nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: However, with the decline of the capital, Buddhist temples and learned priests came to be responsible for those studies; the most representative of them was Gozan Bungaku (Literature of the Five Official Temples), the center of which was Kamakura Gozan Temple.
Japanese: しかし、都の衰退と共に、仏教寺院や学識僧が徐々にその担い手として台頭し、その中でも鎌倉五山を中心とした五山文学はその代表である。
English: A new stratum of society, the bushi class arms, also came to make arrangements for schools, being facilities where their juniors could learn; in the Kamakura period, Sanetoki HOJYO established the Kanazawa Library at Kanazawa Shomyo-ji Temple, (Yokohama City; present-day Kanazawa Ward, Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture), and collected numerous documents.
Japanese: また武家階級という新たな社会層も、自らの後進のために、学問を身につけるための施設、学校の整備に配慮するようになり、鎌倉時代には北条実時が金沢称名寺(横浜市)（現、神奈川県横浜市金沢区）に金沢文庫を設置し、多くの文書を収集した。
English: Later, during the Muromachi period, Norizane UESUGI re-established the Ashikaga School in the Kanto region.
Japanese: また、遅れて室町時代には関東地方において上杉憲実が足利学校を再興する。
English: This was called 'the college of Bando' by Christian missionaries, and in those day it was thought as a central school in Japan.
Japanese: これは、キリスト教の宣教師たちに「坂東の大学」といわれ、当時の日本の中心的な学校と考えられた。
English: Mt. Koya-san and Mt. Hiei-zan were thought as other representative schools by Western people in those days.
Japanese: また西洋人の目からみて、その当時の代表的な学校は、他に高野山、比叡山などがそれに並べられていた。
English: Among ordinary people, their accomplishments and hobbies began to be refined, and the following perspective was also a product of the era of the bushi class arms: they had the insight into practice by superposing their accomplishments on their lives as expressed in "Fushikaden."
Japanese: 庶民の間では、芸事や趣味の道が次第に洗練されたものになり始め、『風姿花伝』のように芸の道を人間の道と重ね合わせて修行のありようを考えるという視点も、この武家階級の時代の産物である。
English: The educational system in the Edo period was polarized, reflecting the hierarchy of samurai, farmers, artisans and merchants in Edo society.
Japanese: 江戸時代の教育制度は、士農工商の身分制度を反映して、二極化していた。
English: Schools for samurai status were broadly divided into the schools under the direct control of the Edo bakufu and those run by each han (domain); both were educational institutions representing the period in their scale and content.
Japanese: 武士身分を対象とした学校は、江戸幕府直轄の学校と、藩が運営した藩校に大別され、その規模、内容共にこの時代を代表する教育機関であった。
English: Shoheizaka Gakumonjo, which was under the direct control of the bakufu, was given this name or was called Shoheiko, since it faced the slope of Shohei-zaka.
Japanese: 幕府直轄の昌平坂学問所（しょうへいざかがくもんじょ）は、昌平坂に面していたので昌平坂学問所、または昌平黌(こう)とよばれた。
English: In 1790, as part of the Kansei Reform, Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA, a roju (senior councilor), recruited the Confucians Ritsuzan SHIBANO and Kansen OKADA to teach at Yushima Seido; additionally, he ordered the Hayashi family, who worked for Yushima Seido, to protect Neo-Confucianism.
Japanese: 1790年（寛政2年）老中松平定信は、寛政の改革の一環として、柴野栗山・岡田寒泉を湯島聖堂付きの儒者に登用し、湯島聖堂あずかりの林家に対し朱子学擁護を命じた。
English: Following this 'Kansei ban on other studies,' the school campus was expanded: not only hatamoto (a direct vassal of the shogun) and gokenin but also feudal retainers, goshi (country samurai) and ronin (masterless samurai) could listen to the lectures.
Japanese: この「寛政異学の禁」の後、学舎が増設され、旗本・御家人だけでなく、藩士・郷士・浪人らも聴講ができるようになった。
English: In 1793, when Jussai HAYASHI inherited the Hayashi family and became Daigaku no kami, 'Yushima Seido,' which had been a government-backed school operated by the Hayashis, officially became Gakumonjo (a school) under the direct control of the bakufu.
