nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: In the Heian period, technical officers of shodaibu (aristocracy lower than kugyo) and samurai rank engaged master-subordinate relationships with upper nobles, such as sekkan-ke (the families that produced regents), by devoting myobu (identification), etc.
Japanese: 平安時代の諸大夫身分や侍身分の技能官人層は、摂関家などの上層貴族に名簿（みょうぶ）を捧げる等して主従関係を結んだ。
English: They served a master with a special skill of family businesses, such as military arts and knowledge of the Ritsuryo codes, (service) and gained benefit, such as a government post, in exchange (favor).
Japanese: 主となった者に武芸や律令知識などの家業とする専門技能で奉仕し（奉公）、代わりに官職等の利益（御恩）を得た。
English: As a well-known example, TAIRA no Masakado served FUJIWARA no Tadahira as a kenin with his military art skills.
Japanese: 有名な例としては、藤原忠平に武芸をもって家人として仕えた平将門がある。
English: That is, government officials of Imperial Court tried to improve their position by being vassals of upper nobles at the same time.
Japanese: つまり、朝廷においては官人の身分でありながら、同時に上層貴族の家臣となることで、官人としての地位向上を図ったのである。
English: Moreover, since the kamakura bakufu (feudal government headed by a shogun) was established, vassals of Kamakura-dono (i.e. the lords of Kamakura) were called gokenin (御家人) with "御" prefixed to honor the lord.
Japanese: 更に鎌倉幕府が成立すると、その首長たる鎌倉殿の家臣のことを、鎌倉殿への敬意を表す「御」をつけて御家人と呼ぶようになった。
English: It is used to prevent swinging of kakejiku in a literal sense as well as 'to quell wind' and it has a strong sense of ornament.
Japanese: 「風を鎮める」という字の如く、掛軸が風に揺れないようにするためのもので、飾りとしての意味合いも強い。
English: Tassels are put through a hollow ceramic, then those are put on both ends of the roller.
Japanese: 中空になった陶磁器などに房を通した構造をしており、その房を軸の両端に掛ける。
English: The spindle is made of pottery, porcelain and also agate, crystal and ebony.
Japanese: 錘には陶器や磁器の他にも、メノウ、水晶、コクタンなどで作られたものがある。
English: In particular, the original function of fuchin is being lost due to recent airtight houses, thus synthetic resin is used for producing a fuchin to prevent damage of kakejiku due to the weight.
Japanese: 特に最近では住宅の気密化によって本来の役目が失われつつあるため、重さによって掛軸が傷まないよう合成樹脂製の風鎮なども生産されている。
English: A special box made of paulownia tree is often attached to the expensive ones and the box is used to store fuchin when it is not used.
Japanese: また、高級なものは専用の桐箱が付属することが多く、使用しない時はこれに収めて保管することとなる。
English: Tanhaku (also called shohaku) is a business custom which had been conducted in East Asia before the early modern times; with this custom, a bundle of copper coins consisting of a certain number of coins less than 100 is treated as equal value to 100 copper coins.
Japanese: 短陌（たんはく、省陌（しょうはく）とも）は、近代以前の東アジア地域で行われてきた商慣習で、100枚以下の一定枚数によって構成された銅銭の束を銅銭100枚と同一の価値として扱う事。
English: Since the period of the Tang Dynasty, copper coins issued by the Chinese dynasty were prevailed with high creditworthiness, so Japan and other neighboring countries started using them instead of the local currency.
Japanese: 唐代以後、中国王朝が発行する銅銭は高い信用価値をもって通用されて日本をはじめとする周辺諸国においても自国通貨に代わって用いられるようになった。
English: However, since Chinese copper production capacity was not high enough and a demand for copper coins increased at a pace surpassing the amount of copper coins issued due to rapid economic development, a phenomenon called senko that the quantity of circulating copper coins was chronically short occurred.
Japanese: だが中国の銅の生産能力は決して高いとは言えない上に、経済の急速な発展から銅銭の需要が銅銭発行量を上回るペースで高まったために、結果的には市中に流通する銅銭が慢性的に不足すると言う銭荒現象が生じるようになった。
English: Thus, the actual value of the copper coin became higher than the official value and it had a major impact on the economy.
