Query: High performance single photon avalanche diode using unmodified CMOS for sensing and imaging

Candidate papers:

abstract: The measurement of weak optical signals is an important aspect in many science sectors including biology, chemistry, and nuclear physics. To this extent the collection of weak and fast decaying fluorescence signals, down to single photon level, currently relies on the use of bulky and expensive photomultiplier tube (PMT) detectors; charge coupled devices (CCDs) and complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) photodetectors have also been studied however they require extremely low noise circuitry and very long integration times. Single photon avalanche diodes (SPAD) offer the advantages of both low cost CMOS technology and fast timing performance. A general problem is that relatively few technologies are available, and the major semiconductor companies are focusing on specialized technologies that are costly and not easily accessible, to make devices such as proximity sensors. Portable technologies for low light applications in bio related disciplines (i.e. fluorescence cancer detection) are still scarce. This work describes the research undertaken for the development of an integrated CMOS SPAD that was incorporated in a 64x64 array which formed the basis for a multiple sensing technology platform for fluorescence imaging and colorimetric assay. The strategy to develop this system, using a legacy 180 nm high voltage CMOS technology (using a process by AMS AG) implemented the following workflow: (1) Design a stand alone SPAD with low dark count rate (DCR) and high photodetection probability (PDP) at blue green wavelengths. (2) Full characterization of the stand alone SPAD after design optimization. (3) Scaling of the sensor to an array of 64x64 SPADs with in pixel readout electronics. (4) Develop protocols to interface the SPAD array with a laptop via a microcontroller for data readout. (5) Characterize and test the 64x64 SPAD array with fluorescent media. (6) Test the 64x64 SPAD array combined with a microfluidic network (designed and developed by Valerio F. Annese) as a colorimetric assay platform. (7) Test the 64x64 SPAD array for two additional applications, these being x ray sensing (in collaboration with Prof Craig Buttar's group at University of Glasgow) and color quality enhancement with flip chip bonded plasmonic filters (developed by Dr Yash D. ii Shah in collaboration with Prof Gerrard Bullar at Heriot Watt University, currently in progress and therefore discussed in future work) The full development of a stand alone SPAD required the use of technology computer aided design (TCAD) simulations, using Sentaurus TCAD by Synopsys, and two tapeout runs. The tapeout runs were submitted to AMS for fabrication. The first tapeout run contained 75 different test structures and the second run had 26 optimized structures derived from the first run. The final optimized stand alone SPAD, based on a squared p+/shallow n active junction with a shallow p well into a deep p well guard ring, has an active area of 134.56 um2 a breakdown voltage of 16.8 V, a DCR of 3.86 cps/um2 with a PDP peak of 66% at 480 nm (blue) when operated at the maximum excess bias of 5 V. The DCR and PDP performance of the stand alone SPAD compare favorably with those of other SPADs in the 180 nm technology node. An array of 64x64 pixels based on the stand alone SPAD with the best performance was developed and manufactured during a third tapeout run. Based on the pixel pitch requirement for the two main applications, the designed array has a pixel pitch of 61.5 um to ensure decent imaging resolution and to safely integrate a microfluidic network, without sacrificing any sensors (once the network is fully optimized) The 64x64 SPAD array, designed with an 8 bit in pixel counter and a global shutter, showed an imaging resolution of 78.75 um and a frame rate of 3 fps. Fluorescent imaging was successfully demonstrated by acquiring well contrasted images of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) fluorophores, having similar fluorescence emission of human healthy cell, at different concentrations down to 900 pM with a signal to noise ratio (SNR) of 9.8 dB. Sarcosine assay in buffer solution was tested in the 64x64 SPAD array combined with a microfluidic network, resulting in a quantification limit (the minimum detectable concentration) of 3.1 uM. The 64x64 SPAD array successfully acquired x ray images of a lead mask at different energies, demonstrating for the first time x ray imaging capability on CMOS SPADs without scintillation crystals. iii A mosaic plasmonic filter of randomly arranged blue, green and red covering the entire 64x64 pixels was designed and fabricated. Once flip chip bonded onto the SPAD array it will provide a promising avenue to integration and miniaturization that would pave the way to multispectral imaging. Based on the demonstrated performance, the presented 64x64 SPAD array is an excellent candidate for the future development of portable, reliable and low cost screening techniques for disease prevention and monitoring. The added value of multiple sensing allows the device to be implemented not only as mass screening technique but also as lab on a chip for laboratory and point of care diagnostics (based on foundry availability)
author_names: Claudio Accarino
title: High performance single photon avalanche diode using unmodified CMOS for sensing and imaging
year: 2019

