nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: There were different types in the style of character "寳"(kan), one of which the second stroke of top part of "寳", the last character of 寳永通寳, was long and the other one which had a short stroke, and they were called by "deep top" and "shallow top" respectively, and the weight was 2.5 monme (9.37 grams) (monme is the unit of weight) and 2.3 monme (8.62 grams) respectively, which means "shallow top" was lighter.
Japanese: 末尾の「寳」字のウ冠の第二画が長いものと短いものが存在し、それぞれ「深冠」、「浅冠」と呼ばれ、量目はそれぞれ、2.5匁（9.37グラム）、2.3匁（8.62グラム）と「浅冠」の方が軽い。
English: In "deep top", there was a replacement called "chokuei" where longitudinal stroke of "永"was perpendicular.
Japanese: また「深冠」には「永」字の縦画が垂直な「直永」と呼ばれる手代わりが存在する。
English: Kanei-tsuho also had two types of proof coin, Nijihoei (two characters hoei) and Nijieiju (two characters eiju) on which two characters were inscribed.
Japanese: また寳永通寳には、二文字が鋳込まれた二字寳永（にじほうえい）および二字永十（にじえいじゅう）と呼ばれる試鋳貨幣が存在する。
English: The production of gold and silver that was in its prime during Keicho era started to deteriorate after Kanei era.
Japanese: 慶長年間に最盛期であった金銀の産出は寛永年間を過ぎた頃から陰りが見え始めた。
English: In place of it, it was the production of bronze at Ashiodozan Copper Mine and Besshidozan Copper Mine that was in its prime in Genroku era.
Japanese: 代わって元禄年間に産出が隆盛を極めたのが足尾銅山および別子銅山からの銅の産出であった。
English: Whereas outflow of koban (former Japanese oval gold coin) and chogin (collective term of silver coin) from the country as trade settlement did not stop, thereby absolute amont of currency was extremely in short supply.
Japanese: 一方、貿易決済としての小判および丁銀の流出は止むことが無く、通貨の絶対量の不足が深刻となってきた。
English: For this reason, Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by shogunate) took a policy of seclusion, and ordered to prohibit export of gold and silver several times with no effect.
Japanese: このため江戸幕府は、鎖国を行い何度も金銀の輸出禁止令を出したが、全く効果をあげるものではなかった。
English: Then, bakufu collected bronze produced at copper mines across the nation at Osaka Cupellating Place and controled it with strict care.
Japanese: そこで幕府は全国の銅山から産出される銅を、大坂の大坂銅吹所に集め厳しく管理した。
English: At the beginning, bakufu expected that production of copper increased gradually, but its peak was in Genroku era.
Japanese: 当初幕府は銅の産出が次第に増加するものと見込んでいたが、産出のピークは元禄年間であった。
English: Therefore, the copper for export was in short supply, and lowering of karat of gold and silver coin caused by reminting from keichokoban-keichochogin to genrokukoban-genrokuchogin and hoeikoban-hoeichogin as well as short supply of currency as a result of economic development caused appreciation of currency where 1 ryo(unit of currency) fluctuated around 3,700 mon (unit of currency) from the end of genroku era to the beginning of hoei era.
Japanese: このため輸出用の御用銅は不足し、また慶長小判慶長丁銀から元禄小判元禄丁銀および宝永小判宝永丁銀への吹き替えによる金銀貨の品位低下および経済発展による銭貨不足から銭相場の高騰を招き、元禄年間終盤から宝永年間初頭にかけて、一両＝3,700文前後をつけるに至った。
English: Under this condition, minting of jumonsen (coin issued in 1708) was suggested to compensate for the shortage of bronze and control of currency.
Japanese: そこで銭相場の抑制および銅地金の不足解消を目的に十文銭の鋳造が建議された。
English: The financial crisis of bakufu caused by natural disasters occurred one after another in this period such as Genroku Earthquake and Tokai, Nankai, Tonankai Consolidated Type Earthquake as well as damage by great eruption (of Mt.Fuji) in Hoei era was one of the reasons for minting ozeni (type of coin), or kaneitsukan, to make profit from zeniza.
