nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Aiming for overseas markets, Nissan Konzern Company Group and Nicchitsu Konzern Group developed their businesses such as mining ventures in Manchuria and Korea respectively, which left a strong mark on modern society.
Japanese: 海外での市場を狙い、日産コンツェルンは満州で、日窒コンツェルンは朝鮮で鉱山などの事業を展開し、現地社会にも強い影響を残した。
English: The RIKEN conglomerate, however, was a unique Konzern established in order to procure capital for the activities of RIKEN (a major natural-science research institute in Japan); it was not managed by members of a single family but instead worked out a policy of 'industrialization of rural areas' and strived for that purpose in rural areas such as that of Kashiwazaki City, Niigata Prefecture.
Japanese: また、理研コンツェルンは理化学研究所の活動資金調達のために成立したユニークなコンツェルンであり、同族支配が行なわれず、「農村工業化」などを打ち出して新潟県柏崎市などで地方の工業化につとめた。
English: Conversely, many other Konzerns lost their status during World War II, before the dissolution of Zaibatsu, because they had eroded due to their weaker financial sector compared to that of the existing zaibatsu, by economic control and a syndicate of banks that had already been zaibatsu.
Japanese: 逆に、既成財閥に較べて金融部門が弱いため、第二次世界大戦中には経済統制と既成財閥系の銀行団によって侵食されて、財閥解体前に実態を失ったコンツェルンも多かった。
English: Regarding the management policy, the emerging zaibatsu in the Showa period (except for the RIKEN conglomerate) were run by families or their kinships, like the existing zaibatsu, and in that sense they can be called 'emerging zaibatsu.'
Japanese: なお、経営政策の面では、理研コンツェルンを除いて既存の財閥同様に同族運営がなされており、その点で「新興財閥」という言い方もある。
English: There were some medium-size zaibatsu, other than the emerging zaibatsu, that grew from the early Showa era through the middle of World War II.
Japanese: 新興コンツェルン以外で、昭和初期～第二次世界大戦中に発展した中堅財閥。
English: These zaibatsu included Chugai Konzern Group, which was led by Yasusaburo HARA and developed its business in Korea; Fujiyama Konzern Group, which was mainly formed by Dai-Nippon Sugar Co., Ltd. and developed plantation and mining business on Okinawa and the Daito Islands; ISHIHARA SANGYO KAISHA, LTD., which developed businesses in mining, maritime industry and chemical operations based in Malaysia and Singapore, all of which grew by developing a variety of businesses, mainly in Korea and the south.
Japanese: これらは原安三郎が率い朝鮮で事業を展開した中外コンツェルンや沖縄・大東諸島においてプランテーション・鉱山事業をおこなった大日本製糖を中心とした藤山コンツェルン、マレーシア・シンガポールを拠点として鉱山・海運・化学事業を手がけた石原産業など、おもに朝鮮や南方における諸事業を展開して成長した。
English: However, because the financial institutes and holding companies of these zaibatsu were relatively less effective than those of the existing zaibatsu, and because the technical strength and the linkages of their businesses were inferior to those of the emerging zaibatsu, these zaibatsu remained small or moderate in size.
Japanese: ただし、既成財閥に較べて有力な金融機関や持株会社を持たず、新興コンツェルンに較べて技術力や事業の連関性が劣っていたため、いずれも中小規模に留まった。
English: Nakajima Airplane was a zaibatsu that grew rapidly during World War II and later expanded its business from military aircraft production to non-aircraft businesses such as mining, trade and commercial fishing.
Japanese: 中島飛行機は第二次世界大戦中に急速に発達した財閥で、軍用機の生産から鉱山・貿易・水産などの非飛行機部門にも進出した。
English: Incidentally, South Manchuria Railways may be included in the zaibatsu due to the fact that it also promoted the diversification of its business.
Japanese: なお、南満州鉄道も多角化を推進した事から財閥の一つとする場合もある。
English: Nakajima airplane (after the dissolution of Zaibatsu, major five companies jointly established Fuji Sangyo (now Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd.))
