Query: Emerging Single-Photon Detectors Based on Low-Dimensional Materials

Candidate papers:

abstract: Mid infrared (IR) detectors based on the emerging low dimensional (two dimensional and quasi one dimensional) materials offer unique characteristics including large bandgap tunability, optical polarization sensitivity and integrability with typical silicon process, which are not available in the mid IR detectors based on traditional compound semiconductors. Here, we review the recent progress in study of mid IR detectors based on the low dimensional materials, including black phosphorus, black arsenic phosphorus, tellurene and BaTiS3, from the perspectives of crystal structure, material synthesis, optical properties, and the detector characteristics. The detector gain and detectivity are benchmarked, and the unique properties, such as the polarization sensitivity, are discussed. We also provide our perspective about key future research directions in this field.
author_names: Jiangbin Wu

Nan Wang

Xiaodong Yan

Han Wang
title: Emerging low dimensional materials for mid infrared detection
venue: Nano Research
year: 2020

abstract: Today there are several types of photodetectors that can cope with the task of detecting a single photon, however, avalanche photodiodes are most widely used for applications in fiber optic communication systems and quantum cryptography. In the past 5 years experimental fabrication of single photon avalanche detectors within conventional complementary metal oxide semiconductor technology and by the method of molecular beam epitaxy have made possible many demonstrations of avalanche photodetectors with exceptional performance characteristics and opened wide perspectives for development of devices of new generation. In this work, we review state of the art designs of single photon avalanche photodiodes based on group IV materials, their operating characteristics, and achieved values of basic parameters, as well as the methods of their synthesis, and outline the perspectives of using such structures in emerging device applications.
author_names: I I Izhnin

Kirill A Lozovoy

Andrey P Kokhanenko

Kristina I Khomyakova

Rahaf M H Douhan

Vladimir V Dirko

Alexander V Voitsekhovskii

Olena I Fitsych

Nataliya Yu Akimenko
title: Single photon avalanche diode detectors based on group IV materials
venue: Applied Nanoscience
year: 2021

abstract: The past decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in interest in emerging photodetectors built from two dimensional (2D) layered materials. A major driver of this trend is the growing demands for lightweight, uncooled, and even flexible photodetection technology. However, 2D layered materials always suffer from low light absorption coefficients due to their atomically thin nature. Impact ionization, which can achieve carrier multiplication, is a promising strategy to design 2D photodetectors with high detection efficiency. In this review, typical types of photodetection mechanisms in 2D photodetectors are first summarized. We then discuss the avalanche mechanism induced by impact ionization and avalanche photodetectors based on conventional silicon and III V compound semiconductors. Finally, a host of emerging avalanche photodetectors based on 2D materials and their van der Waals heterostructures, and their potential applications in the field of photon counting technologies are detailed. By reviewing the recent progress and discussing challenges faced by 2D avalanche photodetectors, this review aims to provide perspectives on future research directions of 2D material based ultrasensitive photodetectors such as single photon detectors.
author_names: Jinshui Miao

Chuan Wang
title: Avalanche photodetectors based on two dimensional layered materials
venue: Nano Research
year: 2020

abstract: This Ph.D. thesis is based on the experimental study of two mutually interconnected phenomena: intrinsic timing jitter in superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) and relaxation of the electron energy in superconducting films. Microscopically, a building element of any SNSPD device, a superconducting nanowire on top of a dielectric substrate, represents a complex object for both experimental and theoretical studies. The complexity arises because, in practice, the SNSPD utilizes strongly disordered and ultrathin superconducting films, which acoustically mismatch with the underlying substrate, and implies a non equilibrium state. This thesis addresses the complexity of the most conventional superconducting material used in SNSPD technology, niobium nitride (NbN) by applying several distinct experimental techniques. As an emerging application of the SNSPD technology, we demonstrate a prototype of the dispersive Raman spectrometer with single photon sensitivity.
author_names: Mariia Sidorova
title: Timing Jitter and Electron Phonon Interaction in Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detectors (SNSPDs)
year: 2021

