nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Kokujin sometimes were subordinates of external rulers such as shugo and manor lords, and were subject to subordinate-like ruling, but at times were rebels backed by a strong military force gained by subordinating the jizamurai (local samurai), who were at the upper level in the peasant class within their territory, and by coordinating with other kokujin.
Japanese: 国人は、守護や荘園領主など領域外からの支配者に対しては、その被官となって半従属的支配を受けることもあれば、領内の百姓身分の上層部である地侍を被官化することによって得た強力な軍事力や他の国人との連携を背景に反抗することもあった。
English: Kokujin-ikki (riots by kokujin) that occurred frequently from the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan) to the Muromachi period, varied in style, but can be seen as uniting kokujin ryoshu.
Japanese: 南北朝時代から室町時代にかけてしばしば起きた国人一揆（国人領主連合）は、形態は様々だが国人領主同士の結合と見ることができる。
English: In the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) (Japan), in regions where the reign of the shugo daimyo withered, kokujin existed as independent feudal lords owning castles.
Japanese: 戦国時代(日本)になると、守護大名の支配が衰えた地域では、国人は城持ちの独立領主として存在した。
English: Like the Kiso and Murakami clans, most kokujin were incorporated into the vassalry of the daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku Period.
Japanese: 大部分の国人は、木曾氏や村上氏のように、戦国大名の家臣団に組み込まれた。
English: Meanwhile, some kokujin with daimyo-class power, such as the Mori clan, Chosokabe clan, Ryuzoji clan, and Tamura clan, became daimyo during the Sengoku Period.
Japanese: 一方、大名クラス勢力を持つの国人の中には、毛利氏や長宗我部氏、龍造寺氏、田村氏のように戦国大名となるものも現れた。
English: In addition, like the 15 Chikugo castles under the rule of the Otomo clan, some fell under the control of, but not necessarily becoming the vassal of a more powerful daimyo during the Sengoku Period, and maintained independence like a daimyo with management of the territory, while being militarily submissive.
Japanese: また、大友氏の支配下にあった筑後十五城のように、家臣ではないがより勢力の強大な戦国大名の幕下に入り、領国経営では大名のような独立性を保ちながら、軍事的に服属する例もあった。
English: "Hokumen no bushi" were samurai who served the retired emperor, standing by as the gero (servant) on the north side of the in (imperial palace of the retired emperor), and guarding or accompanying the retired emperor when he made trips outside..
Japanese: 北面武士(ほくめんのぶし)とは、太上天皇に仕え、院の北面下臈に詰め、身辺の警衛あるいは御幸に供奉した武士のこと。
English: The north side of the imperial palace of the retired emperor was designated as the guardroom, and hokumen referred to the public servants such as courtier and guardians who stood by to guard and accompany the retired emperor during his outings.
Japanese: 院御所の北面を詰所とし、上皇の側にあって身辺の警護あるいは御幸に供奉した廷臣・衛府の官人らをいう。
English: During Emperor Shirakawa's reign, there was an upper and lower hokumen inside the imperial palace. The upper hokumen housed some shodaibu (public servants of the fourth and fifth rank) while the lower hokumen housed many efushoshijo (guardian servant, inspectors). Members of the lower hokumen would, followed by other servants, accompany the emperor on imperial outings armed with arrows.'
Japanese: 「此御時、院中上下の北面を置かれて上は諸大夫、下は衛府所司允（じょう）が多く候（さぶらい）て、下北面御幸の御後には箭（や）負（おい）て、つかまつりけり、後にも皆其例也」
English: As was described here, there were the upper hokumen and lower hokumen, and the upper (shau) were stationed in the two rooms in the court, and there were tenjobito (persons who were allowed to enter the Emperor's residence).
Japanese: そこにいわれるように、上北面と下北面があり、上（シャウ）は殿上の2間が詰所となって、院の殿上人。
English: However, it was a station for those allowed to enter the in but had a different role, and being fifth rank or higher did not necessarily mean they were stationed here.