Japanese: 1793年に林述斎（じゅっさい）が林家をついで大学頭となると、それまで林家の家塾だった「湯島聖堂」が、正式に幕府直轄の学問所となった。
English: At the Gakumonjo, on a fixed day of each month, lectures or discussions on scriptures were given along with short or long quizzes.
Japanese: 学問所では、毎月の定日に経書の講義や会読、小試・大試などの試験もおこなわれた。
English: Gakumonjo also edited documents for Bakufu: "Kansei Choshu Shokafu (genealogies of vassals in Edo Bakufu)" and "New edition of Sagamino kuni fudoki," and so forth.
Japanese: さらに、『寛政重修諸家譜』『新編相模国風土記稿』など、幕府の編纂事業も学問所がおこなっていた。
English: Thus Gakumonjo became a model school for hanko (a domain school), in the latter days of the Edo period, Gakumonjo played a role in the training of teachers for hanko.
Japanese: そして、このような学問所は藩校のモデルとなり、江戸時代後期には、藩校の教官養成の機能も果たしていた。
English: Hanko was an educational institution that each domain established for the education of its retainers' younger people.
Japanese: 藩校（はんこう）は、江戸時代、諸藩がおもに藩士の子弟のために設立した教育機関であった。
English: Although the content and scale of hanko depended on each domain, every hanko made its retainers' young people enter it and would generally not accept the children of common people.
Japanese: 内容や規模はさまざまだが、藩士の子弟はすべて強制的に入学させ、庶民の子弟は原則的に入学できない。
English: In a broad sense, hanko included all the educational institutions established by each domain, such as medical schools, Yogakko (schools for Western studies), imperial schools (national schools), Gogakko (schools of province) and girls' schools.
Japanese: 広義には医学校・洋学校・皇学校（国学校）・郷学校・女学校など、藩が設立したあらゆる教育機関をふくむ。
English: Although it depended on the domain, generally hanko aimed at 'both academics and sports': pupils entered school at the age of seven or eight and learned reading and writing at first; subsequently, they learned military art and graduated at the age of 14, or from age 15 to 20.
Japanese: 藩によって異なるが、一般に藩校では「文武兼備」をかかげ、7-8歳で入学してまず文を習い、のち武芸をまなび、14-15歳から20歳くらいで卒業する。
English: Although the content of education differed according to each domain, general teaching focused on reading of shishogokyo (the Four Books and Five Classics of Confucianism, or the Nine Chinese Classics) without comprehension or calligraphy; in the latter half of the Edo period, Western learning and Japanese martial arts were also taught, including swordplay, spearmanship, archery, gunnery, horsemanship and jujitsu.
Japanese: 教育内容も藩によって異なるが一般に四書五経の素読と習字を中心とし、江戸後期には蘭学や、日本武術として剣術・槍術・弓術・砲術・馬術・柔術などが加わった。
English: In the early stage of the Edo period, government by the military was changed into civilian government, Hanabata Kyojo Classroom, which was established by Mitsumasa IKEDA, the lord of the Okayama domain; in 1641 at the background of that change was the first hanko.
Japanese: 江戸前期、武断政治から文治政治への移行を背景に、1641年（寛永18年）岡山藩主池田光政が設立した花畠教場（はなばたけきょうじょう）が最初の藩校である。
English: However, it was after the Horeki era (1751-1764) that hanko was established throughout the country; many domains established hanko in order to foster talented human resources for the reformation of domain duties.
Japanese: しかし、全国的に藩校が設立されたのは宝暦期（1751年-1764年）以後であり、多くの藩が藩政改革のための有能な人材を育成するために設立した。
English: Representative hankos were as follows: Kojokan school of Yonezawa Domain (in 1697), Nisshinkan school of Aizu Domain (in 1799), Kodokan school of Mito Domain (in 1841), Hanabata Kyojo Classroom of Okayama Domain (in 1641), Meirinkan school of Choshu Domain (in 1719), Jishukan school of Kumamoto Domain (in 1755), Zoshikan school of Satsuma Domain (in1773), etc.
