nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Police organization ⋯ Taiwan Sotoku-fu Police (Prefectural police departments of the inland correspond to prefectural police affairs departments and sub-prefectural police affairs sections.)
Japanese: 警察組織・・・台湾総督府警察（内地の府県警察部に相当するのは州警務部・庁警務課）
English: Public broadcast ⋯ Taiwan Sotoku-fu, Transportation bureau, Communication department (Taipei station) => Taiwan Broadcasting Corporation
Japanese: 公共放送・・・台湾総督府交通局逓信部（台北放送局）→社団法人台湾放送協会
English: For details of Taiwan in Japan colonial period, refer to Taiwan under Japanese rule.
Japanese: なお、日本統治期の台湾については、日本統治時代(台湾)を参照のこと。
English: Since Korea was considered as Japan's territory just like Taiwan, the measures were taken based on the viewpoint that the legislation in Korea required the consent of the Imperial Diet.
Japanese: 朝鮮における立法も、台湾と同様に日本の領土とされたため、帝国議会の協賛を要するという見解を前提にした方策が採られた。
English: With the exception of the laws that should be enforced in Korea for its nature, the government delegated the legislative power to the governor-general of Chosen Sotokufu, which was founded for the administration of Korea, by granting authority to issue orders (laws) and also allowed the laws enforced in the inland to be enforced in Korea with imperial edicts.
Japanese: その性質上当然に施行されるべき法律は別として、朝鮮統治のために設置された朝鮮総督府の長たる朝鮮総督が発する命令（制令）という形で立法権を委任するほか、内地に施行される法律につき勅令で朝鮮にも施行することができるようにする方針を採った。
English: Police organization ⋯ Chosen Sotoku-fu Police (Prefectural police departments of the inland correspond to Provincial police departments.)
Japanese: 警察組織・・・朝鮮総督府警察（内地の府県警察部に相当するのは道警察部）
English: Japan took over the Kwantung Leased Territory as a leased territory from the Russian Empire as a result of the Treaty of Portsmouth signed in 1905.
Japanese: 関東州は、1905年調印のポーツマス条約により、租借地としてロシア帝国から引き継いだ地域である。
English: Although Japan obtained the sovereignty of the Kwantung Leased Territory, the leased territory did not comprise Japan's territories.
Japanese: 関東州は、日本が統治権を取得したものの、領土の一部を構成していたわけではなかった。
English: Based on the fact, the government adopted the standpoint that the Constitution was not legally in force in the Kwantung Leased Territory and the Emperor was able to exercise the legislative power without the consent of the Imperial Diet.
Japanese: このようなことを根拠に、政府は関東州には憲法の効力が及ばず、天皇は帝国議会の協賛を要せず立法権を行使できるという見解を採った。
English: That is, the government did not enforce the laws of the inland (excluding the laws that should be enforced in the region due to its nature) in the Kwantung Leased Territory with the Imperial edicts, but exercised the legislative power by issuing the Imperial edicts to the Kwantung Leased Territory.
Japanese: つまり、内地の法律を勅令により施行する措置は採らず（性質上外地にも施行される法律を除く）、勅令を関東州に対して発することにより立法権を行使することにした。
English: However, edicts were basically issued which stipulated that a law enforced in the inland should be applied.
Japanese: もっとも、基本的には内地に施行されていた法律に依る旨の内容の勅令を出していた。
English: Further, the government delegated a certain level of the legislative power (orders of the Kwantung Leased Territory) to the governor-general of the Kwantung Leased Territory by granting a certain level of authority to establish penal regulations.
Japanese: また、関東長官には、一定の範囲で罰則の制定権を認めることにより、一定の範囲で立法権を委任する措置を採った（関東庁令）。
English: Public broadcast ⋯ Kwantung Agency Communication (Dalian station) => Manchuria Electric Telegram and Telephone Corporation (Dalian Central Station)
Japanese: 公共放送・・・関東庁逓信局（大連放送局）→満州電信電話株式会社（大連中央放送局）
English: The South Sea Islands had once been part of German colonies, which were put under mandate of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920, in connection with the Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919.