Japanese: またこの時期に相次いで起こった自然災害、すなわち元禄地震、東海・南海・東南海連動型地震および宝永の大噴火被害による幕府の財政逼迫も、銭座からの運上による利益を目的とする大銭すなわち寳永通寳鋳造に至らしめた一因といえる。
English: Chuhichi NAGASAKIYA, the head of itowappunakama (thread tally union) in Kyoto requested minting of the coin to bakufu with his members of the union, and he was assigned to mint ozeni.
Japanese: 京都の糸割符年寄り、長崎屋忠七がその糸割符仲間と伴に鋳銭を幕府に願い出て、大銭の鋳造を請け負うこととなった。
English: In November 1707, Nakane Settsunokami (governor of Settsu Province) told in Nishimachi bugyo (magistrate) that minting ozeni was assigned to Kyo zeniza, and he started to mint jumonsen (type of coin) at Shichijo-dori Street in Kyoto from February in 1７０８．
Japanese: 宝永4年（1707年）11月、中根摂津守が西町奉行所にて大銭鋳造の件を京銭座に命ぜられた旨を申し渡し、翌年の宝永5年2月から京都七条通で十文銭の鋳造を開始した。
English: On this occasion, following bakufu order was issued."Ozeni must be used by mixing based on 1 ryo = 3.9 0r 4 kanmon (1,000 kanmon=10,000 yen) without even a slight difference
Japanese: このとき出されたのは「一両＝3.9～4貫文より高下なく大銭を差混ぜて通用すべき」との触書であった。
English: In ginza, about 10 % of minted amount of kaneitsukan was presented as tax to bakufu generally,
Japanese: 銭座では寛永通寳の鋳造高の約一割を運上として幕府に納めるのが慣行であった。
English: Oboegaki(memorandum) for Kyoto government says that it was regulated that in minting ozeni, 100,000 kanmon was produced a year, of which 50,000 kanmon was taxed.
Japanese: 『京都御役所向大概覚書』によれば、この大銭鋳造においては一カ年十万貫文を鋳造し、うち五万貫文を運上すると定められた。
English: However, solely 47,750 kanmon was taxed, and remaining 250 kanmon was stopped to be distributed before arrival, which means that it was not taxed.
Japanese: この内47,750貫文が上納され、残り250貫文は到着前に通用停止となったため上納されなかったという。
English: This kaneitsukan was a copper coin whose weighted value was 2.5 monme, that was 2 pieces and a half of kaneitsukan, and it was inconvenient for calculation of money, which means that it had a bad reputation where money changer complained.
Japanese: この寳永通寳は量目二匁五分程度すなわち寛永通寳2枚半程度の銅銭であり、また金銭の計算に不便であったことなどから市場での評判はすこぶる悪く、両替商も苦情を申し立てる始末であった。
English: The reason is that, at that time, Zenisashi was called as Shohaku method (currency exchange rate in Edo period) where 96 pieces of ichimonsen (one-mon coin) (mon is a monetary unit of old times) was 100 mon.
Japanese: これは当時銭緡（ぜにさし）を省陌法と称して寛永通寳一文銭96枚の束をもって100文とする慣行からである。
English: Therefore, if this zenisashi was silver 1 monme, 10 pieces of jumonsen must be converted to silver 1 monme 041666 where it was complicated to calculate when the price by silver was paid by sen (unit of currency).
Japanese: この銭緡が銀一匁である場合、十文銭10枚のときは銀一匁〇四一六六六・・・と換算しなければならず、銀建ての価格のものを銭で払う場合計算が煩雑であったことによる。
English: Bakufu ordered to distribute without distruption only with no effect, and minting currency stopped on New Years Day of 1709 with the end of distribution as well.