Japanese: そのため、銅銭の実際の価値が公定の価格以上に上昇して経済的に大きな影響を与えるようになった。
English: In this way, the custom of tanhaku, in which a bundle of a certain number of copper coins held together by a piece of string was considered to be 100 coins, became established from around the end of the Tang Dynasty.
Japanese: そのため、唐代末期以後に銅銭の穴に紐をとおして纏めた束一差しに一定枚数があればそれをもって100枚と見なすという短陌の慣習が形成されるようになった。
English: This meant actual revaluation of currency and at the same time, it became established as a favorable system for merchant princes who handled a great number of copper coins.
Japanese: これは、実質上の通貨の切り上げになると同時に銅銭を多く取り扱う大商人に有利な制度として定着した。
English: Osho (王章) (Five Dynasties period) who was the prime minister of the Later Han Dynasty (Five Dynasties period), one of Godai-Jikkoku (Wudai Shiguo) period, officially permitted to consider 77 copper coins equal to 100 and it was also adopted in the dynasties after the Sung.
Japanese: 五代十国の一つである後漢_(五代)の宰相であった王章(五代)は、77枚をもって銅銭100枚として見なす事を公的に許すようになり、宋(王朝)以後の王朝でも採用された。
English: A payment made with 100 copper coins instead of tanhaku is called '足銭' in Chinese and 'chosen' (長銭) or 'chohaku' (調陌) in Japanese.
Japanese: これに対して、短陌を用いずに銅銭100枚をもって支払うことを中国では「足銭」、日本では「長銭」・「調陌」と呼ぶ。
English: Tanhaku was a custom fit for the economic situation at that time and hailed as a method to reduce the inconvenience of delivering copper coins.
Japanese: 短陌は銅銭不足であった当時の経済状況に合わせた慣習であり、銅銭の輸送の不便さを軽減する上では歓迎された。
English: However, while it led to the increase in property value of merchant princes who owned a lot of copper coins and carried out trading, it was a very unfavorable system for ordinary people whose trading was mostly with a small amount of money in daily life because if tanhaku wasn't adopted, the value returned to the primary official value of the copper coin (if it was calculated based on the official value in the age of Sung, the total value of coppers without tanhaku would be just the value of 77 coins, thus it resulted in a loss of 23 coins).
Japanese: だが、銅銭を多く保有して多額の取引を行う大商人には実質上の資産価値の増大に繋がる一方、短陌を外してしまうと銅銭本来の公定価値に戻ってしまう（宋代の公定価値を元にすると、短陌を外した銅銭を全て合わせても77枚分の価値しか有しないために、23枚分の損となる）ために、日常生活において小額の取引がほとんどである庶民にとっては大変不利な制度でもあった。
English: In Japan, it is said that there was a business custom with which 97 copper coins were considered as 100 coins in the Muromachi period.
Japanese: 日本においては、室町時代に銅銭97枚をもって100枚とみなす商慣習があったと言われている。
English: The custom with which a bundle of 96 copper coins (equal to 96 mon [an old currency unit in Japan]) was considered as 100 coins in the Edo period is regarded as one of tanhaku.
Japanese: 江戸時代に銅銭96枚（＝96文）の束をもって銭100文と見なした慣習も短陌の一つと見なされる。
English: This custom is found in the ban on use of poor-quality currency issued by the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) in the early Sengoku period (period of warring states) (Japan), 1505, saying (on the assumption that 96 cooper coins is considered as 100 mon) all figures must be converted at 32 mon to one third of 100 mon, and such a custom was also called kurokusen ("ku" means 9, "roku" means 6 and "sen" means money).
Japanese: その慣習は戦国時代(日本)初期の永正2年（1505年）の室町幕府による撰銭令の中において、（銅銭96枚を100文とすることを前提として）100文の1/3を32文として換算する規定が見られ、こうした慣行を九六銭（くろくせん）とも呼んだ。
English: Naiyakushi was one of the agencies that belonged to Nakatsukasasho (Ministry of Central Affairs) under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).
