nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The words "manorism" or "seigneurialism" respectively originate from the words "manors" or "seigneuries" (they are translated into "shoen" in Japanese) which express the traditionally dominated region by heredity in villages.
Japanese: ManorismやSeigneurialismの語は、それぞれ、農村において代々相続される伝統的な支配地域を表すmanors、seigneuries（日本語では荘園と訳される）に由来している。
English: The status of lords of shoen was guaranteed by undertaking the demand of the superior lords (see the details in the feudalism).
Japanese: 荘園領主の地位は、より上位の領主からの要求を請け負うことにより保証されていた（詳しくは封建制を参照のこと）。
English: And all the lords of shoen were not secular men and some bishops or abbots owned lands with tributes as lords.
Japanese: また、全ての荘園領主が在俗者だった訳ではなく、司教や修道院長が領主として貢納を伴う土地所有を行っていた例も見られる。
English: In village society, the base of all the socio-economical factors was the land ownership situation.
Japanese: 農村社会における全ての社会経済要素の基礎となったのは、土地所有の状況であった。
English: More generally, one system was the one which had the land under complete ownership (the system where there was no one who had the rights for the land except for the one land owner), and the other system was the tribute to the God (precaria) or the use of beneficium, which were ownership forms with some conditions.
Japanese: より一般的だったのは、完全な所有権の下で土地を保有するシステム（1人の土地所有者の他にその土地の権利を有する者が皆無というシステム。英語でallodialという。）であり、もう一つのシステムは、土地を条件付きで保有する形態である神への贈与（precaria）又は聖職禄(beneficium)の利用であった。
English: In addition to these two, the monarchs of the Carolingians created the aprisio which fused the shoen system with the feudalism as a third system.
Japanese: これら2つに加えて、カロリング朝の君主たちは、第3のシステムとして、荘園制に封建制を融合させたアプリシオ(aprisio)を創始した。
English: The first emergence of aprisio was in the Septimania region, in southern France owned by Charlemagne (Charles the Great).
Japanese: アプリシオが最初に出現したのは、シャルルマーニュ（カール大帝）の南仏保有地であるセプティマニア地方である。
English: In those days, Charlemagne failed to invade Saragossa in 778 and then was urged to make the refugees who were west Goths following the army in retreat settle down somewhere.
Japanese: 当時、シャルルマーニュは、778年のサラゴサ遠征に失敗し、その際、退却軍についてきた西ゴート族の難民をどこかへ定住させてやる必要に追われていた。
English: This problem was solved by allotting the uncultivated and barren areas in the land of the direct rule of the emperor (fisc) to the west Goths.
Japanese: この問題は、皇帝直轄地である王領(fisc)のうち、未耕作で不毛な地帯を西ゴート族へ割り当てることで解決した。
English: The earliest aprisio among the ones confirmed was found in Fontjoncouse near Narbonne.
Japanese: 確認されたもののうち、最も初期のアプリシオは、ナルボンヌ(Narbonne)に近いフォンジョクス(Fontjoncouse)で見つかっている。
English: In certain areas of the west European old empire, the villa system was established in the late ancient period and continued into the medieval world.
Japanese: 西ヨーロッパ旧帝国内の一定の地域では、古代末期に別荘(villa)システムが確立し、中世世界へと継承された。
English: The demesne (the land of the direct rule of the lords) were the areas directly-governed by the lords and deprivation was done for the sake of the lords' families or the roto (retainers).
Japanese: 領地（demesne：領主の直轄地）は、領主により直接支配された地区であり、領主の一族・郎党の利益のための収奪が行われた。
English: The land owned by serfs (also called villein) were the lands which supported tributes to the lords, such as labor services, products, and cash money (the custom was supposed to accompany the owned lands).
Japanese: 農奴（serf又はvilleinという）の保有地は、領主へ納入する労役や生産物・現金といった貢納（保有地に付随する慣習とされていた）を支えるための土地であった。
English: These land ownerships by serfs is called villain tenure.
Japanese: このような農奴による土地保有を農奴保有(villeintenure)という。
English: However, free farmers also belonged to the jurisdiction or custom of shoens and were put in debt for the lease.
