nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: In Busan, an investigation in 2001 showed that the density of such components in dust was 2.5 times that in the ordinary condition.
Japanese: 釜山では、粉塵中の濃度が通常の2.5倍、という2001年の調査結果がある。
English: In an investigation in 2007 also in Busan in which the amount of these components taken into human bodies was measured, it was found that 0.028 to 0.038 pg-TEQ/kg/day was taken in the day when kosa fell, more than double 0.01pg-TEQ/kg/day that was taken in an ordinary day.
Japanese: また同じく釜山で、2007年に人体への摂取量を調べた調査では、通常時は約0.01pg-TEQ/kg/日なのが、黄砂の日は0.028-0.038pg-TEQ/kg/日と、2倍以上になるという結果が出ている。
English: An investigation conducted by the Rural Development Administration of South Korea for sampled kosa showed that, although depending on the area, the samples included bacteria with a density of 7 to 22 times more than that of the ordinary air and mold with a density of 15 to 26 times that of the ordinary air.
Japanese: 韓国で同国の農村振興庁が黄砂を採取して行った検査では、地域差があるものの、細菌の濃度が通常の大気の7-22倍、カビの濃度が15-26倍と高かった。
English: The reason is considered that, when kosa came floating, bacteria and mold stuck to kosa particles and multiplied themselves in a condition of an appropriate temperature and humidity for them.
Japanese: 黄砂が飛来するときに細菌やカビを吸着し、それが繁殖しやすい気温や湿度となるためではないかとされている。
English: Also in South Korea, it is reported in 2003 that analyses of urine samples in epidemiological investigations conducted before and after kosa arrived showed that carcinogens belonging to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) increased by 25 percent on average when kosa arrived.
Japanese: また、同じく韓国で2003年、黄砂の飛来する前後に行われた疫学調査では、尿の成分測定で多環芳香族炭化水素(PAH)に属する発ガン性物質が平均で25%増加したと発表された。
English: It has been known in Japan that stem rust, a disease damaging barley and wheat, increases after kosa arrives.
Japanese: 黄砂の後にムギの病害である黒さび病が増加することは日本で知られていた。
English: However, it has also been known through research that spores of strip rust, a disease damaging barley and wheat as well, have flown to Japan together with kosa.
Japanese: しかしながら、研究により同じく麦の病害である黄さび病の胞子も毎年黄砂とともに日本に飛来することが分かっている。
English: Research also found that silicon dioxide, which causes inflammation when taken into lungs, and β glucan, one configuration of the mycelium mold, were included in kosa.
Japanese: 肺に入ると炎症を起こす二酸化ケイ素や、カビの菌糸体を構成するグルカンβグルカンなどが含まれているという研究結果もある。
English: It is considered that some of the bacteria in kosa are killed by ultraviolet rays included in sunlight.
Japanese: 大気中を進むうちに、日光に含まれる紫外線によって、細菌の一部は死滅すると考えられている。
English: However, there is also concern about chemicals that might decompose into dangerous ones.
Japanese: しかしながら、化学物質が分解されて有害なものになることも懸念されている。
English: In Mongolia, China and South Korea, the damage due to kosa is considerable, becoming a social problem.
Japanese: モンゴル、中国、韓国では、黄砂による被害は大きな社会問題となっている。
English: In Japan, the damage is not so serious compared with these nations, and kosa is usually taken up as an environmental problem.
Japanese: 日本では、これらの諸国に比べて被害は軽く、環境問題として取り上げられることが多い。
English: Kosa constitutes a typical cross-nation-boundary problem that causes damage to areas far away from the problem source place.
Japanese: 発生源から離れた地域に被害を及ぼす、国境を越えた環境問題の典型的な例の1つである。
English: Kosa is closely related to economical progress in China and there is a view of considering that political measures to be taken are the key to solving the problem.
Japanese: 中国などの経済発展と密接に関連しており、政治的な対策が鍵を握るとの見方もある。
English: Some call it "Yellow dust terrorism."