Japanese: 内薬司（ないやくし）は律令制において中務省に属する機関の一つである。
English: The medicinal-herb garden was managed by Yakuenshi (an official in charge of managing the medicinal-herb garden) of Tenyakuryo, also it is considered that the shortfall was compensated by nenryozoyaku (medicinal herb contributed to the central government) collected from every corner of the country.
Japanese: また薬園は典薬寮の薬園師が管理している他、不足分は各地から年料雑薬として納められたと考えられている。
English: Thus, even though Naiyakushi was an independent government official, it functioned almost like a department of Tenyakuryo and it was merged with Tenyakuryo in 896.
Japanese: このように独立した官司といえどほとんど典薬寮の一部局のようになっており､寛平8年（896年）典薬寮に併合された。
English: The Battle of Hakone and Takenoshita was a battle between the Takauji ASHIKAGA forces and Yoshisada NITTA forces that broke out on February 1, 1336 during the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan).
Japanese: 箱根・竹ノ下の戦い（はこねたけのしたのたたかい）は、南北朝時代(日本)の建武(日本)2年（1335年）12月11日(旧暦)（ユリウス暦1336年1月24日）に、足利尊氏勢と新田義貞勢の間で行われた合戦。
English: The Emperor Godaigo dispatched Yoshisada NITTA to defeat Takauji ASHIKAGA who rebelled against the Kenmu government, but it failed and the Kenmu government collapsed.
Japanese: 後醍醐天皇が建武政権に反旗を翻した足利尊氏を討つために新田義貞を派遣したが失敗し、建武政権は崩壊した。
English: The Kenmu government was established after toppling the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) in 1333, but samurai aggravated a grievance against many of its unrealistic policies.
Japanese: 元弘3年/正慶2年(1333年)鎌倉幕府を打倒して成立した建武政権であったが、現実から乖離した政策の数々に武士は不満を募らせた。
English: The plot contrived by Kinmune SAIONJI and Yasuie HOJO was found out in 1335 and ended in failure, but it triggered a string of uprisings of the remnants of the Hojo clan in the Hojo clan's former territories.
Japanese: 建武2年(1335年)発覚した西園寺公宗と北条泰家の陰謀は失敗に終わったが、これをきっかけに全国の旧北条氏所領で北条残党の蜂起が相次ぐ。
English: In particular, Tokiyuki HOJO who rose in revolt with the support of the Suwa clan in Shinano Province in July gathered the anti-Kenmu government forces around the country and got enough momentum to remove Tadayoshi ASHIKAGA and occupy Kamakura.
Japanese: 特に7月信濃国で諏訪氏の支援のもと蜂起した北条時行は、各地の反建武政権勢力を吸収し、足利直義を追い出し、鎌倉を占領する勢いを見せた。
English: In response, Takauji ASHIKAGA repeatedly asked the Emperor Godaigo to dispatch him to defeat Tokiyuki, but the Emperor Godaigo feared that Takauji would strike out and didn't allow him to do so.
Japanese: これに対し、足利尊氏は時行を討つために自分を派遣するように後醍醐天皇に再三要請するが、尊氏が自立することを怖れた後醍醐はそれを許可しなかった。
English: Takauji's army removed Tokiyuki's army from Kamakura, then Tokiyuki disappeared and his revolt was quashed.
Japanese: 尊氏軍は時行軍を鎌倉から追い出し、時行は消息を絶ち、時行の反乱は鎮圧された。
English: After the battle, Takauji showed his will of independence by confiscating the territory of Yoshisada NITTA who was against him without permission and distributing it as onsho (reward grants) which was granted by Onshokata (office to do desk works of Onsho award) in the Kenmu government.
Japanese: 戦後、尊氏は対立関係にあった新田義貞の所領を勝手に没収し、建武政権では恩賞方が行う恩賞として分配するなど自立の意思を示した。
English: Although the Emperor Godaigo repeatedly ordered Takauji to return to Kyoto, Takauji ignored it and just sent a document criticizing Yoshisada back to him.
Japanese: 後醍醐は再三帰洛命令を出すが尊氏は無視し、義貞を非難する文書を送り返すだけであった。
English: Yoshisada submitted a counter document and his claim was accepted as a result of the deliberation, then the Emperor Godaigo decided to defeat Takauji and proclaimed an imperial decree to Yoshisada.