Japanese: 南洋諸島は、1919年調印のヴェルサイユ条約により、ドイツ国の植民地であった南洋諸島の一部につき1920年に国際連盟による委任統治として認められた地域である。
English: As for the South Sea Islands (Nanyo-cho), as in the case of the Kwantung Leased Territory, the government did not enforce the laws of the inland but exercised the legislative power by issuing the Imperial edicts of the Emperor, as those islands were not considered as Japan's territory.
Japanese: 南洋群島（南洋庁）についても、関東州と同様に領土ではないという点から、内地の法律を施行する措置は採られず、天皇が発する勅令により立法権を行使することにした。
English: Further, the government delegated a certain level of the legislative power (orders of the South Sea Islands) to the governor-general of Nanyo-cho by granting a certain level of authority to establish penal regulations.
Japanese: また南洋長官には、一定の範囲で罰則を設けることを認めることにより、一定の範囲で立法権を委任する措置を採った（南洋庁令）。
English: When Japan left League of Nations in 1935, the South Sea Islands were incorporated into Japan's territories.
Japanese: 1935年日本が国際連盟を脱退すると、南洋諸島は日本領に編入された。
English: As for the demographic structure, unlike Korea, Taiwan, and the Kwantung Leased Territory, the population of immigrants, such as Japanese or Taiwanese, was larger than that of the indigenous islanders.
Japanese: 住民構成は、朝鮮・台湾・関東州とことなり、現地人である島民よりも日本人や台湾人などの移住者の人口が多かった。
English: Police organization ⋯ Police of the South Sea Islands (Prefectural police departments of the inland correspond to House Police Division of the Ministry of Interior)
Japanese: 警察組織・・・南洋群島の警察（内地の府県警察部に相当するのは内政部警務課）
English: Japan lost all the regions regarded as Gaichi after her defeat in the World War II, and the regions referred to as Gaichi does not exist today.
Japanese: 外地とされていた地域は、敗戦により全て喪失したため、現在は外地と称される地域は存在しない。
English: The effective date (April 28, 1952) of the peace treaty with Japan is generally considered as the date on which Japan officially lost Gaichi, as Article 2 of the said treaty stipulated the renunciation of titles in Gaichi.
Japanese: 外地を喪失した法的な時期については、日本国との平和条約第2条に外地の権原放棄に関する規定があるため、同条約の発効日（1952年4月28日）と考えるのが一般的である。
English: However, since Republic of China did not join the treaty, the date of the renunciation of Taiwan may be considered as the effective date (August 5, 1952) of the peace treaty between Japan and the Republic of China.
Japanese: もっとも、同条約には中華民国が参加していないことなどから、台湾については、日本国と中華民国との間の平和条約の発効日（1952年8月5日）とする考え方もある。
English: Before the World War II, Gaichi was used as an idiom and the scope of the term varied depending on the cases.
Japanese: 第二次世界大戦前においては、外地の語は慣用語であったため、用例により範囲が異なっていた。
English: Among the laws enacted before the World War II, several laws included the term Nai-gaichi (the inland and overseas territories) in its title such as Nai-gaichi income and corporate taxes interference law (Act No.55 of 1940), but the term Gaichi was not used by itself and the scope of the term was not defined.
Japanese: 第二次世界大戦前の法令で所得税法人税内外地関渉法（昭和15年法律55号）など表題に内外地という表現を含む法令があったが、外地の語は単独で用いられず、その範囲は定義されなかった。
English: However, these laws stipulated matters in Korea, Taiwan, the Kwantung Leased Territory, the South Sea Islands and Sakhalin and so it was presumed that these regions fell under Gaichi.
Japanese: ただし、これらの法令は朝鮮・台湾・関東州・南洋群島・樺太について規定しており、これらが外地に相当するものと推定される。
English: "Statistical yearbook of the Empire of Japan" (-1941) issued by the Statistics Bureau of the Cabinet defined only Korea, Taiwan, and Sakhalin as Gaichi.
Japanese: 内閣統計局『日本帝国統計年鑑』（～1941年）は朝鮮・台湾・樺太のみを外地とした。
English: The South Sea Islands, the Kwangtung Leased Territory and the land appurtenant to South Manchuria Railways, which were not Japan's territories, were not included in Gaichi.