Japanese: 一部では”Yellowdustterrorism”（黄砂テロリズム）と呼ぶ向きもある。
English: Furthermore, from measurements of kosa and estimates based on a kosa-scattering model, it has also been known that soot and carbon monoxide generated in eastern Asia have flown to Japan as well.
Japanese: また、黄砂の観測やモデルによる黄砂飛散の推定結果などから、東南アジアで発生した煤や一酸化炭素が日本に飛来してきていることも分かっている。
English: In this way, it has also become known that similar across-boarder problems exist in other areas of Asia as well.
Japanese: このように、アジアの他の地域でも同様の越境汚染問題があることが分かってきている。
English: When the density of kosa in the air is relatively low, slightly yellowish mist is generated and visibility is affected slightly, but everyday lives are not affected seriously.
Japanese: 大気中の黄砂の濃度が比較的薄いならば、多少の黄味を帯びた霞が発生し、普段よりも視程が悪くなる程度で、日常生活に大きな支障が出るほどではない。
English: However, when the density becomes high, outdoor landscape becomes yellowish or reddish, visibility becomes affected seriously, and various kinds of damages are reported.
Japanese: しかし、濃度が高くなった場合は、屋外の風景全体が黄味や赤味を帯びた色に見えるようになって、視界が極端に悪くなるとともに、さまざまな被害が報告されるようになる。
English: Damage is generated even when the amount of kosa is small, but the damage becomes more serious when the amount becomes larger.
Japanese: 被害は黄砂が少量の場合でも発生するが、量が多いほど被害が深刻になる。
English: The kosa that falls and accumulates causes various kinds of physical damage, such as making building windows and washed clothes dirty and hindering the growth of agricultural products.
Japanese: 黄砂が降り注ぎ積もることにより、建物の窓、洗濯物が汚れたり、農作物の生育不良を起こしたりといった、物理的被害が最も多い。
English: When kosa enters rainy clouds or snowy clouds, the kosa absorbed there may fall mingled with rain or snow particles.
Japanese: 黄砂が雨雲や雪雲に入ると、吸着された黄砂が雨や雪の粒に混じって降ることがある。
English: Therefore, when these particles are mixed with rain, they become a muddy substance and are sometimes stuck strongly to buildings and cars.
Japanese: したがって、雨と混じって泥状となり、建物や車などにべったりと付着することがある。
English: Kosa remains in the air for a long time together with air-polluting substances and makes the color of the clouds around it brownish.
Japanese: 黄砂は、大気汚染物質などと一緒に大気中に長くとどまり、周辺の雲の色を茶色く変色させる。
English: In some cases, the brown clouds, which have been suspected of damaging agricultural products, are generated.
Japanese: 場合によっては、農作物への被害が指摘されている褐色雲をつくる事もある。
English: When a large-scale kosa is produced, it is sometimes included in pictures taken by weather satellites.
Japanese: 大規模な黄砂が発生したときは、気象衛星などの画像に写り込むことがある。
English: Deteriorating visibility, high-density kosa sometimes obstructs flights of airplanes, traffic of vehicles, railway operations and the walking of human beings.
Japanese: 濃度が高い場合、視界が悪くなるために航空機の飛行や車の通行、鉄道の運行、人の歩行に障害を及ぼしたりする。
English: In addition, such kosa sometimes reflects terrestrial radio wave irregularly, causing receiving failures or abnormal transmission of the radio wave.
Japanese: また、地上波放送などの電波が乱反射し、受信障害や異常伝播を引き起こすこともある。
English: In China and South Korea, the driving speeds of passenger vehicles are sometimes restricted in high-density kosa conditions.
Japanese: 中国や韓国では、黄砂の濃度が高い時には乗用車の速度規制が行われることがある。
English: In factories for precision machinery or for semiconductors, the intrusion of minute particles included in kosa may cause damage that generates defective products.
Japanese: 精密機械工業や半導体の工場では、黄砂の微小粒子の侵入により不良品ができるなどの被害も発生する。
English: Serious economic losses, such as those due to speed restriction or traffic disruption and to various kinds of damage, including damage to health, and the cost of dealing with the sand and dust, are generated.