Japanese: 義貞は反論の文書を提出し、審議の結果義貞の訴えを認め、尊氏を討伐することに決定し、義貞に宣旨を下した。
English: Since Takauji entered into priesthood because he was ashamed of becoming the Emperor's enemy, the morale of the Ashikaga side was low, thus, Tadayoshi led Takauji's army and performed a mission.
Japanese: 朝敵となることを恥じた尊氏が出家するなど足利側の士気が上がらなかったため、尊氏軍は直義が中心となり作戦行動に出る。
English: Yoshisada defeated Tadayoshi's army which was ambushed in the Yahagi-gawa River, Mikawa Province, Sagisaka, Totomi Province and Tegoshigawara, Suruga Province, then occupied the kokufu (provincial office) of Izu (Mishima) and steadily moved his army forward to Kamakura.
Japanese: 義貞は三河国矢作川、遠江国鷺坂、駿河国手越川原で迎撃に出た直義軍を打ち破り、伊豆国府(三島)を占領し、鎌倉へ着々と軍を進めた。
English: When Takauji who was temporarily a priest received the report that Yoshisada was approaching Hakone, he agreed to get back to the battle line by Tadayoshi's persuasion.
Japanese: 義貞が箱根に迫ったとの報に接し、一時出家していた尊氏が直義の説得に応じ、戦線に復帰する。
English: Yoshisada gathered his army in Mishima and split them into two directions, then he led the rear force and headed for Hakone-toge Pass, meanwhile, his younger brother, Yoshisuke WAKIYA led the front force and headed for Ashigara-toge Pass.
Japanese: 義貞は三島で軍を集結させると軍を二方面に分け、自らは搦め手軍を率いて箱根峠に進み、大手軍は実弟脇屋義助を大将に足柄峠へ進軍させる。
English: Takauji's army whose morale was boosted by Takauji's participation in the war took the lead and on the following day, Sadatoshi (Sadanori) OTOMO and Takasada ENYA sold out to Takauji's army, thus Yoshisuke's army suffered a debacle and took flight.
Japanese: 尊氏の参陣で志気が上がる尊氏軍が押し気味に戦局が展開し、翌日これを見た大友貞載、塩谷高貞は尊氏軍に寝返り、義助軍は総崩れとなり敗走する。
English: On February 3, 1336, Takauji's army recaptured the kokufu of Izu Province and Yoshisada's army took flight along Tokai-do Road.
Japanese: 13日には伊豆国国府を尊氏軍が奪回し、義貞軍は東海道を総崩れで敗走した。
English: "Baishoron" (Historical tale compiled in 1349) says that Yoshisada saved a floating bridge over Tenryu-gawa River for his allies to come later, but "Taiheiki" (The Record of the Great Peace) says the opposite, describing that he knocked out the bridge and retreated.
Japanese: 天竜川に架かる浮き橋を義貞が遅れてくる味方のために残したと『梅松論』には書かれているが、『太平記』には浮き橋を斬って退却したと逆のことが書かれている。
English: Takauji's army won in Uji City located at the rear and the court's side withdrew, then it plunged into the battle over Kyoto.
Japanese: 搦め手の宇治市で尊氏軍が勝利し、宮方は撤退し、京を巡る合戦に突入する。
English: The Kenmu government collapsed and came down to the Southern Court (Japan), then it entered into the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan).
Japanese: 建武政権は崩壊し、南朝(日本)に零落し、南北朝時代(日本)へ突入する。
English: The cause of defeat of the court's side was the selling out of dominant samurai who were disappointed by misgovernment of Emperor Godaigo to Takauji's side rather than Yoshisada's poor leadership.
Japanese: 宮方の敗因は義貞の器量不足というよりも後醍醐の失政に失望した有力武士が尊氏に大挙して付いたことに起因する。
English: The Kenmu government which was established by controlling dominant samurai in the rank of former Shugo (provincial constable) came to be defeated by Takauji ASHIKAGA who was backed up by them.
Japanese: 旧守護クラスの有力武士を抑制することで成立しようとした建武政権は旧守護クラスが擁立した足利尊氏に破れることとなった。
English: When the Kikuchi clan joined the Nitta forces, they cut bamboos from the bamboo grove there and tied them to knives to make spears.
