nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: In order to handle this issue, the Imperial Court carried out institutional reform to grant a wide range of military discretion to zuryo (highest-rank local governors).
Japanese: 朝廷はこれに対処するため、受領（現地国司の最高位者）に広範な軍事上の裁量権を認める制度改革を行った。
English: More specifically, the Imperial Court not only issued 'a charter to catch thieves' to aggressively suppress robbers instead of 'a charter to send troops' to simply permit troop mobilization, but also appointed oryoshi (suppressors) and tsuibushi (envoys to pursue and capture) for each province and required brave local individuals to be under control of kokuga, oryoshi, or tsuibushi.
Japanese: 具体的には、単に兵動員を許可する「発兵勅符」に代わって群盗を積極的に鎮圧しようとする「追捕官符」を発出するとともに、国単位で押領使・追捕使を任命して、国内の武勇者を国衙・押領使・追捕使の指揮下に入ることを義務づけたのである。
English: In terms of transfer of rights to local governments, this military reform was the same as the reform, which was starting around that time, to shift the country to a dynasty-based nation.
Japanese: この軍制改革は、地方に権限を移譲するという意味で、まさに当時その緒についていた王朝国家体制への転換改革と軌を一にするものだった。
English: During this period of time, downfallen low-ranked aristocrats such as TAIRA no Takamochi, MINAMOTO no Tsunemoto, FUJIWARA no Toshihito, and FUJIWARA no Hidesato became famous for searching for and killing thieves.
Japanese: この時期に群盗追討で名を馳せたのが、平高望、源経基、藤原利仁、藤原秀郷ら、没落した下級貴族である。
English: There has been an argument (by Tatsuhiko SHIMOMUKAI) that these aristocrats were able to demonstrate their military power because, their grandfathers learned barbaric military arts developed based on hunting culture when they were appointed to zuryo, and these aristocrats developed military arts of a new style based on the original style.
Japanese: 彼らがこうした軍事力を発揮出来た背景には、彼らの父祖の世代が受領に任ぜられた際、狩猟文化を背景に持つ俘囚の武芸を学んでおり、それを基礎とした新式の武芸を編み出していたとする議論（下向井龍彦）が唱えられている。
English: Through distinguishing themselves as local governors or oryoshi, establishing themselves in the areas they were transferred to, and being officially permitted by kokuga to manage koden (field administered directly by a ruler), they established enough of an economic foundation to maintain their own military power.
Japanese: 彼らは国司や押領使として勲功を挙げるとともに、赴任した地方に土着して国衙から公田経営を公認されるなど、自らの軍事力を維持出来るだけの経済基盤を築いた。
English: However, the Imperial Court did not treat these individuals as well as they expected; therefore, their discontent grew.
Japanese: しかし、朝廷の彼らに対する処遇は必ずしも彼らが期待したほどではなく、彼らの間には次第に不満が蓄積していった。
English: The Johei and Tengyo War that occurred around 940 was the embodiment of their discontent.
Japanese: 940年前後に発生した承平天慶の乱は、このような不満の実体化であった。
English: In this war, both the rebelling force and the hunting-and-killing force consisted of descendants of those who distinguished themselves during the Engi period.
Japanese: 同乱の叛乱側、追討側いずれも延喜期に勲功を挙げた者たちの子孫である。
English: Those who distinguished themselves in the suppression of the Johei and Tengyo War, meaning the majority of Johei Tengyo kunkosha (people who distinguishably served in the Johei and Tengyo War), were aristocrats but in fact were middle or low class officers at extremely low government positions.
Japanese: 承平天慶の乱の鎮圧・追討に勲功のあった者、すなわち承平天慶勲功者の大半は、貴族の血統に属するとはいっても、極めて低い官位にある中下級の官人であった。
English: The Imperial Court, based on their understanding that their discontent led to the outbreak of the war, promoted these individuals to low to middle class, fifth or sixth rank aristocratic zuryo.
Japanese: しかし朝廷はこの時、彼らの間の不満が乱の原因になったとの認識のもと、彼らを五位・六位といった受領級の中・下流貴族に昇進させた。
English: As a result, in aristocratic society of the later half of the 10th century, Johei Tengyo kunkosha and their descendants became known as families specialized in military affairs called tsuwamono-no-ie.
