Методические рекомендации по курсу практической грамматики Зорина Л. Б

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МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ  РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ

по курсу практической грамматики 

























Зорина Л.Б.













Москва

2002









	Методические рекомендации по курсу практической грамматики написаны к пособиям “Article”, “Noun”, “Adjective”, “Pronoun”, “Adverb” и включают в себя краткое описание наиболее употребимых случаев артикля, классификацию, способы образования и употребления существительного, прилагательного, местоимения и наречия, а также тексты для лексико-грамматического перевода и грамматического анализа.

	Пособие предназначено для студентов изучающих английский язык на уровнях Intermediate- Upper Intermediate.













































Contents



Предисловие ………………………………………………………..  4



Артикль

Article ……………………………………………………………  5



2. Существительное

     Noun …………………………………………………………….  18



3. Прилагательное

    Adjective ………………………………………………………… 22



4. Местоимение

    Pronoun …………………………………………………………. 25



5. Наречие

    Adverb …………………………………………………………… 32



6. Библиография

    Sources …………………………………………………………… 35































































ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ



	Пособие предназначено для студентов изучающих английский язык на уровнях Intermediate- Upper Intermediate.

Пособие представляет собой грамматический справочник по ряду разделов грамматики. 

Цель пособия – систематизировать знания по этим темам. В данный справочник были включены наиболее простые трактовки и объяснения грамматических явлений, теоретические сведения, примеры, иллюстрирующие грамматические явления, их перевод на русский язык. Раздел Stop and Check позволяет проверить усвоение грамматического материала. Грамматические правила излагаются на английском и на русском языке, что позволяет студентам более точно усвоить значение изучаемого грамматического явления, а также обратить внимание на грамматические трудности при переводе с одного языка на другой. 

Пособие предназначено для самостоятельной работы студентов в классе и во время домашней подготовки.

 При составлении пособия использовались грамматики английского языка российских и британских авторов.





































































Артикль. Article.



	План прохождения темы:



Определение, происхождение, основные виды артикля и его формы.



Основные случаи употребления неопределенного артикля с исчисляемыми существительными.



Основные случаи употребления определенного артикля с исчисляемыми существительными. Описательные и лимитирующие определения.



Основные случаи употребления нулевого артикля.



Употребление артиклей с аббревиатурами.



Употребление артиклей с географическими названиями.



Упражнения для повторения, грамматического анализа и контроля.





	1. Артикль - служебное слово, поясняющее существительное. (The article is a structural word modifying a noun)

	В английском языке есть 3 вида артикля - неопределенный, определенный и нулевой.

(the indefinite article, the definite article, the zero article)

	Определенный артикль произошел от древнеанглийского местоимения этот.

	Неопределенный артикль произошел от древнеанглийского числительного один.

	Артикль имеет форму множественного числа.



единств.число (singular)               множ.число (plural)

a/ an  [ 7  ] [7n ]                                         O

a book                                                    books

an  arm                                                   arms



the [ =7  ]                                             the [=7 ];[=i: ]

the book                                               the books

                                                             the arms





	2. Неопределенный артикль употребляется с исчисляемым 

              существительным:

1. when a person or a thing is introduced for the first time

	The man was carrying a case in his hand.

2. when a person or a thing belongs to a certain class

	A cat is a domestic animal.

3. when we speak about a person or a thing in a general sense

	An individual has every right to expect personal freedom.

4. before a predicative noun denoting a job

	I would like to be an architect.

5. for price, distance or frequency

	80p a kilo

	40km an hour

	twice a day.

6. with reference to illness.

	a cold, a headache, a sore throat.

7. in exclamations

	what a splendid view!

8. with titles

    (full stops)

	She is an M.A. (= Master of Arts)

9. in detached apposition	

The accused, a man of thirty, denied everything.	                        

10. in the original meaning of one 

I’d like coffee with a cake.



Упражнения из пособия “English Grammar Practice”, составители Павлоцкий В.М., Тимофеева Т.М. ex 2 p.9 (№№ 1,4,5,7,9,12,13,15,20,26,31)



11. in front of proper nouns

     a) denoting members of a family

	He is a Forsyte.

     b) with reference to literature and art

	It’s a Picasso.

12. with nouns denoting

     a) nationality	She is an American

     b) religion		He is an Anglican

     c) politics		He is a Conservative



Упражнения из пособия “Article” ex 1c p.2.



	Поскольку неопределенный артикль произошел от древнеанглийского числительного один, в современном английском языке сохранились случаи, когда можно употреблять как a/ an так и one.



1. with whole numbers: a/one hundred, thousand

2. with fractions: a/one quarter, half

3. with money: a/one pound, dollar

4. with weights, measures: a/one kilo, foot

5. we use one with day, morning, evening in a narration.

	One day, when it was pouring, a strange man appeared at the door.



	3. Определенный артикль может употребляться с исчисляемыми существительными как в единственном, так и во множественном числе. Определенный артикль показывает, что говорящий имеет в виду конкретный предмет или понятие.

	Определить, что имеет в виду говорящий, помогает контекст или ситуация.

		When I came in they were talking about a film.

		He didn’t like the film.

	Существенную роль в опознании предмета или понятия имеют определения к существительным.



					attribute



		descriptive					particularising

		описательные				(specifying)

								лимитирующие



Описательные не участвуют в выборе артикля, т.е. в зависимости от ситуации артикль может быть неопределенным или определенным в данном случае.

	Определения, которые всегда являются лимитирующими и требуют употребления определенного артикля:

1. прилагательные right, wrong, very, only, main, principal, central, left, right,

   same, coming, following, present, former, latter, proper, previous, opposite,

   necessary, usual, upper, lower.

		Are you sure it’s the only way to do it?

2. определения, выраженные прилагательными в превосходной степени.

		He was the most reliable friend of hers.

		Most without an article means ‘the greater part’, most of the time.

3. прилагательные next, last для обозначения порядка расположения

    предметов. (to denote the order of objects)

		We’re getting off at the next stop.

	Однако, если next и last сочетаются с существительными, обозначающими время (nouns of time), то артикль не употребляется.

		We’re leaving next week.

4. определения, выраженные именами собственными в общем падеже (proper names in the common case)

		the Wimbledon tournament.



Определенный артикль употребляется с исчисляемыми существительными:



1. referring to classes (in generalisations)

    The violin is more difficult than the piano.

    The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct.

2. with nouns that refer to our physical environment

    the sea, the sky, the mountains, the weather, the town, the country, the west, 

    the equator, the horizon

    He likes the sea, but his wife prefers the mountains.

3. with nouns denoting unique objects and notions

    the moon, the sun, the universe, the world, the globe, the ground, the atmosphere,

    the Milky Way, the Northern Lights.

4. with nouns denoting musical instruments.

	Jane played the flute.

5. with nouns denoting groups or nationality groups.

    The Social Democrats, The Rolling Stones, The Russians, the proletariat, the

    peasantry, the bourgeoisie, the aristocracy, the nobility, the public, the clergy.

    but: Pink Floyd, Queen.

    Nationality and other groups can be expressed with the help of an ajective with the

    definite article. (substantivised adjectives)

    The English, the French, the Chinese, the rich, the poor, the young, the blind, the

    old, the wounded, the unemployed, the disabled.

    Notions: the unknown, the ordinary, the average, the unusual, the supernatural.

	Do you believe in the supernatural?

6. with the nouns the radio, the cinema, the theatre

    But the article can be dropped when we talk about these institutions as art forms or

    professions.

    Cinema is different from theatre in several ways.

    He’s worked in radio all his life.

7. with the titles.

    The Queen, the President, the director of studies.

8. with measurements

    Do you sell eggs by the kilo or by the dozen?

9. emphatic use.

    This hotel is the place to stay.

10. with historical events.

      the French Revolution, the October takeover.

11. with documents.

      the Constitution, the Bill of Rights.

12. with ships

      the Titanic.

13. with organizations.

      the United Nations.

14. with the press.

      The Economist, The Times.

15. with public bodies

     the police, the Government.

16. with proper names when the reference is specific.

      The John Brown I know lives in San Francisco.



Упражнения из пособия  “English Grammar Practice”, составители Павлоцкий В.М., Тимофеева Т.Я. р.13 ех 8, р.17 ех 14, р.19 ех 15, р.21 ех 17.