Japanese: 中島飛行機（財閥解体後、主要5社が合同し、富士産業・現富士重工業を設立）
English: A central zaibatsu is generally defined as a zaibatsu whose headquarters are located in Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka or Kobe, while local zaibatsu are the other zaibatsu; however, there are some zaibatsu whose size and range of activities are as great as those of the central zaibatsu - such as Tatsuuma Zaibatsu - and thus central zaibatsu can also be defined as a zaibatsu that has developed nationwide corporate activities; contrastingly, a zaibatsu that has developed activities limited to a specific area can be defined as a local zaibatsu.
Japanese: 東京、横浜、大阪、神戸の四都市に本社をおく財閥を中央財閥、その他を地方財閥と定義されるが、西宮に本社を持つ辰馬財閥のようにその規模や活動範囲からみても中央財閥としての風格を持つものもあるため、全国的規模の企業活動を行っていた財閥を中央財閥、各地域に限定された企業活動を行っていた財閥を地方財閥と分類することができる。
English: Moreover, because small and medium-size zaibatsu are concentrated in the cities of Osaka and Kobe, these zaibatsu are said to be Hanshin Zaibatsu.
Japanese: また大阪・神戸市周辺には中堅・零細の財閥が集中していた事から阪神財閥と総称する。
English: The typical process of forming a zaibatsu shows, as seen in an example of Katakura Zaibatsu, that entrepreneurs concentrate on a single business, such as the silk-reeling industry, and then expand the business through the imozuru system.
Japanese: 財閥形成の過程として、片倉財閥の様に製糸業に注力するなど、一つの事業に集中して投資し、芋づる式に発展する場合が多い。
English: However, there is also the diversified investment zaibatsu, such as Gokindo Zaibatsu and Ozone Zaibatsu, which doesn't have a core production business but is instead a holding company as the controlling headquarters, which invests in various enterprises to form a zaibatsu.
Japanese: また、呉錦堂財閥や小曽根財閥のように中心的な生産事業を保有せず、統轄司令部としての持ち株会社が、様々な企業に投資することで財閥を形成する多角的投資財閥がある。
English: The Konoike zaibatsu, as the wealthiest merchant in Japan during the Edo period, did not expand its business from finance to other fields due to the family rule that prohibited the business expansion to other than the family business; however, it can be said that the Konoike zaibatsu had the characteristics of an investment zaibatsu because the Konoike family ultimately founded various enterprises in response to requests from financial communities that had tried to acquire the family reputation after the Meiji period, and consequently the family had the status of a major shareholder.
Japanese: 江戸時代の日本最大の豪商、鴻池財閥は、家業以外への進出を禁じた家憲によって、金融業から他の事業へ営業分野の拡大は図らなかったが、明治期以降は同家の名声を欲する財界の要請で、鴻池家が様々な企業の発起人となり、大株主として君臨したことから、投資財閥の性格をもっていたとも言える。
English: There were many cases in which zaibatsu didn't get dismantled but instead remained as surviving companies, such as Matsuzakaya Co., Ltd., the old Tokai Bank, Ltd. (UFJ Bank Limited -> now Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, Ltd.) (both of which used to be Ito Zaibatsu) and Kikkoman Corporation (Mogi Zaibatsu).
Japanese: 財閥解体には繋がらなかった場合も多く、存続企業としては松坂屋、旧東海銀行（→UFJ銀行→現三菱東京UFJ銀行）（ともに伊藤財閥）、キッコーマン（茂木財閥）などがある。
English: The four major zaibatsu, together with the 11 zaibatsu that were ordered dismantled by the General Headquarters of the Allied Powers (GHQ) are referred to as the 15 major zaibatsu.
Japanese: 四大財閥に、連合国軍最高司令官総司令部による財閥解体指令を受けた11財閥を加えたものを、特に十五大財閥と呼ぶ。
English: The Shinchogumi was a security force established by the Edo bakufu (a Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) in 1862, during the late Edo period.
Japanese: 新徴組（しんちょうぐみ）は、江戸時代後期の文久2年(1862年)に結成された、江戸幕府による警備組織である。
English: Subsequently, they returned to Edo led by Hachiro KIYOKAWA, but after Kiyokawa was assassinated in April, the Roshi-gumi was reorganized as the Shinchogumi by the Edo bakufu, and they maintained vigilance inside Edo City and served as the naval defense and guard.