Japanese: ただし五位以上ならこちらという訳ではなく、あくまで院昇殿を許されれた者の詰め所であり、かつ役割が異なる。
English: Samurai were not in the court, but were in the 'lower side' (ka or ke), which was a building with five gaps between pillars along the mud wall with a roof north of the imperial palace, and this was not just for samurai, but also for gochodo (sodomy partner) of Shirakawain and gojiso (a priest who prays to guard the emperor).
Japanese: 武士が居たのは殿上ではなく、「下」（カ、またはケ）で、御所の北の築地に沿う五間屋であるが、こちらも武士だけではなく、白河院の「御寵童」（男色の相手）や、護持僧なども含んでいた。
English: Unlike mushadokoro (place where Samurai of guard of the Imperial Palace is staffed) or takiguchi, hokumen no bushi were each a class of shogun or high-level officers with certain number of samurai, and the samurai force they led when they suppressed the masses at Enryaku-ji Temple in 1118, is said to have numbered one thousand.
Japanese: 北面の武士は、武者所や滝口とは異なり、それぞれがある程度の武士団を従える将軍、高級将校クラスであり、1118年の延暦寺大衆を鎮圧したときに彼らが率いた武士団は1000人にも及んだと言われる。
English: However, hokumen included many kebiishi (a police and judicial chief), and Shirakawain gave direct orders to kebiishi instead of through betto (superintendent), the original chain of command of the Kebiishicho (Office of Police and Judicial Chief), which led to the hollowing out of Kebiishicho, a characteristic of the insei period.
Japanese: しかし、北面には検非違使を多く含んでおり、白河院は検非違使庁の本来の指揮系統である別当を通さずに直に検非違使に指示を与え、故に検非違使庁が形骸化すると云うこともあり、院政期の特色のひとつとされる。
English: TAIRA no Masamori and his child, TAIRA no Tadamori, became the head of hokumen no bushi, and used it as leverage to advance their positions in the office of the retired emperor.
Japanese: 平正盛・平忠盛親子はこの北面の武士の筆頭となり、それをテコに院庁での地位を上昇させていった。
English: The first hokumen no bushi is said to be the following three, according to "Bushi no tojo" (Emergence of samurai) by Rizo TAKEUCHI.
Japanese: 最初の北面の武士と言われるのは竹内理三『武士の登場』によると以下の３名。
English: His name appeared in the "Shirakawa-joko Koya gokoki" (the Retired Emperor Shirakawa's visit to Mount Koya) of 1088, and was seen as a kebiishi since April 25, 1102 in the "Chuyuki" (diary written by FUJIWARA no Munetada).
Japanese: 1088年（寛治2）『白河上皇高野御幸記』にその名が見え、『中右記』では1102年（康和4）4月25日以降検非違使在職が確認できる。
English: MINAMOTO no Suenori: A Montoku-Genji (Minamoto clan), but also seen as a Sakado-Genji (Minamoto clan) due to having been based in Sakamonmaki (坂門牧), Koshi District, Kawachi Province, a Sekkan-ke (the families which produced regents) territory.
Japanese: 源季範：文徳源氏で、摂関家領河内国古志郡坂門牧を本拠としていたことから坂戸源氏ともいわれる。
English: Other than these, those who accompanied the Cloistered Emperor Shirakawa for his pilgrimages to Kumano Sanzan beginning in the late fall of 1119 were as follows.
Japanese: それ以外では、1119年（元永2）の晩秋から行われた白河法皇の熊野詣の供人、から見ると、
English: Additionally, Hanshun, a homugon (法務権) sojo (high-ranking Buddhist priest) who was a gojiso of Shirakawa since his days as Emperor, and who was the wealthiest at the To-ji Temple and the gon no betto (acting chief) of Kofuku-ji Temple, also served.
Japanese: この他、白河が天皇時代からの護持僧であった法務権僧正・東寺一の長者で興福寺権別当範俊なども詰めていた。
English: The following continued to serve for Tobain and Taikenmonin after the death of Cloistered Emperor Shirakawa in 1129.
Japanese: 1129年（大治4）年に白河法皇の死去のあと、引き続き鳥羽院・待賢門院に仕えたのは
English: In the Jokyu War, joined the battle with the hokumen no bushi, and saimen no bushi were abolished after the war, while hokumen no bushi remained.