Japanese: 代表的な藩校には、米沢藩の興譲館(1697年)、会津藩の日新館(1799年)、水戸藩の弘道館(1841年)、岡山藩の花畠教場(1641年)、長州藩の明倫館(1719年)、熊本藩の時習館(1755年)、薩摩藩の造士館(1773年)などがある。
English: There, textbooks called oraimono (primary textbooks in the style of the exchange of letters) were used; moreover, "Jitsugokyo,""Doshikyo" and "Onnadaigaku" were commonly used.
Japanese: 寺子屋では往来物と称される教科書が使用されていて、『実語教』、『童子教』、『女大学』などがよく使われた。
English: Reading and writing were mainly taught there, and apparently the teachers and students kept in touch for a long time; in the Boso Peninsula, many 'fudeko-zuka' are found, which are the graves of teachers constructed by their students.
Japanese: 読み書きが中心だが、寺子屋の師匠と教え子たちのつながりは、かなり長く続いたようで、房総半島では、そうした師匠が亡くなったのち、教え子たちがそのお墓をつくったものが、「筆子塚」として多数残っている。
English: Gogaku had the most diverse contents among the educational institutions of the Edo period.
Japanese: 郷学（ごうがく）は、江戸時代の教育機関の中で、最も多様な内容を含んだものであった。
English: The young people of samurai families received education at domain-run schools, while the children of common people were taught the three R's; at private schools, which lay midway between the two, the children of samurai and ordinary people were taught; Gogaku had aspects that overlapped them in terms of educational content.
Japanese: 藩学校が武士の師弟を教育し、寺子屋が庶民を対象として、読み書き算盤を教え、塾がその中間にあって武士も庶民も教えたという中で、郷学は教育内容の面では、それらとかなり重複する側面を持っていた。
English: Gogaku had various forms: some were like branch schools of domain-run schools, and others were established for ordinary people; some were established by domains and ordinary people, and others were established only by ordinary people.
Japanese: 形態は、藩が設立し、藩学校の分校のようなものから、庶民を対象にしたもの、藩と庶民が協力して設立したもの、庶民のみの手になるものなどがあった。
English: Due to the Meiji Restoration, Shoheizaka Gakumonjo was condemned by the new government; Gakumonjo included Kaiseijo (which had a channel of tenmonkata (an astronomer appointed by bakufu)) and Igakusho (which had a channel of shutosho (vaccination institute)); they were reopened as a Shohei school, Kaisei school and medical school in 1869; these three became Daigaku Honko, Nanko and Higashiko in the same year and were later combined to be Daigakko, which was ultimately closed due to the revision of the school system in 1870.
Japanese: 明治維新では昌平坂学問所は新政府に接収され、併設された開成所（天文方の流れを組む）、医学所（種痘所の流れを組む）も共に1869年（明治2年）昌平学校、開成学校、医学校として再開し、同年大学本校、南校、東校となり、のち合わせて大学校となるが、1870年（明治3年）の学制改正で休校。
English: Later, in 1897, the establishment of Kyoto Imperial University led to the change of its name to Tokyo Imperial University.
Japanese: 後、1897年（明治30年）に京都帝国大学新設により東京帝国大学へ改称。
English: Based on the Order of Senior High School, two high schools of the old education system were established (in 1894 and 1918).
Japanese: 旧制高等学校が2つの高等学校令（1894年および1918年）に基づき設置。
English: The new school system was established under the guidance of the GHQ (General Headquarters of the Allied Forces) and so forth.
Japanese: 連合国軍最高司令官総司令部の指導などをふまえ、新たな制度を確立されていく。
English: Later, Juken senso (a system of fiercely competitive entrance examinations), Yutori education (more relaxed education policy) and integrated study, etc., were discussed, leading to socio-educational controversy.