Japanese: 後に清河八郎に率いられて江戸に戻るが、4月に清河が暗殺されると幕府により新徴組として再組織され、主に江戸市中の警戒、海防警備に従事する。
English: They had a relationship with the Shinsengumi (Tokugawa shogunate police force located in Kyoto), because Rintaro OKITA, who was the headman of this group, was an elder brother-in-law of Soji OKITA, who was one of the senior members of the Shinsengumi.
Japanese: 新選組幹部の沖田総司の義兄、沖田林太郎が組頭を務めているなど、新選組との交流もあった。
English: Busho refers to those who stood out among people engaged in military affairs, such as a military officer and a samurai.
Japanese: 武将（ぶしょう）とは軍人、武士など軍事に携わる人々のうち頭立った者を指す言葉である。
English: In Japanese history, it is mostly used for an outstanding warrior from the late Heian period to the Azuchi-Momoyama period and the early days of the Edo period.
Japanese: 日本史においては主に平安時代後期から安土桃山時代、江戸時代初期までの頭立った武人に対して使用される。
English: To indicate their affiliation or era, their master's name or era may be prefixed, such as "Heike's busho" (warriors of Taira family) and "sengoku busho" (warriors in the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States)).
Japanese: 所属や年代を表すため武将の前に主家の名前や活躍した時代を冠することもあり、「平家の武将」「戦国武将」といった用例がある。
English: People after the mid-Edo period are rarely called busho.
Japanese: 江戸時代中期以降の人物については武将という呼称が用いられるケースはごく少ない。
English: For example, the commanders of various end-of-Edo-period corps are called by their official titles, such as, taicho (captain), sotoku (chief), sanbo (staff officer), and shimo-sanbo (lower staff officer).
Japanese: 幕末諸隊の指揮官などは多くはそれぞれの官職、職名（隊長、総督、参謀、下参謀など）で呼ばれている。
English: In Oriental history other than Japanese, it is used for an outstanding warrior before modern ages.
Japanese: 日本史以外の東洋史においては近代以前の頭立った武人に対して使用される。
English: In Western history, shogun is often used to address an outstanding warrior while busho is rarely used.
Japanese: 西洋史に登場する頭立った武人について、武将という語が用いられる例は少なく、将軍の語が当てられることが多い。
English: Kosa indicates the following weather phenomenon: Dust in inland deserts or dry zones in eastern Asia centered around People's Republic of China, is flung up into the air, for example, by a sandstorm, and is carried and falls over a wide area of eastern Asia centered around spring.
Japanese: 黄砂（こうさ）とは、特に中華人民共和国を中心とした東アジア内陸部の砂漠または乾燥帯の砂塵が、風を伴う砂嵐（砂じんあらし）などによって空に巻き上げられ、春を中心に東アジアなどの広範囲に飛来し、地上に降り注ぐ気象現象。
English: It is considered that the kosa as a weather phenomenon occurs when the states of the earth and atmosphere, for example, the state of soil, from which dust is generated, and that of the airflow that carries dust together with sandstorms, meets certain conditions.
Japanese: 気象現象としての黄砂は、砂塵（砂ぼこり）の元になる土壌の状態、砂嵐とともに砂塵を運ぶ気流など、地や大気の条件が整うと発生すると考えられている。
English: In spring, kosa is generated frequently because the conditions are likely to be met, and has the tendency of being carried over a relatively long distance.
Japanese: 春はそういった条件が整いやすいことから頻繁に発生し、比較的遠くまで運ばれる傾向にある。
English: However, kosa occurs in the seasons other than spring as well, although the frequency with which it occurs is extremely high in spring.
Japanese: ただ、春に頻度が極端に多いだけであり、それ以外の季節でも発生している。
English: Damage due to kosa is not limited within a nation, being inflicted across nation boundaries, and in addition, the extent of the damage and the season in which it mostly occurs depends on the area.
Japanese: 黄砂は国家をまたぐ範囲で被害を発生させ、しかもその程度や時期に地域差がある。
English: Kosa causes lots of damage described as in the following and the economical loss due to it is estimated to exceed 700 billion yen yearly: Dust from kosa adheres to things placed outdoors, making them dirty, degrades outdoor visibility, makes the sunlight reaching the ground weaker, obstructs traffic, and adversely affects the health of human beings and animals from inhaling the dust.