abstract: A high speed and hardware only algorithm using a center of mass method has been proposed for single detector fluorescence lifetime sensing applications. This algorithm is now implemented on a field programmable gate array to provide fast lifetime estimates from a 32 x 32 low dark count 0.13 mm complementary metal oxide semiconductor single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) plus time to digital converter array. A simple look up table is included to enhance the lifetime resolvability range and photon economics, making it comparable to the commonly used least square method and maximum likelihood estimation based software. To demonstrate its performance, a widefield microscope was adapted to accommodate the SPAD array and image different test samples. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy on fluorescent beads in Rhodamine 6G at a frame rate of 50 fps is also shown.
author_names: David Day-Uei Li

Jochen Arlt

David Tyndall

Richard J Walker

Justin A Richardson

David Stoppa

Edoardo Charbon

Robert K Henderson
title: Video rate fluorescence lifetime imaging camera with CMOS single photon avalanche diode arrays and high speed imaging algorithm.
venue: Journal of biomedical optics
year: 2011

abstract: We have developed a direct time of flight (TOF) 220 m ranging CMOS image sensor (CIS) based on a 688 x 384 pixel array of vertical avalanche photodiodes. An area scene at 220 m ahead can be ranged and imaged by one high power light pulse illuminated through diffusing (without scanning) optics and sub photon level signals are extracted by in pixel pulse count circuits. Depth map imaging with a 10 cm lateral resolution and with a 30 cm depth precision is realized from 1 m to 220 m range. The developed direct TOF CIS with SPSE is expected to supersede the insufficient resolution of the conventional light detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems and the short range of indirect CIS TOF. Introduction For automatic driving systems in a highway during night, detection and recognition of objects 200 meters ahead with a sufficient sensitivity and resolution are required. However, conventional passive sensing cameras do not reach such long range while active sensing systems such as light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and radio detection and ranging (radar) do not realize sufficient lateral resolution due to fine beam scanning optics [1 5] In this paper, we demonstrate a direct time of flight (TOF) 220 m ranging CMOS image sensor (CIS) based on a vertical avalanche photodiode (VAPD) pixels [6] with light pulse counter that enable sub photon signals extraction (SPSE) A 15 m x 10 m wide scene at 220 m ahead can be ranged and imaged by a high power (1.2 kW peak) light pulse illuminated through diffusing optics at a rate of 6 kHz, well beyond the CIS frame rate. Full range from 1 m to 200 m can be divided into arbitrary size of sub ranges and a depth map image is constructed by combining the sub range images. A 10 cm lateral resolution and a 30 cm depth precision are realized, respectively, by the large number of pixels and by a phase controlled 2 ns resolution gate position modulation pulsing scheme. The developed direct TOF CIS with SPSE is expected to supersede both the insufficient resolution of LiDAR systems and the short range of indirect CIS TOF. Photon Pulse Counting and Direct TOF Ranging Circuits The number of photons arriving a TOF CIS camera decreases inversely proportional to square of the distance to objects as illustrated in Fig. 1 (a) From objects located beyond 100 m, it falls below unity as calculated in Fig. 1 (b) resulting in signal burial in dark pulses of VAPD, i.e. distributions of photons and dark pulses are completely overlapped. In order to recover or extract the weak photon signals, synchronous detection of photons to the repetitive probing pulses and accumulation of each signal (Fig. 