Japanese: その後、受験戦争、ゆとり教育、総合学習などが話題に上がり、教育社会学的な議論がなされるに至った。
English: The resolution on the abolition of education ordinance and so forth' and 'the resolution on affirmation of losing the effect of education ordinance and so forth'
Japanese: 「教育勅語等排除に関する決議」と「教育勅語等の失効確認に関する決議」
English: The term "ikki" refers to an attempt made by a community in Japan to achieve an objective when members of the community that share the same sentiment work closely together for a certain reason.
Japanese: 一揆（いっき）とは、日本において何らかの理由により心を共にした共同体が心と行動を一つにして目的を達成しようとすること。
English: "Ikki" can also refer to a group of people that form a political community by entering into an alliance or a contract to achieve an objective and to a resistance movement (which may employ armed force) formed by a group in opposition to the established government.
Japanese: またはそのために盟約、契約を結んで、政治的共同体を結成した集団及び、これを基盤とした既成の支配体制に対する武力行使を含む抵抗運動。
English: Ikki is also used as a Japanese equivalent to the German word Putsch (for example, Munchen Putsch).
Japanese: ドイツ語のPutschの訳語としても使われる（ミュンヘン一揆など）。
English: During the Edo period, people were forbidden to form a political community by concluding an ikki in any form other than that which accorded with the existing order that was officially recognized by the shogunate government.
Japanese: 江戸時代になると幕府に公認された既存の秩序以外の形で、こうした一揆の盟約による政治的共同体を結成すること自体が禁じられるようになる。
English: That is why, in modern Japan, ikki was eventually mistaken for a word meaning a revolt or a riot.
Japanese: 従って、近現代の日本では一揆自体があたかも反乱、暴動を意味する語であるかのように誤解されるようになった。
English: A "political community based on a league" that uses the armed forces constitutes ikki.
Japanese: しかし、こうした武力行使が一揆なのではなく、これを行使する「盟約に基づく政治的共同体」そのものが一揆なのである。
English: Because of the above-mentioned misinterpretation, the Japanese word "ikki" has generally been introduced to the world through its English translation as "riot" or "revolt," words suggesting violent behavior in a public place or an illegal, sometimes violent attempt to change the political system.
Japanese: こういった誤解のため、日本の一揆が英訳されて海外に紹介されるに際しても、riot,revoltといった暴動や反乱を意味する語として訳されるのが一般化してしまった。
English: Moreover, the "hyakusho ikki" in the early-modern period has been translated and introduced into English as peasant uprising.
Japanese: 近世の「百姓一揆」もpeasantuprisingと英訳されて紹介されている。
English: However, "hyakusho ikki" was started not only by the small-scale tenant farmers, as represented by the word "peasant."
Japanese: 現実にはpeasantの意味する零細な小作人だけによるものではない。
English: In fact, "hyakusho ikki" was led by affluent free-hold farmers who had leading roles in their villages.
Japanese: むしろ村落の指導的な立場に立つ裕福な本百姓らによって指導されていた。
English: A proper English translation of the free-hold farmer is farmer, which means the person who manages a farm.
Japanese: 彼らはむしろ英語で農場経営者を指す語であるfarmerと訳すのがふさわしい。
English: Conversely, a riot and a revolt caused by commoners and a popular movement in world history, such as the Munchen Putsch, have been commonly translated into Japanese with the use of the word "ikki."
Japanese: 同様に、例えばミュンヘン一揆のように世界史における庶民や民衆運動による反乱、暴動も日本語訳されるときに一揆の語を当てることが慣用化している面がある。
English: In that society, people of nearly every level, from the commoners to the feudal lords in the daimyo (territorial lord) class signed contracts of ikki with others whom they considered to be of the same level.
Japanese: 下は庶民から上は大名クラスの領主達に至るまで、ほとんど全ての階層が、自ら同等な階層の者と考える者同士で一揆契約を結んだ。
English: The daimyo of the Sengoku period would operate its feudal domain system precisely by accumulating the leagues of ikki.