Japanese: 主に屋外の物品に砂ぼこりが付着して汚したり、周囲の見通し（視程）や日照を悪化させたり、交通に障害を与えたり、人間や家畜などが砂ぼこりを吸い込んで健康に悪影響を与えたりするなど、多数の被害が発生し、経済的損失は毎年7000億円を超えると推定されている。
English: It is likely that, when an area is located closer to kosa occurrence areas, dust with larger grains falls on the area more frequently.
Japanese: 発生地に近いほど、砂塵の濃度は濃く、大きな粒が多く、飛来する頻度も高い傾向にある。
English: In Mongolia, China, and the Republic of Korea, kosa sometimes causes significant damage to activities of the people and the economy in these areas, and it becomes socially important to take measures against kosa and to prevent kosa from occurring.
Japanese: モンゴル国、中国、大韓民国などでは住民の生活や経済に多大な支障が出る場合があり、黄砂への対策や黄砂の防止が社会的に重要となっている。
English: It is said that damage due to kosa has become significant in eastern Asian nations recently, and some observational data backs up the situation.
Japanese: 近年は東アジア各国で、黄砂による被害が顕著になってきているとされており、一部の観測データもこれを裏付けている。
English: In addition, with interest in environmental problems being heightened, social interest in kosa has increased as well.
Japanese: これに加えて、環境問題への関心が高まっていることなどもあり、黄砂に対する社会的な関心も高まっている。
English: On the other hand, it is also pointed out that the movement of dust due to kosa plays an important role in the natural environment.
Japanese: 一方で、黄砂による砂塵の運搬が、自然環境の中で重要な役割を果たしていることも指摘されている。
English: In addition, the unique landscape produced by kosa has been targeted by cultural expressions.
Japanese: そのほか、黄砂のもたらす独特の景観などが文化表現にも取り入れられている。
English: The term actually includes more than one phenomenon when it is defined meteorologically, while they are collectively called 'kosa.'
Japanese: 「黄砂」という語でひとくくりにされているが、この語を気象学的に定義すると複数の現象が含まれている。
English: In the area where kosa is being generated, kosa indicates 'a sandstorm' that causes kosa, the kosa floating in the air are 'ambient aerosol particles,' and the state in which lots of kosa is floating and falling is called 'drifting dust,' 'haze' or 'dust haze.'
Japanese: 発生地付近では黄砂の元となる「砂嵐」（砂塵嵐）、大気中を浮遊する黄砂は「大気エアロゾル粒子」であり、風の有無にかかわらず黄砂が空中に大量に浮遊・降下している状態は「風塵」や「煙霧」・「ちり煙霧」である。
English: In each eastern Asian nation, the meteorology-related organization defines 'kosa' and specifies the strength levels of kosa.
Japanese: 東アジア各国では、気象機関がそれぞれ「黄砂」の定義や強弱の基準を定めている。
English: The typical areas where kosa is generated are the following three areas, listed from the in order from the most western, the Takla Makan Desert (located in the western part of China), the Gobi Desert (located in the northern part of China and the southern part of Mongolia) and the Loess Plateau (located in the central part of China).
Japanese: 代表的な発生地としては、西からタクラマカン砂漠（中国西部）、ゴビ砂漠（中国北部・モンゴル南部）、黄土高原（中国中央部）の3か所が挙げられる。
English: In addition to these, there are the following dry zones where kosa can occur:
Japanese: これ以外にも、以下のリストのように、黄砂の発生が考えられている乾燥地帯がある。
English: The Kumtag Desert (located across Sinkiang Uigur Autonomous Region and Gansu Province): Located adjacent to the Takla Makan Desert and is merging with this desert)
Japanese: クムタグ砂漠（新疆ウイグル自治区-甘粛省）…タクラマカン砂漠に隣接し、拡大により1つの砂漠につながりつつある。
English: Almost all of these areas are located in eastern Asia, but some of them extend to central Asia.
Japanese: これらの地域はほとんどが東アジアだが、一部は中央アジアにも及んでいる。
English: It is also pointed out that, in addition to those described above, the sources of kosa occurrence may also exist in the northeastern part of China (former Manchuria), the northern part of Mongolia and some parts of Russia.