Japanese: この結果、10世紀後半の貴族社会において、承平天慶の乱の勲功者とその子孫たちは軍事に特化した家系、すなわち兵の家（つわもののいえ）として認知されるようになった。
English: These tsuwamono-no-ie members becoming the origin of the military aristocrats or samurais has been the most compelling theory.
Japanese: 軍事貴族ないし武士の母体となったのは、こうした兵の家の者たちであったというのが、現在最も有力な学説である。
English: At that time, there were no institutionalized family business takeover and establishment systems, and therefore, recognition of tsuwamono-no-ie was not stable.
Japanese: 当時はまだ家業の継承・固定化が成立しておらず、兵の家としての認知はいまだ流動的でもあった。
English: In the 11th century, the 'family business takeover' or the hereditary government office system, in which certain families inherited certain government positions, was gradually established in the aristocratic society.
Japanese: 11世紀に入ると、ある家系が特定の官職を世襲する「家業の継承」または官司請負制が貴族社会内で次第に確立されていった。
English: Meanwhile, some families from tsuwamono-no-ie established themselves as being specialized in military affairs.
Japanese: こうした流れの中で、兵の家の中から軍事を専門として従事する家系が固定化していった。
English: Many of them were technical samurai officers of the sixth rank which was the highest rank for them, but those who were in higher classes dominated a part of shodaibu (aristocracy lower than kugyo) positions, were promoted to the fourth or fifth rank, and were appointed to zuryo-level government positions.
Japanese: 彼らの多くは六位どまりの侍身分の技能官人であったが、上層階級の者は諸大夫身分の一角を占めて四位・五位クラスまで昇り、受領級の官職に任命されるようになった。
English: Among military aristocrats, only Kanmu-Heishi (Taira clan), Seiwa-Genji (Minamoto clan), and the Fujiwara clan of the Hidesato line were appointed to a high rank, which was the fourth rank.
Japanese: 軍事貴族の中でも、高位の四位に任じられたのは、秀郷流藤原氏、清和源氏、桓武平氏に限られる。
English: Among them, only six members of Seiwa-Genji and two members of Kanmu-Heishi were promoted to shoshii (senior fourth rank).
Japanese: うち正四位まで昇ったのは、清和源氏の6名と桓武平氏の2名のみである。
English: At first, members of Seiwa-Genji, such as MINAMOTO no Yorimitsu and MINAMOTO no Yorinobu were appointed to shoshii, allowing Seiwa-Genji to be recognized as the head of the samurai families.
Japanese: 当初、源頼光や源頼信をはじめとして清和源氏が相次いで正四位に任じられ、清和源氏が武家の棟梁として認識されていた。
English: However, when Seiwa-Genji lost its power in the generation of MINAMOTO no Yoshichika, who was a son of MINAMOTO no Yoshiie, TAIRA no Tadamori was promoted to shoshii instead.
Japanese: しかし、源義家の子、源義親の代に失脚すると、代わって平忠盛が正四位に昇った。
English: This event is believed to show that the head of the samurai families changed from Seiwa-Genji to Kanmu-Heishi.
Japanese: これは武家の棟梁が清和源氏から桓武平氏へ移ったことの現れだと考えられている。
English: After serving as takiguchi (the Imperial Palace Guards for the north side), they were appointed to military officers such as kurodo (chamberlain) to guard inside the Imperial Court and kebiishi (police and judicial chiefs) to serve as police for the city of Kyoto.
Japanese: 彼らは、滝口（北面武士）を勤めた後、宮中の警護にあたる蔵人、京市中の警察である検非違使などの武官に任じられた。
English: Just like lower to middle-class aristocrats who were technical officers of the shodaifu class accumulating their achievements, after accumulating achievements as military officers, military aristocrats were often transferred to various provinces as zuryo.
Japanese: 武官としての功績を積んだ後は、他の諸大夫階層の技能官人層に属する中下級貴族が家業の功績を積んだのと同様に、受領として諸国へ赴任する例が多かった。
English: Around this time, based on the 'charter to send troops' issued by the Daijokan, the kokuga military system had been established in which provincial governors formed forces with provincial samurais to hunt down and catch 'outlaws.'