Japanese: 日本の領土ではなかった南洋群島・関東州・南満州鉄道付属地は外地に含めなかった。
English: In "Study on the Governing Structures of Gaichi"(1943) written by Tansho YAMAZAKI, Korea, Taiwan, the Kwantung Leased Territory, the South Sea Islands and Sakhalin were treated as Gaichi.
Japanese: 山崎丹照『外地統治機構の研究』（1943年）は朝鮮・台湾・関東州・南洋群島・樺太を外地とした。
English: In general usage, the land appurtenant to South Manchuria Railways, Manchuria, and the lands occupied by Japanese during the Pacific War were included in Gaichi as well as Korea, Taiwan, the Kwantung Leased Territory, and the South Sea Islands.
Japanese: 一般的な用法としては、朝鮮・台湾・樺太・関東州・南洋群島のほか、南満州鉄道付属地や満洲国、および太平洋戦争中の占領地を含めて外地と呼ぶことがあった。
English: The term Gaichi appeared in the laws, such as the imperial edict regarding the positions of the staff members of Gaichi offices (Imperial edict No.287 of 1946).
Japanese: 外地官署所属職員の身分に関する勅令（昭和21年勅令第287号）など法令に外地の語があらわれた。
English: Although the definition and scope of the term Gaichi were not clarified, the law were put into effect assuming Gaichi offices indicated Chosen Sotoku-fu, Taiwan Sotoku-fu, Kwantung Agency, and Nanyo-cho.
Japanese: 法令中では外地の定義・範囲は明かではないが、外地官署とはすなわち台湾総督府、朝鮮総督府、関東局、樺太庁、南洋庁を指すものとして運用された。
English: In "Gaichi legal system journal" (1955-1971) edited by the Treaties Bureau of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Taiwan, Korea, Sakhalin, the South Sea islands, the Kwangtung Leased Territory and the land appurtenant to South Manchuria Railways were treated as Gaichi.
Japanese: 外務省条約局編『外地法制誌』（1955～1971年）は台湾・朝鮮・樺太・南洋諸島・関東州・南満州鉄道付属地を外地として扱っていた。
English: According to the Treaties Bureau of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 'Gaichi is the territory governed by laws other than those of Japan proper.'
Japanese: 外務省条約局によれば、「外地とはすなわち内地の法体系とは異なる外地法によって外地法令が適用された地域（theterritorygovernedbylawsotherthanthoseofJapanproper）」とされた。
English: Under the current law, Gaichi simply means 'the regions other than Japan' and is not restricted to the former Japan's territories (e.g. Article 2 of Repatriates' Benefit Act).
Japanese: 現行法において単に外地という場合は「本邦以外の地域」を意味し、日本の旧統治区域に限定されない（引揚者給付金等支給法第2条など）。
English: Additionally, several legal terms relating to Gaichi are used as stated below, but their scopes are not uniformly defined.
Japanese: このほか、外地に関する法律用語としては次のようなものがあるが、その範囲は一定しない。
English: Gaichi postal saving, Gaichi money order, Gaichi money order saving ⋯ Services provided by the postal offices located in Korea, Taiwan, the Kwangtung Leased Territory, Sakhalin, Kurile Islands, the South Sea islands, Ogasawara Islands, Volcano Islands, Iotori Island, Iheya-Village and a part of Nansei Islands located below 27 degrees north latitude including Daito Islands (Article 2 of the Act on Special Treatment of Military Postal Savings, etc.).
Japanese: 外地郵便貯金・外地郵便為替・外地郵便振替貯金...朝鮮、台湾、関東州、樺太、千島列島、南洋群島、小笠原諸島、火山列島、硫黄鳥島、伊平屋村及び北緯27度以南の南西諸島（大東諸島を含む）にあった郵便局で扱われたもの（軍事郵便貯金等特別処理法第2条）。
English: Gaichi attorneys ⋯ Attorneys registered under Korean Attorney Order, Taiwan Attorney Order, and the Kwangtung Leased Territory Attorney Order (Article 37 of Public Prosecutor's Office Act etc.)