Japanese: 速度規制や交通の混乱、健康被害などの諸被害によるものや、砂や塵の処理にかかる費用も含め、大きな経済的損失も生じる。
English: Therefore, buildings may be destroyed or buried, utility posts may be tumbled down, and electric power outage may occur due to the breaking of electric wires.
Japanese: そのため、建物の倒壊・埋没、電柱の倒壊や電線の切断による停電なども起こる。
English: In some parts of the desert where kosa occurs, the extent of damage due to kosa is by far more serious, because accompanying sandstorms may move sand dunes, may bury dwelling places, may make roads unusable, and may resultantly make a whole village inhabitable.
Japanese: 黄砂の発生地である砂漠の一部では、砂嵐などによって砂丘が移動し、住居が砂に埋まったり、道路が通行不能になるなどして、住むことができなくなった村もあり、被害ははるかに深刻である。
English: It is difficult to remove kosa, even if it is dry, and in addition, kosa is likely to be solidified like mud, making the coating and windows of vehicles dirty.
Japanese: また、黄砂は乾いていても簡単には落ちないうえ、泥のように固まりやすく、自動車の塗装やウィンドーを汚してしまう。
English: On the other hand, if the kosa that has become dry is wiped with wipers or a towel, the wiped surfaces are likely to be damaged, sometimes causing irreparable damage to be generated.
Japanese: 一方で、乾いたときにワイパーやタオルで強く拭くと小さな傷を付けやすいため、修復不可能な傷を付ける原因となる。
English: It is said that a better measure to be taken against this situation is to wash as frequently possible, using water in particular.
Japanese: 対策としては、なるべくこまめに洗い、水を使って洗うほうがよいとされる。
English: Fine sand grains, the substances stuck to sand grains, and the chemicals coming flying together with kosa (refer to the description of Shapes and components of kosa) inflict various kinds of damage on health.
Japanese: 細かい砂の粒子や、粒子に付着した物質、黄砂とともに飛来する化学物質（黄砂の形状と成分での説明参照）などにより、さまざまな健康被害が生じる。
English: Damage to respiratory organs, eyes and ears, such as the generation of cough, phlegm, asthma, soreness, snivel, and itching is conspicuous.
Japanese: 咳、痰、喘息、ただれ、鼻水、痒みといった呼吸器への被害や、目や耳への被害が目立つ。
English: On a day when strong kosa arrives, the states of allergic diseases, such as hay fever, asthma, and atopy, may become worse.
Japanese: 黄砂が多い日には、花粉症、喘息、アトピーなどのアレルギー疾患の悪化が見られる。
English: In an epidemiological survey conducted in South Korea between 1995 and 1998, death rate in the higher age range increased by 2.2 percent and the persons who visited or were admitted to hospitals due to diseases related to respiratory organs, circulatory organs or eyes increased, when kosa arrived flying.
Japanese: 1995年-1998年の春に韓国で行われた疫学調査では、黄砂の飛来時に高齢者の死亡率が2.2%上昇したほか、呼吸器・循環器・眼科の入院率や通院率が上昇した。
English: According to a newspaper report in China, it was found that, when dust is scattered, infectious diseases, cardiovascular diseases, cardiac infarction, hypertension, and cerebral strokes increased (according to an article on May 28, 2002 of "Xin Sheng net").
Japanese: 中国の新聞の報道によれば、砂塵の飛散時には肺の感染症・心臓血管の疾病・心筋梗塞・高血圧・脳卒中などの増加が見られるという（『新生網』2002年5月28日付記事による）。
English: The sizes of sand grains of the kosa flying to Japan are so minute that it is said that the grains reach the ends of lungs.
Japanese: 日本などに飛来する黄砂の粒子は非常に細かいため、肺の末端にまで到達するとされている。
English: However, it is said that they are so minute that their total amount would not be large.
Japanese: しかしながら、その細かさから到達する量自体はそれほど多くないとされている。
English: Although kosa itself is not allergen, the following possibility is pointed out: When pollutants stick to kosa, some synergistic effects are generated and the bad effects that the pollutants would affect human bodies are amplified.