Japanese: またこれ以外に、中国東北部（旧満州）、モンゴル北部、ロシアの一部なども発生源となっている可能性が指摘されている。
English: The total size of the areas where kosa originates is large (1.9 million square meters), more than five times that of Japan's land area, even when the areas are limited to the three main areas described above.
Japanese: 発生地の総面積は、3大発生地だけでも日本の国土面積の5倍（190万k㎡）以上と広い。
English: These areas where kosa originates are dry lands with an yearly amount of rain fall less than 500 mm or less than 100 mm in some places.
Japanese: これらの発生地は、おおむね年間降水量が500ｍｍを下回り、所によっては100mm以下という乾燥地帯である。
English: Although it is known that kosa originates in dry zones, there are the following three theories about the area where kosa actually originates: One of them limits the area to deserts alone, based on analysis of the dust that comes flying, another attributes the area to dry areas other than deserts, and the last one says that kosa originates in both deserts and dry areas (see the section of Components and shapes of kosa).
Japanese: また、乾燥地帯が発生地ということは分かっているものの、飛来する砂塵の分析結果から、発生地は砂漠のみであるとする説、砂漠以外の乾燥した地域であるとする説、その両方であるとする説の3つが唱えられている（黄砂の成分・形状参照）。
English: Today, it is considered that most of kosa dust is flung up into the air by sandstorms (dust storms) striking the dry areas where kosa can originate.
Japanese: 現在、黄砂の砂塵の大部分は、発生地である乾燥地帯を襲う砂嵐（砂塵嵐）により大気中に巻き上げられると考えられている。
English: An investigation found that, in the Takla Makan Desert, the Gobi Desert, and the Loess Plateau, dust was flung up into the air when the average wind speed at the height of 10 m above the ground was 5 m/s or more.
Japanese: 砂塵が舞い上がる条件として、タクラマカン・ゴビ・黄土高原において上空10ｍの平均風速が5m/s以上、という研究結果がある。
English: In addition to this, brief meteorological conditions such as the existence of a rising air current and the strength of sunlight in the area where kosa originates, are included in the conditions for making dust fly up.
Japanese: これらに加えて、上昇気流や発生地の日差しといった短期的な気象条件も挙げられる。
English: It is also pointed out that, in areas where kosa can originate that are surrounded by mountain ranges, for example, the Takla Makan Desert, a strong wind called yamatanikaze (mountain-valley wind) blows at the same time every day, making dust fly up.
Japanese: 周囲を山脈に囲まれたタクラマカン砂漠などの高低差が大きい発生地では、ほぼ毎日同じ時間帯に山谷風と呼ばれる強風が吹き、これが砂塵を舞い上げているとの指摘もある。
English: Furthermore, when the wind strength is greater, a violent sandstorm called shachenbao in Chinese (沙塵暴 or 沙暴 in simplified Chinese characters) may be developed.
Japanese: また、さらに強い風によって、中国語で沙塵暴（簡体字で「沙暴」、読みは「シャチェンバオ」）と呼ばれるような激しい砂塵嵐になる場合がある。
English: An investigation found that shachenbao sandstorm occurred at a wind speed of 10 m/s in the Gobi Desert and at 6 m/s in the Takla Makan Desert and the Loess Plateau.
Japanese: 沙塵暴の条件として、ゴビで10m/s、タクラマカン・黄土高原で6m/sという研究結果がある。
English: Reportedly, it was observed that sand was flung up to a height of seven to eight kilometers by shachenbao sandstorm.
Japanese: 沙塵暴によって砂が巻き上げられる高さは、最大で上空7-8kmという観測結果がある。
English: However, it is not clear whether the value was correct, because the observation unit may sometimes malfunction.
Japanese: しかしながら、観測装置が故障することがあるためこれが正確な値かは不明である。
English: The meteorological authorities in China specify a sandstorm with an instantaneous wind speed of 25 m/s or more and a visible distance of 50 m or less as Kara Bran or 'black wind,' which is called 'black storm' popularly.
Japanese: 中国の気象当局は、瞬間風速25m/s以上で視程が50m以下の砂塵嵐を「黒風暴」（カラブラン,KaraBran）または「黒風」と規定しており、俗に「黒い嵐」などと呼ばれている。
English: When the atmosphere becomes unstable, for example, due to a passage of a cold front, a Kara Bran is generated triggered by a local gust, such as a downburst or a gust front.