Упражнения из пособия ‘Articles’ p.7 ex 3D, p.8 ex 4A, p.9 ex 4B,4C. 



4. Нулевой артикль. The zero article can be used both with countable and uncountable nouns.



1. with the nouns school, hospital, church, university, college, prison, bed

    denoting an activity.

	Mr.Woods has gone into hospital.

	She studied history at college.

but: when these nouns denote places or buildings they can be used either with 

        the indefinite or definite article.

		There is a school in the street I live.

		The school was repaired last year.



2. with the nouns breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, supper denoting meals.

	Shall we go out for dinner?

but: a) when the reference is specific we use the definite article.

		We enjoyed the supper we had last night.

        b) when there is a descriptive adjective before these nouns we use the 

indefinite article.

		We had a light breakfast.



3. with the nouns spring, summer, autumn, winter, Christmas, Easter, December,

   Saturday denoting seasons or special time of a year, days, months.

	Spring is followed by summer.

The article is not used when there are the adjectives late or early before the noun.

	It was late autumn.

but: a) we use the indefinite article when there is a descriptive adjective before 

            the noun.

		It was a terrible winter.

	b) we use the definite article when the reference is specific.

		The summer we spent last year was magnificent.



4. with uncountable nouns denoting substances or food water, oil, coffee, tea,

   sugar, bread, sand.

	Oil is exported by the UAE.

but: some uncountable nouns can become countable. In this case an article can 

        be  used. 

(a decision – решение		 	decision – решительность

a work – произведение		 	work - работа

an experience -  случай из жизни 	experience - жизненный опыт)

		A coffee with two sugars, please.



5. a) with nouns denoting titles, ranks followed by personal names (proper 

    names)

	Professor Jackson, Colonel Hammond, Doctor Lee, Lord Byron, Oueen

         Elizabeth, President Kennedy.

but: when these nouns are not followed by proper names we can use either the 

        indefinite or definite article according to the context.

		The doctor has been sent for.

		My father is a philosophy professor.

b) with nouns denoting family relations when they are followed by proper names.

		Aunt Molly, Cousin John.

but: when proper names follow the nouns that do not belong to the two groups

        mentioned above the definite article is used.

		The painter Picasso, the widow Douglas, the dog Ginger,

		the planet Mars.



6. with nouns denoting some illnesses

meas[z]les (корь), mumps (свинка), shingles [ 589glz ](опоясывающий     лишай), 

high blood pressure, flu, gout (подагра), hepatitis [ ,hep7/ta8t8s ], appendicitis



7. with nouns denoting sport games.

	hockey, golf, tennis, darts, cards, billiards, chess, draughts, cricket.



8. with nouns denoting beliefs.

	God, Buddha, Christianity.



9. with nouns denoting organizations, institutions.

	Congress, Parliament, Duma.



10. with nouns denoting languages.

	Chinese is one of oriental languages.



11. with nouns denoting means of transport

	by car/  bus/ train/ plane/ ferry; on foot



12. with nouns denoting subjects

	Mathematics is a difficult subject for many school pupils.



13. with double expressions

	with knife and fork, with hat and coat, from top to bottom, on land and

	sea, arm in arm, inch by inch, day after day, husband and wife, from street 

         to street, cheek to cheek.        



14. with idioms

	by hand (oт руки), at hand (под рукой), in detail, in person, on business,

         on holiday, by chance, by mistake.



15. with compound conjunctions  	 

	in addition to, in contrast with, in regard to, in reply to, in connection with,

	on account of (по причине), in comparison with, by way of (посредством).



Упражнения из пособия “English Grammar Practic”, составители Павлоцкий В.М., Тимофеева Т.Я. p.22 ex 19 (№№ 1,2,4,5,12,13), ex 20 (№№ 1,2,13,14),

p. 24 ex 24 (№№ 1,6,7,8,9,19,21,23,24,27,29,31,32,37)

Упражнения из пособия “Articles”. p. 10 ex 5A, p. 11 ex 5B, 5C, p. 12 ex 6B.



	The use of articles with abstract nouns that can be only uncountable.



1. The zero article is always used with the nouns 

    money, news, luck, fun, nature, space, health, progress, advice, permission, 

    information, concern, work, nonsense.

2. with nouns denoting a quality (качество, свойство) or process (процесс).

    Anger, beauty, curiosity, freedom, happiness, love, modesty, pride, respect,

   strength, time, violence.

	There was despair in her eyes.

3. the zero article is used when these nouns are used as an attribute (определение) or an adverbial modifier (обстоятельство).

	a feeling of curiosity, a sense of guilt, to look at smth with interest, to

	examine smth with great attention.

4. a) the zero article is used when a descriptive attribute denotes a degree of

    quality (степень качества)

	great respect, sufficient ability, perfect confidence, complete happiness, 

	profound satisfaction.





b) when a descriptive attribute gives a time characteristics (временная характеристика)

	modern music, ancient sculpture, eternal beauty, contemporary literature.

c) when a descriptive attribute denotes nationality or place (национальная или 

    географическая принадлежность)

	Greek architecture, French poetry, Moscow time, world peace.

d) when a descriptive attribute denotes authenticity (подлинность)

	real fear, genuine sorrow, false sympathy

e) when a descriptive attribute denotes social or political belonging (социальная или 

    политическая принадлежность)

	bourgeois sociology, proletarian culture.

the indefinite article is never used with the nouns

	money, news, luck, fun, nature, space, health, progress, advice, permission,

 	information, concern, work (работа, но не произведение), nonsense.



5. the indefinite article is used if the attribute is certain and peculiar, a descriptive

    clause (описательное придаточное предложение).

	There was a peculiar tenderness in her letter.

	He had a patience that amazed his friends.



	5. The use of articles with abbreviations.

Some abbreviations are made from the initial letters of several words. This often happens with the names of organizations.

Some initial-letter abbreviations are pronounces letter by letter and used with the definite article.

	The BBC, the CIA, the FBI, the USA, the IRA, the IMF.

 Others are pronounced like words (they are called acronyms) and the article is dropped.

	UNESCO, UNO, GATT, FAO, NATO, OPEC, SALT, SHAPE, UNICEF,

	VAT, WASP, WHO.



	6. The use of articles with geographical and place names.

См. И.П.Крылова, Е.В.Крылова. Практическая грамматика английского языка. 

рр. 182-185, Michael Swan, Practical English Usage. p.68, Raymond Murphy. English Grammar in Use. pp.152-155, Michael Vince.  Advanced Language Practice. p.96, The Heinemann English Grammar. pp.172, 173.



Упражнения из пособия “Articles” p.16 ex 6C,6D, из пособия “English Grammar Practice”, составители В.М. Павлоцкий, Т.М. Тимофеева, р.23 ех 21, р.24 ех 24 (№№ 2,11,23,24,25,26,27,29,31,32,33,34,35)



	7. Stop and Check. 

Test 1

___ chimpanzee is considered to be almost as intelligent as ___ human being.

___ chimpanzee is ___ ape.

___ cat is ___ domestic animal.

___ chimpanzees can easily adjust to strange surroundings.

___ crocodiles and snakes have been killed for their valuable skin.

___ belts, footwear and handbags are made of ___ crocodiles’ and snakes’ skin.

___ chimpanzee is ___ vegetarian.

___ vegetarian is ___ person who doesn’t eat meat.

___ jaguar is ___ wild animal known for ___ unique ability to run at ___ speed of ___ 180km ___ hour.

She found  ___ job at ___ bank.

What ___ great painting! It’s ___ Rubens. I’ve seen ___ copy in ___ Hermitage.

If I have ___ cup of ___ coffee I won’t sleep at ___ night.

Pass me ___ pepper, please.

Mainly ___ women love ___ flowers.

___ Winter Palace is in ___ Palace Square.

___ survived have always remembered ___ brutal repressions and ___ anti-religious campaigns during Stalin’s rule.

___ Pawnbrokers must keep ___ articles safely and can only give ___ article to someone who has got ___ pawn ticket.

Today Ulan-Ude is ___ average Siberian town.



Test 2

___ Strand is ___ busy street.

___ Netherlands is ___ highly-developed country.

___ Russia has recently been visited by ___ Queen of ___ Netherlands.

___ Queen of the United Kingdom is ___ useless figure, though ___ symbol of ___ power.

She  lives in ___ UK now and works for ___ travel agency.