Japanese: 当時、太政官から発給された「追捕官符」を根拠に、国司が国内の武士を軍事力として編成し、「凶党」の追捕に当たるという国衙軍制が成立していた。
English: In this military system, military aristocrats as 'samurai families' demonstrated more than enough capabilities.
Japanese: 軍事貴族の「武家」としての職能はこの国衙軍制の中で十二分に発揮されたのである。
English: In the kokuga military system, provincial governors registered certain individuals as 'samurai' on the name list (called the 'name list of approved samurais').
Japanese: 国衙軍制において国司は、次に掲げる者を「武士」として名簿（「武士交名」という）に登録した。
English: These certain individuals were gunji (district managers), wealthy farmers, and tato fumyo (cultivators/tax managers) who were descendants of Johei Tengyo kunkosha, samurais, family members of technical officers, and specialized in military arts as a family business.
Japanese: それは、承平天慶期の勲功者の子孫で侍身分の技能官人の家と認知され、武芸を家業としている郡司・富豪百姓・田堵負名らである。
English: When it was necessary to hunt down and catch outlaws, provincial governors formed forces by referring to the samurai list.
Japanese: いざ凶党追捕の際には、国司は武士交名を元にこれらの者を軍事力として編成していた。
English: Since military aristocrats started to establish relationships with local gunji, wealthy farmers, and tato fumyo in the Johei Tengyo period, they had a much greater advantage than regular zuryo in terms of raising provincial troops.
Japanese: 軍事貴族は、承平天慶期より継続的に在地の郡司・富豪百姓・田堵負名層との関係を構築していたため、国内軍事力の編成に関しては、通常の受領よりも格段に有利であった。
English: Also, it was military aristocrats' custom that when they were transferred to local areas as zuryo they reinforced their relationship with locally powerful individuals.
Japanese: また彼らは受領として地方に赴任した際には、在地の有力者たちとの関係を更に深めるのが通例であった。
English: As a result, subordinate-superior relationships were gradually established between military aristocrats and gozoku (local ruling families).
Japanese: こうして軍事貴族と在地の豪族との間には、主従関係が徐々に築かれていった。
English: Note, however, these subordinate-superior relationships were not necessarily rigidly established at that time; they seemed to also have flexible aspects.
Japanese: ただし、当時すでに強固な主従関係が見られたわけではなく、流動的な側面を持つ主従関係だったことに注意する必要がある。
English: After serving as zuryo as described above, military aristocrats often became zuryo of other provinces or were appointed to be military officers such as emonfu jo (lieutenant at the outer palace guard headquarters) and senior or junior secretaries of Gyobusho (Ministry of Justice).
Japanese: 軍事貴族たちはこのようにして受領を勤めた後、再び別の国の受領となったり、あるいは衛門府尉や刑部省丞などの武官的な官職に補任されることが多かった。
English: Just like low to middle-class aristocrats who were technical officers, military aristocrats may privately have served as keishi (household superintendents) of powerful aristocrats such as regents or as inshi (officials at the Retired Emperor's Office) of Chiten no kimi (retired emperor).
Japanese: 軍事貴族は他の技能官人層の中下級貴族と同様、摂関家など有力貴族の家司や治天の君の院司として私的に奉仕するという側面も持っていた。
English: Since the time of MINAMOTO no Mitsunaka, Seiwa-Genji served for generations as keishi of the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan (regent family) and actively participated in tashihaiseki (expulsion of other clans from the Imperial Court) by the clan.
Japanese: 清和源氏は源満仲以来、藤原北家（摂関家）の家司として代々仕え、同家による他氏排斥の際には藤原北家の家司として積極的に関与した。
English: Furthermore, Seiwa-Genji, as the private force of the regent family, greatly helped the regent family maintain its political power by executing extensive jogo (ninkan) (granting official positions to individuals who offered their private financial assets to the Imperial Court).