2) With increase of the number of samplings, the accumulated photon signal becomes discernable from the dark counts (Fig. 3) The developed CIS is designed to execute this counting operation in all the pixels "globally" synchronous to the laser pulses with 6 kHz frequency, i.e. 200 times faster than the CIS frame rate, 30 fps. Thus, the pixel circuit of the CIS comprises the VAPD [6] a reset circuit with floating diffusion (FD) an output circuit, and a counter circuit (Fig. 4) Initially, the cathode nodes VS and FD are reset to Vdd by setting the node TR and the node RE to HIGH. Setting RE to low sets the CIS to the exposure mode. After detection of light and multiplication of the photo generated electrons, the FD is filled with large amount of charge. Then, the charge is transferred to the node CC, which counts one pulse, by setting CT to HIGH. The CIS repeats this counting operation during a sub range which can be defined as an arbitrary size of range. Thus, each sub range image is obtained as an ordinary frame image while each pixel output represents the counted up and enhanced photon numbers. For a different sub range imaging, the gate timing positions of TR and RE are modulated and successively scanned along the direction of the depth. The depth map is constructed by combining the all sub range images. A circuit simulation in Fig. 5 shows the counting operation in which the CC voltage decreased stepwise as one pulse is counted. The sequence of sub range images acquisition and depth map construction is depicted in Fig. 6. In Fig. 7, is illustrated the system architecture of the TOF CIS system which operates both in a 3D sensing mode for ranging objects and in a 2D sensing mode for near infrared (NIR) imaging. The system consists of a controller, an NIR laser, a CIS, a VAPD bias source, and a signal processor. The controller globally gates the pixels synchronous to the laser pulses and switches between the 3D and the 2D modes together with the VAPD bias. In the 2D mode, NIR images are processed conventionally by the signal processor. Experimental Results and Conclusion The chip micrograph of the developed CIS is shown Fig. 8. The multiplication factor of the VAPD as a function of the bias voltage was measured as plotted in Fig. 9. The 3D and 2D modes were operated at >73 V with high gain (x7000) and at <70 V with low gain (x20) respectively. The amplitude of the signal corresponding to one photon was 1.2V (Fig. 10) which was sufficient for in pixel light pulse counting. By shifting gate positions of the sub ranges with 2 ns resolution, a distance resolution as fine as 30 cm is clearly confirmed (Fig. 11) Finally, we captured a night scene 220 m ahead shown in Figs. 12 (a) and (b) for a long ranging experiment. A simple depth map is constructed from two sub range images, i.e. a range from 225 m to 217.5 m, and a range from 217.5 m to 210 m as shown in Fig. 12 (c) A human standing at 215 m is clearly discerned from the background fence and trees located at 220 m further away. In addition, human arms of only 10 cm width are clearly resolved demonstrating the fine lateral resolution. The black region in the lower part is actually the ground level closer to the system and out of the range. Table 1 summarizes the performances of the proposed system and the previously reported systems. Owing to its in pixel pulse counters, the present CIS requires no time to digital converters; hence, the pixel size shrinks to 11.2 mm, and the high resolution is achieved. The gate timing modulation delivers a flexible range from 1 to 220 m. Thus, the present TOF camera system is potentially suitable for both long ranging and high resolution imaging in a single system meeting the demands of automated vehicles. 2018 Symposium on VLSI Circuits Digest of Technical Papers 978 1 5386 4214 6/18/$31.00 (c)2018 IEEE 71 2018 Symposium on VLSI Circuits Digest of Technical Papers 72
author_names: Takemoto Masato