Japanese: 反面、自由農民も荘園の裁判権や慣習に従属し、賃借に伴う借金を負わされていた。
English: In addition to this, the source of income of the lords included, as well as revenue from the court or revenue from each change of land lease, the royalties of the lords' water wheel, bakery, grape compressor for wine making and so on or fees for hunting and pig-breeding and so on in the lords' forest.
Japanese: 領主の収入源には、この他にも（法廷収入や借地の変更契約ごとの収入と同様に）領主の持つ水車・製パン所・ワイン圧搾機などの使用料や領主の森での狩猟権料・ブタ飼育権料などが含まれていた。
English: As for the expense of the lords, the management of shoens cost a lot and that was why the small-scaled shoens were not likely to depend on the ownership of serfs.
Japanese: 領主の支出面を見てみると、荘園管理は大きな出費を伴うものであり、小規模な荘園では農奴保有に依存しない傾向があったのも、このためだったと考えられている。
English: The estate owned by serfs was notionally based on the agreement between the lords and the tenants (serfs), but in fact was obligatorily succeeded by heredity (on succession, the payment to the lords were imposed).
Japanese: 農奴の保有財産は、名目上は領主と借地人（農奴）との合意に基づくものとされていたが、実際には、ほぼ強制的に世襲させられていた（相続時に領主への支払が課せられていた）。
English: The serfs could not abandon the land without the prospect of escaping with the population condition and economical condition.
Japanese: 農奴は、人口的・経済的な条件が整って逃亡できる見込が立たない限り、土地を放棄することはできなかった。
English: Likewise, without the lords' approval or customary payment, the serfs could not sell the lands to a third party.
Japanese: 同じく、領主の承認や慣習的な支払なくして、土地を第三者へ譲渡することもできなかった。
English: The serfs could demand their legal rights or file a suit if paying the fee for the court (the supplementary income for the lords) and following the regional custom.
Japanese: 農奴は法的権利を主張し、地域の慣習に従い、（領主の副収入でもある）法廷料を支払えば訴訟に訴えることもできた。
English: It was not rare for the serfs to sublease their estate, and from the thirteenth century the payment of money began instead of labor services on the land (the land directly controlled by the lords).
Japanese: 農奴が保有財産を転貸することは珍しくなく、13世紀頃からは領地（領主の直轄地）での労役の代わりに金銭納入が行われるようになった。
English: Like the feudal system which forms the legal and organizational framework of feudal society as well as the shoen system, the shoen structure was also not a certain universal phenomenon in the society which was characteristically feudal.
Japanese: 封建社会の法的・組織的な枠組みを荘園制とともに形づくる封建制がそうであるように、荘園構造もまた、封建的な特徴を示す社会に普遍的な一定現象であるとは言えない。
English: With the change of economical situations, the shoen's economy dramatically developed, but until the late medieval period, some regions had continued to remain where shoens had not existed at all or only partially.
Japanese: 経済状況の変化にともなって荘園経済は相当な発展を見せたが、それでも中世後期に至るまで、荘園が全く存在しないか、不完全でしか存在しない地域が残存し続けた。
English: And all the shoens did not consist of the above mentioned three kinds of lands.
Japanese: また、すべての荘園が前述3種類の土地から構成されていたわけではない。
English: On average, the land (the land directly controlled by the lords) occupied more than one-third of the cultivatable lands and the lands owned by serfs were wider than these.
Japanese: 平均してみれば、領地（領主の直轄地）は耕地可能な土地のおよそ3分の1を占有し、農奴の保有地はそれよりも広いというケースが多かった。
English: However, there existed shoens which consisted only of the land (the land directly controlled by the lords) or shoens which consisted only of the lands owned by free farmers.
Japanese: しかし、領地（領主の直轄地）のみから成る荘園や、自由農民の保有地のみから成る荘園も存在していた。
English: Likewise, the ratio of the serfs' lands and the free farmers' lands largely varied in each region and thus the dependency on the wage and labor services concerned with the agricultural work in the lands also largely varied.