Japanese: 外地弁護士...朝鮮弁護士令・台湾弁護士令・関東州弁護士令による弁護士（検察庁法第37条など）
English: Gaichi related mutual benefit associations ⋯ Mutual benefit associations of the Communication office and Transportation bureau of Chosen Sotoku-fu and Mutual benefit associations of Monopoly bureau, Forestry enterprise, and Communication department and Railway department of Transportation bureau of Taiwan Sotoku-fu (Article 2 of the Act on Special Measures concerning Beneficiaries of Pension of Mutual Aid Association Established under Former Ordinances).
Japanese: 外地関係共済組合...朝鮮総督府の逓信官署共済組合・交通局共済組合、および台湾総督府の専売局共済組合・営林共済組合令・交通局逓信共済組合・交通局鉄道共済組合（旧令による共済組合等からの年金受給者のための特別措置法第2条）
English: Meanwhile, some residents of Hokkaido, Okinawa Prefecture, Amami Islands (Kagoshima Prefecture), and Ogasawara Islands (Tokyo) refer to the mainland or Honshu as 'the inland', but they do not usually call their own regions Gaichi as an antonym of the inland.
Japanese: なお、北海道、沖縄県や奄美諸島（鹿児島県）小笠原諸島（東京都）の住民が、本土あるいは本州を「内地」と呼ぶことがあるが、内地に対する語としてこれらの地域を外地と呼ぶことは基本的にはない。
English: For instance, the government stated, 'Korea, Taiwan, the Kwantung Leased Territory, the South Sea Islands were considered as Japan's territories' in "Colonial handbook" issued by Takushoku Office in 1923 (The handbook also mentioned about the land appurtenant to South Manchuria Railways).
Japanese: 例えば大正12年刊行の拓殖事務局『植民地要覧』では朝鮮・台湾・樺太・関東州・南洋群島を「我が植民地と解せらるる」としていた（同書では南満州鉄道付属地も扱っている）。
English: For example, Japan's overseas territory is referred to as a colony in 'Requirements for making contracts borne by the national coffers' issued on September 3, 1932, but few other laws or regulations call such territory a colony.
Japanese: 法令等において日本の外地を植民地と呼称した例としては、昭和7年9月3日予算外国庫ノ負担トナルベキ契約ヲ為スヲ要スル件に使用例があるが、その他には殆どみられない。
English: Tatsukichi MINOBE, a scholar of constitutional law and administrative law, defined 'colonies in the legal aspect'as 'a part of the national territories where different state laws were adopted' and stated, 'it was positive that Korea, Taiwan, Sakhalin, the Kwantung Leased Territory and the South Sea Islands were considered as colonies based on the above definition' ("Abstract of the Constitution").
Japanese: 憲法学者・行政法学者であった美濃部達吉は、「法律上の意義に於ての殖民地」を「国家の統治区域の一部にして内地と原則として国法を異にし」たものと定義し、「朝鮮、台湾、樺太、関東州及南洋群島が此の意義において植民地なることは疑いを容れず」と述べている（『憲法撮要』）。
English: In response to an inquiry about the names and rank orders of the overseas territories from the Office of League of Nations, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that Korea (English name: Chosen), Taiwan (English name: Taiwan), Sakhalin (English name: Karafuto), The Kwantung Leased Territory (English name: The leased Territory of Kwantung), and the South Sea Islands Mandate (English name: The South Sea Islands under Japanese Mandate) were the overseas territories.
Japanese: 国際連盟事務局からの海外領土等の名称及び順序に関する照会に対し、外務省は1930年8月、朝鮮（英語：Chosen）・台湾（英称：Taiwan）・樺太（英称：Karafuto）・関東州租借地（英称：TheleasedTerritoryofKwantung）・日本国委任統治南洋群島（英称：TheSouthSeaIslandsunderJapaneseMandate）と回答している。
English: Meanwhile, when creating the reply, these regions were collectively referred to as colonies in internal documents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Japanese: なお、この回答案作成の際、外務省の内部文書ではこれらの地域を一括して殖民地と呼んでいる。
English: The term Dependent territory was used in treaties, collectively referring to territories other than the inland.
Japanese: 条約上、内地以外の統治区域を総称するときに属地という語が用いられた。
English: Gozoku refers to a family who existed within a broader-based political power of a nation, lords and so on, had many lands, properties and private soldiers in a region, and had a certain level of regional sovereignty.