Japanese: 黒風暴は、寒冷前線の通過時などで大気が不安定になったときに、ダウンバーストやガストフロントなどの局地現象な突風をきっかけに発生する。
English: Horizontally, it covers a distance of several hundred meters to several hundred kilometers, and moves in a big vortex.
Japanese: 水平方向の大きさは数百mから数百kmに及び、大きな渦を巻きながら移動する。
English: When approaching, it looks like 'a sand wall' with a height of several hundred meters
Japanese: これが押し寄せてくると、高さ数百mの「砂の壁」が迫ってくるように見える。
English: Entering within 'a sand wall,' the amount of sand flying around increases suddenly, and (when it is daytime), the surrounding area becomes darker while becoming more yellowish and reddish and the wind becomes stronger as well.
Japanese: 「砂の壁」の中に入ると、急激に周りを飛ぶ砂の量が増え、（昼間であれば）次第に周囲が黄み・赤みを増しながら暗くなり、風も強まってくる。
English: Even if you escape into a house, intrusion of sand makes it almost impossible to conduct ordinary household activities.
Japanese: 一方、屋内に避難していても砂の進入によって日常生活が難しいほどになる。
English: The latest one occurred on May 5, 1993 and inflicted significant damage (to be described later in further details).
Japanese: 最近では1993年5月5日に発生して甚大な被害を出した（後節で詳しく解説）。
English: How dust is flung up depends totally on the size of sand grains.
Japanese: 単に砂塵が舞い上がると言っても、砂塵の粒の大きさによってその動きはまったく違うものになる。
English: It is said that sand with a gain size of 1mm or more rotates (see Fig. 1 on the left), those with a grain size of 1 mm to 0.05 mm (50 micrometers) jump, and those with a grain size of less then 0.05 mm float.
Japanese: 粒の直径が約1mm以上のものは回転運動（左図1）、1mm-0.05mm（50マイクロメートル）くらいのものは躍動運動、約0.05mm以下のものは浮遊運動をするといわれている。
English: The jumping sand is flung up for a short period of time and constitutes most of shachenbao sandstorm.
Japanese: 躍動運動をする砂は一時的に舞い上がって移動し、沙塵暴のほとんどを構成する。
English: In more details, the movement of the floating sand is as follows: The sand flung up into the air by a sandstorm ascends up 500 m to 2 km above the ground due to an ascending air current and moves at that height.
Japanese: 浮遊運動をする砂の運動を詳しく見ると、砂嵐によって巻き上げられた後、日中暖まった空気が上昇することによって起きる上昇気流に乗って、上空500m-2km付近に上昇して移動する。
English: Around the area where a kosa originates, the distribution of dust density and that of sand gain sizes are quite complicated.
Japanese: 発生地付近では、砂塵の濃度や粒子の大きさがバラバラで非常に複雑な分布である。
English: However, in the areas remote from the place where the kosa has originated, a high-density dust layer tends to be formed at a height of around 1 to 2 km above the ground.
Japanese: しかしながら、離れるに従って高度1-2km付近に濃度が高い層ができる傾向にある。
English: In these areas, the atmosphere under 500 m to 2 km above the ground is called the atmospheric boundary layer, and the air flow there is complicated.
Japanese: この付近の上空500m-2kmより下の大気は大気境界層といい、空気の流れが複雑な層である。
English: Above this layer, there exists a layer called the free atmosphere, and when some sand grains are lifted up to this layer, they are moved to far away places on a steady fast wind.
Japanese: これより上には自由大気という層があり、一部の粒子がこの層にまで上昇してくると、安定した速い気流に乗って遠くまで運ばれる。
English: However, when the air is churned by a strong wind, for example, by a movement of a growing low pressure, a high-density dust layer may be generated at a higher place, for example, a height of up to 6 to 7 km above the Japanese archipelago, moving the dust to far away places.
Japanese: ただ、低気圧が発達しながら移動するなどして、激しい風によって空気がかき混ぜられた場合は、日本上空で最大6-7km程度と、もっと高い高度にも高濃度の層ができて遠くまで運ばれることもある。
English: Furthermore, the dust that is generated in daytime and floats in the atmospheric boundary layer remains at the same height, even when, entering the night, the boundary between the atmospheric boundary layer and the free atmosphere descends.