___ People from ___ Russia often speak ___ fluent English.

___ legislative power in ___ US is vested in ___ Congress.

___ executive power is vested in ___ government.

___ situation in ___ country was beyond ___ tzar’s  power.

___ cannibalism is still common in some tribes on ___ African Continent.

In 1917 ___ power was seized by ___ Bolsheviks.

You have to pay ___ pawnbroker interest on ___ loan, for example one per cent per ___ day or five per cent per ___ week.

___ good Catholic is ___ dead Catholic.

___ Catholics are the most numerous religious group in Spain.

During ___ English Civil War, ___ king had to leave London and he moved his government to Oxford.

That was between 1642 and 1645 that ___ King Charles I ruled.

___ scientist estimate that more than 1,500 life forms found nowhere else on ___ Earth live in and around ___ Lake Baikal. It’s ___ world’s largest reservour of ___ drinking water.







Test 3

It was ___ useful experience.

___ medical aid from ___ WHO often helps to cure ___ poor people in ___ Third World countries.

He is ___ M.P.

She is ___ Conservative.

They are ___ Liberals.

We are ___ Liberal.

___ house was bulldozer in 1977 because it was ___ inconvenient reminder of ___ bloody methods of ___ Communist regime.

I didn’t want to spend twenty years in ___ jail.

___ major is expecting you, sir. Make ___ left,  then you’ll see the Administration Block.

I get to my country cottage first by ___ local train and then by ___ bus.

___ French tourists often complain about ___ English food.

I’ve got ___ appointment to see ___ Major Hammond.

___ French like to eat well.

___ Sergeant, I’m ___ insurance claims investigator.

The monument to ___ fallen glorifies those who fought on ___ side of ___ Bolsheviks.

In ___ 20th century many canals were unused and some of them became filled with ___ rubbish.

This notion refers to ___ past.

___ Laws passed by ___ Congress must be based on  ___ Constitution.

___ pneumonia is rather ___ frequent disease nowadays. ___ treatment is based on ___ antibiotics and ___ nourishing food.



Test 4

___ famous sculptor Donatello could hardly sell his works in ___ beginning.

In ___ British English ___ professor is ___ very important teacher at ___ university.

___ policy provided by ___ NATO is often aggressive.

___ major annual event for ___ Russian children used to be ___ month-long stay in ___ summer camp.

___ police officers thanked ___ local girl who stopped ___ million pound robbery.

He’s in ___ trouble. ___ police have been looking for him.

___ police have been looking for ___ stolen property.

She was held captive for nearly ___ day.

___ body of ___ unidentified man was found floating in ___ Thames.

I’ve been waiting for over ___ hour.

She married ___ Argentinian and moved to ___ Argentina.

___ monument to ___ Unknown Soldier is in ___ Alexander’s Garden.

___ Love is ___ essence of his poetry.

She borrows ___ money only from ___ bank.

In 1994 ___ long controversy over what really happened to ___ royal family of Russia was brought to ___ end.

___ canals in England used to carry ___ coal and ___ heavy materials. They join ___ Iriah Sea to ___ north west.

___ Buryats are ___ most numerous of the indigenous population of ___ Baikal region.

“Excuse me, - pint of bitter and ___ orange juice.”

“For Motherland! For Stalin!” is ___ World War battle cry of ___ Soviet Army.

On every bus there are seats for ___ disabled.



Test 5

___ diplomat is ___ person who can tell you to go to hell in such a way that you actually look forward to ___ trip. Caskie Stinnett.

___ dog is ___ only thing on earth that loves you more than you love yourself. Josh Billings.

___ optimist is someone who thinks ___ future is uncertain. Anonymous.

___ death is ___ nature’s way of telling you to slow down. Anonymous.

I always pass on ___ good advice. It is ___ only thing to do with it. It is never any use to oneself. Oscar Wilde.

I love acting. It is so much more real than ___ life. Oscar Wilde.

Nothing illegal if ___ hundred businessmen decide to do it, and that’s true anywhere in ___ world. Andrew  Young.

Writing about ___ art is like dancing about ___ architecture. 

Scientific calculations were much slower before the invention of ___ computer.

What did people write with before ___ ballpoint?

___ people usually think that ___ babies are sweet and ___ teenagers are annoying.

But ___ time between ages thirteen and twenty are ___ years that I like best.

___ spider has eight legs.

___ fax machine is a much faster way of sending letters than ___ post.

They made her ___ Manager.





7. Revision.

1. Use the proper forms of the verbs in brackets.

    Identify the use of articles.



The Winchester Mystery.

   	One night Mrs Jouce Boweles 1. (drive) her car from Winchester to Chilcomb with a friend of the family, Mr Ted Pratt.   Suddenly they 2.(see) an orange light in the sky. The car 3.        (start) to shake and Mrs. Bowels 4. (can, not) control it. Some unknown power 5. (lift) it, then 6. (push) to the left, then 7. (stop) the engine and 8. (switch off) the lights.

  	 “It was then that we 9. (see) a car-shaped object about five yards long. There 10. (be) three figures inside," said Mrs. Bowels. The three figures 11. (be) the crew of the UFO. Mrs. Bowels said that she 12. (be, never) so frightened before.

   	At first, the alien crew 13. (look) like ordinary people. They 14. (wear) silver clothes. Then the alien 15. (come out) of the UFO. He 16. (be) quite tall and 17. (seem) to be about forty-five years old.



He 18. (have) long faire hair and a short beard. He 19. (put) his arm on the roof of the car and 20. (look) at the two frightened people inside. He 21. (have) clear, white skin and pink eyes.

Mrs. Bowels 22. (he afraid) that the alien 23. (kill) them, but he only 24. ( look) at the car's instruments. Suddenly the lights 25.(switch on) and they 26. (shine) four times brighter than normal.

Mrs. Bowels (27 want, say) "Thank you" but before she (28 open) her mouth the UFO and its crew (29 disappear, already) into the night.



Miss Evans.

  	 One night in  April 1912, a new ocean liner was crossing the Atlantic. It 1. (set out) two days before and 2. (go) to New York. It 3. (be) the largest and fastest ship in the world called_   Titanic.

  	 The passengers 4. (have) a good time when the ship suddenly 5. (hit) an iceberg.

   	Everyone 6. (tell) to come out of their rooms. Unfortunately there 7. (be, not) enough lifeboats for all the passengers.

   	There 8. (be, not) very much time left. The iceberg 9. (be) on one side of the ship. It 10. (look) like a high, white wall.

   	A woman 11. (come) to the side of the ship. Her two children 12. (be) in the lifeboats, and she 13. (be) very much afraid.

   	"My children 14. (be) in the lifeboat. I 15. (must, go) with them!" the woman 16. (call) to the people in the lifeboat.

   	"There's no more room," someone 17. (call out). "If we 18. (take) one more, the lifeboat 

19. (sink)."

   	There 20. (be) a young woman in the lifeboat called Miss Evans. When she 21. (hear) the woman calling, she 22. (stand up) in the lifeboat and 23. (touch) one of the men on the arm.

   	"Let me 24. (get back) to the ship," she said. "This woman 25. (must, be) with her children."

  	 "The ship 26. (sink). Very soon  it 27.(go down) under the water," said the man.

   	"I 28. (know) it," said  Miss Evans.

   	People 29. (help) her to get back on the ship. Very soon after that there 30. (be) a great noise, and the Titanic 31. (go down) under the water.





A letter from London.

Dear Alice,

Hi! I'm on _holiday in London. I 1. (stay) with my friend, Jane. She 2. (live) in the centre of London, near_ Hyde Park.

I 3. (be) here since_ Saturday and I 4. (already, do) lots of things. I 5. (visit) the Tower of London, the British Museum and Madam Tussaud's.

I 6. (go) to Madam Tussaud's on __ Monday. It 7.(be) terrible. When I 8. (enter) the Chamber of Horrors, I 9. (scream).

Yesterday Jane and I 10. (go) shopping. I 11. (want) to buy some souvenirs. But while I 12. (pay) for a T-shirt, someone 13. (steal) my bag. Luckily, I 14. (spend, already) nearly all my money. 

There 15. (be) a lot of things I 16. (not, do) yet. I 17. (not, be) on a boat trip down the Thames, yet, I 18. (not, see) the Millennium Dome.