Koyama Shinzo

Ishii Motonori

Saito Shigeru

Nose Yugo

Inoue Akito

Sakata Yusuke

Sugiura Yuuki

Usuda Manabu

Kabe Tatsuya

Kasuga Shigetaka

Mori Mitsuyoshi

Hirose Yutaka

Odagawa Akihiro

Tanaka Tsuyoshi
title: A 220 m Range Direct Time of Flight 688 x 384 CMOS Image Sensor with Sub Photon Signal Extraction (SPSE) Pixels Using Vertical Avalanche Photo Diodes and 6 kHz Light Pulse Counters
year: 2018

abstract: We present a complete pixel based on a single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) fabricated in a backside illuminated (BSI) 3D IC technology. The chip stack comprises an image sensing tier produced in a 65 nm image sensor technology and a data processing tier in 40 nm CMOS. Using a simple, CMOS compatible technique, the pixel is capable of passive quenching and active recharge at voltages well above those imposed by a single transistor whilst ensuring that the reliability limits across the gate source <inline formula> <tex math notation="LaTeX"\text {V} _{\text {GS} /tex math>/inline formula> gate drain <inline formula> <tex math notation="LaTeX"\text {V} _{\text {GD} /tex math>/inline formula> and drain source <inline formula> <tex math notation="LaTeX"\text {V} _{\text {DS} /tex math>/inline formula> are not exceeded for any device. For a given technology, the circuit extends the maximum excess bias that SPADs can be operated at when using transistors as quenching elements, thus improving the SPAD sensitivity, timing performance, and photon detection probability uniformity. Implemented with 2.5 V thick oxide transistors and operated at 4.4 V excess bias, the design achieves a timing jitter of 95 ps full width at half maximum, maximum photon detection efficiency (PDE) of 21.9% at 660 nm and 0.08% afterpulsing probability with a dead time of 8 ns. This is both the lowest afterpulsing probability at 8 ns dead time and the highest peak PDE for a BSI SPAD in a 3D IC technology to date.
author_names: Scott Lindner

Sara Pellegrini

Yann Henrion

Bruce Rae

Martin Wolf

Edoardo Charbon
title: A High PDE, Backside Illuminated SPAD in 65/40 nm 3D IC CMOS Pixel With Cascoded Passive Quenching and Active Recharge
venue: IEEE Electron Device Letters
year: 2017

abstract: A new, simple, high speed, and hardware only integration based fluorescence lifetime sensing algorithm using a center of mass method (CMM) is proposed to implement lifetime calculations, and its signal to noise ratio based on statistics theory is also deduced. Compared to the commonly used iterative least squares method or the maximum likelihood estimation based, general purpose fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) analysis software, the proposed hardware lifetime calculation algorithm with CMM offers direct calculation of fluorescence lifetime based on the collected photon counts and timing information provided by in pixel circuitry and therefore delivers faster analysis for real time applications, such as clinical diagnosis. A real time hardware implementation of this CMM FLIM algorithm suitable for a single photon avalanche diode array in CMOS imaging technology is now proposed for implementation on field programmable gate array. The performance of the proposed methods has been tested on Fluorescein, Coumarin 6, and 1,8 anilinonaphthalenesulfonate in water/methanol mixture.
author_names: Day-Uei Li

Bruce Rae

Robin Andrews

Jochen Arlt

Robert K Henderson
title: Hardware implementation algorithm and error analysis of high speed fluorescence lifetime sensing systems using center of mass method.
venue: Journal of biomedical optics
year: 2010