Japanese: また清和源氏は摂関家の私兵として仕伺したり摂関家へ多大な成功_(任官)（じょうごう）を行うなど、摂関家の権勢維持に大きな役割を果たした。
English: Meanwhile, Sadamori-ryu Heishi (Taira clan of the Sadamori group) served as keishi (household superintendents) of the Onomiya line of the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan; however, Sadamori-ryu Heishi's position as military aristocrats became lower as the Onomiya line was positioned as an indirect line.
Japanese: 一方、貞盛流平氏は小野宮流藤原北家の家司として仕えたが、小野宮流が傍系に追いやられるにつれて、軍事貴族としての地位が低下していった。
English: MINAMOTO no Yorimitsu, his brother MINAMOTO no Yorichika, MINAMOTO no Yoriyoshi, and his son MINAMOTO no Yoshiie were one by one appointed to the highest rank for military aristocrats, which was shoshii, and Seiwa-Genji ascended to be the leader of the samurai families.
Japanese: 源頼光・源頼親兄弟、源頼義・源義家父子が正四位という軍事貴族最高位に相次いで叙せられ、武家の棟梁というべき立場を得るに至った。
English: It should be noted here that Seiwa-Genji became the leader of samurai families not because of their bravery but because of internal affairs of central aristocrats such as contributions to the regent family.
Japanese: ここで注意しなくてはならないことは、清和源氏が武家の棟梁という地位を得たのは、その武勇によってというよりも、摂関家への奉仕という中央貴族の内部事情に起因するという点である。
English: Although military aristocrats worked on establishment of subordinate-superior relationships with locally powerful individuals, the foundation of their existence was after all in central politics.
Japanese: 軍事貴族は確かに在地有力者との主従関係の構築を進めてきてはいたが、その存立基盤はやはり中央政界にあったのである。
English: When Emperor Shirakawa started the cloister government, TAIRA no Tadamori became roto (retainer) of in no kinshin (retired Emperor's courtier) to approach Shirakawa-in.
Japanese: 白河天皇による院政が始まると、平忠盛は院近臣の郎党となって白河院に接近してゆく。
English: After suppressing the rebellion by MINAMOTO no Yoshichika, Tadamori became inshi (official of the Retired Emperor's Office), was appointed to shoshii, the highest rank for military aristocrats, and gained power as the leader of samurai families.
Japanese: 忠盛は源義親の乱を平定するなどして院司となり、正四位に叙せられて軍事貴族の最高位者、すなわち武家の棟梁として台頭していった。
English: The leader of samurai families changed from the Minamoto clan to Taira clan as the center of politics shifted from the regent family to Chiten no kimi who established the cloister government (the Minamoto clan gained power using the power of the regent family, and the Taira clan gained power using the power of the cloister government).
Japanese: 武家の棟梁の地位が源氏から平氏へ移動した背景には、中央政界の中心が摂関家から院政を布く治天の君へシフトしたという事情がある（源氏は摂関家の権威を背景に、平家は院の権威を背景に台頭したことによる）。
English: This shows that the position of the leader of samurai families, meaning the position of military aristocrats, was tightly linked with the changes in central politics.
Japanese: これは、武家の棟梁の地位、ひいては軍事貴族の地位が中央政界の動向に制約されていたことの証左とされている。
English: The Hogen War and the Heiji War in the middle of the 12th century were noteworthy incidents since political conflicts inside the Imperial Court were resolved by means of military confrontations.
Japanese: 12世紀中期の保元の乱・平治の乱は、朝廷内部の政争が軍事衝突によって解決された画期的な事件である。
English: These wars served as opportunities for TAIRA no Kiyomori and his family members, who were the highest rank military aristocrats, to rapidly gain power inside the Imperial Court.
Japanese: これを契機として、軍事貴族の最高位者である平清盛とその一族は、朝廷内部で急速に台頭していった。
English: In 1160, Kiyomori was appointed to shosanmi sangi (senior third rank royal advisor) that no other military aristocrats could be appointed to, and was then appointed to daijo-daijin (Grand Minister of State) in 1167.
Japanese: 清盛は、1160年にそれまでの軍事貴族が就きえなかった正三位参議になると、1167年には太政大臣にまで昇り詰めた。
English: This administration was characterized as an early samurai administration in terms of dispatch of gunsei (military government) officers.