If the weather 19. (be) fine tomorrow, I 20. (go) on a boat trip. I hope Jane 21. (can) keep me company. I 22. (like) London very much. I 23. (never, see) such a beautiful city. You 24. (must) visit it some day. I 25. (be) back  in a week, so I 26. (call) you then. 

Love, Ann.



A sleepless night.

One night I 1. (be) alone at_ home with my ten-year-old daughter. She 2. (wake) me up in the middle of the night: “Mum, mum! There 3. (be) a man outside the house. He 4. (watch) me through the window!” I 5. (look) out of  the window. I 6. (can) see  the  shape of a man outside. Who 7. (be, he)? What 8. (he, do) there?

«I 9. (must, get) to the telephone in the hall and telephone the police,» I 10. (think).

I11. (go) downstairs hardly daring to breathe, afraid that he 12. (hear) my movements. I 13. (reach) for the telephone, 14. (lift) the receiver and 15. (dial) 999. The police 16. (answer) and I 17. (explain) what 18. (happen). They 19. (say) that they 20. (come) at once.

Soon a police car 21. (stop) in front of the house. I 22. (hurry) downstairs and 23. (open) the front door. 

A police officer 24. (come) in.

“What 25. (happen)?” he 26. (ask).

After listening to my story he 27. (go) out, and after awhile 28. (return). "It's all right," he 29. (say). “I 30 (just, see) that man. He 31. (walk) his dog. By the way, he 32. (live) in the house opposite.”





The Big Sleep.

Philip Marlowe was a detective, who lived in_ Los Angeles. In the 1930s this was a tough city, where_ people could make a lot of money from_ crime. Marlow saw the dark side of Los Angeles, and he knew that the answers to his questions would usually be lies. 

_General Sternwood was a very rich man, but he was old and sick,. and he was having problems with a blackmailer. His two daughters were both beautiful and wild. They were in_ trouble, too, and it was all much worse than the General knew. Could Marlowe do anything to help the Sternwoods?

The violent death of Arthur Geiger, a Hollywood bookseller, has quickly been followed by the death of his killer. The police report that Arthur,  who owned a popular bookstore on Hollywood Boulevard, was murdered last night at his home on Laverne Terrace. 

Although the reason for Arthur's murder is not known, the killer, a man called Joe Brody, was well known to the police as a thief. Brody himself, however, lived for less than twenty-four hours after the murder. A young man called Carol Lundgren, who worked at Arthur Geiger's bookstore, went to Brody’s department late this afternoon and shot him when he came to the door. Lundgren has now been arrested and has told the police that he killed Brody in_ revenge for the death of his employer.

A man killed himself last night by driving into the sea off Lido Pier. Owen Taylor, who worked as a chauffeur for an old Hollywood oil familv, had recently been ill and unhappy. Yesterday_ evening he took a Buick which belonged to the family, and the car was later found in the sea with Taylor dead at the  wheel.





Black Beauty.

Until he was four years old, Black Beauty lived in a field and was able to gallop (race) around with other young horses. Then he began his training. He had to learn to wear a saddle on his back and a bridle on his head, with a cold metal bit in his mouth. When he pulled a carriage behind him, he had to wear a heavy collar on his neck and blinkers against his eyes.

He was lucky with his next home. He lived in a pleasant stable with Merrylegs, a fat little pony, and Ginger, a tall brown mare. His new master, John the groom, and James the stableboy were all kind people.

How I wish I could live in a field, not a stable! Never to wear harness again or to pull a carriage behind me! To feel soft grass under my feet,  and to have the freedom to gallop where I want, without a heavy rider (saddle) on my back! Why do humans treat us so badly? They care more about fashion than about us. Oh no, she wants the bearing rein shorter today. I can see how tight he' made it on Beauty. No, I won't have it! I'm going to kick my way out of this... 

This is ginger, harnessed to a carriage outside Lord Gray's house. York has just shortened the bearing rein on Black Beauty, and is about to do the same to Ginger, who has decided she can't stand in any longer and is about to kick herself out of the carriage.





Cranford.

There has been a terrible accident at the railway station in Cranford. __Captain Brown was reading a book while he waited for  the down-train, and he suddenly noticed a  little girl on the railway line. The train was coming into the station, but_Captain Brown quickly jumped onto the line. He saved the little girl's life, but tragically, he fell under the train himsell and was killed. 

Captain Brown lived in Cranford for two years, and worked for the railway company. He left two daughters. He was a popular and respected person in Cranford society, and he will be greatly missed by everybody.





Death of an Englishman.

This man must not go to_ prison. The Englishman was shot by_ accident; Signor Cipolla is not a murderer. He had a terrible life when he was a child because of the war. His father was killed and his family never had enough to eat. After the war, he came to Florence and worked as a cleaner. He got married, but his wife could not have children and this made her very unhappy. Signor Cipolla worked hard to take care of his wife, but then she came very ill. There was nothing that the doctors could do, so Signor Cipolla took a job cleaning the Englishman's flat. She wanted to make enough money to die at_ home with her husband beside her. But the cruel Englishman, who was also a criminal, never paid her. And Signor Cesarini, who arranged the cleaning job, didn't pay her either. So in the end, Signor Cipolla couldn't stay at_ home with his wife because they needed money to buy medicine for her pain. On the night that his wife died, a neighbor gave Signor Cipolla some 'grappa', which made him drunk. He went to see the Englishman, who was angry and took out a gun. Then he put it down; he hit Signor Cipolla across the face and called his wife a thief. Signor Cipolla picked up the gun because he wanted to make Langly-Smythe listen to him, not because he wanted to kill him. He aimed the gun at the bedroom door, and when he shot the Englishman, his eyes were shut (closed)!





Desert, Mountain, Sea.

Today Naomi James became the first woman to sail alone around the world when she sailed into Dartmouth harbor in the yacht Express Crusader. She was at the end of a 55,000-kilometre journey that lasted nine months and took her east past the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, New Zealand, and Cape Horn.

The worst moment of her voyage came in_ February when her boat capsized and a lot of equipment was broken. She was only able to sleep for an hour or two at a time, but she decided to go on with her voyage.

Naomi was met at Dartmouth by her parents, her sister Juliet, and her husband Rob, whom she had seen a month before, near the Azores. She had spoken to him often by radio telephone since she left Britain last September.

As the Express Crucader, surrounded by many other boats, big and small, sailed into harbor,

hundreds of people and reporters were waiting to welcome Naomi home.

















Существительное. Noun.



	План прохождения темы:



1. Основные способы образования существительных.

    Классификация существительных.



Категория рода, числа и падежа у существительных.



Упражнения для повторения, грамматического анализа и контроля.







		1. Making nouns. (Образование существительных)



We use some words only as nouns: e.g. table, bird.

However, we often make nouns from other words by adding different endings or suffixes: -er, -or, -ar, -an, -al, -ant, -ance, -ce, -ian, -ist, -ity, -ety, -cy, -y, -ment, iour, -ledge, -ion,       -ness, -hood, -dom, -ful, -ism. 

E.g. player, actor, trial, attendant, attendance, librarian, pianist, ability, anxiety, constancy, agreement, behaviour, knowledge, admission, laziness, childhood, freedom, mouthful, sexism.

Nouns can be made from verbs, adjectives, other nouns.

 Some nouns have the same form as verbs: act, blame, book, cost, fear, kiss, try, walk, wish.

Some nouns have the same form as verbs, but the stress is on the first syllable: to progress - ‘progress, to permit - ‘permit, to record - ‘record.  