Japanese: 承久の乱では西面武士とともに戦闘に加わり、乱の後西面武士は廃止されたが、北面武士は残された。
English: Later, its scale gradually shrank until it became merely a troop of guards for the imperial palace, and even their function as guards was lost as times changed from the Muromachi period, period of Oda and Toyotomi, and to the Edo period, but despite the fact that it did not appear at all in the Kinmon Incident when fire by war came closest to the imperial palace in modern history, it existed until the Meiji Restoration to describe family lineage.
Japanese: その後、徐々にその規模は縮小し単なる御所の警備隊と化し、さらに室町時代・織豊時代・江戸時代と変遷するにしたがって警備隊の機能すら失い、近世で最も御所に兵火が迫った禁門の変においても全く登場する事がなかったが、家柄を表す名目として明治維新まで存続した。
English: "Sangi" is one of the posts in the Daijokan (Grand Council of State), which is the highest organ in the Imperial Court organization for Ryoge no kan (class outside of the Ritsuryo system) in Japan.
Japanese: 参議（さんぎ）は、日本の令外官の朝廷組織の最高機関である太政官の職の一つである。
English: It means to participate in Imperial Court politics, and serves as the giseikan (top officials in the Daijokan) in Imperial Court politics.
Japanese: 宮中の政（朝政）に参議する（「参政朝議」）という意味で、朝政の議政官に位置する。
English: Those who were Sangi or higher and Sanmi (Third Rank) or higher were called kugyo (court noble), and Sangi was considered kugyo, but Sangi who served as Benkan (officials of the dajokan) and Kurodo no to (Head Chamberlain) were appreciated as practitioners.
Japanese: 参議以上および三位以上の者を公卿と称し、参議は公卿に列しているが、弁官や蔵人頭を歴任した参議は実務者として重宝がられた。
English: There are no imperial edicts or letters laying out the kani soto (corresponding relationship between court ranks of government officials and government posts) of Sangi, so there is no corresponding rank.
Japanese: 参議に官位相当を定めた詔勅や宣旨などが見当たらないため、相当位は無い。
English: (Jugoinojo (Junior Fifth Rank, Upper Grade), Shikibu shoyu (Junior Assitant of the Ministry of Ceremonial) and Monjo hakase (professor of literature), SUGAWARA no Michizane felt that it was a problem that kani soto was not specified for Sangi, and reported to the Emperor on the need to specify kani soto, koroku, etc. in the provision of July 1, 882 'Kankebunso, Volume 9.' There is no record on whether or not there was a response to this, and therefore it is uncertain.)
Japanese: （従五位上行式部少輔兼文章博士菅原道真は、参議に官位相当の規定が無いことは問題であるとし、元慶6年（882年）7月1日条「菅家文草・巻第九」で官位相当、考禄等を定めるべきと奏上している。それに対しての回答の有無は伝わらず、定かではない。）
English: Depending on the rank, the family name, hereditary title, and first name was written in the order of full name followed by hereditary title for Shii (Fourth Rank) (for example, TAIRA no Kiyomori Ason), and family name-hereditary title-first name for Sanmi or higher (for example, TAIRA no Ason Kiyomori).
Japanese: なお、位階によって氏姓名の綴りは、四位であれば氏名の後に姓（例えば、平清盛朝臣）、三位以上であれば氏-姓-名（例えば、平朝臣清盛）とされた。
English: It was created on May 21, 702, when OTOMO no Yasumaro, AWATA no Mahito, TAKAMUKO no Maro, SHIMOTSUKENU no Komaro, and ONO no Kenu were allowed to participate in the government, and Sangi was established as an official post in 731.
Japanese: 大宝2年（702年）5月21日に大伴安麻呂、粟田真人、高向麻呂、下毛野古麻呂、小野毛野を政治に参議させたのが創始で、天平3年（731年）正官として参議が成立。
English: In 807, Sangi was temporarily abolished and Kansatsushi (inspector) was placed, but it was reintroduced in 810, and since then, the number appointed to the present post tend to be eight, thus it was also known as hachiza (eight seats).