Japanese: 豪族（ごうぞく）とは、国家や諸侯などの広域政権の領域の内部に存在し、ある地方において多くの土地や財産や私兵を持ち一定の地域的支配権を持つ一族である。
English: The source of regional sovereignty was its own properties and military force, and the Chihokan (a local official) whose power substantially derived from the authority in a broader-based political power was not called Gozoku.
Japanese: 地域的支配権の源泉は自分自身の所有する財産や武力であり、広域政権の権威を権力の本質的な源泉とする地方官は豪族とは呼ばれない。
English: However, each category of Chihokan and Gozoku was not exclusive, and in many cases, the same person was categorized as both Chihokan and Gozoku or moved between the two categories.
Japanese: ただし地方官と豪族は排他的なカテゴリーではなく、同一人が双方を兼ねたり、カテゴリー間を移行したりするケースは多くある。
English: This is because the broader-based political power incorporated a class of Gozoku into their administration in order to stabilize the political power, or adversely Chihokan became Gozoku when the ruling power of the broader-based political administration weakened.
Japanese: 広域政権側が政権安定のために豪族層の政権内への取り込みを行ったり、逆に広域政権の支配力が弱まると地方官が豪族化することがあるからである。
English: In the Japanese history, as a historical term, a local chief class and local power clan until the Kofun period (tumulus period) and the Yamato period were called Gozoku.
Japanese: 日本史においては、歴史的用語として、古墳時代・大和時代ごろまでの地方の首長層、在地勢力を豪族と呼ぶ。
English: The Yamato Dynasty was actually a coalition government by Gozoku being presided over by an Okimi (great king), especially Gozoku living in Yamato, and since any dispute over succession to the post of Okimi was conducted by the Gozoku's military power, a consequence depended on the stances of more than one Gozoku.
Japanese: 大和朝廷は大王（おおきみ）を推戴する豪族、特に大和の中央豪族たちによる連合政権というべきものであり、大王位の継承を巡る争いは豪族たちの軍事力によって行われ、豪族たちの向背が帰趨を制した。
English: Thereafter, due to the introduction of the ritsuryo system (the system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code), governing regions by bureaucrats who were appointed by the imperial court and to transform Gozoku who lived in the capital into court nobles were planed, and at the same time, some of Gozoku became nobles in charge of the nucleus of the government, and some became middle and low-ranking officials for practical works in charge of governmental bureaucratic structure of the central government.
Japanese: その後律令制度の導入により朝廷の任命する官僚による地方統治と中央豪族の宮廷貴族化が計られるとともに、豪族のある者は政権の中枢を担う貴族となり、またある者は中央の官衙機構を担う中・下級の実務系の官人となった。
English: Many of Gozoku who were belonging to the local chief class were transformed into the class of Gunji (local magistrates), and reigned over regions under the supervision of Kokushi (provincial governor) who was dispatched from the central government.
Japanese: また地方の首長層であった豪族たちの多くは郡司層に姿を変えてゆき、中央から派遣される官僚である国司の監督下で地方統治を行った。
English: This is how the word 'Gozoku' as a historical term disappeared from the front stage of historical description.
Japanese: こうして歴史的用語としての豪族の語は歴史記述の表舞台からは姿を消す。
English: The local governance by Kokushi under the ritsuryo system relied on a cooperative relationship with the class of Gunji, who ruled with the authority of ancient chieftainship over people, but this authority declined gradually along with fraying of the ritsuryo system in the early Heian period.
Japanese: 律令制下における国司による地方統治は、民衆に対して古来の首長権の権威をもって望む郡司層との協力関係に依存するものであったが、しだいにこの権威は平安時代初期の律令制のほころびとともに低下していく。
English: People who directly took hold and control of people in the local society instead, were those in the wealthy class and the powerful farmer class who grew from the younger people of class of former Gunji and native Kokushi and so on, and came to conduct a large-scale farmland management in the qualifications of Tato (a field manager) or Fumyo (a local tax manager), and they came to be controlled by Zuryo who was a head of Kokushi transferred to the locale.