Japanese: 新田勢に菊池氏が加わり、その場にあった竹やぶの竹を切り、小刀に結びつけ槍とした。
English: It is said that this idea was generated by Takeshige KIKUCHI of the Kikuchi family who gained fame in the battles of the Mongol invasion attempts against Japan, although struggled with the enemy's weapons.
Japanese: 元寇での戦いで、敵の武器に苦戦しながらも手柄をあげた菊池家の菊池武重の発案という。
English: The term "Dynastic polity" is the historical notion which refers to Japan's state regime in a transitional period during which it was in the process of transition from the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the Ritsuryo code) to the medieval national polity.
Japanese: 王朝国家（おうちょうこっか）は、日本が律令制から中世国家体制へ移行する過渡期の国家体制を表す歴史概念。
English: It is considered this polity was established in early 10th century and continued to exist until the mid-11th century or late 12th century.
Japanese: 10世紀初頭に成立し、11世紀中期ないし12世紀後期までの期間に存続したとされる。
English: Based on the centralized political structure, Ritsuryo system's basic philosophy for ruling people/collecting tax was the people-based governance.
Japanese: 律令国家体制は、中央集権的な政治機構に立脚し、個別人身支配を人民支配・租税収取の原則としていた。
English: In reality, however, this system was supported by local administrative bodies which were in charge of ruling people/collecting tax in each region.
Japanese: しかし、それらを実際に支えていたのは現地で人民支配・租税収取にあたる地方行政であった。
English: As the limitation of people-based governance/tax collection under the Ritsuryo system became clear in the late 9th century, policy changes, such as substantial delegation of authority to local administrative bodies and the switch from the principle of people-based governance to the principle of tax on land, were implemented in early 10th century.
Japanese: 9世紀後期に至って律令制的な人民支配・租税収取に限界が生じたため、10世紀初頭より、地方政治への大幅な統治委任や個別人身支配から土地課税原則への方針転換が進められた。
English: As the medieval national polity, which corresponded to the establishment of shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates) and the advent of cloister government/samurai government, was progressively built up during the period from the mid-11th century to the 12th century/early 13th century, the period of dynastic polity ended around that time.
Japanese: 11世紀中期から12世紀・13世紀初頭にかけて、荘園公領制の成立や院政・武家政治の登場などに対応した中世国家体制が漸進的に構築されていったため、この時期に王朝国家体制は終期を迎えた。
English: The term "dynastic" derives from the fact that the Nara period and the Heian period were collectively called Dynastic periods in the pre-War period while the Kamakura period and subsequent periods were collectively called Feudal periods.
Japanese: 王朝の語は、戦前期より、鎌倉時代以降を武家時代と称したのに対し奈良時代・平安時代を王朝時代と称したことに由来する。
English: With the study of Japanese history progressed after the War, the view which regards Nara/early Heian period, during which the Ritsuryo system was the basis of governance, and mid-Heian/late Heian period, during which the Ritsuryo system was not necessarily the basis of governance, as separate periods became dominant.
Japanese: 戦後、日本史研究の進展に伴い、律令支配を原則としていた奈良期-平安前期と、律令を必ずしも支配原則としなくなった平安中期・後期とを別個の時代ととらえる考えが主流を占めていった。
English: Accordingly, the periodization of the former was named the Ritsuryo period and its state regime was named Ritsuryo polity.
Japanese: それに伴い、前者の時代区分を律令時代、前者の国家体制を律令国家と称した。
English: On the other hand, the periodization of the latter was named the Dynastic period and the term Dynastic polity, which refers to the state regime of the latter, became used.
Japanese: これに対して、王朝時代は後者の時代区分として認識され、同様に後者の国家体制を指して王朝国家という語が使用されるようになった。
English: The Ritsuryo system, which was established in early 8th century, adopted the principle of people-based governance (ruling individuals) and existed on the basis of the highly systematized Ritsuryo code of law/bureaucracy system/local administration system as well as the family registration system/keicho (yearly tax registers) etc.