Japanese: 大同2年（807年）参議は一時廃止され観察使が置かれたが、弘仁元年（810年）復活し、爾来、現任で8人が補任されている傾向があるため、別名を八座とも称するようになった。
English: However, there is no trace of imperial edicts or letters being announced to lay out the number of regular personnel for Sangi, and the number varied with time.
Japanese: しかし参議の定員を定める詔勅や宣旨が発せられた形跡がないため、時代によって人員数は増減した。
English: Additionally, from February 729 to August 731, and from March to April 806, Gon-sangi (temporary Sangi) was placed as temporary personnel, as well as Jun-sangi (associate Sangi) in June (intercalary month) 806.
Japanese: また、神亀6年（729年）2月から天平3年（731年）8月までと延暦25年（806年）3月から同年4月まで一時的に権官として権参議が置かれたほか、大同元年（806年）閏6月には、准参議。
English: It was established as an important post in the Meiji government with the return of the Daijokan system in July 1869, and personnel were assigned from Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa, and Hizen Clans.
Japanese: 明治2年（1869年）7月の太政官制の復活により、明治政府の重職としておかれ、薩長土肥からそれぞれ任命された。
English: Seiin (highest organ in the Daijokan organization system) was organized after the Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures), and after the political upheaval of the 6th year of Meiji, they concurrently served as the secretary of ministries.
Japanese: 廃藩置県後には正院を構成し、明治六年の政変以後は各省長官を兼任する。
English: "Akuto" generally refers to a person who disturbs the order of society, or a group of people who commit wrongdoing, but in Japanese history, it refers to a person or class rebelling against the existing system in the middle ages.
Japanese: 悪党（あくとう）とは、一般的に社会の秩序を乱す者ないし悪事をなす集団などを意味する用語であるが、日本の歴史においては中世に既存支配体系へ対抗した者・階層を悪党と呼んでいる。
English: The term akuto first appeared in historical materials as 'Jusen akuto' in the imperial decree in the May 21, 716 section of "Shoku-Nihongi" (Chronicle of Japan Continued), but the second appearance is in the 'Senbuanko bunsho funshitsu joan' ('占部安光文書紛失状案') (March 21, 1165) in the late twelfth century, which is much later in history.
Japanese: 史料における悪党の語の初出は『続日本紀』霊亀2年5月21日条（716年）の勅に見える「鋳銭悪党」であるが、2例目は12世紀後半の「占部安光文書紛失状案」（永万元年（1165年）3月21日付）まで遙かに下る。
English: The 12th century was a time when shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates), the medieval socioeconomic system, finally established, and the examples of akuto in the late 12th century all referred to those who infringed upon the system or ideology of dominance in shoen (manor in medieval Japan) and kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office).
Japanese: 12世紀は中世の社会経済体制である荘園公領制がようやく確立した時期であるが、12世紀後半に見られた悪党の用例はいずれも荘園・国衙領における支配体制または支配イデオロギーを外部から侵した者を指して用いられていた。
English: For example, the Gunji (district chief) of Nabari District, MINAMOTO no Toshikata, and the monks of Kofuku-ji Temple who broke into Kuroda no sho (Nabari District, Iga Province), a territory of Todai-ji Temple, in 1175 were referred to as akuto in documents of Todai-ji Temple.
Japanese: 例えば、安元元年（1175年）に東大寺領黒田荘（伊賀国名張郡）に乱入した名張郡司源俊方と興福寺僧らが、東大寺の文書において悪党とされていた。
English: As seen in this example, those who attempted to invade or disturb the system maintained by manor lords and shokan (an officer governing shoen (manor)) from outside the manors and Imperial demesne, were considered akuto.
Japanese: この例が示すように、荘園領主や荘官が維持していた支配体系に対し、荘園・公領の外部から侵入ないし妨害しようとした者が悪党として観念されていた。
English: The situation did not change largely in the Kamakura period, and until the Bunei years (1264 - 1275) in the late 13th century, the tendency to call external invaders and intruders from the point of view of the honjo (proprietor or guarantor of the manor) (manor lord) continued.