Japanese: 同様に、農奴の保有地と自由農民の保有地の割合には地域差が大きく、領地での農作業に係る賃金・労役への依存度を大きく左右した。
English: In the case of large shoens (if the lords had the large potential supply, that is, the compulsory service in the land directly controlled by the lords), the ratio of the serf's lands was large, but in small shoens, the ratio of the cultivatable area in the land tended to be large.
Japanese: 大きな荘園では（領地（領主の直轄地）での義務労役という大きな潜在的供給力を持つ領主がいれば、）農奴保有地の割合が大きかったのに対して、小さな荘園では、領地における耕地可能な面積の割合が大きくなりがちであった。
English: The ratio of the land which free farmers occupied was in a certain range, but in small shoens the ratio tended to be somewhat larger.
Japanese: 自由農民の保有地が占める割合は、一定範囲内に収まっていたが、小さな荘園では幾分大きくなる傾向が見られた。
English: There did not exist many shoens which consisted of only one village but mostly of two to several villages and most of them existed compositely with the other shoens.
Japanese: 単一の村落からなる荘園はあまり見られず、多くは2個～数個の村落から構成されており、そのほとんどは他の荘園の一部と混在していた。
English: For this reason, few farmers lived far from the land owned by the lords and the farmers who lived far from there came to pay their dues in cash instead of doing labor services on the land directly controlled by the lords.
Japanese: このため、領主の所有地から離れた場所で生活する農民も少なくなく、このような農民は領地（領主の直轄地）で労役義務を果たす代わりに金銭納入を行うようになっていった。
English: As the land owned by farmers consisted of a patch of land, the land directly controlled by the lords was also not a monolithic land.
Japanese: 農民の保有地が小地面から成っていたように、領地（領主の直轄地）も単一的な土地ではなかった。
English: The land, centering on the lord's residence, consisted of the neighboring lands, asset properties and furthermore the group of patches of land which existed threading through the lands owned by free farmers or serfs.
Japanese: 領地は、領主の居館を中心として、その近接地や資産建物、さらに自由農民や農奴の保有地の間を縫うように存在する小片の土地群から構成されていた。
English: And the lords not only owned the other shoens which existed in a slightly distant place but also leased the assets in the neighboring shoens in order to supply products for a wider range.
Japanese: また、領主は、より広い範囲の生産物を供給しうるべく、幾らか離れた場所にある他の荘園を保有するだけでなく、隣接する荘園の財産を賃貸借することもあった。
English: Those who owned shoens were not limited only to the secular lords who did military service (or daisenno (paying dues in cash instead of in kind; commutation)) for the higher-ranking lords.
Japanese: 荘園を保有していたのは、必ずしも上位領主へ軍役奉公（または代銭納）を行うような在俗領主ばかりではなかった。
English: Estimated from the records remaining in the great statistical survey book Domesday Book edited in 1086 in England, the shoens which the king directly dominated occupied 17 % and the larger ratio (more than one-fourth) was owned by bishops or monasteries.
Japanese: イングランドで1086年に編纂された統計大鑑ドームズデイ・ブックに残された記録から推計してみると、国王が直接支配した荘園は全体の17%を占め、さらに大きな割合（4分の1以上）を主教職や修道院が保有していた。
English: The shoens owned by the clericals had much wider serf lands than that of neighboring secular lords and gradually widened.
Japanese: 聖職者の保有する荘園は、隣接する在俗領主の荘園よりもはるかに広大な農奴地を持っており、次第に拡大していった。
English: The influence of social circumstances over shoen economy was complicated and sometimes contradictory.
Japanese: 荘園経済を巡る社会環境から生まれる影響は、複雑であり、時には矛盾をはらむこともあった。
English: In highlands the freedom of farmers was preserved (especially in livestock raising, the labor intensity was weakened and so the service of serfs was not needed), but on the other hand, the most oppressive governance of shoens was also seen in several areas in Europe.