Japanese: また、黄砂自体はアレルギー物質ではないものの、汚染物質が付着したときに何らかの相乗効果を及ぼし、汚染物質が人体に及ぼす悪影響を増幅させている可能性も指摘されている。
English: In China and South Korea, public organizations announce information to recommend wearing a mask or to urge people to avoid going outdoors, when a high-density kosa arrives.
Japanese: 中国や韓国では、黄砂の濃度が高い場合に、マスク等の着用を奨励したり、外出を控えるよう促したりする情報が、公的機関によって発表されている。
English: Through sand and the substances stuck to sand, minerals are supplied to soil and sea and consequently the growth of plants and phytoplankton is advanced, and therefore, it is pointed out that kosa provides effects which enrich the quality of soil.
Japanese: 砂や砂に付着した物質によって、土壌や海洋へミネラルが供給され、植物や植物プランクトンの生育を促進する作用もあり、黄砂に土壌を肥やす効果があることも指摘されている。
English: There is also research showing that phosphorous and iron constituting kosa are related to the growth of plankton in the sea and that of forests in Hawaii.
Japanese: 黄砂の成分であるリンや鉄などが、海洋のプランクトンや、ハワイの森林の生育に関わっているのと研究結果もある。
English: However, it is also known that kosa helps the generation of stem rust and strip rust, diseases of barley and wheat.
Japanese: しかし、麦の病害である黒さび病や黄さび病の発生を媒介することも知られている。
English: Various substances are stuck to kosa and are carried with the kosa, but the damage and environmental pollution caused by harmful substances of them are considered constituting a problem.
Japanese: また、黄砂に吸着されて運ばれるさまざまな物質のうち、有毒な物質による生物への被害や環境汚染が問題視されている。
English: Today, the following are known as effects caused by kosa, but it is not known clearly how kosa works completely: When being placed over forests or sea, kosa grains provide the so-called umbrella effect to prevent the penetration of the sunlight (cooling effect); When being placed on snow areas or glaciers, they provide the effect of warming the air through absorbing sunlight (heating); Being able to become nuclei of generating clouds, they provide the effect of controlling the distribution of clouds above the earth; Because substances included in kosa affect the growth of plants and planktons, kosa also provides the effect of affecting the carbon cycle.
Japanese: 黄砂の粒子が森林や海洋の上にあるときは太陽放射を遮蔽する日傘効果（冷却）、黄砂の粒子が雪や氷河の上にあるときは太陽光線を吸収して大気を暖める効果（加熱）、黄砂の粒子が雲核となって地球上の雲の分布を左右する効果（冷却・加熱）、黄砂に含まれる成分が植物やプランクトンに作用することで炭素循環に作用する効果などがあり、結果的にどう作用するかは現在はっきりと分かっていない。
English: The color of the sun sometimes appears silver, or blue accompanied by a blue halo around it.
Japanese: 太陽は銀色になったり、周りに青い光冠（光環）を伴って青になったりする。
English: Although rarely seen, such phenomena were actually observed in Japan as well as in the northern part of China.
Japanese: こういった現象は滅多に目にすることができない珍しい現象であるが、中国北部を始め日本などでも観測例がある。
English: These appearance-changing phenomena occur because kosa sand grains prevent the penetration of some of the sunlight, reducing the strength of the light, and scatter the remaining light.
Japanese: この変色現象は、黄砂の粒子が太陽光の一部を遮蔽して弱め、残りを散乱することで起きる。
English: It is considered that the change to blue color is caused mainly by Mie scattering, and due to a similar principle, Mars looks blue in the evening glow.
Japanese: 青の変色はおもにミー散乱によるものと考えられており、同様の原理で火星の夕焼けは青くなる。
English: In areas near places where kosa occurs, the measure to prevent falling sand from entering buildings and that to prevent too heavy sand from accumulating on roofs or similar structural places are taken.