Japanese: 鎌倉時代に入ってからもこうした状況に大きな変化はなく、13世紀後半の文永年間（1264年-1275年）まで、本所（荘園領主）側から見て外部からの侵入者・侵略者を悪党と呼ぶ傾向が続いた。
English: The akuto conflict was in reality a territorial conflict among honjo-ichienchi (land collectively controlled by honjo) or between honjo-ichienchi and the jito (manager and lord of manor) class, and the akuto from one honjo's viewpoint was the feudal lord of the honjo-ichienchi of the opponent.
Japanese: 悪党紛争の実態は、本所一円地同士または本所一円地と地頭層との所領紛争であり、一方の本所から見た悪党とは、その紛争相手たる本所一円地の領主だったのである。
English: Honjo suffered from akuto activities since the 12th century, but akuto circumvented pursuit by honjo by escaping to other territories, etc.
Japanese: 12世紀から本所は悪党活動に悩まされてきたが、悪党は他領へ逃亡するなど、本所による追捕から巧みに逃れていた。
English: Honjo frequently requested the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) to pursuit the akuto, but the bakufu was passive about it, pointing out that conflicts among honjo were originally under the jurisdiction of the Imperial Court.
Japanese: 本所はしばしば幕府へ悪党追捕を要請していたが、本所同士の紛争は本来、朝廷の管轄であるとして、幕府は悪党追捕に消極的だった。
English: Article 32 of the Goseibai shikimoku (code of conduct for samurai), established by the bakufu in the early 13th century, specified that concealment of thieves and akuto in the territory was a crime, but bakufu was not active in suppressing the akuto.
Japanese: 13世紀前半に幕府が制定した御成敗式目第32条は、盗賊・悪党の所領内隠匿を罪科と定めているが、幕府には積極的に悪党を鎮圧する姿勢は特に見られなかったのである。
English: However, in the Shoka years (1257 - 1258), when akuto activity increased due to worsening famine, the bakufu decided to equate akuto with night burglars, robbers, bandits, and pirates (1258, Article 320 of the Kamakura bakufu tsuikaho - additional law), and finally embarked on suppressing them.
Japanese: しかし、正嘉年間（1257年-1258年）に入り、飢饉の深刻化による悪党活動の激化を受けて、幕府は悪党を夜討・強盗・山賊・海賊と同等視することに決め（正嘉2年、鎌倉幕府追加法320条）、その鎮圧にようやく乗り出した。
English: Meanwhile, a major shift in medieval society began around the middle of the 13th century.
Japanese: その一方で、13世紀半ば頃から中世社会の大規模な変動が始まっていた。
English: Since the end of the 12th century, the Kamakura bakufu, based on the samurai class, had reallocated its territory to the samurai through several wars to meet the self-propagating desires of the samurai forces, but when the Hoji Battle of 1247 resulted in complete Tokuso sensei (autocracy by the shikken [regent for the shogun], who were members of the Hojo clan) and political stability was established, wars, that presented opportunities for territory reallocation, stopped occurring.
Japanese: 12世紀末以来、武士階層を基盤とする鎌倉幕府は、数度の戦乱を通じて所領を基盤たる武士階層に再配分し、武士団の持つ自己増殖欲求に応えてきたが、宝治元年（1247年）の宝治合戦により得宗専制が完成して政治的安定が実現すると、所領再配分の機会となる戦乱の発生自体が見られなくなった。
English: Consequently, samurai forces that repeatedly self-propagated through succession and property division to soryo (heir) and shoshi (child born out of wedlock), lost the opportunity to obtain territory and shifted to single succession, where territory was inherited by the soryo only.
Japanese: ここに至り、惣領・庶子への分割相続により自己増殖を繰り返してきた武士団は分割すべき所領を得る機会を失い、惣領のみに所領を継承させる単独相続へと移行していった。
English: With the single succession as a momentum, soryo consolidated their territories scattered in various quarters and engaged in the management of their residing territory.
Japanese: 単独相続を契機として、惣領は諸方に点在する所領の集約化と在地での所領経営を進めていった。
English: In the process, the fall of the samurai class centering around shoshi occurred, while territorial conflict between honjo (proprietor or guarantor of manor) and the residing samurai became radical.