Japanese: 高地では農民の自由が保たれるようになっていた（特に畜産は労働の集約化が弱まったため、農奴の奉仕を必要としなくなっていった）が、他方、ヨーロッパの幾つかの地域では、最も圧政的な荘園支配と呼ばれるような状況も見られた。
English: Among them, in the eastern England lower zone, a wide variety of farmers' freedom was secured, which was exceptional in those days, because of a part of Scandinavian settlers' heritage.
Japanese: その中にあって、東部イングランド低地では、スカンジナビア入植者の遺産の一部として、当時としては例外的とも言える農民の広範な自由が確保されていた。
English: Likewise, the expansion of money economy appeared in the form of popularization of paying dues in cash instead of labor services.
Japanese: 同様に、貨幣経済の拡大は、労役の代わりの金銭納入が普及していくという形で現れた。
English: However, after 1170, money supply increased and thus inflation happened and as a result, the aristocrats came to impose the same labor service as the fixed value of paying cash which was literally diminished as well as regaining the leased lands and assets.
Japanese: しかし、1170年以降、マネーサプライの増大とそれがもたらしたインフレーションの結果、貴族たちは、賃貸していた土地や財産を取り戻すとともに、文字どおり減退してしまった現金支払の固定価値と同等の労役を再び課していった。
English: The term shoen-sei (manorialism) is most often used when explaining the medieval west Europe.
Japanese: 荘園制(manorialism)という用語は、中世西ヨーロッパを説明する上で最もよく使用される。
English: The system preceding the manorialism firstly appeared in the rural economy of the late Roman Empire.
Japanese: 荘園制に先立つシステムは、後期ローマ帝国の農村経済にその初現を見ることができる。
English: Successive rulers tried to maintain the imperial economy by fixing the social structure.
Japanese: 代々の支配者たちは、社会構造を固定することにより帝国経済の維持を図っていった。
English: When the term expired the councilors retired and the class of cultivators called colonus was forbidden to move out from their living territories.
Japanese: 評議員(coucillor)は任期切れで退任し、コロヌスと呼ばれる耕作者層は居住する領地からの移動を禁じられた。
English: With several factors, the subservient class called colonus, which had both the traditional status of slaves and traditional status of free farmers, was born.
Japanese: 複数の要素が重なって、旧来の奴隷の地位と旧来の自由農民の地位を併せ持ったコロヌスという従属的な階級が生まれたのである。
English: The law promulgated by Constantinus I in 325 not only ordained the half-slave status of colonus but also guaranteed the right of lawsuit in court.
Japanese: 325年頃にコンスタンティヌス1世が発布した法令は、コロヌスの半奴隷的な地位を規定するだけでなく、法廷における告訴権を保証するものでもあった。
English: As the other ethnic groups (foederati), who were allowed to live in the empire, moved in and the number of colonus increased.
Japanese: 帝国内への居住が認められた異民族foederatiが移住してきたため、コロヌスの数は増加していった。
English: In the fifth century, as the Germanic peoples succeeded to the authority of the Roman Empire, the lords of Romans were replaced by other ethnic groups.
Japanese: 5世紀に入ると、ゲルマンがローマ帝国の権威を継承したことにより、ローマ人領主は異民族に取って代わられた。
English: As the Mediterranean trade collapsed during the eighth century, the self-sufficient system in villages came to be rapidly established.
Japanese: 8世紀には、地中海貿易が壊滅したことで、農村の自給自足体制が急速に確立されていった。
English: The historian Henri Pirenne presented the argument that the conquest activities of the Islamic world caused the significant villagization of the economy in medieval Europe and the traditional feudal system which was the local power hierarchy supported by the class of serfs (however, many people have different opinions).
Japanese: 歴史家アンリ・ピレンヌは、イスラム圏への征服活動が、ヨーロッパ中世経済の著しい農村化をもたらし、また多様な農奴階級が支える地域権力ヒエラルキーという伝統的な封建様式を引き起こしたとする説を展開している（ただし異論も少なからずある）。
English: In ancient India there did not exist the concept of absolute property right and the small farm house, which was self-sufficient, developed the forest, made it a field, became the owner of the land and was guaranteed the right to cultivate it by paying taxes to the king.