Japanese: これは軍政官を派遣するなどの点で、最初期の武家政権としての性格を有している。
English: During the 1180's a civil war (Jisho-Juei War) to overthrow the Taira administration broke out, and the samurai government of MINAMOTO no Yoritomo (later to become the Kamakura bakufu), consisting of local ryoshu (samurai lord) and samurais in Kanto who were originally military aristocrats, won.
Japanese: 1180年代になると、平氏政権打倒を名目とした内戦（治承・寿永の乱）が起こり、最終的に、軍事貴族に出自し関東の在地領主層武士層を基盤とする源頼朝の武家政権（後の鎌倉幕府）が内戦に勝利した。
English: Yoritomo, who was basing his power in the samurai class in Kanto, rejected the military aristocrat position and established a new samurai leader position as Kamakura-dono (lord of Kamakura).
Japanese: しかし、関東武士層を権力基盤とする頼朝は、軍事貴族としての地位を否定し、鎌倉殿という新たな武家棟梁の地位を確立した。
English: The Taiko-kenchi is a series of land surveys (surveys of agricultural lands [i.e. except mountains and forests] and production) conducted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI throughout Japan.
Japanese: 太閤検地（たいこうけんち）は、豊臣秀吉が全国的に行った検地（田畑（つまり山林は除く）の測量及び収穫量調査）。
English: Although Hideyoshi had not had the title of Taiko (the father of the Imperial adviser) until he handed over the title of Kanpaku (the chief adviser for an emperor) to Hidetsugu TOYOTOMI in 1591, all his land surveys including the surveys conducted before 1591 were included in the 'Taiko-kenchi,' because Hideyoshi had been pleased with the use of the title of 'Taiko' since 1591.
Japanese: 1591年に関白を豊臣秀次に譲るまでは太閤（たいこう）ではなかったが、1591年以降は秀吉自身が「太閤」の称号を好んで使用したこともあり、1591年以前の検地も含めて「太閤検地」と言う。
English: It was Mitsunari ISHIDA who drew up and suggested the Taiko-kenchi, and he actually conducted the surveys as a land survey magistrate.
Japanese: これを企画発案したのは石田三成で、検地奉行として事実上の施行者となった。
English: Hideyoshi carried out the land surveys in each area he conquered to understand the extent of the land as a foundation to build a united country.
Japanese: 秀吉は、各地を征服するごとに検地を行い、征服地を確実に把握して全国統一の基礎とした。
English: The Taiko-kenchi enabled them to investigate and reorganize the long-established complicated land ownership matters, so that they could establish a new land system.
Japanese: 太閤検地は、それまでの複雑な土地所有関係を整理し、土地制度を一新した。
English: It is a famous story that Hideyoshi attacked Odawara-jo Castle surrounding it with two hundred thousand samurai and succeeded in defeating the Hojo clan (this battle is called "the Siege of Odawara"), without running out of provisions owing to the Taiko-kenchi.
Japanese: この太閤検地の実施により兵糧を絶やすことなく小田原城を約20万の兵で囲み、北条氏を滅亡させた（小田原の役）のは有名な話である。
English: Even before Taiko-kenchi, comprehensive land surveys (also called Sashidashi Kenchi) were conducted by Nobunaga ODA (some people call it 'Shincho Kenchi').
Japanese: これ以前にも、織田信長によって大規模な検地(指出検地とも呼ばれる)が行われた（一部の者はこれを「信長検地（しんちょうけんち）」と呼ぶ）。
English: Rakuichi-rakuza (free markets and open guilds) was an economic policy implemented in the markets of government controlled areas such as castle towns by the Shokuho government (the government of Nobunaga ODA and Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) and the Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) during the early modern period (16th century to 18th century) in Japan.
Japanese: 楽市・楽座（らくいち・らくざ）は、日本の近世（16世紀から18世紀ごろまで）において織田信長、豊臣秀吉の織豊政権や各地の戦国大名などにより城下町などの支配地の市場で行われた経済政策である。
English: Rakuichi-rakuza was the creation of free trade markets and the dissolution of guilds with the exclusion of preexisting merchants and tradesmen (market and trade guild system, wholesalers etc.) with special rights such as exclusive sales rights, non-taxation rights and the right to keep tax agents from entering one's property.