abstract: In the last decade, two dimensional (2D) materials have attracted attention both in the nascent field of flexible nanotechnology as well as in more conventional semiconductor technol ogies. Within the rapidly expanding portfolio of 2D materials, the group of semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) has emerged as an intriguing candidate for various optoelectronic applications. The atomically thin profile, favorable bandgap and outstanding electronic properties of TMDCs are unique features that can be explored and applied in novel photodetecting platforms. This thesis presents highly sensitive two dimensional phototransistors made of sub nanometre thick TMDC channels. Firstly, an encapsulation route is developed to address the detrimental and, to date, uncontrollable impact of atmospheric adsorbates, which severely deteriorate detector performance. The passivation scheme improves the transport properties of TMDCs, leading to high photoconductive gain with gate dependent responsivity of 10 10^4 A/W throughout the visible, and temporal response down to 10 ms, which is suitable for imaging applications. The atomic device thickness yields ultra low dark current operation and record detectivity of 10^11 10^12 Jones for TMDC based detectors is achieved. The use of monolayer TMDCs, however, has disadvantages like limited spectral absorption due to the bandgap and limited absorption efficiency. In order to increase the absorption and to extend the spectral coverage, TMDC channels are covered with colloidal quantum dots to make hybrid phototransistors. This compelling synergy combines strong and size tunable light absorption within the QD film, efficient charge separation at the TMDC QD interface and fast carrier transport through the 2D channel. This results in large gain of 10^6 electrons per absorbed photon and creates the basis for extremely sensitive light sensing. Colloidal quan tum dots are an ideal sensitizer, because their solution processing and facile implementation on arbitrary substrates allows for low cost fabrication of hybrid TMDC QD devices. Moreover, the custom tailored bandgap of quantum dots provides the photodetector with wide spectral tunability. For photodetection in the spectral window of NIR/SWIR, which is still dominated by expensive and complex epitaxy based technologies, these hybrid detectors have the potential to favorably compete with commercially available systems. The interface of the TMDC QD hybrid is of paramount importance for sensitive detector operation. A high density of trap states at the interface is shown to be responsible for inefficient gate control over channel conductivity, which leads to high dark currents. To maintain the unique electrical field effect modulation in TMDCs upon deposition of colloidal quantum dots, a passivation route of the interface with semiconducting metal oxide films is developed. The buffer layer material is selected such that charge transfer from QDs into the channel is favored. The retained field effect modulation with a large on/off ratio allows operation of the phototransistor at significantly lower dark currents than non passivated hybrids. A TMDC QD phototransistor with an engineered interface that exhibits detectivity of 10^12 10^13 Jones and response times of 12 ms and less is reported. In summary, this work showcases prototype photodetectors made of encapsulated 2D TMDCs and TMDC QD hybrids. Plain TMDC detectors have potential for application as flexible and semi transparent detector platforms with high sensitivity in the visible. The hybrid TMDC QD device increases its spectral selectivity to the NIR/SWIR due to the variable absorption of the sensitizing quantum dots and reaches compelling performance thanks to im proved light matter interaction and optimized photocarrier generation.
author_names: Dominik Kuffer
title: Photodetectors based on low dimensional materials and hybrid systems
year: 2016

abstract: Single photon sources and their optical spin readout are at the core of applications in quantum communication, quantum computation, and quantum sensing. Their integration in photonic structures such as photonic crystals, microdisks, microring resonators, and nanopillars is essential for their deployment in quantum technologies. While there are currently only two material platforms (diamond and silicon carbide) with proven single photon emission from the visible to infrared, a quantum spin photon interface, and ancilla qubits, it is expected that other material platforms could emerge with similar characteristics in the near future. These two materials also naturally lead to monolithic integrated photonics as both are good photonic materials. While so far the verification of single photon sources was based on discovery, assignment and then assessment and control of their quantum properties for applications, a better approach could be to identify applications and then search for the material that could address the requirements of the application in terms of quantum properties of the defects. This approach is quite difficult as it is based mostly on the reliability of modeling and predicting of color center properties in various materials, and their experimental verification is challenging. In this paper, we review some recent advances in an emerging material, low dimensional (2D, 1D, 0D) hexagonal boron nitride (h BN) which could lead to establishing such a platform. We highlight the recent achievements of the specific material for the expected applications in quantum technologies, indicating complementary outstanding properties compared to the other 3D bulk materials.
author_names: Stefania Castelletto