   The meanings can be quite different: to entrance - entrance, to present - ‘present, to object - object.                                                                                                      

There are compound nouns in English that are formed from:   

 - noun + noun (bathroom, lampshade, seashore, mountain plants, furniture shop, coffee beans, fruit drink, bicycle factory, head-master, the evening news) 

  - noun + noun structures used in measurements, with a number before the first noun (a five-litre can, a ten-pound note, a three-mile walk, a five-day course)   

  - In fractions, the plural-s is not dropped (a two-thirds share)                             

  - In measurements of time the plural with s’ is often used to say how long things last (three hours’ journey, twenty minutes’ delay)                                     

  -We use the possessive’s to talk about several different sorts of ideas: for  example possession (my father’s house, the Atkinsons’ house), relationship (Mary’s  brother), physical features and characteristics (the earth’s gravity), non-physical qualities and measurement (the plan’s  importance, the government’s decision, the prisoner’s release), parts of people’s and animals’ bodies (a man’s leg, an elephant’s trunk), products from living animals (cow’s milk, lamb’s wool, snake’s poison).

but: - when the animal is killed to provide something, we use noun + noun (chicken soup, fox fur, tortoise shell)

        - when we talk about parts of non-living things, we use noun + noun (the car door, a table leg)

Упражнения:  пособие ‘Noun’ (p. 1ex. 1A, 1B; p. 2ex. 1C, 1D; p. 2ex. 2B)













					Сlassification of nouns

				  All nouns can be divided into:

		proper names		and		common names

	(имена собственные)				(нарицательные)

	Asia, Elizabeth			

						countable nouns		uncountable nouns

						(исчисляемые)		(неисчисляемые)

						continent, idea, effort	sand, fuel, progress





					Gender (Poд)



	The category of the gender is semantic (семантическая) in English.

	There are three gender: masculine gender (мужской род) E.g. husband, sailor, boy, hephew. They can be replaced by the pronoun he; feminine gender (женский род) E.g. girl, niece, cow, hen. They can be replaced by the pronoun she; all other nouns are considered to be of neuter gender (средний род) E.g. box, table, opinion, pride. They can be replaced by the pronoun it.

	The gender of such nouns as cousin, friend, teacher, politician etc. can be defined by the context.

	The gender can be shown in the noun structure, itself.

host - hostess, actor - actress, tiger - tigress, a he-wolf - a she-wolf, duke - duchess, hero - heroine, monk - nun, prince - princess, widower - widow.

	Some uncountable nouns can never be countable. This means we cannot: use a/an in front of them, give them a plural.

(advice, clothing, furniture, homework, jewellery, lightning, thunder, weather, scenery, traffic, shopping, luggage, rubbish, progress, money, news, soap, spaghetti) 

	Traditionally, the nouns ship, boat, car and also countries’ names and animals are referred to the feminine gender and are replaced by the pronoun she.

	Once upon a time there was a fox called Joe.

	He lived …

	Look at the cat. Isn’t she graceful?

	‘How’s your new car?’ ‘Terrific’. She’s running beautifully.

	The ship’s struck a rock. She’s sinking.

We can use she with countries, but it is more common in modern English.





					Number (Число)



Singular, plural.

The plural form is generally made with the suffix – s(es)

	[ z ]		[ s ]				[ 8z ]  after	[s, z, 5, t5 ]

	days		books				brushes

	boys						horses

	tables						roses

	dogs

Making plural nouns the following spelling rules are important:

1. the suffix –es is added to the nouns ending in –s, -sh, -ch, -x, -z. (glass – glasses, box 

   – boxes, wish – wishes)

2. the suffix –es  is added to the nouns ending in –o, preceded by a consonant (tomato – 

    tomatoes, hero – heroes, cargo – cargoes, volcano - volcanoes); if o is preceded by a 

    vowel or the noun is borrowed from another language, only –s is added. (cuckoo – 

    cuckoos, radio – radios, piano – pianos, photo – photos, bamboo – bamboos, zoo – 

    zoos, video – videos)



3. the ending –y, preceded by a consonant is changed into –ies. (story – stories, fly – 

    flies); to the ending –y, preceded by a vowel, only –s is added. (boy – boys, play – 

    plays). But if a noun ends in –y and starts with a capital letter, we just add –s 

    (Kennedys, Januarys)

4. the ending –f, or –fe is changed into –ves. (wife – wives, life – lives, shelf – shelves). 

    But: roofs, cliffs, gulfs, proofs, safes, cuffs, beliefs, hand kerchief – hand kerchiefs.



5. irregular plural nouns:

    man-men			sheep-sheep

    woman-women		salmon-salmon		headquarters

    tooth-teeth		deer-deer

    foot-feet			trout-trout

    mouse-mice		beaver-beaver

   goose-geese		swine-swine

   ox-oxen			fish-fish

   analysis-analyses  	craft-craft

   basis-bases		means-means

   crisis-crises		works-works	

   criterion-criteria

   datum-data

   phenomenon-phenomene

   medium-media	

6. the nouns that are used only in the singular form: advice, fun, hair, luck, money,

    news, knowledge, information, progress, work, weather, politics,phonetics,physics

7. the nouns that are used only in the plural form: trousers, pants, shorts, trunks,

    pyjamas, braces, scissors, spectacles, glasses, scales, tongs, billiards, cards, domi-

    noes, draughts, contents, clothes, troops, goods, whereabouts, surroundings, savings

8. the nouns that can be used both in the singular and the plural form: family, group, 

    audience, army, crew, team, delegation, party, crowd, herd, flock

9. the  nouns: people, police and cattle are always used with the plural verb.



Case (Падеж)



the common case				the genitive case

(общий падеж)				(родительный падеж)



The nouns in the common			The genitive case is formed

case have no ending				with the suffix  ‘s

proper names

person names

collective nouns

animals’ names (the dog’s barking)

nouns denoting time and distance (a few days’ trip, a moment’s pause)    geographical names (Europe’s unity)

set phrases (a pin’s head, at one’s finger’s end)

The nouns in the genitive case are used as attributes (определение) in a sentence.



Упражнения: пособие ‘Noun’ (p. 5ex. 3A, 3B; p. 7 ex. 4B; p. 8 ex. 4C; p. 9,10 ex

        1-4; p.15 ex 7A; p.17 ex 8A, 8B; p.18 ex 8C, 8D, 8E)



	

3. Stop and Check.



Test №  1

Complete the sentences using the correct article and verb form.

____ police (be) an essential establishment.

____ police (look) for the criminal for half_ year.

____ goods (be) still at the docks.

NATO’s headquarters (be) in Brussels.

____ cheapest means of transport (be) ___ bicycle.

____ news (be) at ten o’clock on Channel 2.

____ mathematics (teach) in Russian schools beginning from ___ first year.

____ government (be) very popular.

____ government (disagree) on the matter.

____ United States (be) smaller than Canada.

Three weeks (be) enough holiday.

____ Welsh (have) a very old tradition, Eistedford.





Test №  2

When he (fall) over, he (break) two of his (tooth).

The police in Britain (wear) uniforms.

We’ve got enough (plate), but we need some more (knife) and (fork).

Modern supermarkets offer _____ wide variety of goods from (tomato, potato) to (piano and furniture)

In ____ mountains there (be) a lot of (deer).

(Baby) must (look after) ____ day and ____ night.

____ Mass (medium) (cover) developments both inside and outside the country.

(Cat) hunt (mouse).

What (criterium) (use) to estimate the economic situation in the country?

He was slim with short brown hair and ____ thin (moustache).

















				Прилагательное. Adjective.



	План прохождения темы:



Определение, способы образования существительных, сложные прилагательные, субстантивированные прилагательные, причастие настоящего и прошедшего времени в функции прилагательного.



Порядок расположения прилагательных перед существительным.



Степени сравнения прилагательных.



Упражнения для повторения, грамматического анализа и контроля.







1. The adjective is a part of speech that denotes qualities.

	Adjectives are formed with the help of suffixes:

- able (manageable, capable)

- ible (possible, permissible)

- ful (boastful)

- ic (economic, energic)

- ian (Victorian)

- ish (foolish)

- ly (silly, friendly)

- ive (positive, attractive)

- ant (hesitant)

- ous (courageous, humorous)



						and prefixes:

un- (unhappy)

in- (inhuman, incapable)

il- (illiberal, illiterate, illogical)

im- (immoral, immortal, impractical)

dis- (dishonest, disagreeable)

ir- (irrational, irrespective)

pre- (pre-natal, pre-war)

hyper- (hyperactive) 



Nouns and numbers can be combined to form compound adjectives. In English compounds are preferred to phrases with of (a man of twenty years). Such compounds refer to:

- age (a seventy-year-old woman)

- volume (a two-litre car)

- length (a twenty-mile fence)

- price (a fifty-pound note)

- weight (a five-kilo bag)

- area (an eighty-hectar farm)

- duration (a two-day conference)

- depth (a six-foot ravine)

- distance (a two-kilometre walk)



Упражнения из пособия  “Adjectives”  (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.) р.1 ex. 1А, 1В; р2 ex. 1Д.