Japanese: 戦国大名の領国組織も、正に一揆の盟約の積み重ねによって経営されていたのである。
English: For example, the feudal domain system employed by the Mori clan daimyo of the Sengoku period was nothing more than an ikki formed by the Kokujin (local samurai) in Aki Province under a karakasa renpanjo (a covenant entered into by both parties affixing their seals in a circle as a sign of their equality).
Japanese: 例えば戦国大名毛利氏の領国組織は、傘連判状による安芸国国人の一揆以外の何者でもなかった。
English: Therefore, although ikki sometimes caused revolts, riots and coup d'état, all of which occurred through efforts to overturn the regime, the word "ikki" should essentially be distinguished from those words (revolt, riot, coup d'état).
Japanese: そのため、一揆が原因になることもあるが、政権の転覆を図る反乱、暴動、クーデターなどとは本来ははっきりと区別されるべき語である。
English: As such, in the later middle ages the social order was actually secured based on the league of ikki.
Japanese: このように、実際に一揆の盟約によって秩序が達成されていた中世後期があった。
English: Although ikki was ostensibly prohibited during the Edo period, there was actually a period of time during which the so-called hyakusho ikki (peasant uprisings) regularly broke out as the peasantry sought to exercise their rights.
Japanese: 表向きは一揆が禁止されていた中で実際には百姓身分の権利行使運動として恒例化していた江戸時代のいわゆる百姓一揆の時期を経た。
English: As a result of such events, the original meaning of ikki has been forgotten today and become difficult to understand.
Japanese: こういった時期を経ることで、現代では一揆の本来の意味は忘れられ、理解されがたくなってしまっている。
English: A good example of this can be seen in the Japan Broadcasting Corporation's historical drama "MORI MOTONARI," which depicts the life of the founder of the Mori clan, a daimyo who lived during the Sengoku period; in one episode, when the founder enters into a kokujin ikki with the kokujin of Aki Province, NHK substituted a more modern Japanese expression ("kokujin ryoshu rengo," meaning "local samurai-daimyo association") association") for the word "ikki".
Japanese: そのため、戦国大名毛利氏を成立させた毛利元就の生涯を描いた日本放送協会大河ドラマ『毛利元就(NHK大河ドラマ)』において、元就が安芸国人の国人一揆を結ぶ場面で一揆の語の使用が避けられて、「国人領主連合」なる一種の現代語訳が用いられた例もある。
English: One should note, however, that in this period communities at nearly all levels of the hierarchy were allowed to execute military and police powers and judicial power based on their right of jikendan (ruling and judging).
Japanese: この時代、自検断権に基づいて、ほとんど全ての階層の共同体が軍事警察力と司法権の行使を認められていた。
English: Therefore, it isn't surprising that they prepared arms in order to secure their execution of such powers.
Japanese: その達成のための保障となる武装は当然であったことを忘れてはならない。
English: Significantly, after Japan entered the modern era following the Meiji period, and the Edo period became the latest "history" before the modern era, it is assumed that ikki began to mean "hyakusho ikki" to a certain extent.
Japanese: 特に日本が明治期以降の近代に入り、江戸時代が最も近い前近代の「歴史」となってからは、一揆は「百姓一揆」を指すような印象がある。
English: In reality, even if ikki was ostensibly prohibited, they virtually had to admit ikki as a social custom by which to execute rights by people of peasant status, as mentioned above.
Japanese: 前述のように表向きは一揆の盟約が禁止されていながらも、百姓身分の権利行使の慣例として現実的には認めざるを得なかった。
English: During this period, there was a discrepancy between the reality of the situation and the official prohibition regarding ikki; therefore, it is wrong to consider the types of ikki that were formed during this period to be typical of those that have been formed throughout Japanese history.
Japanese: 現実と建前の著しく乖離した構図を持っていたこの時代の一揆をもって、日本の歴史的一揆の典型とみなすべきではないであろう。
English: Hyakusho ikki, which took place under the ostensible prohibition of making a league of ikki, was, due to its official nature, also written as the originally Chinese word 土寇 (doko).