Japanese: 代わって在地社会の民衆を直接把握して支配下に置いたのは、元郡司層や土着国司子弟などから成長し、田堵や負名の資格で大規模な農地経営を行うようになっていった富豪の輩、有力百姓階層であり、彼らを現地赴任国司の筆頭者たる受領が支配するようになっていく。
English: Samurai appeared along with this change in the structure of local governance, and some had a character of Gozoku like TAIRA no Masakado, in part of the initial stages, but were not treated as Gozoku in the meaning same as that in the ancient history.
Japanese: この地方統治構造の変化と共に登場した武士は、その初期の一部において、例えば平将門などのように豪族的な性格を持つものであるが、古代史と同様な意味合いでの豪族しては扱われない。
English: However, in the general use of Gozoku as the meaning of 'a potent clan' or 'powerful clan' (for example the use like 'Gozoku in △△ District, OO Province' in the period of the Northern and Southern Courts), the term "Gozoku" was often used to describe Jito (manager and lord of manor), Akuto (a villain in the medieval times), and samurai families at the same level as daimyo in the feudal lord class from Kokujin (local samurai) in the subsequent periods, and they were sometimes described as Gozoku until the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) and the Azuchi-Momoyama period.
Japanese: しかし、豪族を、「勢力のある一族」「有力な一族」という意味での一般的な使用（例えば「南北朝時代の○○国△△郡の豪族」というような使用）では、豪族という形容は、その後の時代の地頭や悪党、国人出自などの領主クラスの大名分の武家に対してしばしば使用され、戦国時代・安土桃山時代まで豪族という形容をすることがある。
English: Kurokuwa (黒鍬) (a construction worker) refers to people engaged in civil engineering in the Sengoku period (period of warring states) and Edo period.
Japanese: 黒鍬（くろくわ）は戦国時代(日本)や江戸時代に土木作業を行う者達を指す。
English: Kurokuwa originally means black hoe with a thicker and wider blade than usual hoe, and the degree of angle between blade and shaft is 60 to 80.
Japanese: 語源に当たる黒鍬は通常の鍬より刃が厚くて幅が広く、刃と柄の角度が60～80度に開いている。
English: Furthermore, kurokuwa is a hoe whose shaft is thick and short so as to make is easy to apply force and dig into the ground deeply when banging down.
Japanese: さらに、柄が太く短くできていることで力を加えやすく、打ち下ろした時に深く土に食い込むようにできている鍬の事である。
English: Kurokuwa serving daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) in the Sengoku period belonged to konidatai (caravan of men and animals carrying supplies) and engaged in constructing encampments, bridges and so on, and recovering and burying persons killed in war.
Japanese: 戦国大名に仕えた黒鍬は小荷駄隊に属して、陣地や橋などの築造や戦死者の収容・埋葬などを行った。
English: Kurokuwa also indicated the unit of kurokuwa (construction workers) which was one of the organizations of Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun,) consisting of kurokuwa who had been fudai (hereditary vassals) since the era of Matsudaira clan of Mikawa Province and were in charge of repairing work in the Edo-jo Castle, transmission of orders issued by the bakufu, miscellaneous affairs such as zoritori (sandal bearer, equivalent to a batman,) and whose status was komono (a lower servant) or chugen (a rank below common soldier) under the control of wakadoshiyori (a managerial position in Edo bakufu).
Japanese: 江戸幕府の組織としての黒鍬(組)も三河国松平氏時代からの譜代の黒鍬から構成されており、若年寄支配で小者･中間として江戸城内の修築作業や幕府から出される諸令伝達や草履取り等の雑務に従事した。
English: Shokuroku (a salary for samurais who worked at Japanese feudal governments) was 17 bales (a traditional unit for rice, which is 60 kilograms) per person in principle, and when kurokuwa assumed a post, yakudaka (salary paid in accordance with the rank of one's post) was added.
Japanese: 食禄は1人当たり12俵1人扶持が原則で役職に付くと、役高が加算された。
English: At first, kurokuwa were not permitted to adopt a surname or wear a pair of swords except for a short sword for self-defense, but those kurokuwa of fudai in Mikawa Province were allowed hereditary succession and were treated as the lowest rank of Gokenin (shogunal retainers of the Kamakura bakufu) later.