Japanese: 幕府は滞りなく通用するよう触書を出したが、全く効果は無く宝永6年（1709年）正月に鋳銭停止となり、通用も停止された。
English: Zeniza in Kyoto Shichijo was unable to request return of 47,750 kanmon that they had already paid, causing damage on large scale.
Japanese: 京都七条銭座は上納した47,750貫文を返還請求できず大損害を被ることとなった。
English: Exchange of ozeni in the city was postponed, and Kinsei-Kenbunshu (record of life in modern time) says that １piece of ozeni was exchanged to sen-nanamon in 1723.
Japanese: また、市中の大銭は引き換えが延期された上に『近世見聞集』では享保8年（1723年）に大銭一枚は銭七文に引き換えられたとある。
English: Even Shigehide OGIHARA, kanjobugyo (commissioner of finance), who believed in coin said that "ozeni was not good."
Japanese: 信用貨幣論者である勘定奉行の荻原重秀でさえ、「此大銭の事はよからぬこと」と申したとのことである。
English: Kikokusenkin refers to one of the economic thoughts during the Edo period, which respected rice and abhorred money.
Japanese: 貴穀賤金（きこくせんきん）は、江戸時代の経済思想のひとつで、米穀をとうとび、貨幣をいやしめるというもの。
English: The word 'kikokusenkin' was created by Ichio OKUBO and written on the 'Supplementary theory on Prices' by Nobuhiro SATO, which means that it was not Sato's word coinage.
Japanese: 「貴穀賤金」という語句は、佐藤信淵の「物価余論簽書」に大久保一翁が題したもので、佐藤による造語ではない。
English: SATO used the phrase 'negative effect of kikinsenkoku' (the thought which respected money and abhorred rice,) but did not use 'senkinkikoku.'
Japanese: 佐藤は「貴金賤穀の弊」という語句は用いたが、「賤金貴穀」という語句は用いていない。
English: Abhorring money does not mean throwing money away, it just places the most importance on gokoku (five kinds of grain) and gold and silver are to help gokoku flourish on the ground, so that money is abhorred for gokoku to flourish,'
Japanese: 「タカラヲ賤ンズルトテ、ナゲスツルニハアラズ、五穀ヲ第一トシテ、金銀コレヲ助ケ、五穀下ニミチミチテ、上ノ用ニ達スルヲ貨ヲ賤ズトイフナリ」
English: During Tenmei era, in "Strategic theory for maritime defense," Shihei HAYASHI wrote the following and clearly argued about harmful results of senkinkikoku.
Japanese: 天明年間に、林子平は『海国兵談』八で、次のように明白に賤金貴穀の弊を論じた。
English: It is dangerous to respect gold and silver and abhor rice like this because if three or four Provinces are in famine, Provinces with rice to spare can help them, but, if twenty or thirty Provinces are simultaneously in famine, there will not be enough rice to spare. In such a time, it is not possible for people to survive by drinking decocted gold and silver.'
Japanese: 「此故に金銀を第一として穀を心とせざるは甚だ危き心掛なり、其故に三四ヶ国の饑饉なれば、有年の国のより饑饉の国へ廻し遣はす米穀も有べきなれども、もし、二三十ヶ国も一統に饑饉せば廻し遣はす米穀も有べからず。その時に至て、金銀を煎じて飲むとも命は助る間敷なり」
English: You should understand that rice is the most important, and gold and silver are the second for surviving and try hard to store everyday food,'
Japanese: 「此所を能く呑込んで、金銀は命を救ふ第二番の物なることを知て米穀を第一、金銀を第二と心得て、平日食糧になるべき物を蓄ふることを勤むべし」
English: HAYASHI wrote on famine but in fact he discussed it from a viewpoint of security and his theory was different from SATO's theory of kikokusenkin which aimed for leveling-off of prices.
Japanese: 林は飢饉のことを言うが、実際は兵備の点から論じたものであり、佐藤の貴穀賤金論が物価の平準化を目的としているのとは異なる。
English: SATO wrote the following in "Supplementary theory on Prices" and argued about maintaining a high rice price.