Japanese: この表向きの一揆の盟約の禁止下で行われた百姓一揆は、その建前上の性格ゆえに土寇（どこう）とも漢語表記された。
English: A view of ikki in that period asserts that ikki was a do-or-die rebellion among the commoners, or the weak, against suppression by samurai warriors (the strong), and the ikki had strong solidarity under the consciousness of equality.
Japanese: その時代には、「一揆は強者たる武士からの抑圧に対する、弱者たる民衆の決死の反抗であり、平等意識のもとで強固な団結力を持っていた」とみなす一揆観があった。
English: Considering the above-mentioned circumstances, however, it appears that such a view of ikki is based on a particular aspect of ikki.
Japanese: 上記のような事情を鑑みると、その一揆観は一揆のごく一部の相を見て創られたものに過ぎない。
English: To conclude an ikki, a rite called Ichimi Shinsui (one taste of the gods' water) would be held, during which the members would make a written and spoken vow, after which they would drink, before the gods, the ashes of the document in which they had written their declaration and the penalties to which they would be subject should they fail to honor the ikki.
Japanese: 一揆の盟約を結ぶに際しては、神前で宣言内容や罰則などを記す起請文を書いて誓約を行い、紙を焼いた灰を飲む一味神水と呼ばれる儀式が行われた。
English: As a sociological term from the Muromachi period to the Edo period, ikki referred to military forces that had not been officially recognized by the central government or the local government; such forces included monk-soldiers (known in Edo period as sohei, meaning "armed priests"), who the shrine authorities used to submit claims such as a goso (a petition lodged directly with the Imperial Court or the shogunate government).
Japanese: 室町時代から江戸初期までの社会用語としては、神社勢力が強訴などの要求を行うための武力である僧衆（江戸時代に僧兵と呼ばれる）も含め、中央もしくは地方政権から非公認の武装勢力そのものを指した。
English: Ikki also referred to a state in which the uncertified military forces would carry out a resistance movement, including the use of armed forces, against the existing regime based on a claim.
Japanese: もしくは、それらが何らかの主張のもと既成の支配体制に対して武力行使を含む抵抗運動を展開している状態を指した。
English: It is commonly accepted that when the Soryo system (a system in which the eldest son would succeed as head of the family) collapsed, the branch families began to act independently from the main line of the house, which led to them maintaining relationships with other branch families by forming ichizoku ikki (family ikki) with them, and this is said to have developed into the forming of kokujin ikki based on territorial connections.
Japanese: 通説的には惣領制が崩壊し、庶子家が独自の動きを取り始めると一族一揆を結ぶことで庶子家との繋がりを維持したが、やがて地縁による国人一揆へと発展したと言われる。
English: Generally, ikki was based neither on lineage nor dominated by a leader who had overwhelming military forces.
Japanese: 一般的には血統的正統性や圧倒的な武力を持つリーダーが存在しない場合が多かった。
English: In most cases, ikki locally ensured equal treatment for all members within a democratic council system, as symbolized in ikki keijo (ikki deed) which is represented by the "renpanjo" hansei.
Japanese: そして、「連判状」はんせいに代表される一揆契状に見られるように、局地的には全参加者が平等で民主的な合議制の場合が多かった。
English: Even if ikki once boasted great power, most ikki were weakened by internal factionalization or the like, which caused most ikki to be defeated on an individual basis.
Japanese: 大部分は一時強勢を誇っても内部分裂等で弱体化し、個別に撃破されるケースがほとんどであった。
English: There were cases in which a person of higher rank such as a shugo (provincial constable) used its influence over small and middle-class samurai in the area to organize ikki.
Japanese: しかし、中には守護など上位者が、地域の中小武士に斡旋して一揆を組織させる例も見られる。
English: From the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan) to the Muromachi period, groups of small and middle-class samurai such as Musashi-shichito parties (seven parties of samurai in Musashi Province) had formed many kokujin ikki in the Kanto area including shirahata ikki and musashi hei ikki.