abstract: High signal to noise ratio (SNR) image sensors are required in various areas; information equipment including smartphone, industrial measurement, medical, in vehicle equipment, security, etc. To achieve a high SNR performance, some approaches, such as electron multiplication1)~3) using column amplifier4)5) or ADC6) and increasing conversion gain (CG) at floating diffusion (FD) 7)~9) have been reported. Recently, many researches aiming photon counting have been carried out actively8)~11) It is necessary to reduce the input referred noise to about 0.20e rms for achieving the photon countable sensitivity12)~16) Electron multiplying charge coupled device (EMCCD)2) and single photon avalanche diode (SPAD)3) which utilize electron multiplication effect, meet this performance and they are already used as single photon detectors. These photon counting imagers are available to distinguish whether or not one or more photons are incident at single exposure time, however, they cannot count the number of incident photons by one photon due to the following reasons; EMCCD uses electron multiplication effect, which is a stochastic event, with multiple stages, thus output signal distribution overlaps in between different numbers of incident photons15)16) SPAD cannot distinguish one or more than one incident photons when more than one photons are incident during a single cycle of idle, build up, quenching and recharge, thus it has a challenge in linearity11)15) Meanwhile, another approach to reduce the input referred noise is attempted; using 4transistor pixel CMOS image sensors. They have a good linearity and some of them achieved the noise level below 1.0e rms5)17) Thus, it has a potential for photon counting. In the CMOS image sensor, increasing the gain at the input stage of the readout circuit is the most valid method to reduce the input referred noise. In that sense, increasing CG is the most effective way. Therefore, analysis and reduction of FD capacitance (CFD) components are extremely important. It should be noted that satisfying both high CG and high full well capacity (FWC) is also important. Though many analyses about parasitic capacitance of transistors have been reported in analog/digital fields18)~25) analysis of CFD in the CMOS image sensor based on the experiment has not been Abstract In this paper, we describe an analysis methodology of the components of floating diffusion (FD) capacitance (CFD) using the developed test element group (TEG) and propose a CFD reduction technology for photon countable sensitivity. By analyzing the components of CFD, it was confirmed that the sum of them agreed well with CFD obtained by the photoelectric conversion characteristic in the image sensor and both the gate overlap capacitance and the p n junction capacitance were large. The CFD reduction technology based on the result of analysis was applied to the FD and pixel source follower (SF) This technology is characterized by omitting lightly doped drain (LDD) implantation process, shallow and low concentration diffusion layer, and non channel stop. Applying the reduction technology, we designed and fabricated a CMOS image sensor chip using 0.18mm 1 Poly Si 5 Metal CMOS process technology with pinned photodiode (PD) It exhibited CFD of 0.66fF, conversion gain (CG) of 243mV/e and input referred noise of 0.46e rms.
author_names: Fumiaki Kusuhara

Shunichi Wakashima

Satoshi Nasuno

Rihito Kuroda

Shigetoshi Sugawa
title: [Paper] Analysis and Reduction Technologies of Floating Diffusion Capacitance in CMOS Image Sensor for Photon Countable Sensitivity
year: 2016

abstract: In this paper we present a two photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) system based on a two dimensional single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array fabricated in CMOS [1] [2] To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of two photon FLIM based on a CMOS detector. The sensor reported here exhibits picosecond accuracy, operates at room temperature, and requires no post processing. Our two photon FLIM setup consists of a high power femtosecond mode locked laser, time discrimination hardware, and a standard laser scanning microscope. A SPAD consists of a p n junction biased above breakdown, thus operating in Geiger mode. When a photon impinges on the surface of the SPAD triggers an avalanche in the multiplication region. A properly biased inverter senses the avalanche current transforming it into a digital pulse. After photon detection, the device remains inactive for a period known as dead time. The sensitivity of a SPAD is determined by the fillfactor of the SPAD array and the photon detection probability (PDP) The main performance figures of the SPAD detector, such as timing uncertainty, PDP, dead time and dark count rate (DCR) are summarized in Tab. 1. In our experiments, a femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser is used to illuminate the sample. The sample consists of a Oregon Green Bapta 1 (OGB 1) fluorophore, placed into contact with different calcium concentrations. The detection method used to determine fluorescence lifetime is the time correlated single photon counting technique. A time to digital converter is used to compute the arrival time of fluorescence photons for each excitation pulse. The resulting data are used to build a histogram. The measured response of the fluorophore in the presence of various calcium concentrations is shown in Fig.1. The measured lifetimes of OGB 1 match published data [1] Future work will be on high speed sensing of calcium concentrations in cells (e.g. neurons) using multi beam excitation patterns and parallel data acquisition with 2D arrays of SPADs.
author_names: Marek Gersbach