Japanese: 既存の独占販売権、非課税権、不入権などの特権を持つ商工業者（市座、問屋など）を排除して自由取引市場をつくり、座を解散させるものである。
English: Economic benefits in Japan during the middle ages were monopolized by za (guilds), toimaru (specialized wholesale merchants) and kabunakama (trade associations) but Sengoku daimyo abolished these and, as well as attempting to establish absolute feudal rights, aimed to stimulate the economy by fostering emerging merchants and tradesmen via the reduction and exemption of taxes.
Japanese: 中世の経済的利益は座・問丸・株仲間によって独占され既得権化していたが、戦国大名はこれを排除して絶対的な領主権の確立を目指すとともに、税の減免を通して新興商工業者を育成し経済の活性化を図ったのである。
English: The first rakuichi-rakuza was established in 1549 by Sadayori ROKKAKU of Omi Province in the town of Ishidera surrounding Kannonji-jo Castle in which he resided.
Japanese: 天文(元号)18年（1549年）に近江国の六角定頼が、居城である観音寺城の城下町石寺に楽市令を布いたのが初見。
English: Rakuichi-rakuza were proclaimed by daimyo throughout Japan, and these included not only those proclaimed by Nobunaga ODA himself in Kano, Mino Province; Azuchi-cho, Omi Province; and Kanamori, Omi Province (Moriyama City); but the practice was also conveyed to all daimyo under his control and rakuichi-rakuza came to be established in various castle towns.
Japanese: 各地の大名によって城下町等に布告されたが、なかでも織田信長は、自分自身が美濃国・加納、近江国・安土町、近江国・金森(守山市)に楽市・楽座令を布いただけでなく支配下の諸大名に伝達され、各城下町で実施された。
English: Nobunaga guaranteed the special 'rakuichi' right held by Kano and Kanamori.)
Japanese: 信長は、加納や金森が持っていた「楽市」という特権を保証したのである。）
English: The morning markets and afternoon markets continued in provincial cities, as well as the character 'ichi' remaining in place names such as 'Tokaichi' are the remnants of these.
Japanese: 地方都市において継続している朝市や昼市、地名に市の名を残す十日市などはその名残りである。
English: Wholesale merchants increased in number during this period and their profits equalized, resulting areas in which a great quantity of smuggled goods entered the black market.
Japanese: この時期に問屋業者が増え、店自体の売上が均一化し、多くのぬけ荷品が闇市場に並ぶといった所があげられる。
English: It is recognized that 'rakuichi-rakuza were begun in Azuchi by Nobunaga' but, as described above, they were actually first established by temple towns and the Rokkaku clan during the middle ages.
Japanese: 「楽市楽座は信長が安土城で始めた」という認識があるが、上記のように実際は中世の門前町や六角氏により開始されている。
English: The rakuichi-rakuza policy is considered to demonstrate Nobunaga's progressive outlook but there is also the fact that he was the first to achieve wide-reaching territorial control centered around the Kinki region during the Sengoku period (period of warring states), and it is necessary to note that the phenomenon was very important part of economic history.
Japanese: また、楽市楽座政策をもって彼の先進性と見なす向きもあるが、戦国期に畿内を中心とした土地を大規模な範囲で支配出来たのは信長が最初であるという事情もあり、むしろ経済史の流れに沿っている側面も強いことに注意が必要である。
English: On the other hand, it is not thought that the innovation of Nobunaga's policy went unrecognized due to the above reasons.
Japanese: その一方、以上の理由で信長の政策に革新性が認められなかったとの意味ではないと思われている。
English: The status of ashigaru is thought to have originated during the Heian period from the shimobe (miscellaneous servants and attendants) who served kebiishi (police and judicial chiefs) in the capacity of performing miscellaneous duties and acting as reserve soldiers.
Japanese: 発生は平安時代とされ、検非違使の雑用役・戦闘予備員として従軍した「下部」が足軽の原型とされる。
English: Until the mid-Kamakura period, the general practice of one-to-one combat between mounted warriors meant that it was often the case that ashigaru were engaged as servants and porters in fields such as logistics and construction.