Japanese: 佐藤は『物価余論』で以下のように言い、高い米価を維持することを論じている。
English: When storing rice, it often decreases by being infested with rats or insects, or by being damaged, but when storing money, it often increases with interest, and thus, nengu (annual tribute, land tax) is paid more by money by exchanging rice with money, which, however, is the way of a man of stupid, not a man of virtue.'
Japanese: 「米を蓄るときは鼠喰或は虫付、ふけ米等の出来て減ずること多きも、金を蓄ふるときは、利息出来て、増すこと多きが故に、年貢も金納を多くし、米を払ひて、金にするを良とするとは、小人の利術にして、君子の所為にあらず。」
English: As samurai and farmers do not store rice, artisans and merchants despise rice and respect gold and silver, but if samurai and farmers despise gold and silver and respect and store rice, then artisans and merchants would always hurriedly ask for rice, but the fact is that samurai despise rice and do not store rice, respecting only money, which forces them to fluctuate between hope and despair depending on the temper of rich merchants and artisans.'
Japanese: 「士農米穀を蓄へざるが故に、工商是を卑みて金銀を貴ぶなり、もし士農金銀を卑み、米穀を貴てこれを蓄積するときは、工商は士農に役せられて常に米穀を求むること急なり、然るに士人米を卑みて蓄積せず特に金のみを貴ぶが故に富商の鼻息を仰で憂喜をなすに至る。」
English: Merchants and artisans are rich and samurai and farmers are poor, which causes all the people to despise the ground, so this negative effect will be overcome when artisans and merchants are always short of rice and respect samurai and farmers, then the price will be naturally leveled off.'
Japanese: 「工商豊かにして、士農困む是れ上下地を易る根原なり、此弊を改むるときは工商常に米穀に困み、士農を仰でその業を励むに至れば、物価は自然に平準なるべし」
English: Shimei INOUE wrote the following in the section of kikoku in his "Twelve economics theories,"
Japanese: 井上四明は、『経済十二論』で、貴穀という節を設けて、次のように論じた。
English: Money is a treasure, but cannot be eaten, and gold and silver are wealth, but cannot be worn, and in this world, rice is the most important and gold, silver and money are the second most important.'
Japanese: 「珠玉雖レ宝、而餒不レ可レ食、金銀雖レ財、而凍不レ可レ衣、世皆不レ貴二穀粟一、而貴二金銀珠玉一者何也」
English: 近世熊伯〔熊沢蕃山を指す〕亦論二貴粟一,伯継多二善政一,国民至レ今便焉貴粟之政,独不レ行二於当時一,可レ歎哉,今欲二富レ士仰一レ商,無レ如下貴二穀粟一而賤中金銀上,欲レ貴二穀粟一,無レ如二以レ穀代一レ幣,而行二於天下一也'
Japanese: 「近世熊伯〔熊沢蕃山を指す〕亦論二貴粟一、伯継多二善政一、国民至レ今便焉貴粟之政、独不レ行二於当時一、可レ歎哉、今欲二富レ士仰一レ商、無レ如下貴二穀粟一而賤中金銀上、欲レ貴二穀粟一、無レ如二以レ穀代一レ幣、而行二於天下一也」
English: 若二夫銭幣一有レ之不レ飽,有レ之不レ暖,故穀帛穀不レ可二一日無一,而銭幣可二百年無一'
Japanese: 「若二夫銭幣一有レ之不レ飽、有レ之不レ暖、故穀帛穀不レ可二一日無一、而銭幣可二百年無一」
English: You should always keep in mind the above details (the negative effect of money circulation) and deal in real things though it is a little inconvenient to deal in real things all the time, and avoid the transaction by gold and silver as much as possible, and stop to handle gold and silver as much as possible, and also, it is desirable that gold and silver would not limit what you have to do.'