A few adjectives can be used on their own after the definite article to refer to the group as a whole (such adjectives are called “substantivized”)



The blind, the sighted, the deaf, the dumb, the living, the deal, the rich, the poor, the young, the old, the elderly, the healthy, the sick, the injured, the survived, the unemployed.



Упражнения из пособия  “Adjectives”  (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.) р.5 ex.3А write 2.



In English some past participles and present participles are used as adjectives but the meaning is different. (amazed/ amazing, annoyed/ annoying, bored/ boring, enchanted/enchanting, excited/ exciting, interested/ interesting, pleased/ pleasing, tired/ tiring, upset/ upsetting)

Similar pairs: delighted/ delightful, impressed/ impressive.



Упражнения из пособия  “Adjectives”  (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.) р.6 ex. 3В, 3С.



2. The order of adjectives in front of a noun is as follows

quality/ opinion/ size (beautiful large…)

age/ shape/ colour/ where from (ancient oval red American…)

where from + past participle

or: past participle + where from (a French handmade… a handmade French…)



Упражнения из пособия  “Adjectives”  (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.) р. 8 ex. 4D, 4E.



2. Comparatives and superlatives.

    См. Практическая грамматика английского языка (И.П. Крылова, Е.В. Крылова) стр. 187-189

		





	4. Stop and Check.



Translate into English:

	4.1. Виндзор, мрачный каменный Виндзор. Оплот британской монархии. Сегодня это старейшая королевская резиденция в Европе, которая до сих пор используется по своему прямому назначению. Шесть лет назад здесь разразился пожар, уничтоживший знаменитый тронный зал святого Георгия, королевскую столовую и часть северо-восточного крыла здания. Елизавета повелела восстановить Виндзор на свои собственные средства.

	Всего в 15 минутах ходьбы от Виндзора находится Итон, старейшее и самое престижное учебное заведение в мире, основанное в 1440 году королем Генрихом VI. До сих пор здесь соблюдаются строгие правила.

	В самых живописных и отдаленных уголках Англии можно побывать, путешествуя на Восточном экспрессе, который перенесет вас в славную эпоху 20-30-х годов, когда путешествовали с тяжелыми чемоданами, переодевались к ужину, а на дымном перроне появлялись во всем белом. Сегодня пассажирам Восточного экспресса предлагают то же самое меню, что и 70 лет назад, пульмановские вагоны с мягкими креслами освещены оранжевыми абажурами, стены декорированы панелями розового дерева.



	4.2. Скрипки Страдивари являются самыми редкими и ценными музыкальными инструментами в мире. Начиная с 17 в. их продавали, покупали, воровали, тайно хранили.

	Считается, что гений, создавший эти удивительные инструменты, родился в 1644 году в городе Кремоне на севере Италии. В подростковом возрасте его отдали на обучение к мастеру Николо Амати. Год за годом овладевал он этим мастерством и в возрасте 20 лет начал изготавливать свои собственные инструменты. Страдивари прожил более 90 лет, изготавливая скрипки вплоть до своей смерти в 1737 году.

	По мнению специалистов, Антонио Страдивари изготовил около 1100 инструментов, приблизительно 600 из которых сохранилось.

	Скрипке по имени «Гибсон» почти 300 лет и она стоит нескольких состояний. В 1936г. она была украдена в нью-йоркском зале Карнеги-холл и вновь появилась только в 1985 году. Потребовалось 6 недель, чтобы удалить с инструмента 50-летнюю грязь.

	В России скрипки Страдивари появились в конце 18 в. и перед революцией 1917 года их было около 20. Почти все они были национализированы и хранятся в государственных коллекциях. Сейчас на инструментах Страдивари играют Ю.Башмет и В.Спиваков.



	4.3. Use the proper verb forms, articles, nouns, adjectives:

	Российская производственная компания «Куппо», специализирующаяся на выпуске натурального кофе, приобрела богатый опыт в области обработки кофе.

	Разнообразие сортов кофе позволяет каждому потребителю выбрать кофе по своему вкусу.

	Кофе – величайший путешественник. Более тысячи лет он странствует по свету.

	Однажды давным-давно пастух, пасший коз на горных склонах Эфиопии, съел ягоды и листья неизвестного растения. После этого он долгое время не чувствовал усталости. Монахи из ближайшего монастыря услышали об этом феномене и после многочисленных попыток установили, что семена этого растения можно использовать для приготовления напитка, который помогал им не засыпать во время многочасовых молитв. Они же научились обжаривать косточки, что придало напитку горьковатый вкус и чарующий аромат.

	Решительный шаг в деле распространения кофе в России сделал Петр I. Находясь в Голландии, он был частым гостем в доме амстердамского бургомистра (мэра) Николая Витсена. Там он пристрастился к напитку и по возвращении в Россиию ввел потребление кофе в обычай на своих ассамблеях.



	4.4. Лошади пришли к нам из Америки. В доледниковый период на месте Берингова пролива была суша. Происходила активная миграция животных из Евразии в Америку. Именно поэтому там теперь обитают лоси, волки, белки. Постепенно они вытеснили исконно американских животных. В обратном направлении, из Америки в Евразию, переселились очень немногие виды, среди них были лошади. В те древние времена лошади обитали на болотах и были ростом всего 20-30 см. Питались они болотной растительностью. Последующие изменения климата кардинально изменили внешность лошади. Со временем лошади расселились на всем Евразийском континенте, а в Америке по какой-то причине они вымерли.









Местоимение. Pronoun.



План прохождения темы:



Определение. Основные характеристики. Функции местоимения в предложении.

Личные местоимения.

Притяжательные местоимения.

Возвратные местоимения.

Взаимные местоимения.

Указательные местоимения.

Относительные местоимения. (Союзные местоимения)

Неопределенные местоимения.







		1. The pronoun is a part of speech that can replace a noun or an adjective. Pronouns in English have person, number, case and gender.

		Some pronouns (not all of them) have singular and plural forms (this-these, that-those), other pronouns have either singular or plural form (each, somebody - singular; both, many - plural), such pronouns as all, which have the same form for the plural and the singular.

		Most pronouns have no case forms (падежные формы), for example each, every, both, all, what, such pronouns as somebody, each other have three cases, the common case (общий падеж), the possessive case (притяжательный падеж), for example, somebody’s, each other’s, and the objective case (объектный падеж), for example, me, whom, her.

		Only personal and possessive pronouns in the third person singular have masculine, feminine and neuter forms (she-her, he-his, it-its. Masculine pronouns refer to male beings, feminine pronouns - to female beings, and neuter pronouns - to inanimate objects or to living beings (baby, cat) whose sex is irrelevant or immaterial in the context.

		All pronouns can be divided into the following groups:



Personal (личные) pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

Possessive (притяжательные)  pronouns (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)

Reflexive (возвратные) pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)

Reciprocal (взаимные) pronouns (each other, one another)

Demonstrative (указательные) pronouns (this, that, these, those)

Interrogative (вопросительные) pronouns (who, whose, what, which)

Relative (относительные) pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that)

Indefinite (неопределенные) pronouns (some, any, no, none, much, many, little, few, all, both, either, neither, each, every, other, one и их производные)



	In a sentence, pronouns can be used as:

a subject (подлежащее)

		Where are the others?

a predicative

		The red car is his.

an object

		The coffee is nice. Where did you get it?

an attribute

	Take your book off the shelf.



	2. Personal pronouns.



We use personal pronouns as subjects. We use personal pronouns for a person or people. We use he for a male person and for some male animals. We use she for a female person and for some female animals. We use it  for a thing or for an animal when the sex is not known or not important.

We use they to refer to the government or to people in authority “what are the government’s plans? 

They’re going to increase taxes”.

We use the plural pronoun they with a singular meaning, especially in an informal style.

		Somebody forgot to lock the door, didn’t they?

We use we including the speaker and you in the other case.

		Why don’t we go to the cinema this evening?

		Why don’t you come with us?

We use it as an ‘empty’ subject (dummy subject)

		It’s noon.

		It’s Christmas.

		It’s interesting to study a foreign language.

	It upsets me not to find you at home.

 We also use it as an ‘empty’ object.

	I find it difficult to explain the reason.

It can have emphatic use.

	It was the job that Susan wanted to have.



Упражнения: Пособие “Pronouns” (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.) р. 1 ex. 1А, 1В, p.2 1C, 1D, p.5 ex.3A, 3B.