Japanese: 発生地に近い地域では、降り積もる砂を建物内に入りにくくしたり、屋根などに砂が積もって重くならないような工夫などがされている。
English: Measures are taken to close windows, to remove kosa stuck to clothes and to do cleaning after kosa ceases falling are considered.
Japanese: 建物の窓を閉める、建物に入る前に衣服に付着した黄砂をはらう、黄砂の発生後は掃除を行うといった対策が挙げられる。
English: When lots of kosa is falling, it is considered to take the following measures against damage to health: Wearing eye glasses and a mask to prevent fine sand particles from entering the body, gargling and washing your hands and face, and avoiding going outdoors.
Japanese: 健康面での被害への対策として、黄砂が大量に降っている場合は、砂の微粒子を体内に取り込まないように、眼鏡やマスクを着用する、うがいや手洗い・洗顔を行う、外出を控えるといった処置をとることが挙げられる。
English: There is also the view of considering that kosa is a natural phenomenon having occurred at least last several tens of thousand years and it is impossible to prevent damage due to it completely.
Japanese: 黄砂は少なくとも数万年前から発生しており、自然現象であって完全に防ぐことはできないという考え方もある。
English: However, it is considered that the amount of kosa can be reduced by taking appropriate measures, and various measures have been taken centered on the prevention of desertification of the areas where kosa occurs.
Japanese: しかし、人為的な処置によって黄砂の量を減らすことはできるのではないかと考えられており、発生地の砂漠化の防止を中心とした対策が行われている。
English: Also refer to water crisis in China, water supply and sanitary states in China, desertification problems in China and environmental problems in China.
Japanese: 中国の水危機,,中国の水供給と衛生状態,中国の砂漠化問題,中国の環境問題なども参照。
English: It is considered that kosa can be originated in almost all of the desert and dry land in China.
Japanese: 中国国内の砂漠化・乾燥化地域のほとんどが黄砂の発生源と考えられている。
English: It is considered that the major factors contributing to desertification in the last several tens of years in China were the dry climate due to climate changes in addition to artificial factors, such as policy failures in cutting trees, pasturing, farming and water usage.
Japanese: 現在に至る過去数十年間、中国での砂漠化の主な原因は、伐採、放牧、農耕、水利用の失敗などの人為的なものに加えて、自然な気候変動による乾燥化が重なったことだとされている。
English: Desertification and advancing the dry state of land mostly starts when plants are blighted due to a slight shortage of water, for example, caused by dry weather.
Japanese: 砂漠化や乾燥化の多くは、旱魃などによる軽度の水不足によって植物が枯死することから始まる。
English: Therefore, it is considered important to prevent desertification at this stage, because desertification can be prevented more efficiently at this stage.
Japanese: そして、この段階で防ぐことができれば少ない労力で食い止めることが可能だと考えられ、重要視されている。
English: On the other hand, to nourish the rapidly growing population, it has been necessary to increase production power and economic power.
Japanese: 一方で、急激に増加する人口を養うため、生産力や経済力を上げる必要があった。
English: Therefore, in the northern part and western part of China, the way of farming and livestock-farming has been changed from the moving type to the stationary type, though use of the stationary type is likely to change areas in these parts into desert.
Japanese: そのため、中国北部や西部では、砂漠化しやすい土地でありながら、農耕や牧畜を従来の移動型から土地への負荷（水不足のリスク）が大きい定着型へと変えてしまった。
English: In the Loess Plateau where slightly more rain than in desert falls, the traditional rain-fed farming method, in which, relying solely on rainfall, fallow land was used for accumulating rain, was originally utilized (particles of loess and of kosa are so fine that surface tension enables water to be accumulated among the particles, providing them with a water-retaining characteristic).
Japanese: また、砂漠より少し降水量が多い黄土高原などでは、もともと雨水だけに頼り、休耕地をつくって雨を蓄えさせる（黄土や黄砂は粒子が細かく、表面張力によって粒子同士の隙間に水が蓄えられるため、実は保水性がある）伝統的な天水農法が行われていた。
English: However, as in other areas, an increase in the population of these areas has caused excessive farming and the accumulation of salt due to irrigation.