Cristiano Niclass

M Sergio

Dmitri L Boiko

C Petersen

Edoardo Charbon
title: Time Correlated Fluorescence Microscopy using a Room Temperature Solid State Single Photon Sensor
year: 2006

abstract: Analyzing large fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) data is becoming overwhelming; the latest FLIM systems easily produce massive amounts of data, making an efficient analysis more challenging than ever. In this paper we propose the combination of a custom fit variable projection method, with a Laguerre expansion based deconvolution, to analyze bi exponential data obtained from time domain FLIM systems. Unlike nonlinear least squares methods, which require a suitable initial guess from an experienced researcher, the new method is free from manual interventions and hence can support automated analysis. Monte Carlo simulations are carried out on synthesized FLIM data to demonstrate the performance compared to other approaches. The performance is also illustrated on real life FLIM data obtained from the study of autofluorescence of daisy pollen and the endocytosis of gold nanorods (GNRs) in living cells. In the latter, the fluorescence lifetimes of the GNRs are much shorter than the full width at half maximum of the instrument response function. Overall, our proposed method contains simple steps and shows great promise in realising automated FLIM analysis of large data sets. Published by The Optical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published articles title, journal citation, and DOI. OCIS codes: (030.5260) Photon counting; (110.2960) Image analysis; (110.0180) Microscopy; (100.1830) Deconvolution; (170.3650) Lifetime based sensing; (170.6920) Time resolved imaging. References and links 1. A. Shivalingam, M. A. Izquierdo, A. Le Marois, A. Vyniauskas, K. Suhling, M. K. Kuimova, and R. Vilar, The interactions between a small molecule and G quadruplexes are visualized by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy, Nat. Commun. 6, 8178 (2015) 2. D. Fixler, Fluorescence Imaging for Biomedical Analysis, in The Optics Encyclopedia (Wiley VCH Verlag GmbH Co. 2015) 3. G. O. Fruhwirth, L. P. Fernandes, G. Weitsman, G. Patel, M. Kelleher, K. Lawler, A. Brock, S. P. Poland, D. R. Matthews, G. Keri, P. R. Barber, B. Vojnovic, S. M. Ameer Beg, A. C. C. Coolen, F. Fraternali, and T. Ng, How Forster resonance energy transfer imaging improves the understanding of protein interaction networks in cancer biology, ChemPhysChem 12(3) 442461 (2011) 4. K. Okabe, N. Inada, C. Gota, Y. Harada, T. Funatsu, and S. Uchiyama, Intracellular temperature mapping with a fluorescent polymeric thermometer and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy, Nat. Commun. 3, 705 (2012) 5. M. Nobis, E. J. McGhee, J. P. Morton, J. P. Schwarz, S. A. Karim, J. Quinn, M. Edward, A. D. Campbell, L. C. McGarry, T. R. J. Evans, V. G. Brunton, M. C. Frame, N. O. Carragher, Y. Wang, O. J. Sansom, P. Timpson, and K. I. Anderson, Intravital FLIM FRET imaging reveals dasatinib induced spatial control of src in pancreatic cancer, Cancer Res. 73(15) 46744686 (2013) Vol. 24, No. 23 14 Nov 2016 OPTICS EXPRESS 26777 #275434 Journal (c) 2016 http:/dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.24.026777 Received 7 Sep 2016; revised 19 Oct 2016; accepted 19 Oct 2016; published 10 Nov 2016 6. Y. Zhang, G. Wei, J. Yu, D. J. S. Birch, and Y. Chen, Surface plasmon enhanced energy transfer between gold nanorods and fluorophores: application to endocytosis study and RNA detection, Faraday Discuss. 178, 383 394 (2015) 7. S. Coda, A. J. Thompson, G. T. Kennedy, K. L. Roche, L. Ayaru, D. S. Bansi, G. W. Stamp, A. V. Thillainayagam, P. M. W. French, and C. Dunsby, Fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy of tissue autofluorescence in normal and diseased colon measured ex vivo using a fiber optic probe, Biomed. Opt. Express 5(2) 515538 (2014) 8. T. S. Blacker, Z. F. Mann, J. E. Gale, M. Ziegler, A. J. Bain, G. Szabadkai, and M. R. 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Express 18(10) 1025710269 (2010) Vol. 24, No. 23 14 Nov 2016 OPTICS EXPRESS 26778
title: Towards unsupervised fluorescence lifetime imaging using low dimensional variable projection
year: 2019

