Query: Voxtel Avalanche Photodiode

Candidate papers:

abstract: The latest three dimensional imaging results from Voxtel teamed with the University are Dayton are presented using Voxtel's VOX3D(tm) series flash lidar camera. This camera uses the VOX3D series flash lidar sensor which integrates a 128x128 InGaAs p i n detector array with a custom, multi mode, low noise, complementary metal oxide semiconductor readout integrated circuit. In this paper, results are presented of: short range 10 m) three dimensional lidar imaging performed at University of Dayton with a fast, low power eye safe laser (20 mJ per pulse, 10 kHz) in high bandwidth, windowed region of interest mode; and longer range (30 150 m) outdoor lidar tests performed at Voxtel with two different eye safe lasers (300 mJ and 3 mJ per pulse, 10 Hz) in full frame low bandwidth mode. The VOX3D camera achieves a single shot timing precision of 23.2 cm and 10.7 cm in high bandwidth and low bandwidth modes respectively, with the timing precision in high bandwidth mode being limited by camera electronics. The VOX3D camera has a maximum range of 51 m and 159 m with 300 mJ and 3 mJ lasers in full frame low bandwidth mode, respectively.
author_names: Cullen Philip Bradley

Andrew D Reinhardt

Paul F McManamon

Vinit H Dhulla
title: 3D imaging with 128x128 eye safe InGaAs p i n lidar camera
venue: Defense Commercial Sensing
year: 2019

abstract: Silicon single photon avalanche diodes (Si SPADs) fabricated with standard CMOS technology and providing the advantages of low noise, low cost, and compatibility with additional circuits are promising candidates for single photon detection fields. The guard ring is a key component of SPADs, which prevents premature edge breakdown and improves the electric field distribution to the intended multiplication region. The choice of proper physical dimensions, especially the active radius (AR) and the size of the guard ring, is important for the better performance of Si SPADs. In this paper, a Si SPAD with a deep virtual guard ring fabricated through deep well diffusion is proposed and the effect of the physical variation of the AR and guard ring width on the device characteristics is investigated. In addition, the effect of physical variation on the device characteristics is analyzed and explained by means of technology computer aided design (TCAD) simulations.
author_names: Dongseok Shin

Byungchoul Park

Youngcheol Chae

Ilgu Yun
title: The Effect of a Deep Virtual Guard Ring on the Device Characteristics of Silicon Single Photon Avalanche Diodes
venue: IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
year: 2019

abstract: Initial results of electrical and optical characterization of Voxtel's first generation 256 x 256 dual mode silicon singlephoton avalanche diode (SPAD) image sensor are presented. The SPAD image sensor is a dual mode device capable of sequential passive single photon counting (2D) and active single photon lidar (3D) range imaging at greater than 250 frames per second, full frame. The sensor was developed in 180 nm complementary metal oxide semiconductor imagesensor technology with a pixel pitch of 30 mm and fill factor of 9% and it achieves room temperature per pixel dark count rate of less than 55 Hz (0.63 Hz/mm2) peak photon detection probability of 29% (at 480 nm) and timing jitter of 268 ps full width at half maximum at the optimal operating point. Preliminary imaging results in 2D and 3D mode are presented.
author_names: Vinit H Dhulla

Sapna S Mukherjee

Adam O Lee

Nanditha M Dissanayake

Booshik Ryu

C Myers
title: 256 x 256 dual mode CMOS SPAD image sensor
venue: Defense Commercial Sensing
year: 2019

title: DARPA developing software reconfigurable Passive and Active LIDAR imaging sensors from ultraviolet UV through very long wave infrared VLWIR
year: 2019

abstract: Over the past 20 years, we have developed arrays of custom fabricated silicon and InP Geiger mode avalanche photodiode arrays, CMOS readout circuits to digitally count or time stamp single photon detection events, and techniques to integrate these two components to make back illuminated solid state image sensors for lidar, optical communications, and passive imaging. Starting with 4 x 4 arrays, we have recently demonstrated 256 x 256 arrays, and are working to scale to megapixel class imagers. In this paper, we review this progress and discuss key technical challenges to scaling to large format.
author_names: Brian Aull

Erik Kurt Duerr

Jonathan P Frechette

K A Mcintosh

Daniel R Schuette

Richard D Younger
title: Large Format Geiger Mode Avalanche Photodiode Arrays and Readout Circuits
venue: IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
year: 2018

abstract: Abstract. An analysis is presented of the error introduced into estimates of avalanche photodiode (APD) laser rangefinder performance by assuming Gaussian distribution of the APD multiplication gain. The amplitude of current pulses emitted by an APD obeys the McIntyre distribution, the tails of which diverge from the Gaussian distribution having the same mean and variance. Because extinction of false alarms requires setting a discrimination threshold far into the tail of an analog photoreceiver's output distribution, the threshold level required to achieve a specified false alarm rate (FAR) using an APD based photoreceiver is often not accurately predicted by the standard FAR model of Rice. Characteristics of APD based photoreceivers are calculated using the McIntyre distribution and are compared with characteristics calculated using the Gaussian approximation.
author_names: Andrew S Huntington