Japanese: 「右の子細〔貨幣流通の弊害を指す〕どもをつねづねよく心得居て、総体正物にて取引すべき事は少々不便利はありとも、やはり正物にて取引をして金銀の取引のすぢをばなるべきだけはこれを省き、なほまたさまざまの金銀のやりくりなどをも、なるべきだけは随分これを止め、またなすべきことを金銀にて仕切るやうのすぢはなほ更無用にあらまほしきことなり」
English: MOTOORI advocated the transaction by real things and although it is difficult to call his idea the theory of kikoku (respecting rice), but it is the theory of senkin (abhorring money).
Japanese: 本居は正物の取引を言い、貴穀の論であるとは言いにくいが、賤金論ではある。
English: In general, Japanese scholars of the Chinese classics and the Confucianism during the Edo period vaguely understood that the monetary system and the feudal system were hardly compatible, though not contradictory, and that it was difficult for the money economy to return to the object economy.
Japanese: おしなべて江戸時代の漢学者・儒学者は、貨幣制度と封建制度との、矛盾するとは言わないまでも、相両立したがいこと、貨幣経済が物品経済に戻りにくいことをおぼろげには感じていた。
English: A money changer is a store or merchant who mainly deals with changing money and finance.
Japanese: 両替商（りょうがえしょう）とは、両替および金融を主な業務とする商店あるいは商人のことである。
English: It began with stores where "koban" (oval gold coins), "chogin" (silver coins) and copper coins were exchanged for a commission and were traded, that is, changed for other currencies.
Japanese: 小判、丁銀および銭貨を手数料を取って交換、売買すなわち両替した商店から始まった。
English: In the Meiji period and onwards the money changers began to deal with banking business as banks, which are sometimes called "money changers."
Japanese: 明治時代以降は両替商は銀行として金融業務を行うようになり、この銀行を両替商という場合もある。
English: Outside Japan where cross-border transactions flourished from ancient times, there were many money changers who dealt with foreign money exchange and finance.
Japanese: 日本国外においては古くから国境を越えた交易が盛んであり、外貨両替、金融などを扱う両替商が多く存在した。
English: The term "money changer" derives from the fact that a one-ryo gold koban was exchanged for "shoryo" silver coins whose values were determined by equivalent standard weight of silver and which included chogin and "mameitagin" (small silver coins), or for copper coins.
Japanese: 両替という言葉は、一両小判を、丁銀、豆板銀すなわち秤量銀貨に、また銭貨に換（替）えたことに由来する。
English: Another explanation for its origin is that gold bullion was exchanged for "kochugin" (publicly minted silver coins or chogin) in Ginza (where silver coins were minted, appraised and traded) or that exchanging cupelled and hallmarked silver, i.e., privately minted silver coins, for publicly minted silver coins, was called "nanryogae."
Japanese: また銀座(歴史)において金地金と公鋳銀（丁銀）を替えること、また灰吹銀および極印銀すなわち市井銀と公鋳銀とを取り替えることを南鐐替（なんりょうがえ）と称したことに由来するとも言われる。
English: When new coins were cupelled (minted), the money changers collected old coins which they exchanged for new ones instead of the Kinza and Ginza.
Japanese: さらに貨幣吹替（改鋳）の際には、金座および銀座に代わり旧貨幣の回収、交換の業務に関わった。
English: Market economy gradually developed from around the Muromachi period, and "toraisen" (Chinese coins) such as Song coins became current.
Japanese: 室町時代頃から、次第に市場経済が発展し、宋銭など中国からの渡来銭が流通するようになった。
English: General retail market was traded in zeni (the auxiliary currency) where one zeni was equivalent to one mon (a unit of currency).
Japanese: 一般の小売は銭遣いが中心であり、銭一枚は一文(通貨単位)という単位であった。
English: After several hundred years of circulation, however, some coins were considerably broken, chipped off or worn out.
Japanese: しかし、数百年の流通により銭の中には割れ、欠け、磨耗などの著しいものが生じた。
English: These bad quality coins called "bitasen" accounted for a larger part of the currencies in circulation.