abstract: Speckle contrast optical spectroscopy (SCOS) measures absolute blood flow in deep tissue, by taking advantage of multi distance (previously reported in the literature) or multiexposure (reported here) approach. This method promises to use inexpensive detectors to obtain good signal to noise ratio, but it has not yet been implemented in a suitable manner for a mass production. Here we present a new, compact, low power consumption, 32 by 2 single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array that has no readout noise, low dead time and has high sensitivity in low light conditions, such as in vivo measurements. To demonstrate the capability to measure blood flow in deep tissue, healthy volunteers were measured, showing no significant differences from the diffuse correlation spectroscopy. In the future, this array can be miniaturized to a low cost, robust, battery operated wireless device paving the way for measuring blood flow in a wide range of applications from sport injury recovery and training to, on field concussion detection to wearables. c (c) 2017 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement OCIS codes: (300.6480) Spectroscopy, speckle; (170.1470) Blood or tissue constituent monitoring; (170.0170) Medical optics and biotechnology; (170.3890) Medical optics instrumentation References and links 1. A. Zauner and J. P. Muizelaar, "Brain metabolism and cerebral blood flow," Head Inj. pp. 89 99 (1997) 2. A. Devor, S. Sakadzic, V. J. Srinivasan, M. A. Yaseen, K. Nizar, P. A. Saisan, P. Tian, A. M. Dale, S. A. Vinogradov, M. A. Franceschini et al. "Frontiers in optical imaging of cerebral blood flow and metabolism," J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 32, 1259 1276 (2012) 3. T. Durduran, R. Choe, W. Baker, and A. G. 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author_names: H L

C P
title: Compact multi exposure speckle contrast optical spectroscopy SCOS device for measuring deep tissue blood flow
year: 2017