Japanese: 8世紀初頭に確立した律令制は、個人を徴税単位とする個別人身支配（人別支配）を基本原則としており、高度に体系化された律令法典・官僚制度・地方制度や古代の戸籍制度・計帳などを基盤として存立していた。
English: In particular, the structure of mental obedience to the chieftaincy of Gunji (local magistrates), who used to be the chiefs of village community since ancient times, as well as suiko (a kind of official loan system), which was supposed to guarantee the sustainable management of small-hold peasants, were quite important for maintaining the Ritsuryo system in Japan since this system was originally created in the context of Chinese society of the Tang Dynasty, a quite different society from that of Japan.
Japanese: 特に、古くからの地域における首長層を再編した郡司層の首長権への精神面での服従構造と、経営の安定性を欠く零細百姓層の経営維持を保証する出挙は、本来古代日本とは異質な社会である唐代中国社会を成立背景とした律令制が、日本で成立する上で重要であった。
English: However, as early as from late 8th century, the regime of people-based governance started to fray at the edges as the case of peasants' false registration, vagrancy and escape increased.
Japanese: しかし、早くも8世紀後期頃から百姓の偽籍・浮浪・逃亡が見られ始め、個別人身支配体制にほころびが生じていた。
English: Although measures aiming to maintain or restructure the Ritsuryo system were repeatedly implemented during the period from late 8th century to 9th century, peasants were increasingly split into a large majority of peasants in poverty and a small minority of wealthy peasants (wealthy peasants class).
Japanese: その後、8世紀後期から9世紀を通じて律令制を維持または再構築しようとする試みが繰り返されたが、大多数の貧困百姓層とごく少数の富裕百姓層（富豪層）という百姓層内の階層分離はますます加速していった。
English: While peasants in poverty evaded tax by false registration or escape, wealthy peasants acquired additional farmland through reclamation, which they were allowed to own privately, and made poor peasants, especially those who escaped or were debt-burned due to private suiko, their subordinate people.
Japanese: 貧困層は偽籍・逃亡によって租税負担から逃れ、富豪層は墾田活動を通じて得分収取しうる田地を獲得し、逃亡したり私出挙によって負債を負わせた貧困百姓らを保護民、隷属民として囲い込んでいった。
English: Although family registration and keicho were the foundation of people-based governance, the above situation clearly demonstrated the limitation of people-based governance/tax collection that relied on family registration and keicho.
Japanese: 個別人身支配の基礎となっていたのは戸籍・計帳であったが、上記の状況は、もはや戸籍・計帳による人民支配租税収取が限界を迎えていたことを示している。
English: Further, individuals who were supposed to be subject to people-based governance were no more the people who were led by mental obedience consciousness to the chieftaincy of Gunji, the descendants of the chiefs of village communities.
Japanese: また、個別人身支配を受けるべき個々の民は、かつてのように地域首長層の末裔たる郡司の首長権への精神的服従意識によって統率された存在ではなくなっていた。
English: Instead, they had already changed into the subordinates of wealthy peasants, who had hoarded movables necessary for farming and had achieved sustainable management.
Japanese: 彼らは、生産基盤となる動産を集積し、安定経営を達成した富豪層の保護、隷属関係よって統率された存在に変質を遂げていた。
English: Under such circumstances, the government was pressed to build up a new regime, in lieu of the then existing people-based governance, which enabled it to secure tax revenue.
Japanese: こうした状況を受け、政府は、従前の個別人身支配に代わって租税収取を確保するための新たな支配体制を構築するため、大きな方針転換を迫られていた。
English: When the Engi no chi (Reign of the Emperor Daigo), the last attempt for reviving the Ritsuryo system led by the Emperor Daigo and FUJIWARA no Tokihira during the period from the end of the 9th century to the early 10th century, ended in failure, the emperor Suzaku, his successor, and FUJIWARA no Tadahira made a bold policy change from the principle of people-based governance to that of tax on land.
Japanese: 9世紀末～10世紀初年に醍醐天皇及び藤原時平が主導した律令制復活の最後の試みである延喜の治が失敗に終わると、次代の朱雀天皇及び藤原忠平は、個別人身支配を基調とする体制から土地課税基調の体制へと大きな政策転回を行った。
English: This policy change was proven by the fact that the government ceased to conduct handen shuju (a system of periodic reallocations of rice land), whose premise was people-based governance under the Ritsuryo system, since the Suzaku era.
