981). Beyond universals: Toward a developmental psychology of education. Educational Researcher, 10(9), 21-26. Dr. Feldman’s work is largely influenced by the works of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.Feldman, D. H. (1987). Going for the middle ground: A promising place for educational psychology. Development and learning: Conflict or congruence, 159-172.
== Nonuniversal Theory ==
Nonuniversal Theory is a theoretical perspective in intellectual development that incorporates universal and nonuniversal domains of development and claims that transitions in both types of domains follow the same patterns and trajectories. Universal domains are the bodies of knowledge expected to develop in all people, while nonuniversal domains are culturally defined and achieved by fewer people.Feldman, D. H. (ed.) (1994) Beyond Universals in Cognitive Development: Second Edition. Westport, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing. ISBN 1-56750-032-3Lerner, R. M. (2018). Concepts and theories of human development. Routledge.
=== Levels of Generality ===
Nonuniversal theory is comprised of three levels representing the range of generality in the categorization of development: macro, meso, and micro levels. 
==== Macro Level: Domains of Knowledge ====
The macro levels are the broad domains of development, categorizations of the bodies of knowledge available for acquisition and achievement, and they are presented on a "unique-to-universal" continuum. The continuum organizes the domains in order of increasing specificity and specialization, from universal to unique. While the universal domain encompasses developmental achievements common across cultures, the remaining domains are nonuniversal in that they are not expected to develop in every person.Marton, F., & Booth, S. (2013). Learning and awareness. Routledge. Cultural domains are bodies of knowledge that most people within a culture are expected to achieve at least some level of proficiency in. Discipline based domains are similar to cultural domains, but they are specific to a certain field and are achieved by fewer people who have more choice in which discipline they pursue. Additionally, disciplines result in similar patterns of thinking in all individuals in the field, regardless of cultural context. Idiosyncrasies are usually subareas or specialties within a discipline and are achieved by even fewer people. Lastly, a unique discipline is when something within the domain is successfully undertaken in an entirely novel way.
==== Meso Level: Developmental Level ====
The meso level of Nonuniversal Theory refers to developmental levels within each of the domains. The developmental levels from least to most skilled are called: Novice, Apprentice, Journeyman, Craftsman, Expert, and Master. 
===== Novice =====
The novice is inexperienced in an area of knowledge who may only have short-term or provisional interest in knowledge acquisition. They do not yet have the skills necessary to be able to practice effectively within in the domain, requiring significant levels of supervision and ongoing instruction towards basic skill acquisition and development.
===== Apprentice =====
The apprentice has established a formal or informal commitment to learning the skills needed to attain a basic level of competence within the domain of knowledge. They have acquired sufficient familiarity to be able to gain some independence in task performance with very close and focused supervision.
===== Journeyman =====
The journeyman has grasped the basic skills and practices of the domain of knowledge required to achieve the level of a competent practitioner in the field. They are generally able to gain licensure from regulating bodies in the domain and have sufficient skills to be able to complete larger and multi-step tasks independently.
===== Craftsman =====
The craftsman is able to perform with skilled proficiency with specialty in one or more specific areas within the domain. They may be deemed skilled enough by more advanced practitioners to be given supervision responsibilities at this level.
===== Expert =====
The expert is able to perform with skilled proficiency in all major areas of their domain without limited specialty, as is the case with the craftsman. Capable of teaching less experienced individuals in the domain, they are often responsible for assessing and evaluating the work of other practitioners.
===== Master =====
The master has achieved the highest level of skill in the domain, often having gained recognition as extraordinary within their field of practice. They frequently engage in the training and supervision of individuals at other levels within the domain, and they often are responsible for leadership within their field. This may include setting the standards of practice and expected performance.
==== Micro Level: Movement of Elements ====
Movement through a meso-level occurs on the micro-level of Nonuniversal theory through the movement of elements. Elements are the core capabilities specific to the domain: the most basic components needed in order to do the activity properly. They are unique and specific to each domain. 
Each element moves independently through the meso-level, and their movement can be graphically represented as the number of elements located at each micro-level of expertise at a given point in time. A full developmental transition, therefore, is technically when all of the elements have advanced up one full meso-level. These transitions are comprised of six recursive phase changes, and the same 6 phases account for all transitions in nonuniversal domains. The phases are each represented by configurations of the elements in the graphic representation and demonstrate the gradual movement of the mode from less advanced to more advanced. The mode is the level of expertise containing the most elements at a given time. 
Elaboration refers to when elements move forward from the mode. This can be fast or gradual, and typically can result from practicing new skills. Forward movement of the elements in this manner can create a “positive bias” configuration in which most of the elements are skewed towards to more advanced micro-levels. When there is a "negative bias" in configuration, most of the elements skewed toward the more basic micro-levels. 
One type of elaboration is called a novelty. A novelty occurs when a single element advances into a new level that had yet to be achieved. This can happen through elaboration, or by a leaper, when an element progresses two or more micro-levels at once, typically jumping forward from the mode. Novelties can tend to have a “pulling effect” on related elements, encouraging more elaboration. Piaget’s similar concept to the novelty is called taking of consciousness, while Vygotsky’s framing of a similar experience in learning is called successful internalization. According to the theory, novelties are often followed by reversions, the backwards movement of a novelty in the period immediately after its emergence. 
Elements can also move backward. A deep reversion is when an element jumps back more than one level. A laggard is an element with progress that is lagging behind the others and seems to refuse to improve in spite of all efforts.
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