Japanese: これらの質の悪い銭が流通の大半を占めるようになり、鐚銭と呼ばれるようになった。
English: On the other hand, Eiraku-tsuho coins which were newly imported from Ming China were treated as good currency, with which the practice of "erizeni" (selection of good coins) began.
Japanese: これに対し明から新たに輸入された永楽通宝は良銭として扱われ、撰銭という慣行が始まった。
English: Mainly in western Japan, large-amount transactions were conducted in "shoryo ginka" or silver coins which were hallmarked pieces of cupelled silver mined from a silver mine and whose real values were determined by their weight (mass).
Japanese: 西日本を中心に銀山から山出しされた灰吹銀に極印を打ち、その量目（質量）に応じて実質価値が定まる秤量銀貨が大口取引に利用されるようになった。
English: What was called "Kochogin" (old silver coin) was cupelled silver flattened into bar shapes and hallmarked.
Japanese: この灰吹銀をたたき延ばし平たい棒状にして極印を打ったものが古丁銀と呼ばれるものである。
English: In medieval Japan there existed merchants called 'kaesenya' or 'warifuya' who dealt with 'warifu' (tally), a precursor of money order.
Japanese: さて、日本には中世より、割符と呼ばれる為替の前身にあたる物を扱う「替銭屋」・「割符屋」と呼ばれる商人が存在した。
English: As production of gold and silver increased in gold and silver mines across Japan in the (Japanese) Sengoku period, there emerged 'kinya' (gold dealers) and 'ginya' (silver dealers) who refined, appraised and traded in gold and silver bullions brought in by speculators.
Japanese: さらに、戦国時代(日本)に入り全国の金山および銀山の産出が増大するにつれ、山師の持ち込む金銀地金の精錬、鑑定および売買を行う金屋および銀屋も現れた。
English: These money dealers, precursors to the later money changers, came to enter the exchange business after the sanka seido or tri-metallic monetary standard was established, as mentioned below.
Japanese: 後世の両替商はこうした業者が後述の三貨制度の確立によって両替の分野にも関わるようになったものと考えられている。
English: Victorious in the Battle of Sekigahara, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA began to reform the monetary system as a first step towards the unification of the country.
Japanese: 関ヶ原の合戦に勝利した徳川家康は全国統一への一歩として貨幣制度の整備に着手した。
English: After 35 years, in 1636, the shogunate began to officially mint one-mon copper coins and Kanei-tsuho coins at the time of Iemitsu TOKUGAWA.
Japanese: これに遅れること35年後の徳川家光の時代、寛永13年（1636年）に江戸幕府が一文銅銭、寛永通寳を本格的に鋳造に乗り出すことになった。
English: With this the sanka (tri-metallic, i.e., gold, silver and copper) monetary system was built on the existing system of currency distribution.
Japanese: かくして三貨制度（小判、丁銀、銭貨）が確立することになるが、これは既存の貨幣の流通形態を踏襲するものであった。
English: Previously, in 1609, the shogunate implemented the following fixed exchange rate: '1 ryo of gold was equal to 50 monme of silver, which was equal to 1 kanmon of Eiraku-tsuho, which was equivalent to 4 kanmon of bitasen.'
Japanese: これより前の慶長14年（1609年）に幕府は三貨の御定相場として「金一両＝銀五十匁＝永楽通宝一貫文＝鐚銭四貫文」と定めた。
English: Later, in 1700, the rate was revised as '1 ryo of gold was equal to 60 monme of silver, which was equal to 4 kanmon of copper,' and this rate was used for tribute and so on.
Japanese: 後の元禄13年（1700年）に「金一両＝銀六十匁＝銭四貫文」と改訂し、貢納金などに対してはこの換算率が用いられた。
English: In reality, one-ryo gold coins, one-monme silver coins and one-mon copper coins were traded at floating rates.
Japanese: 金一両、銀一匁および銭一文は互いに変動相場制で取引されるのが実態であった。
English: In this way the three types of currencies were circulated in the country at the same time, and therefore, cross-currency exchange was required to facilitate the currency transactions.