Japanese: 朱雀期以降、律令制的人別支配を前提とする班田収授が実施されていないことなどが、この政策転回の存在を示している。
English: Under the principle of people-based governance, the government imposes tax on individuals, but it becomes impossible to grasp the name of taxable people if the case of false registration and/or escape occurs frequently.
Japanese: 個人を課税対象として把握する個別人身支配において、偽籍・逃亡が頻発すると課税対象である個人を把握することはできなくなる。
English: Under the principle of tax on land, however, the government can collect tax from wealthy peasants who eventually manage the land in question only by confirming the existence of land.
Japanese: しかし、土地課税原則のもとでは、田地の存在さえ把握していればそこを実質的に経営している富豪層から収取すべき租税を収取することが十分可能となる。
English: Although the idea of emphasizing tax on land existed in the era when FUJIWARA no Fuyutsugu was in power during the first half of the 9th century, it stopped short of reversing the principle of people-based governance.
Japanese: 土地課税を重視する考えは9世紀前期の藤原冬嗣執政期の頃から存在していたが、個別人身支配の原則を覆すまでには至らなかった。
English: At that time, the system of the nation under the Ritsuryo codes ceased to exist and the new regime which adopted the principle of tax on land, namely Dynastic polity, was established.
Japanese: ここに、律令国家体制期が終わり、土地課税を基本原則とする新たな支配体制、すなわち王朝国家体制が出現することとなった。
English: Concerning the time when the old system shifted to the system based on tax on land, there is a view asserting that the era of Kanpyo no chi (Glorious rule in the Kanpyo era), led by the Emperor Uda and SUGAWARA no Michizane, was the preparatory period for the transition to the Dynastic polity regime and Engi no chi (Reign of Emperor Daigo), led by Tokihira, was the transitional period to the Dynastic polity regime (Koji HIRATA, 2000).
Japanese: なお土地課税基調体制への移行の時期について、宇多天皇及び菅原道真の主導による寛平の治を王朝国家体制への転換準備期とし、延喜の治を時平による王朝国家体制への移行期であるとする意見（平田耿二,2000など）がある。
English: What characterized the Dynastic polity regime was the adoption of the principle of tax on land as a replacement for the principle of people-based governance, which had been the basic principle of the Ritsuryo regime.
Japanese: 王朝国家体制の特質は、律令国家体制が基調としていた個別人身支配を放棄し、土地に対する課税・支配を基調とした点にあった。
English: As early as from the late 9th century, local administrative bodies, which were actually in charge of tax collection, tended to impose tax on land rather than collecting it based on family registration/keicho.
Japanese: すでに9世紀後期の頃から、実際に租税収取を担当する地方行政の現場では、戸籍・計帳を基盤に置いた課税方式が後退し、土地に対する課税が積極的に行われる傾向にあった。
English: It was early 10th century when the government adopted the actual situation of local administration as the basic policy of the nation.
Japanese: そうした地方行政の実情を国家体制の基本方針に採用したのが、10世紀初頭だったのである。
English: In adopting the principle of tax on land, Koden (field administered directly by a ruler) was the base of the tax system.
Japanese: 土地課税が租税収取の基本原則とされるに当たり、租税体系の基礎とされたのが公田である。
English: While Soyocho, three kinds of taxes under the Ritsuryo system, were imposed on individuals, tax was imposed on Koden under the new tax system.
Japanese: 律令制における租税（租庸調）は、個人に対して課せられていたが、新たな租税制度のもとでは公田に対して課税がなされた。
English: In the early 10th century, Koden was reorganized into the base for taxing called Myoden (rice field lots managed by a nominal holder) and the system called Myo-system, under which local wealthy peasants (Tato (cultivators)/Fumyoso (tiller of the public rice field)) were responsible for the management of Myoden as well as land tax payment, was established.
Japanese: 10世紀初頭頃から、公田は名田と呼ばれる租税収取の基礎単位へ編成され、現地の富豪層（田堵・負名層）が名田経営と租税納入を請け負うという名体制が形成されていった。