	3. Possessive pronouns and adjectives.



	The possessive adjectives and pronouns are:



				     Possessive adjectives		Possessive pronouns



singular          plural

singular          plural

1st person

my                  our

mine                ours

2nd person

your               your

yours               yours

3rd person

his

her                  their

its

his

hers                  theirs

  -



We use a possessive adjective before a noun to say who the noun belongs to.

	Chris and Pat never cut the grass in their garden.



We use a possessive pronoun without a noun, when the noun is understood.

	He is always using my shampoo. Why doesn’t he buy his?



We normally use possessives with parts of the body, clothes and family members.

	‘How are your children?’ ‘Fine, thanks.’

	Jenny broke her leg skiing.

	They took off their coats and sat down.

We don’t use possessives immediately after articles or after this/ that.

	a friend, of mine, that brother of yours.



We often use the instead of a possessive in expressions with prepositions, especially when talk about common kinds of pain, illness and physical contact, and when the possessor has already been mentioned.

	He’s got a pain in the chest.

	Anne’s got a cold in the head.

	I looked him in the eye.



Упражнения: Пособие “Pronouns” (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.) p.7 ex.4A, 4B, p.8 ex.4D, 4E.

Grammarway 3 p.160 ex.3,4,5,6, p.162 ex.8,9.



	4. Reflexive pronouns.



	There aren’t many verbs in English which we must always use with reflexive pronouns: absent oneself, avail oneself (of), pride oneself (on).

	The verbs amuse, blame, cut, dry, enjoy, hurt, introduce can be used both with and without reflexive pronouns. (enjoy yourself = have a good time; help yourself to smth = take smth for yourself) to behave oneself



The verbs wash, shave, dress, feel, hurry, relax, concentrate are normally used without reflexive pronouns.

	I can’t concentrate.

	I must try to relax.



We use reflexive pronouns when the subject and the object of a clause are the same.

	Annie hurst herself when she fell over.

	I cut myself shaving in the morning.

	The computer will turn itself off if you don’t use it.

	He tried to kill himself.



We use reflexive pronouns to emphasize the subject or object. In this case they usually come at the end of the sentence, but they can also come after the subject.

	Robert himself is quite friendly, but the rest of his family is very cold.

	I’ll see the President himself if necessary.

	The house itself is nice, but the garden’s small.

	I can do it myself.



After prepositions, we use object pronouns instead of reflexive pronouns when it is clear who we are talking about.

	I’ll take some money with me.

The pronouns on my own/ by myself = alone, without anyone else.

	The old man lives on his own/ by himself.

	I don’t want to go out on my own/ by myself.

	to take care of oneself

	to look after oneself





	5. Reciprocal pronouns.



We prefer each other for two people or things, and one another for more than two.

	Hilary and June write to each other every week.



We’ve promised one another to telephone if one of us is going to be late home.



	6. Demonstrative pronouns.



	this and that are singular; these and those are plural.

	We use this and these to talk about things near the speaker. We use that and those to talk about things that are further away from the speaker.



Упражнения: Пособие “Pronoun” (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.) p.9 ex. 5A, 5B; p.10 ex. 5D; p.11 Round the world alone, p.12 ex.1.



	7. Relative pronouns.



	Relative pronouns who(m), which, whose, that introduce relative clauses. A relative clause tells us which person or thing the speaker means.



	The man who lives in the flat above is an actor.



	We use who/ that to refer to people.

	We use which/ that to refer to objects or animals.



	The man who designed our house is an architect.

	The car which is parked outside belongs to me.



We use whose instead of possessive adjectives (my, your, his, etc.) with people, objects and animals in order to show possession.

	That’s the house whose entrance is guarded.

	That’s the woman whose house caught fire yesterday.



We often use that instead of which and who in an informal style.

	I know some people that can help you.



We normally use that, not which after all, everything, nothing, the only and superlatives. We do not use what in these cases.

	I’ve told you all that I know.

	The only thing that matters to me is your happiness.

	The most useful thing that was ever made...



We can use which to refer back to a whole clause.

	He lent me some money which was very generous of him.



Who/ which/ that cannot be omitted it it is the subject of the relative clause.

	The dog which/ that ran away is mine.



Who/ which/ that can be omitted when it is the object of the relative clause.

	I spoke to a man (whom) I had met before.



We usually avoid using prepositions before relative pronouns.

	The safe which/ that we keep the money in is in the basement. 

 	(usually structure)

	 

	The safe we keep the money in is in the basement. (everyday English)



Identifying (Defining)/ Non-Identifying (Non-Defining) Clauses.



	An identifying relative clause gives necessary information and is essential to the meaning of the main sentence. The relative pronouns can be omitted when they are the object of the relative clause. The relative clause is not put in commas.

	People who park Megally are fined.

	The film I watched yesterday was boring.



	A non-identifying relative clause gives extra information and is not essential to the meaning of the main sentence. In non-identifying relative clauses, the relative pronouns cannot be omitted and cannot be replaced by that. The relative clause is put in commas.

	The Jeffersons, who own a Jaguar, live next door. 

	My cat, which I found on the street, is called Monty.



Упражнения: Jenny Dooley. Virginia Evans. Grammarway 3, р. 113 ex.  1-5, р. 114, 115 ex. 6, 7, 

р. 116 ex. 13, 14.

Пособие “Pronouns” (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.)р. 31, 32 ex. 1а, в, 2.



	8. Indefinite pronouns.



	a) We use much and (a) little with uncountable nouns, and many and (a) few with plural countable nouns.

	We use a lot of/ lots of/ plenty of with both uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns.

	a lot/ lots = a great quantity or number;

	     plenty = more than enough



	b) We use much and many mostly in questions and in negative sentences.

	We use a lot (of), lots (of) and plenty (of) not much and many in affirmative sentences.

	But we use much, many in affirmative sentences after too, as, so and very. 

	A little and a few are positive ideas. Little and few are negative ideas.



	c) We use some and any before plural nouns and uncountable nouns to talk about an indefinite quantity.

I general, we use some mostly in affirmative sentences and any mostly in negative sentences.

We use any after words with a negative meaning. (without, never, seldom, rarely, hardly)

	There are hardly any eggs left.

	You never do any homework.

	I found a taxi without any trouble.

	

We can use some or any after if.

	If you need some/ any money, tell me.



We use any in questions when we do not expect a particular answer.

	Is there any tea in the cupboard?



We use some in questions when we expect people to say ‘yes’ in requests and offers. Would you live some more tea? - Yes, please.



We can use any to mean ‘it doesn’t matter which’ or ‘whichever you like’.

	You can get the tickets from any travel agency.



We use none alone, without a noun.

	How much coffee have we got? ‘None’



Before my, this, the, etc or an object pronoun we use none of.

	None of my frends have seen the film.

	None of the photographs were very good.

	None of us have any money.



When we use none of with a plural noun, the verb can be singular or plural.

	None of my friends have/ has seen the film.

A singular verb is more formal.

	whole means ‘complete’ or’ every part of’. We use whole with singular countable nouns.

	I didn’t see the whole film.

Before place names, we most often use the whole of

	The whole of Europe.



We always use the, my, this before whole + singular noun.

	the whole film, my whole salary



We do not normally use whole with uncountable nouns.

	We’ve finished all the coffee.



We can also use a whole before a singular noun.

We use all with some singular countable nouns.

	all day = the whole day; all afternoon = the whole afternoon.

	all night = the whole night

	a/ the whole hour a/ the whole century, the whole truth

	all my life/ my whole life.



All (of) can be used with a noun or pronoun.

All is not used without a noun or pronoun to mean ‘everybody’.

	All the people were tired.

	Everybody was tired.

All can be used to mean ‘everything’ or ’the only thing’, but only with a relative clause.

	She gave me all/everything (that) she had.

	All (that) I want is a place of my own.

	The thieves took everything (not the thieves took all).



Упражнения: Пособие ‘Pronouns’ (Составитель - Полякова Г.А.) стр. 21 упр. 5.6А, 5.6В; стр. 22 упр. 5.6D .



She gave me all/ everything (that) she had.

All (that) I wanf is a place of my own.

The thieves took everything (not the thieves toon all)



	both



We use both (= ‘the two together’ or’ one and the other’) before a plural countable noun.

	I spoke to both girls.

We use both of before the, your, these + plural noun; in this case, we often leave out of.