Japanese: しかし、他地域と同様の人口増加によって、過剰耕作や灌漑による塩類集積などが発生している。
English: Based on these backgrounds, so far it is considered important, to prevent desertification, to take measures centered on planting tress in deserts and improving farming methods.
Japanese: こういった背景から、現在のところ、砂漠化防止のため、砂漠緑化と農業の改良を中心とした対策が重要視されている。
English: More specifically, these measures include planting trees more properly, securing fuel, such as more energy-efficient firewood, managing livestock, preventing soil erosion, irrigation, using resources more effectively, re-using energy, using land more properly or changing the farming method to more proper ones, and preventing sand from moving.
Japanese: 具体的には、適切な植林、効率の良い薪などの燃料の確保、家畜の管理、土壌浸食の防止、灌漑、水資源の有効利用、エネルギーの再利用、適切な土地利用や農法への転換、砂の移動防止などがある。
English: Therefore, it is necessary to develop the technologies needed for these measures and to guide people by specialists concerned, to make the activities for preventing desertification continue for a long period of time.
Japanese: そのためには、技術開発を進め、専門家が指導を行って、砂漠化防止活動を長期間持続できるようにする必要がある。
English: Therefore, it is not easy to prevent desertification or to prevent land from becoming dry.
Japanese: このため、砂漠化や乾燥化の防止は簡単に防ぐことができるものではない。
English: However, the measure alone is not enough, and it is considered that steady activities, including planting trees in desert, are required as measures against kosa.
Japanese: だが、それでも不十分であり、砂漠緑化をはじめとした地道な活動が、黄砂対策として必要であるとされている。
English: The nations where no kosa is produced, such as Japan, can also aid the activities to plant trees in deserts and to guide farming methods, and such activities have actually been done in various places.
Japanese: また、砂漠緑化や農業指導などは、日本など発生国以外の国も協力可能であり、実際に各地で活動が行われている。
English: On the other hand, there is a view of considering that the speed of dry land expansion is higher than that of planting trees and it is not easy to make the effects of the measures taken against kosa visible.
Japanese: 一方で、乾燥化の進行よりも植林などの対策のほうがスピードが遅く、黄砂対策は実効性を現しにくいという見方もある。
English: However, the observation points are not placed uniformly nor weather observations alone are enough for understanding kosa phenomena thoroughly.
Japanese: しかしながら、観測点に偏りがあることに加え、気象観測だけでは黄砂現象の解明には不十分である。
English: However, since the reality of kosa phenomena became known in details in 1990s, it became gradually clear that, to grasp the reality of kosa phenomena, it is necessary to deploy a monitoring system for a long period of several tens of years.
Japanese: しかし、1990年代に黄砂現象の実態が詳しく分かるようになったことで、黄砂の実態把握には、数十年という長期間の監視体制を整える必要があることが次第に明らかになってきた。
English: Therefore, a numerical forecasting system has been developed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences and its operation has started.
Japanese: このため、中国科学院によって数値予報システムが開発され、運用が開始された。
English: Participated in by the eight parties of UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), UNEP (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific), UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification), ADB (Asian Development Bank), China, South Korea, Mongolia, and Japan.
Japanese: -UNEP・UNEP・UNESCAP・UNCCD・ADB・中国・韓国・モンゴル・日本の8者が参加。
English: Many universities, research institutes, and government organizations in Mongolia, China, South Korea, and Japan are engaged in the research and observations concerned.
Japanese: また、モンゴル・中国・韓国・日本各国の多数の大学、研究機関、行政機関が研究や観測に関わっている。
English: Among these nations, cooperation has been made concerning aid for observation instruments and funds concerned, and cooperation has been also made about planting trees and providing guidance for farming.
Japanese: 複数の国家間で、観測機器や資金の援助、植林や農業指導などの協力も行われている。
English: Concerning planting trees and providing guidance for farming, there also exist projects participated in by private bodies, such as non-government organizations.