Japanese: 古代インドにおいては絶対的所有権の概念が存在せず、自給自足に近い生活を送る零細農家が森林を開発して田畑とした者が土地の所有者となり、国王に租税を納めることでその耕作権が保障された。
English: In the ancient caste system clan society, free purchase and sale or transfer of lands were not allowed, but around the fifth century B.C., they were loosely allowed with the development of society.
Japanese: 古代のカースト制氏族社会においては自由な土地の売買や譲渡は許されていなかったが、紀元前5世紀前後には社会の発展とともに緩やかになっていった。
English: And the king's governance of the land was established and the land could be given to Brahman or Ksatriya and they secured the status of large land holders by using the subservient people called Dasa.
Japanese: また、国王の土地に対する支配権が確立され、バラモンやクシャトリヤに土地を与えることが行われるようになり、彼らはダーサと呼ばれる従属民などを用いて大土地所有者としての地位を確保してきた。
English: However in 1793, the United Kingdom, which tried to colonize India, introduced the Zamindari system in the north of India, admitted the lords and landowners as those who had a modern landownership, but forcibly deprived the traditional local people of landownership and the right to cultivate and made them tenant farmers who belonged to the lords and landowners and systematically collected tax as cash money through the lords and landowners permanently.
Japanese: ところが、1793年にインドの植民地化を進めるイギリスは北インドにおいてザミンダーリー制を導入して領主・地主を土地の近代的な土地所有権者と認める一方で、従来現地住民が持っていた土地所有権・耕作権を強制的に剥奪して領主・地主の小作人として所属させ、領主・地主を通じて恒久的に現金を徴税する制度であった。
English: This was the introduction of India to medieval manorialism rather than the tenancy system and traditionally one-sixth of harvests in ancient times and one-third of them after the Dehli Sultanate period were levied, but the taxes on land were paid with fixed and expensive amounts of cash money and the lords and landowners undertook tax collection work and thus the farmers were put in a situation which was similar to that of serfs.
Japanese: これは小作制度というよりも中世荘園制度のインドへの導入に近く、従来は古代には収穫物の6分の1、デリー・スルタン朝時代以後でも収穫物の3分の1の徴収であったものが定額かつ高額な地税を現金による納付となり、なおかつ徴収実務は領主・地主に任されていたために、農民は農奴に近い状況に置かれた。
English: In contrast to this, the influence of the village community was strong in the south of India and though the more loose Raiyatowari system was introduced there on the premise of traditional farmers' landownership, the lands were confiscated by government officials because of non-payment of 50 to 60 percent of land tax, or the lands were seized by money brokers who consisted of the lords and landowners because of tax payments for debts and through these, the land government system spread as in the north of India.
Japanese: これに対して南インドでは伝統的な村落共同体の影響が強いために、農民の従来通りの土地所有を前提としてより緩やかなライーヤトワーリー制が導入されたものの、5-6割の地租の前に未納を理由とした官の没収もしくは納税のための借金のかたに領主・地主層からなる金融業者の差押を経て北インドと同様の土地支配体制が広がっていった。
English: Also in the Korean Peninsula, small scaled shoens were formed by the aristocrats or temples from the unified Silla period, but they became fully in progress during the late Goryeo period when the military government was established and the attacks of the Mongolian Empire continued.
Japanese: 朝鮮半島でも統一新羅の時代より貴族や寺院による小規模な荘園が形成されていたが、本格化するのは武人政権の成立、モンゴル帝国の侵略が続いた高麗後期である。
English: During this period the land and tax system based on Jeonshigwa (the Stipend Land Law) began to collapse and Soshin (the Imperial Family of the Yi Dynasty), Yangban (traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty), temples and warriors began the large scaled tochikenpei (land unity) in various regions.
Japanese: この時代に田柴料を基本とした土地・租税制度は崩壊に向かい、宗親・両班・寺院・武人らが各地で大規模な土地兼併を行うようになった。
English: The manors during the Goryeo period were called noso (manor), denso (manor), bessho (villa) and so on, and in addition to the cultivated areas they included mountains, fields, forests and so on and there the farmhouses, towers, schools, Buddhist temples, and so on were built and some had facilities inside for the management of cemeteries or Shylock for profit, but most of the owners usually lived in the city and the management was, in fact, conducted by the subordinates sent to the spot.