Japanese: 南北朝時代から室町時代には、関東地方で武蔵七党など中小武士団による白旗一揆、武蔵平一揆などの国人一揆が盛んに結ばれる。
English: Eventually, the main part of ikki was gradually transferred from kokujin ikki, which was a group of people of the same kind, to kuni ikki, which was a group of people in the same area.
Japanese: やがて同属集団である国人一揆から地域集団である国一揆へと主体が移り変わる。
English: In Kaga Province, the powers of ikki expelled the Togashi clan, which belonged to the Eastern Camp in the Onin War and had served as the shugo.
Japanese: 加賀国（石川県）では、室町時代に応仁の乱で東軍に属した守護の富樫氏を追放した。
English: Thereafter, the powers maintained their republican regime over 100 years until the (Japanese) Sengoku period and this is the biggest and only excellent example of ikki.
Japanese: その後、戦国時代(日本)まで百年近くに亘って一揆勢が共和国的な体制を維持していた最大にして唯一の成功例と言える。
English: In fact, a change in the circumstances triggered internal dissension, whereby the powers confronted Nobunaga ODA and they were defeated by him.
Japanese: 現に事情が変われば瞬く間に内部分裂が起こり、織田信長と対立して敗北した。
English: Ikki uprisings abated after the Shimabara War of 1637, and a form of struggle called hyakusho ikki, including goso and chosan (farmer's desertion from his land as a form of resistance), began to comprise the majority of ikki.
Japanese: 1637年の島原の乱以降は一揆は沈静化し、強訴や逃散など百姓一揆と呼ばれる闘争の形態が主流となる。
English: Therefore, even commoners would exert great pressure on the daimyo (feudal lord) or daikan (local magistrate) by publicly showing that the territory wasn't properly administered, without preparing the military forces comparable to their lord because the lords were very afraid of having their responsibility questioned.
Japanese: 「領内が治まっていない」ことを公然と示すことができれば、領主側に匹敵する武力を集めずとも、責任問題を恐れる領主や代官への重大な圧力となった。
English: The form of struggle represented by hyakusho ikki can be classified into daihyo osso (illegal direct petition made by a representative of the village), so hyakusho ikki (political appeal made by all the peasants in a village under the control of officials), murakata sodo (infighting that develops into accusation), kokuso (or kuniso; a legal petition made by peasants tied up across the border of the province), etc.
Japanese: 百姓一揆の闘争形態の分類として、代表越訴、惣百姓一揆、村方騒動、国訴などがあげられる。
English: In the Meiji period, uprisings in objection to the policies of the new government, including choheirei hantai ikki (conscription ordinance objection uprising), kaihorei hantai ikki (edict of Grand Council of State objection uprising), and chiso kaisei hantai ikki (land-tax reform objection reform), occurred.
Japanese: 明治には新政府の政策に反対する徴兵令反対一揆や解放令反対一揆、地租改正反対一揆が起こる。
English: The term "Kenchi" refers to the surveys of field size and size of yield (harvest) conducted during medieval and early modern Japan.
Japanese: 検地（けんち）とは中世から近世にかけて行われた田畑の面積と収量の調査のことである。
English: But starting in the Heian period, the system of complete state ownership of all land (and subjects) crumbled, and the state began to recognize as legitimate the existence of private estates, which were called "shoen."
Japanese: しかし、平安時代になると公地公民は崩れ、荘園と呼ばれる私有地の存在が認められるようになる。
English: As a result, all over Japan jurisdiction over land was split roughly in half, with half remaining under control of the various provincial governments as "kokugaryo" (public territories) and half becoming shoen (private estates).
Japanese: そのため、各地は国府が管理する国衙領と私有地である荘園にほぼ二分される。
English: The provincial governments created registers called "Ota bumi" (cadastral surveys) for all the kokugaryo, thereby getting a sense of the total agricultural land area and total yield, and so these Ota bumi became the basis of the system of taxation.
Japanese: 国衙領については国府が大田文と呼ばれる台帳を作成し、農地の面積や収量を把握し、徴税の基礎資料としていた。