Japanese: この過程で、庶子を中心とする武士階層の没落が発生するとともに、本所（荘園領主）と在地武士との所領紛争が先鋭化していったのである。
English: Focusing internally on manor governance, while honjo strengthened their control on the manor to prevent invasions by samurai, shokan who were in charge of the practical business of manor governance, were working to establish their own management authority.
Japanese: 荘園支配の内部に目を向けると、武士による侵略を防ぐために本所は荘園支配の強化に乗り出していたが、在地で荘園支配の実務にあたる荘官は自らの経営権を確立しようとしていた。
English: The conditions for the conflict between honjo and shokan to occur were all there, but their conflict intensified due to the spread of a monetary and distribution economy, which was progressing rapidly at that time.
Japanese: ここに本所・荘官間の対立を惹起する条件が出揃っていたが、当時、急速に進展していた貨幣経済・流通経済の社会への浸透が両者の対立を激化させていった。
English: The various contradictions within the samurai class or manor governance led to the mobility of medieval society, and resulted in the increase in akuto activities from the late thirteenth century onward.
Japanese: 以上に見られる武士階層内部もしくは荘園支配内部における諸矛盾は中世社会の流動化へとつながっていき、13世紀後半からの悪党活動の活発化をもたらした。
English: Additionally, genko (Mongol invasion attempts against Japan), which occurred around this time also intensified the various contradictions, and induced the increase of akuto activities.
Japanese: さらに同時期の元寇もこれらの諸矛盾をさらに増大させ、悪党活動の活発化を促したのである。
English: In addition to akuto who invaded manor governance from the outside, ezo (northerners) and kaimin (people who lived and worked on the seas) who committed piracy were also called akuto, which based on the concept of seeing outsiders of the system as akuto.
Japanese: 外部から荘園支配に侵入する悪党のほか、蝦夷や海賊的活動を行う海民なども悪党と呼ばれたが、これは支配体系外部の人々を悪党とみなす観念に基づいている。
English: For this same reason, it is believed that entertainers and wandering monks who traveled in various provinces were considered to have akuto-like characteristics.
Japanese: 諸国を旅する芸能民や遊行僧などが悪党的性格を持つとされていたのも同様の理由からだと考えられている。
English: Ezo, kaimin, entertainers, and wandering monks were all people who drifted about, living outside the system of private manors and public land system, and many had atypical appearance, with eccentric clothing indicating they were outside the system.
Japanese: 蝦夷、海民、芸能民、遊行僧らはいずれも荘園公領制的な支配体系の外部に生きる漂泊的な人々であり、支配外部にいることを示す奇抜な服装、すなわち異形の者が多かった。
English: Yoshihiko AMINO described these 'akuto' as bearers of the distribution and capital economy, which developed rapidly from the mid-13th century, and as one of the main constituents opening the way for a new phase in medieval society.
Japanese: 網野善彦は、これらの「悪党」が13世紀半ばから急速な成長を見せた流通経済・資本経済の担い手であり、中世社会の新たな段階を切り開いた主体の一つと説いた。
English: Change in the situation where only outside intruders of the system were called akuto occurred during the Koan years (1278 - 1288).
Japanese: 支配体系外部からの侵略者のみを悪党と呼ぶ状況に変化が生じたのは弘安年間（1278年-1288年）のことである。
English: During this time, conflicting relationships within the manor governance finally became apparent, resistance activities by the shokan against the honjo could not be suppressed, shokan and the resident feudal lord class began being called akuto by the honjo, and engaged in territorial conflicts with the honjo.
Japanese: この時期には荘園支配内部の対立関係がついに顕在化し、本所に対する荘官（在地領主）層の抵抗活動が抑えられなくなり、本所と対立した荘官・在地領主層は本所から悪党と呼ばれ始め、本所との所領紛争を展開していった。
English: Looking at the samurai class, musoku (without land) gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) who lost their territory due to single succession, etc. remained in their old territory, and were called akuto when they disturbed the governance of the new jito.