Japanese: 鎌倉時代中期頃まで、騎馬武者による個人戦を原則としたことから、足軽は従者や運搬などの兵站や土木作業に従事させられることが多かった。
English: As the activity of villains increased and the trend of vassals revolting against their lords became more commonplace during the period of Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), the traditional way in which warfare was conducted began to make the transition from a one-to-one combat to a group battle strategy, and the utilization of ashigaru even spread to the suppression of local and provincial uprisings.
Japanese: 南北朝時代(日本)に悪党の活動が活発化し下克上の風潮が流行すると、伝統的な戦闘形態は個人戦から集団戦へと変化し始め、足軽の活躍の場は土一揆・国一揆にも広まった。
English: During the Onin War, ashigaru groups were used in surprise attacks but their lack of loyalty and their disorder meant that they frequently formed unruly mobs, and there was an incident in which they ran riot and looted Kyoto with its numerous shrines, temples and shops.
Japanese: 応仁の乱では足軽集団が奇襲戦力として利用されたが、足軽は忠誠心に乏しく無秩序でしばしば暴徒化し、多くの社寺、商店等が軒を連ねる京都に跋扈し暴行・略奪をほしいままにすることもあった。
English: Ashigaru had not yet been utilized as the main element of battle forces but as they became more well organized and increased in number during the Sengoku period (Japan), they were given training and ashigaru units bearing spears, bows (weapons) and guns were created, going on to form the backbones of armies.
Japanese: これまで足軽は戦闘の主役ではなかったが、戦国時代(日本)を迎え集団戦が本格化・大規模化していくと、訓練された槍・弓(武器)・鉄砲の足軽隊が組織され備の主要な部隊として活躍するようになる。
English: In the latter part of the Sengoku period, the intermediate samurai rank of ashigaru taisho (samurai in command of a troop ashigaru) came to be recognized and was awarded an annual stipend of between 200 and 500 koku.
Japanese: 戦国時代後期には地位も向上して足軽大将の家禄は、200石から500石程度で中級の武士として認められる存在になった。
English: The low status held by ashigaru was intermediate between that of samurai and peasants but there were those such as Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI whose abilities were recognized and who rose to the rank of daimyo (feudal lord), although it was a peculiar case.
Japanese: 兵卒の身分は依然として武士と農民の間に位置して低かったが、功を認められれば侍や特異な例ではあるが豊臣秀吉のように大名にまで出世する者もあった。
English: Group battles fought by large groups of infantry emerged during the Sengoku period and the equipment used by ashigaru followed this trend.
Japanese: 戦国期には歩兵の大集団による集団戦が確立されており、足軽の兵装もそれに沿ったものになっていた。
English: Ashigaru generally wore a conical hat (jingasa) made from lacquer hardened leather or Japanese paper (this was later developed into jingasa made from iron plates that were cut and fashioned into a cone shape), iron body armor, gauntlets and a jinbaori (sleeveless campaign jacket worn over armor) in addition to carrying a canteen, tissue paper, rice wrapped in cloth and other items (e.g. dried taro stems).
Japanese: 一般的には皮革、あるいは和紙を漆でかためた陣傘(これは後に鉄板を切り抜き笠状に形成した陣笠に取って代わられる。)、鉄の胴鎧、篭手、陣羽織を装着し、そのほか水筒、鼻紙、布にくるんだ米など(例芋がら縄)を携帯していた。
English: Rare examples of body armor made from Japanese paper or leather can be seen but the majority of the surviving pieces are made from iron and weigh approximately four kilograms.
Japanese: 胴鎧に関しては、稀に和紙や皮革でできたものも見ることができるが、現存しているのはほとんどが重量4kg前後の鉄製のものである。
English: Ashigaru units were divided into yarigumi-ashigaru (carrying spears), yumi-ashigaru (carrying bows and arrows), and teppo-ashigaru (carrying firearms), with multiple groups forming units led by a kogashira (a head of small ashigaru group).
Japanese: 足軽部隊は、槍組足軽、弓足軽、鉄砲足軽などに分類され、多くは集団で隊を編制して小頭の指揮に従った。