Japanese: 高麗の荘園は農荘・田荘・別墅などと呼ばれ、荘園には耕作地以外にも山野や森林などを含み、その中に農舎・亭楼・学堂・仏寺などが設置され、中には内部で利潤を目的とした墓地や長利（高利貸）経営を行う為の施設を有する者もいたが、ほとんどの所有者は通常は都市に住み、実際の運営は現地に派遣された奴僕によって行われていた。
English: The cultivators were the farmers, who did not have slaves and lands, but up to fifty percent of the farm rent and miscellaneous expenses such as shipping costs or dining and wining costs were also levied on them.
Japanese: 耕作者は奴婢と土地の無い良民であったが、彼らは5割にものぼる小作料の他、運送・飲食代など諸経費も徴収された。
English: Tochikenpei or tax collection sometimes involved violence and when the dispute over lands happened, both parties concerned were sometimes levied doubly by tenant farmers.
Japanese: 土地兼併や徴収が暴力を伴う場合もあり、土地を巡って争いが起きている場合には当事者双方が小作人より二重の徴収を行われる場合もあった。
English: The manors in Goryeo did not approve the right of tax exemption and the right to keep the tax agents from entering the property, but if the owners were powerful men, as a matter of practice, the rights were in effect by political pressure.
Japanese: 高麗の荘園には不輸不入は認められていなかったが、所有者が権勢者であった場合にはその政治的圧力で事実上の不輸不入の状態となった。
English: During the formation process of the Yi Dynasty Korea, the land system was reformed, the rank-land system (kwajonbop) and the "office land" (chikchon) system were introduced and lots of existing manors were confiscated.
Japanese: 李氏朝鮮成立の過程で土地制度の改革が行われ、科田制及び職田制が導入され、多くの既存荘園が没収されていった。
English: However, on the other hand, such reforms led to the reorganization of the new manor system, where the owners were the Imperial Family of the Yi Dynasty and meritorious retainers.
Japanese: だが、その一方でこうした改革は李朝宗親・功臣を所有者とする新たな荘園体制の再編へとつながっていった。
English: However, the reforms ruled out the possibility of tochikenpei by violent deprivation such as seen during the Goryeo period by heightening the possibility of land expansion by buying and selling lands.
Japanese: それでも、改革は土地の売買による土地拡大の可能性を高めて高麗時代のような暴力的な収奪による土地兼併の可能性を排除した。
English: And the living bases of Soshin and Yangban moved from cities to local manors and they started to show aggressive management.
Japanese: また、宗親・両班の生活の拠点が都市から在地の荘園に移り、積極的な経営に乗り出す姿勢を見せ始めた。
English: However, by the four wars of Jinshin waran (the Bunroku War in Korean), the Japanese Invasion in 1597, the First Manchu invasion of Korea and the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, the "office land" (chikchon) system collapsed and during the late seventeenth century, kyuso or tonsho which were given the privilege of tax exemption from the nation were set up and the constraints on the purchase and sale of land were increasingly loosened and the shoen system culminated.
Japanese: だが、16世紀末から17世紀初めにかけて起きた壬辰倭乱・丁酉倭乱・丁卯胡乱・丙子胡乱の4つの戦乱によって職田制が崩壊し、17世紀後半には免税特権を国家から与えられた宮荘や屯庄が設置されるとともに土地売買の制約が一層緩くなり、荘園制度は最盛期を迎えた。
English: And the social status of slaves moved up and subservience also lowered and thus the manor system came to change.
Japanese: また、奴婢の社会的地位が上昇して従属性も低くなったことによって荘園の仕組も変化していった。
English: That is, professional managers called dosho and shaon managed the manors and the flat-rate pricing farm rent system began to spread and payment came to be mainly by gold or money.
Japanese: すなわち、導掌・舎音と呼ばれる専任の管理者によって経営され、堵租と呼ばれる定額小作料制度が広まるようになり、その納付も金納や代金納が主流となっていった。
English: The military aristocracy consisted of aristocrats specialized in military affairs who emerged in history in the late ancient period through the early medieval period.