Japanese: 植林や農業指導については、非政府組織などの民間団体が関わったプロジェクトもある。
English: It is pointed out that the recognition of kosa as well as the definition and classification of kosa (refer to the section of kosa in various countries) depends on the nation and the differences constitute one factor of delaying taking necessary measures.
Japanese: 対策が遅れている原因として、各国で黄砂の定義や分類（各国の黄砂参照）、黄砂に関する認識に相違点があることが指摘されている。
English: For example, the concept of damage by kosa is considered quite different in each nation as follows: Sand-hits in Mongolia, sandstorm-hits in China, damage by weather phenomena in South Korea, and air pollution in Japan.
Japanese: 例えば、黄砂による被害は、モンゴルでは砂による害、中国では砂嵐による害、韓国では気象現象、日本では大気汚染と、かなり異なった概念であると考えられている。
English: In addition, it can be said that there is still no clear scientific explanation available about the problems of what generates desertification, considered the main cause of producing kosa, and of where the responsibility of desertification resides.
Japanese: また、黄砂の主原因とされる砂漠化の原因、その責任の所在などが、科学的根拠をもとに明らかにされているとは言えない状況にある。
English: It has been caused by a decrease in rainfall due to global warming, and the responsibility resides in advanced nations.
Japanese: 地球温暖化による降水量減少が原因で、先進国を中心とした世界全体に責任がある。
English: It has been caused because no appropriate actions have been taken for farming and controlling water, and the responsibility resides in the residents, governments and administrations concerned.
Japanese: 農業や治水面での不作為が原因で、現地の住民や政府・行政に責任がある。
English: Japan and South Korea, where no kosa is produced, are concerned with kosa as well because the factories of companies in these nations generate air pollutants that stick to kosa and because they import wood, agricultural products and livestock products that may cause desertification, and therefore, they are also responsible.
Japanese: 発生地ではない日韓も、黄砂に付着する大気汚染物質の発生源である自国企業関連の工場や、砂漠化につながる木材・農産品・畜産品の輸入などを通しても関わっており責任がある。
English: As described above, there are many opinions, and the opinions of China and Mongolia, where kosa is produced, are totally different from those of South Korea and Japan, where damage is inflicted by kosa.
Japanese: といったさまざまな主張があり、発生国である中国やモンゴル、被害国である韓国や日本など、立場ごとの主張が対立している。
English: The following are considered as future problems to be tackled: Continuing surveying the water amount and state of flora on the earth surface, the kinds and distribution of crops, the distribution of livestock, and the continuous survey of the state in which underground water is taken up, deploying advanced observation instruments, enabling observed data to be shared anytime, unifying the definitions and classifications of kosa, improving kosa-forecasting technologies, and evaluating the measures taken.
Japanese: 今後の課題としては、地表の水分量や植生の状態、作物の種類や分布、家畜の分布、地下水の取水状況などの継続した調査や、観測機器の整備、観測データの常時共有化、黄砂の定義や分類の統一、黄砂の予測技術の改良、対策の評価などが挙げられている。
English: 黄沙' or '黄砂,' and both are pronounced 'hoansha' (binin, Huángshā).
Japanese: -「黄沙」、「黄砂」、読みはいずれも「ホワンシャ（ピンインHuángshā）」。
English: In addition, it is also provided with the expressions of '洲粉塵,' '黄塵,' '黄河風,' or '中國沙塵暴' (shachenbao in China).
Japanese: このほかに「洲粉塵」、「黄塵」、「黄河風」、「中國沙塵暴」といった別名がある。
English: However, in China, the term of '黄沙' is mostly used among the researchers concerned, and the term indicating the kosa phenomena as a whole, for example, the one corresponding to 'kosa' in Japan, is hardly used.
Japanese: ただし、中国では、「黄沙」などの名称は主に研究者の間で用いられており、一般には日本語の「黄砂」に当たるような黄砂現象全体を表現する言葉がほとんど浸透していない。
English: Instead, 'shachenbao' indicating only a sandstorm (due to kosa) alone is used.
Japanese: その代わりに（黄砂による）砂嵐のみを表す「沙塵暴」などが用いられている。