	Both (of) the films were very good.

We use both of before the plural object pronouns you, us, them. In this case, we cannot leave out of.

	She invited both of us to the party.

We can use both after an object pronoun.

	She invited us both to the party.



	either, neither



We can use either (= ‘one or the other’) and neither (= ‘not one and not the other) before a singular countable noun.

	Either day (Saturday or Sunday) is fine with me.

	Neither road goes to the station.	



We use either of and neither of before your, these, the + a plural countable noun.

	Can either of your parents speak French?

	Neither of these roads goes to the station.



We use either of and neither of before the plural object pronouns you, us, them.

	Can either of you type?

	Neither of us went to the party.



After neither of we can use a singular or a plural verb.

A singular verb is more common in a formal style.



We use both, either and neither to link ideas.

	both... and...; either... or....; neither... nor...



	I spoke to both Sally and Peter.

	John is both thoughtful and generous.

	She both speaks Japanese and writes it. 



	I don’t like either football or rugby.

	We can either stay or go out.



	Neither Mrs Woods nor her husband were at home.

	He neither apologised nor explained.



Упражнения для грамматического анализа текста:

Разработка ‘Pronouns’ (Составитель - Полякова Г.А.)

р.2 ex. 1D, р.4 ex. 2D, р.8 ex. 4.4.Е р.10 ex. 5D, р.11 Round the world alone, р. 14 ex. 6D, р.15 Missing, р.18 ex. 5.5.Е, р.19 Poor little rich kids, р.22 ex. 5,6D, р.23 Faraway faces, р.27 The Bermuda Triangle, р.31 People who help.





Adverbs.

План прохождения темы:



Определение, образование, классификация наречий.

Место наречия в предложении.





	1. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.

	An adverb can be one word (here, why, happily) or a phrase, sometimes called an ‘adverbial phrase’, (at, first; all of a sudden).

	We usually form an adverb by adding the suffix -ly to an adjective (soft - softly).

	Adjectives ending in -le drop the -e and take -y (probable - probably); adjectives ending in consonant +y drop the -y and take -ily (heavy - heavily); adjectives ending in -l take ly (careful - carefully); adjectives ending is -ic usually take -ally (tragic - tragically, but: public - publicly).



	Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. Some adjectives also end in -ly (friendly, lovely, lonely, silly, ugly). These adjectives have no adverbs forms; instead we use different structures (in a friendly way).

	Some adverbs have either a totally different form or the same form as the adjective. (good - well, fast - fast, hard - hard, early - early, late - late).



	2. Meaning and order of adverbs.



Adverbs of place (here, everywhere, below, inside) and time (now, then, yesterday, soon, recently, afterwards) usually go at the end of the sentence (Shall I wait outside? I met him last year.) Adverbs of time such as soon, now and then, go before the main verb, but after an auxiliary verb or the verb to be. (He soon realized that he was wrong. She is now ready to talk to you.)

Adverbs of manner (badly, quickly, suddenly, deeply, willingly) go before the main verb, after an auxiliary or at the end of the sentence. (He quickly ran up the stairs. She is anxiously waiting for an answer. They responded politely.)

If these is more than one adverb, the usual order is: manner + place + time. (We worked hard at school yesterday. He worked quietly at his desk all day long.)

Some adverbs of manner, place and time can also go at the beginning of a sentence if we want to emphasize it. (Tomorrow I’ll sign the contract.)

If there is a verb of movement, such as go, come, leave in the sentence, then the adverbs come in the following order:

place + manner + time (She went home by taxi last night)

Adverbs of frequency (often, sometimes, ever, constantly, always, usually) go before the main verb, but after an auxiliary verb and the verb to be. (She has always been loyal. Tim is usually prepared. Helen often goes to the cinema.)

Adverbs of degree (very, highly, perfectly, completely, much, too, so, such, little, enough, absolutely, totally, extremely, quite, rather) go before an adjective, an adverb or a main verb but after an auxiliary verb. (He was extremely helpful. We quite enjoyed the trip. I didn’t quite understand what you said.)

Quite goes before a/an. (She is quite a pretty woman.)

We use quite before adjectives such as horrible, dreadful, ridiculous, brilliant, perfect, amazing, extraordinary, useless, impossible, right, true, sure, exhausted, certain, false, wrong, alone, different meaning ‘completely’ /‘totally’.

Rather goes before or after a/ an.

We usually use rather in unefavourable comments. (Those clothes are rather old.)

We can use rather in favourable comments when it means ‘to an unusual degree’. (I didn’t know Peter could cook. The meal was rather (вполне) good. (The meal was better than we expected.)

Adverbs of consequence and reason (therefore, consequently, as a result, for this reason)

Adverbs of probability (certainly, surely actually, really, indeed, perhaps, possibly, evidently, of course)

These adverbs normally go before a full verb, but after be or an auxilary or modal verb.

	He probably knows your address.

	They’ve definitely gone out.

	She can obviously do the job.

In negative sentences, adverbs of probability normally go before the negative won’t, isn’t, not. 

She probably won’t be late. 

He certainly isn’t at home now. 

They are obviously not very happy.

Perhaps and may be go at the beginning of a sentence.



Viewpoint adverbs. Наречия, выражающие точку зрения. (theorically, personally, economically, technically, financially, practically, generally).

Interrogative adverbs (when, where, how, why). They at the beginning of interrogative sentences.

Negative adverbs (never, nowhere, hardly, barely, scarcely).



Упражнения: Grammar way 3 (Jenny Dooley - Virginia Evans) р. 152 ex. 4, 5, 6; р. 153 ex. 7, 8, 9.

Разработка “Adverbs” (Составитель - Полякова Г.А.) р. 12 ex. 7.4А, 7.4В, р. 13 ex. 7.4С, 7.4D, 

р. 14 ex. 7.5А, 7.5В, р. 15 ex. 7.5Е, р. 20 David and Goliath, р. 24 ex. 7.8А, 7.8В, р. 26 Ron from Mars.



We use still before a full verb, or after be or an auxiliary verb.

	My brother is 18, but he still behaves like a child.

	Andrew is still asleep.

	I can still remember the first time we met.

We also use still after the subject in negative sentences. In this use still can express impatience or surprise.

	They received the bill a month ago and they still haven’t paid it.

	I’ve known Mike for years, but I still don’t understand him.



We use yet only in questions and negative sentences; yet normally goes at the end of a clause.

	Have you had your exam results yet?

	I wrote to her a week ago, but she hasn’t answered my letter yet.



We use yet in negative short answers after not.

	Have you passed your driving test yet? - No, not yet.



We use already before a full verb, or after be or an auxiliary verb.

	He already knows the news.

	She’s already here.

	I’ve already done it.



We can also use already at the end of a clause for emphasis.

	I’ve seen the film already.

	Have you finiched already?



We use any more, any longer at the end of a clause.

	Sue doesn’t work in London any more.

	My brother isn’t a young child any longer.



Normally, no longer goes before a full verb, or after be or an auxiliary verb. (We do not normally use no more in this way.)

	Annie no longer lives here. She moved last year.



The adverbs fairly, quite rather/ pretty, very normally go before an adjective or adverb which they modify. (quite is a little stronger than fairly)

	I’m fairly tired, but I don’t think I’ll go to bed now.

	I’m quite tired. I think I’ll go to bed now.



Rather (= more than is usual); more than is wanted or more than is expected) is stronger than quite.

	The TV is rather loud. Shall I turn it down?

	We’re  rather late. We’d better hurry.

	The concert was rather good. I was surprised.



Pretty and rather have a similar meaning; pretty is used in a more informal style.



We use quite before a/ an, but fairly and pretty after a.

	It was quite an interesting film.

	He’s a fairly young man.

	It was a pretty interesting film.



We can use rather before or after a/ an.



Упражнения: Grammarway 3 p.153 ex.10, пособие “Adverbs” (Составитель: Полякова Г.А.)

p.14 ex.7.5A, B, C; p.15 ex.7.5E.



Библиография. Sources.



Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка.

Крылова И.П., Крылова Е.В. Практическая грамматика английского языка.

John Eastwood. Ronald Mackin. A Basic English Grammar.

The Heinemann English Grammar.

Michael Swan. Catherine Walter. How English Works. A Grammar Practice Book.

Michael Vince. Advanced Language Practice.