abstract: Foreword. Workshop Organization. Welcoming Remarks From Catania Observatory. Lifetime Achievement Awards. SDW2005 Award Recipients. List of Participants. The Nerd Gallery. Reference Plots and Color Figures. Color Photo Gallery. Section I: Observatory Status and Plans. Invited Talk Science, Technology and Detectors for Extremely Large Telescopes. Overview Paper Instruments, Detectors and the Future of Astronomy with Large Ground Based Telescopes. Requirements on Array Detectors from OWL Instrument Studies. Pan STARRS and Gigapixel Cameras. The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope. Optical Detector Systems at the European Southern Observatory. The UKIRT Wide Field Camera. System Design of Detector Systems for a Major Chinese Multi Object Spectroscopic Sky Surveyor. Near Diffraction Limited Visible Imaging on 10 m class Telescopes with EMCCDs. Nod Shuffle 3D Spectroscopy. Detector Systems for the MODS Spectrograph. Recent Photon Counting Developments at the Observatoire de Marseille. A CMOS Sensor for Solar Observation. Plasma Cleaning. Thermal Modeling of the Wide Field Infrared Camera for the CFHT. Cooling System for the OmegaCAM CCD Mosaic. Bonn Shutters for the Largest Mosaic Cameras. Slicing the Universe CCDs for MUSE. On Chip Guiding with a Mosaic of HAWAII 2RG Infrared Detectors. The Blue Channel of the Large Binocular Camera. Radiation Damage in HST Detectors. An EUV Image Detector for the Space Solar Telescope. The Camera of the Corot Space Experiment: Design, Tests and Results. Second Generation IR Detectors for the Wide Field Camera 3. Imaging Technique of the DISR Camera on the Huygens Lander. Section II: Non Astronomical Applications. Advanced Detector and Optical Fabrication Technologies for Implementing Improved Spectroscopic Instrumentation CCD Detector Systems for "Semiconductor Nanostructures" Optical Properties Research. Section III: CCDs. Overview Paper CCD Technology. Siliconus Maximus. CCD Development Progress at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Orthogonal Transfer Array. A pnCCD Detector System for High Speed Optical Applications. L3 CCD Wavefront Sensor Developments at the ING. Zero Noise Wavefront Sensor Development within the Opticon European Network. A Dedicated L3Vision CCD for Adaptive Optics Applications. The Ultimate CCD for Laser guide star wavefront sensing on Extremely Large Telescopes. The MMT Megacam. The OmegaCAM 16Kx16K CCD Detector System for the ESO VLT Survey Telescope (VST) CCD Mosaics at CTIO and SOAR. Focal Plane Detectors for the Dark Energy Survey. Optimised CCD Antireflection Coating. Section IV: CMOS Based Sensors. Overview Paper CMOS Detector Technology. Overview of Rockwell Scientific Imaging Technologies. 2Kx2K NIR HgCdTe Detector Arrays for VISTA and Other Applications. 1024x1024 Si:As IBC Detector Arrays for Mid IR Astronomy The James Webb Space Telescope and its Infrared Detectors. Active Pixel Sensor Developments for Future ESA. Space Science Missions ENERGY: A Proposal for a Multi Band CMOS Imaging Photometer. Section V: Avalanche Photodiodes. SPADA: An Array of SPAD Detectors for Astrophysical Applications. Electro Optical Characteristics of the Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) Characterization of SPAD Arrays: First Results. Section VI: Detector Testing Characterization. Conversion Gain and Interpixel Capacitance of CMOS Hybrid Focal Plane Arrays. MBE MCT Arrays for JWST. Performance Overview of the VISTA IR Detectors. The Effects of Charge Persistence in Aladdin III InSb Detectors on Scientific Observations. An Ultra Low Photon Background 1 to 5 Micron Detector Mosaic Test Facility. On Sky Experience with the HAWAII I Detector at the Camera/Spectrograph LIRIS. EMIR Detector Characterization. Intra pixel Response of a HAWAII 1RG Multiplexer. Fast Conversion Factor (Gain) Measurement of a CCD Using Images With Vertical Gradient. CCD Charge Transfer Efficiency (CTE) Derived from Signal Variance in Flat Field Images. DC Characterization of CCD Based Detectors for Use in Space Based Applications. Detector Testing Methodologies for Large Focal Planes. Calibration of Flight Model CCDs for the Corot mission. Section VII: Electronics. NGC Detector Array Controller Based on High Speed Serial Link Technology. GC Front end for CCDs and AO Applications. Software for the ESO New General Detector Controller. Keeping Control: PULPO 2. We Must be MAD Pushing FIERA to its Limits. 256 Channel Data Acquisition System for VISTA Focal Plane to Readout Sixteen 2Kx2K Raytheon VIRGO Detectors. MONSOON Image Acquisition System Project Successes and Realities. MONSOON Image Acquisition System Configuration. Current Status of the OSIRIS GTC Instrument Control System. EMIR Detector Data Acquisition Electronics. Improved Control Electronics for OSIRIS GTC Commercial Tunable Filters. A Dedicated Controller for Adaptive Optics L3CCD Developments. Characterization of the OPA350 Operational Amplifier at Cryogenic Temperatures. A Simple Technique for the Suppression of Line Frequency Noise in IR. Array Systems. SCUBA 2 CCD Style Imaging for the JCMT. The Astronomical Array Control Acquisition System at NAOC. HIAC A High Speed Camera Controller for Avalanche Gain CCDs. The Antarctic NIR/MIR Camera AMICA. A New Generation of Data and Control Interfaces for Digital Detectors. McDonald Observatory nRG Detector Electronics. Integrating Signal Processing and A/D CONVERSION in One Focal. Plane Mounted ASIC. SIDECAR ASIC Control Electronics on a Chip. Black and White Photo Gallery. Appendix A: Instrumentation Database, for Ground Based Observatory. Appendix B: Overview Paper, Detectors for Space Science.
author_names: Jenna E Beletic

James William Beletic

Paola Amico
title: Scientific detectors for astronomy 2005 explorers of the photon odyssey
year: 2006