George M Williams

Adam O Lee
title: Modeling false alarm rate and related characteristics of laser ranging and LIDAR avalanche photodiode photoreceivers
year: 2018

abstract: A partial calibration technique for a 128 x 128 pin diode 3D flash LIDAR camera is presented. This paper presents dark non uniformity correction (NUC) of a 3D flash LIDAR camera using dark frame subtraction. Dark frames are taken near threshold for intensity return to generate simultaneous trigger on a flash LIDAR camera, with trigger ramp set to zero for both range and intensity returns. Frames are cropped to a region of interest (ROI) and concatenated ideal dark intensity and dark range return into dark frames, processed into calibration files with nearest neighbor correction in dark intensity frames to correct out slowly varying, high intensity temporal noise when operating near threshold. Results and validation of applied NUC on 3D flash LIDAR camera are presented. We characterize a 3D flash LIDAR camera with PIN diode architecture including range walk, gain characterization in both intensity and range domains. Characterization of 3D flash LIDAR imager was performed using a fiber laser operating at 1550 nm, 20 mJ energy per pulse, TTL triggering, a pulse generator to generate time delay necessary for triggering the laser from the camera ARM signal, and an attenuator for fine control of the output signal. Time delay is relative to the range domain, whereas output signal is relative to the intensity domain.
author_names: Andrew D Reinhardt

D Miller

Adam O Lee

Cullen Philip Bradley

Paul F McManamon
title: Dark non uniformity correction and characterization of a 3D flash lidar camera
venue: Defense Security
year: 2018

abstract: Optical communication is becoming more prevalent in orbit due to the need for increased data throughput. Nanosatellites, which are satellites that typically weigh less than 10 kg, are also becoming more common due to lower launch costs that enable the rapid testing of technology in a space environment. Nanosatellites are cheaper to launch than their larger counterparts and may be a viable option for communicating beyond Earth's orbit, but have strict Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP) requirements. The Miniature Optical Communication Transceiver (MOCT) is a compact optical transceiver designed to provide modest data rates to SWaP constrained platforms, like nanosatellites. This paper will cover the optical amplifier characterization and simulated performance of the MOCT amplifier design that produces 1 kW peak power pulses and closes three optical links which include Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to Earth, LEO to LEO, and Moon to Earth. Additionally, a benchtop version of the amplifier design was constructed and was able to produce amplified pulses with 1.37 W peak power, including a 35.7% transmit optics loss, at a pump power of 500 mW. Finally, the modulator, seed laser, amplifier, receiver, and time to digital converter were all used together to measure the Bit Error Ratio (BER) which was 0.00257 for a received optical peak power of 176 nW.
author_names: Nathan S Barnwell

Tyler Ritz

Samantha Parry

Myles Clark

Paul C Serra

John W Conklin
title: The Miniature Optical Communication Transceiver A Compact, Power Efficient Lasercom System for Deep Space Nanosatellites
year: 2018

abstract: The effective range of a laser rangefinder (LRF) depends on the sensitivity of its photoreceiver and the strength of optical signal returns as a function of target range. Parameters affecting signal return strength are reviewed, including laser pulse energy, atmospheric conditions, and the size, orientation, and surface properties of the target.
author_names: George M Williams

Andrew S Huntington
title: Laser Rangefinder Effective Range
year: 2018

abstract: Deep convection at mid latitudes can directly inject water vapor into the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere (UTLS) Increased water vapor creates a photochemical environment that can activate inorganic chlorine (HCl) which then catalytically destroys ozone, increasing health and environment risk [1] The Laser Crosslink Atmospheric Sounder (LCAS) is a prototype toward a low Earth orbiting (LEO) constellation to concurrently measure both UTLS water vapor and temperature at high vertical resolution, improving temporal and spatial coverage. The two part approach uses both beam pointing and intensity. First, precision pointing measures atmospheric refraction and can be used to obtain temperature profiles [2] Second, intensity on the continuum and near absorption features of the spectrum can measure water vapor concentration. This work presents demonstration using near infrared laser crosslinks wavelengths in ITU S (1460 nm to 1530 nm) and ITU C (1530 nm to 1565 nm) bands for measurement of water vapor, where commercial components already exist for applications like coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) over terrestrial optical fiber. We use MODTRAN to assess the measurability of varying concentrations of water vapor in the UTLS in these bands. We find that 1550 nm is a suitable continuum reference wavelength, and that 1504 and 1509 nm have detectable changes in transmissivity with increases in water vapor.
author_names: Cadence Payne

Angela Crews

Kerri L Cahoy

Daniel James Cziczo

John W Conklin

Michael Hart

Gottfried Kirchengaast

Nicolas Fraunhofer
title: Laser Crosslink Atmospheric Sounder to Investigate the Effects of Deep Convection on Ozone
year: 2018