Faraz A Inam

Shin-ichiro Sato

Alberto Boretti
title: Hexagonal boron nitride: a review of the emerging material platform for single photon sources and the spin photon interface
venue: Beilstein journal of nanotechnology
year: 2020

abstract: High efficiency single photon avalanche detectors (SPADs) based on the Ge on Si material system are a promising emerging technology for high sensitivity optical detection in the short wave infrared region. Here we demonstrate record single photon detection efficiencies of 38% at 1310nm with an operating temperature of 125K. This was achieved using a novel planar geometry which allowed us to achieve an NEPs of 3x10 16 WHz 1/2 and reduced afterpulsing when compared to InGaAs/InP based SPADs operated in nominally identical conditions.
author_names: Jaroslaw Kirdoda

Derek C S Dumas

Ross W Millar

Muhammad M Mirza

Douglas J Paul

Kateryna Kuzmenko

Peter Vines

Zoe M Greener

Gerald S Buller
title: Geiger Mode Ge on Si Single Photon Avalanche Diode Detectors
venue: 2019 IEEE 2nd British and Irish Conference on Optics and Photonics (BICOP)
year: 2019

abstract: Ultra sensitive single photon detection is a key technology for the development of optical quantum information and quantum manipulation. It is of important scientific significance and application value to realize high efficiency, high sensitivity, low power and low cost single photon photodetectors. There is still a large gap between visible single photon detector based on silicon and infrared ones in terms of the cost and performance. Exploring the technology of infrared single photon detection with novel materials and mechanism has become the urgent needs in the field of photodetection. In recent years, low dimensional materials have offered a new possibility for realizing high gain, room temperature and broad band photodetectors due to their unique physical and chemical properties. The research on the low dimensional materials based photodetectors with good performance has also become a hot topic in the field of infrared photodetection. In this review, the basic principles of traditional avalanche infrared photodetectors were introduced firstly. On this basis, the latest development of avalanche devices based on novel low dimensional materials was summarized. Then the new gain amplification mechanism of the photodetector based on photogating effect was discussed and the structure as well as the performance of the devices were reviewed. Finally, the future developing directions and challenges of the infrared single photon detection technology were prospected.
author_names: Wu Jing Yuan Jingyuan Wu

Liu Zhao Guo Zhaoguo Liu

Zhang Tong Tong Zhang
title: Research progress of infrared single photon detection with high gain (Invited)
year: 2021

abstract: Abstract Infrared photodetectors (IRPDs) have become important devices in various applications such as night vision, military missile tracking, medical imaging, industry defect imaging, environmental sensing, and exoplanet exploration. Mature semiconductor technologies such as mercury cadmium telluride and III V material based photodetectors have been dominating the industry. However, in the last few decades, significant funding and research has been focused to improve the performance of IRPDs such as lowering the fabrication cost, simplifying the fabrication processes, increasing the production yield, and increasing the operating temperature by making use of advances in nanofabrication and nanotechnology. We will first review the nanomaterial with suitable electronic and mechanical properties, such as two dimensional material, graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides, and metal oxides. We compare these with more traditional low dimensional material such as quantum well, quantum dot, quantum dot in well, semiconductor superlattice, nanowires, nanotube, and colloid quantum dot. We will also review the nanostructures used for enhanced light matter interaction to boost the IRPD sensitivity. These include nanostructured antireflection coatings, optical antennas, plasmonic, and metamaterials.
author_names: Chee Leong Tan

Hooman Mohseni
title: Emerging technologies for high performance infrared detectors
year: 2017

abstract: We present the concept of a single photon imager capable of detecting up to 109 photons per second with simultaneous measurements of position (5 10 mm resolution) and time (few tens of picosecond resolution) for each individual photon over an active area of 7 cm2. The detector is based on a "hybrid" concept: a vacuum tube, with a transparent input window on which a suitable photocathode material is deposited, a micro channel plate and a pixelated read out anode designed in 65 nm CMOS technology. These figures of merit will open many important applications allowing significant advances in particle physics, life sciences or other emerging fields where the detection of single photons with excellent timing and position resolutions are simultaneously required.
author_names: Massimiliano Fiorini

J Alozy

Maria Laura Bolognesi

Michael Campbell

Angelo Cotta Ramusino

Xavier Llopart

Thilo Michel

Sebastiano Fabio Schifano

Anton S Tremsin

John V Vallerga
title: Single photon imaging detector with (10) ps timing and sub 10 mm position resolutions
year: 2018