Japanese: 当初は苗字帯刀も許されず、例外的に護身用の脇差だけを持つ事が許されたが、三河譜代の黒鍬については、世襲が許され、後には御家人の最下層格の扱いを受けた。
English: Kurokuwakashira, the head of kurokuwa (unit,) received yakudaka of 100 bales.
Japanese: 黒鍬の長である黒鍬頭（くろくわかしら）は、役高100俵の待遇を受けた。
English: The number of kurokuwa was fixed to 200 in the Tenna era, but increased to 430 in the Kyoho era, then to 470 at the end of Edo period.
Japanese: 定員は天和(日本)年間の定制は200名であったが、享保年間には430名となり、幕末には470名にまで増員された。
English: In order to respond to such increase in the number, the kurokuwa (unit) was divided into three groups at the end of the Edo period and each of which was headed by kumikashira (a head of group) (whose yakudaka was 35 bales) appointed by Kurokuwakashira.
Japanese: こうした人数の拡大に対応するために、幕末には3組に分割され、黒鍬頭に任命された組頭（役高30俵1人扶持）が置かれた。
English: At the end of the Edo period, kurokuwa were transferred to mimawarigumi (unit of patrolmen) or foot soldier with Western-style training in order to make up the vacancy in the newly established posts, and many of kurokuwa joined Shogitai (group of former Tokugawa retainers opposed to the Meiji government who fought in the Battle of Ueno.)
Japanese: 幕末期には新設された役職の補充として見廻組や撒兵へ移動となり、また彰義隊にも多くが参加した。
English: The particularly renowned kurokuwa among ordinary citizens was a unit of 'kurokuwa,' a group of civil engineers in Chita County, Owari Province which was one of the production areas of kurokuwa (tool) and which held waju (settlement surrounded by dike) area in the downstream of Kiso-gawa River and Nagara-gawa River in the neighborhood, and such kurokuwa worked away from home to participate in the land development for civil engineering, flood prevention works and cultivation of new rice fields in various places.
Japanese: 特に民間においては、（道具の）黒鍬の産地の1つで近くに木曽川・長良川下流の輪中地帯を抱えていた尾張国知多郡の土工集団の「黒鍬」組は著名であり、各地に出稼ぎをして土木・治水工事・新田開発のための土地整備に参加した。
English: "Kamui Gaiden" (Kamui the Ninja: Stories Other Than the Legend), a gekiga (graphic novel), has a scene in which the main character, Kamui, holes up in the aforementioned civilian kurokuwa in order to escape from chasers.
Japanese: 劇画『カムイ外伝』では、主人公・カムイが追っ手から逃れるために、前述の民間の黒鍬に混じって身を潜めるシーンが登場する。
English: The Oniwaban was a position in the Edo bakufu (the Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) created by Yoshimume TOKUGAWA, the eighth Seiitaishogun (the Shogun in charge of conquering barbarian territories) in the Edo period.
Japanese: 御庭番（おにわばん）は江戸時代の第8代征夷大将軍、徳川吉宗が新設した江戸幕府の役職。
English: The oniwaban were the secret agents under the direct command of the shogun and accomplished the missions including intelligence collection.
Japanese: 将軍から直接の命令を受けて隠密に情報収集を行うなど、将軍直属の間諜の任を務めた。
English: Even though they were secret agents, their actual jobs were not so serious, for example, informing the shogun of the news in Edo city and visiting rural areas for inspection with their identity concealed.
Japanese: ただし、間諜といっても、実際には時々命令を受け、江戸市中の情報を将軍に報告したり、身分を隠して地方に赴き情勢を視察したりしていた程度であるとされている。
English: Their position was actually equivalent to the assistant of Oometsuke (senior inspector) and Ometuke (general inspector) under the direct command of the shogun.
Japanese: 実態としては大目付、目付などを補う将軍直属の監察官に相当する職であると考えられる。
English: However, the image of oniwaban is generally a spy or ninja today and the oniwaban is frequently characterized according to such image in period dramas and novels.
Japanese: しかし一般にはいわゆるスパイ、忍者の類であったとする御庭番像が広まっており、時代劇、時代小説等に数多く描写されている。