Japanese: このように国内に三種類の通貨が同時に流通することとなり、これらの取引を円滑に行うためには、これらの通貨間の両替が必要となる。
English: Thus, the exchange business that changed money for a 1 or 2 percentage commission came into existence.
Japanese: そこで1～2%程度の手数料を徴収して両替を行う商売が成立することになる。
English: If a customer wants to break a koban into ichibunkin (a quarter of a koban) or tobangin into copper coins, that is, if he wants to change a large currency for smaller ones which are more usable, he had to pay a commission called 'kirichin' which was usually more expensive than one for which small change was converted into a large currency.
Japanese: 小判を一分金に、あるいは豆板銀を銭に換えるなど、より使い勝手の良い小額の貨幣に両替する場合は切賃（きりちん）と呼ばれる手数料が発生し、少額貨幣から高額貨幣への両替手数料より割増されるのが普通であった。
English: If, however, a commission for changing smaller currencies for a larger one is higher than one for exchanging a large currency for small ones, it was called 'gyakuuchi' (reverse commission).
Japanese: 一方、少額貨幣を高額貨幣に両替する場合の手数料が高額貨幣からの手数料より高くなる場合は逆打（ぎゃくうち）と呼ばれた。
English: The reverse commission was often required for the exchange of Nanryonishugin silver or ichibungin silver for kobans.
Japanese: 南鐐二朱銀および一分銀を小判へ両替する場合などにこの逆打が見られた。
English: Thus, gold, silver and copper coins were allowed to freely circulate within a country.
Japanese: このように同一国内で金貨、銀貨、および銅貨がすべて無制限通用を認められた。
English: Although there was no notion of standard money at the time, each of the three coins, gold, silver and copper, was circulated with a value of nominal standard money, and was traded at floating exchange rates.
Japanese: 当時、本位貨幣という概念は無かったものの、金銀銅の三貨もいずれもが事実上の本位貨幣としての価値をもって流通し、それぞれが変動相場で取引された。
English: Money changers were later divided into 'Honryogae' (main exchangers) who handled changing koban and chogin, i.e., gold and silver, money orders, deposits, lending and credit transactions agency through the issuance of credit bills, and 'Wakiryogae' (subsidiary exchangers) who specialized in copper coinage transactions.
Japanese: 両替商はやがて小判および丁銀の金銀両替および、為替、預金、貸付、手形の発行により信用取引を仲介する業務を行う本両替（ほんりょうがえ）と、専ら銭貨の売買を行う脇両替（わきりょうがえ）に分化していった。
English: Main exchangers formed the 'Honryogae Nakama' (Association of Main Exchangers) in Edo, the 'Junin Ryogae Nakama' (Association of 10 Exchangers) in Osaka, and each agreed on gold exchange rates, etc.
Japanese: 本両替商は江戸では本両替仲間、大坂では十人両替仲間を形成し、金相場会所いなどについて協定した。
English: Many exchangers had their headquarters in Osaka where honryogae developed, and branches in Edo where many wakiryogae were found, while Kyoto was somewhere between the two.
Japanese: 両替屋は大坂に本店を置くことが多く本両替が発達し、江戸は支店が多く脇両替が多く見られ、京都はその中間的な性格を持っていたといわれる。
English: Exchangers also started business in provincial cities, keeping close contact mostly with those in Osaka and contributing to the development of the tri-metallic monetary system.
Japanese: さらに地方の都市にも開業されるようになり、大坂の両替商を中心に互いに連絡を取り合い三貨制度の発達に貢献した。
English: By 1718 they were officially recognized as 'kabunakama' (a merchant guild) with a member population of over 600.
Japanese: 享保3年（1718年）には幕府から正式に株仲間として公認されるに至り600人を数えた。
English: In Edo the money changers were divided into honryogae exchangers (16 people) who handled gold and silver exchange and finance, 'Mikumi Ryogae' (three groups of main exchangers consisting of Group Kanda, Group Mita and Group Seri) specializing in koban, chogin and zenika (copper coins), and 'Bangumi Ryogae' (Nos. 1 to 27) who traded in copper coins.