Japanese: 軍事貴族（ぐんじきぞく）とは、日本の古代後期から中世最初期にかけて出現した軍事専門の貴族をいう。
English: It is believed that Yoshimi TODA's study of the military system made the concept of the military aristocracy become widely known.
Japanese: 軍事貴族の概念は戸田芳実による軍制史研究によって広まったとされている。
English: One of the commonly understood reasons for the rise of this concept was the increasing criticism in the 1970's and onwards of the conventional understanding that local farmers were the foundation of the samurais who overthrew shoen (manors in medieval Japan) control by aristocrats.
Japanese: この概念が登場した背景として、1970年代以降、王朝国家論を巡る議論の中で、在地の農民層から武士が生まれて貴族の荘園支配を打倒していったとするそれまでの解釈への批判が強まったことがあげられている。
English: A new understanding that the origin of the samurais was aristocrats instead of farmers grew as ancient and medieval studies progressed, and the concept of a military aristocracy was formed as a link between aristocrats and samurais.
Japanese: こうした古代・中世史研究の深まりとともに、農民ではなく貴族に武士のルーツを求める見方が生まれ、両者を繋ぐ概念として提起されたのが、軍事貴族である。
English: There were gozoku (local ruling families) that were specialized in military affairs in the Kofun (tumulus) and Asuka periods, which were before the establishment of the Japanese nation under the ritsuryo codes.
Japanese: 律令国家が建設される以前の古墳時代・飛鳥時代においても、軍事を主務とする豪族が存在した。
English: At that time, there were uji, or clan-based groups that were in charge of specific tasks under the Yamato administration.
Japanese: 当時、ヤマト政権内において特定の職務を担当する同族集団、すなわち氏が存在していた。
English: The ritsuryo codes formed in the late 7th century, however, were based on the bureaucracy system and were against the idea of certain clans inheriting specific government posts.
Japanese: しかし、7世紀後期に形成していった律令制は、官僚制を原則としており、ある氏族が特定の官職を世襲することを否定した。
English: When cohorts (in ancient Japan) were formed under the ritsuryo codes, these cohorts took charge of military affairs instead of the Mononobe and the Otomo clans.
Japanese: 律令に基づいて各地に軍団(古代日本)が設置されると、物部・大伴両氏に代わって軍団が軍事を担うこととなった。
English: When military mobilization was required, kokuga (provincial government offices) reported to the Daijokan (Grand Council of State), received 'a charter to send troops' from the Daijokan, and conscripted soldiers from domestic households or mobilized kondei (regular soldiers guarding kokubu (ancient provincial offices) or sekisho (checking stations)).
Japanese: 軍事動員を必要とするときは、国衙から太政官へ上申し、太政官から「発兵勅符」を得た上で、国衙が国内の各戸から兵を徴発したり健児を動員するという方式で対応していた。
English: There was no permanent national military force, and a temporary force was formed when necessary.
Japanese: 常置の国家正規軍は存在しておらず、必要のあるときのみ、臨時の正規軍が編成される仕組みとなっていた。
English: At the end of the 9th century, false registration, vagrancy, or escape by farmers became prominent; therefore, it was difficult to know for each household who could be mobilized in military affairs.
Japanese: 9世紀末頃になると、百姓らの偽籍・浮浪・逃亡が顕著となり、軍事動員の対象となるべき百姓を各戸ごとに把握することが困難となった。
English: In the Kanbyo-Engi period (from the end of the 9th century to the beginning of the 10th century), there were frequent 'outbreaks of banditry' (Shuba-no-to and Kanbyo-Engi-Togoku-no-ran (disturbances by banditry in Togoku during the period between Kanbyo and Engi)) in which Bando were robbed of kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes) to be offered to the central government.
Japanese: 寛平・延喜年間（9世紀末期-10世紀初期）になると、板東において、中央へ進納する官物を強奪するといった「群盗蜂起」が頻発した（しゅう馬の党・寛平・延喜東国の乱）。