Japanese: また、昼に発生して大気境界層を浮遊している砂塵は、夜になって大気境界層と自由大気の境界が下がってきてもそのまま同じ高度にとどまる。
English: However, dust at higher altitudes are affected by westerlies strongly, and the kosa that is flung up high into the air is moved to the east.
Japanese: しかし、高度が高くなると偏西風の影響が強くなるため、上空高くに舞い上がった黄砂は東寄りに流される。
English: An investigation found that the diameters of sand grains falling in Beijing are roughly 4 to 20 μm, and those falling in Japan three to four days later are around 4 μm.
Japanese: 北京市では粒子の直径がおよそ4-20μm、発生後3-4日経って到達する日本では4μm前後という調査結果がある。
English: As a reference, it is said that, in an ordinary kosa, 30 percent of the dust flung up into the air falls and stays in the place where the kosa originates, 20 percent in its vicinity, and 50 percent is moved to, falls in and stays in far places like Japan, Korea and the Pacific Ocean.
Japanese: 参考として、通常の黄砂の場合、舞い上げられた砂塵の3割が発生地に、2割が発生地の周辺地域に、5割が日韓や太平洋などの遠方に運ばれて落下・沈着すると言われている。
English: For example, most of the kosa observed in the Korean peninsula have been produced in the Loess Plateau, the Gobi Desert and others in its west, and rarely in the Takla Makan Desert.
Japanese: 例えば、朝鮮半島で観測される黄砂は多くが西方の黄土高原・ゴビ砂漠などで発生したもので、タクラマカン砂漠で発生した黄砂であることは稀である。
English: The Korean peninsula is far apart more than 5,000 km from the Takla Makan Desert, and the kosa originated in the desert can reach the peninsula only when a condition enabling the carriage of it for a long distance is met.
Japanese: 朝鮮半島とタクラマカン砂漠は5,000km以上離れており、長距離運搬される条件が整った時にしか砂塵は到達しない。
English: Concerning the kosa arriving in South Korea, the South Korean meteorological agency investigated 'the number of days between the occurrence of kosa and its arrival in Korea' and 'the average heights of the arriving kosa.'
Japanese: また、韓国に到達する黄砂の「発生から飛来までの経過日数」と「飛来時に黄砂が分布する平均高度」を調べた韓国気象庁の資料がある。
English: According to the data, the kosa originated in the Takla Makan Desert reached Korea in four to eight days at 4 to 8 km altitude, the one in the dry area of northern part of China in three to five days at 1 to 5 km, the one in the Loess Plateau in two to four days at 1 to 4 km, and the one in Manchuria (the northeastern part of China) in one to three days at 1 to 3 km.
Japanese: それによろと、タクラマカン砂漠は経過日数4-8日・高度4-8km、中国北部の乾燥地帯は3-5日・1-5km、黄土高原は2-4日・1-4km、満州（中国東北部）は1-3日・1-3kmなどとなっている。
English: Concerning the amount of kosa (in weight) produced yearly, it is estimated that 1 to 5 tons per a square kilometer fall in Japan yearly and around 15 tons per a square kilometer in Beijing monthly.
Japanese: 黄砂の年間発生量は年間質量の比較で、降下量は日本で1年間に1km2あたり1-5トン、北京で1ヵ月間に1km2あたり15t程度と推定されている。
English: This is because, due to the amount of rainfall, the states of the soil, such as the dryness level of the land and the existence or nonexistence of snow or plants, change.
Japanese: 降水量によって、土壌の乾燥状態、積雪や植物の有無といった地面の状態が変化するためである。
English: However, the amount of kosa is more affected by the strength of wind due to a storm and the occurrence frequency of such winds, rather than the amount of rainfall.
Japanese: しかし、黄砂の量は、降水量よりもむしろ嵐による強風の程度や頻度に左右されることが多い。
English: Therefore, before and after a strong low pressure passes a kosa generating area, sandstorms are generated frequently, increasing the amount of kosa produced as well.
Japanese: そのため、強い低気圧が通過した前後などは砂嵐が多く発生し、黄砂の量も多くなる。