Japanese: 武士階層に目を向けても、単独相続などにより所領を失った無足御家人が旧領に残留し、新地頭の支配を妨害して悪党と呼ばれる事例が発生していた。
English: These affairs indicated that insiders were also treated as 'akuto,' and this was a sign of a major change in the concept.
Japanese: これらの状況は、内部の者も「悪党」として扱うことを示しており、観念の非常に大きな変化の現れであった。
English: At this stage, the shokan class in conflict with honjo is believed to have included the drifting akuto described above.
Japanese: この段階において、本所と対立した荘官層には、上に挙げた漂泊的な悪党も含まれていたと考えられている。
English: Some of them were involved in trade while traveling in various places, accumulated capital as a bearer of distribution economy, and were called utokujin (the rich).
Japanese: 彼らの中には、各地を往来しながら交易にたずさわり、流通経済の担い手として資本を蓄積し有徳人と呼ばれる者もいた。
English: In some cases, such utokujin were assigned as shokan due to their economic power, and became engaged in territory management.
Japanese: そうした有徳人が経済力を背景として荘官に補任され、所領経営に乗り出す例もあったのである。
English: Additionally, honjo who were in conflict with the residing shokan had to secure their own distribution route to transport the annual tributes, and the ones who carried out this role of annual tribute distribution were the drifting akuto.
Japanese: また、在地の荘官と対立した本所は、荘官に頼らず、独自に年貢物資を運搬する流通経路を確保する必要に迫られていたが、ここで年貢物資流通を担ったのが漂泊的な悪党なのであった。
English: Since the late 13th century, akuto were active in the Kinai (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto), Tohoku, and Kyushu areas, and there were cases of akuto and jito unions prohibited in the Goseibai-shikimoku.
Japanese: 13世紀後半以降、悪党は畿内・東北・九州などで活発に活動し、御成敗式目で禁止されている悪党と地頭の結合など見られるようになった。
English: The activities of akuto led to mobilization of the system, and to respond to this, the bakufu began actively suppressing the akuto from the end of the 13th century.
Japanese: 悪党の活動は支配体系の流動化を招き、幕府はこれに対応するため、13世紀末から悪党鎮圧へ積極的に取り組み始めた。
English: Originally, honjo held jurisdiction over law enforcement and judicial power at the honjo-ichienchi, and the Imperial Court would rule.
Japanese: 元々、本所一円地における警察権・司法権は本所の所管であり、朝廷が裁定することとなっていた。
English: However, due to the extreme infestation of akuto, honjo strongly requested the bakufu to suppress them.
Japanese: しかし、悪党の著しい横行により本所は幕府へ鎮圧を強く要望していった。
English: Thus, in the early 1290s, the following suppression procedure was established.
Japanese: そこで、1290年代前半になって確立されたのが次の鎮圧手続きである。
English: First, the honjo files a complaint to the Imperial Court, and if the accused (akuto) does not answer the summons, it is considered a disobedience against the Emperor, and the Imperial Court orders the bakufu to commence prosecution and conviction.
Japanese: まず本所が朝廷へ訴えを起こし、朝廷の召喚に被告人（悪党）が応じない場合は、違勅があったとして朝廷から幕府へ検断を命じる。
English: Ryoshi were allowed to enter the honjo-ichienchi, which were off-limits to shugo (provincial constable), in order to execute their duties, and in some cases, were authorized to order shitaji jungyo (implementation of decisions regarding land) to the honjo side.
Japanese: 両使には、任務遂行のため、守護不入とされている本所一円地への入部が許されており、さらに本所側へ下地遵行を指示する権限が与えられていることもあった。
English: This procedure which began as a way to pursue akuto, became the root for the right of shisetsu jungyo (process for implementing bakufu's decision on conflicts regarding property ownership) during the Muromachi period.
Japanese: 悪党追捕のために始まったこの手続きは、室町時代の使節遵行権の根源となった。
English: A prominent akuto from this period was the Oe clan, 'Kuroda akuto,' who was successful in the Kuroda no sho (Iga Province), a territory of Todai-ji Temple, from the 12th to 14th century.
Japanese: この時期の著名な悪党が、12世紀から14世紀にかけて東大寺領黒田荘（伊賀国）で活躍した「黒田悪党」大江氏である。