Japanese: 江戸では金銀両替および金融業務を行う本両替（16人）、専ら小判、丁銀、および銭貨の両替を行う三組両替（神田組・三田組・世利組）および銭貨の売買を行う番組両替（一～二十七番）に分化していった。
English: Many mikumi and bangumi exchangers often ran liquor shops or pawnshops.
Japanese: 三組両替および番組両替には酒屋および質屋などを兼業するものも多かった。
English: As has been commonly assumed, a person called Gohei of Tennojiya was the first to start fully-fledged exchange business in Osaka during the Keicho era.
Japanese: 大坂で本格的な両替商を始めて創業したのは慶長年間の天王寺屋五兵衛によるものというのが通説となっている。
English: Recommended by the Osaka machi-bugyo (town magistrate of Osaka), they became official dealers for the shogunate in 1662.
Japanese: 寛文2年（1662年）に大坂町奉行により3名が正式に幕府御用を務めるに至った。
English: Their number increased to 6 in 1668 and to 10 in 1670 at which point they formed the Junin Ryogae Nakama.
Japanese: その後、寛文8年（1668年）には6人に倍増し、同10年（1670年）には10人となり、十人両替仲間を形成するに至った。
English: They were responsible for cooperating with the shogunate's economic policy and supervised the other exchangers.
Japanese: 幕府の経済政策に協力する義務を負い両替屋仲間の監督機関の役割を果たした。
English: Credit transactions made through bills issued by exchangers were indispensable for large-amount transactions in chogin and tobangin which required the cumbersome valuation of silver by weight.
Japanese: 丁銀、豆板銀による大口取引は秤量の煩わしさを伴うことから両替商を通じて行われる手形による信用取引は不可欠なものとなった。
English: They occasionally involved frauds, which the shogunate had the Osaka machi-bugyo police.
Japanese: それに伴い不正が行われることもあり、幕府は大坂町奉行にこれを取り締まらせた。
English: Independently of the Junin Ryogae, wakiryogae exchangers in Osaka formed two nakama-soshiki unions, the Sango Zeniya Nakama (Union of Copper Exchangers in Sango, i.e., Group Kita, Group Minami and Group Tenman) and the Minami Nakama Ryogae (Union of Exchangers in Minami).
Japanese: 大坂の脇両替は十人両替とは独立して仲間組織を結成し、三郷銭屋仲間（北組・南組・天満組）と南仲間両替があった。
English: A position called 'Kakeya' in domain was in charge of procuring goods, managing the proceeds from selling rice collected as annual taxes, transferring money to the countries and lords' residences, and 'daimyo-gashi' or lending money to feudal lords in case of fund shortage, and powerful exchangers were often appointed as kakeya.
Japanese: 諸藩における商品調達および年貢米売却などの代金の管理、また国許および武家屋敷への送金、さらに資金が不足した場合の貸付、いわゆる「大名貸」を行う役職は掛屋（かけや）と呼ばれ、大手両替商の中から任命されることが多かった。
English: Chogin and mameitagin silver coins whose values were determined by weight required weight measurements at each transaction.
Japanese: 丁銀および豆板銀すなわち秤量銀貨は、その量目に応じて価値が定められるものであり、取引の度に秤量が必要であった。
English: A balance called 'ginbakari' was used for small amount transactions in mameitagin silver coins.
Japanese: 豆板銀による小額取引には小型の天秤である銀秤（ぎんばかり）が用いられた。
English: For large-amount transactions, chogin and mameitagin silver coins were put together to make a packet called 'tsutsumigin,' each of which was worth 1 silver coin, i.e., 43 monme of silver, or 500 monme of silver.
Japanese: 大口取引に対しては丁銀および豆板銀を組み合わせて、銀一枚すなわち43匁あるいは500匁毎に包封した包銀を作成した。