nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The large-sized communities were gradually united and a political confederation that could be called a union of Way nations was established during the early second century.
Japanese: 大型地域集団は次第に政治的な結合を強めていき、倭国連合と呼びうる政治連合体を2世紀初頭頃に形成した。
English: For a while, Wa stayed stable politically, but a civil war called the Wakoku War broke out in the latter half of the second century.
Japanese: しばらく倭国は政治的に安定していたが、2世紀後半に倭国大乱と呼ばれる内乱が生じた。
English: In Hokkaido and the northern Tohoku area, rice cultivation in paddy fields was not acceptable and lives there were like those in the post Jomon period.
Japanese: 北海道・北東北地方においては水田耕作が受容されず続縄文時代に移行した。
English: Large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds appeared around the middle of third century and the use of this grave style spread rapidly throughout the islands of Japan.
Japanese: 3世紀中ごろに機内に出現した前方後円墳とそれに伴う墓制が急速に列島各地に広まっていた。
English: This is considered to be an indication that local political groups had existed in the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto), the Sanyo region (Inland Sea provinces) and the northern Kyushu area in parallel were rallied to form Yamato sovereignty (ancient Japan sovereignty).
Japanese: このことは畿内・山陽・北部九州に並立していた地域政治集団が糾合してヤマト王権を形成したことを表していると考えられている。
English: However, it is said to be more accurate to consider that the state of the Japanese islands had not reached the initial nation stage yet, but was still a confederation of sovereign groups.
Japanese: ただし、これは初期国家と呼べる段階にはなく、王権の連合（連合王権）と見るのが適切とされている。
English: Starting in the latter half of the fourth century, the Yamato sovereignty began to advance into the Korean peninsula, seeking iron that was needed for making weapons and farm tools, causing many technologies and cultural products in the Korean peninsular and China to be introduced to Wa.
Japanese: 4世紀後半からヤマト王権は、武器・農具の原料である鉄資源を求めて朝鮮半島への進出を開始したが、これを契機として朝鮮半島や中国の技術・文物が倭国へ多く流入することとなった。
English: Entering the fifth century, the Yamato sovereignty moved its core site to the Kawachi plain and had active relationships with the Chinese dynasty.
Japanese: 5世紀に入るとヤマト王権は本拠を河内平野へ移し、中国王朝との通交を活発に行った。
English: Large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds in this era became particularly large, indicating that strong sovereignty existed.
Japanese: この時期の前方後円墳は、特に規模が巨大化しており強力な王権の存在を示している。
English: After the five kings of Wa, political confusion was observed inside the Yamato sovereignty in from the latter half of the fifth century to the first half of the sixth century.
Japanese: 倭の五王の後、5世紀後葉から6世紀前葉にかけてヤマト王権内部の政治混乱が見られた。
English: However, after Emperor Keitai was introduced, control over the islands of Japan by Yamato sovereignty became stronger, but on the other hand, the trend of advancing to the Korean peninsular became considerably weak.
Japanese: しかし、継体天皇の登場によりヤマト王権による列島支配が強まり、一方、朝鮮半島への進出傾向は大きく後退した。
English: Through such a domestically-oriented period, control by the Yamato sovereignty had been gradually strengthened.
Japanese: こうした内向的な時期を経てヤマト王権による支配体制が徐々に強化されていった。
English: In areas along the Okhotsk Sea, Okhotsk culture was established in around the fifth century during the latter half of this period and continued until around the 13th century.
Japanese: この時期の後半、5世紀ころからオホーツク海沿岸地域ではオホーツク文化が成立し、およそ13世紀まで続いた。
English: The era from the latter half of the sixth century to the early eighth century is called the Asuka period, because the core site of the Yamato sovereignty was placed in Asuka.
Japanese: 6世紀後半から8世紀初頭までは、ヤマト王権の本拠が飛鳥に置かれたことから飛鳥時代と呼ばれる。
English: In the latter half of the sixth century, domestic control by Yamato sovereignty was stable, and feuds over succession to the Imperial Throne were rather conspicuous.
Japanese: 6世紀後半にはヤマト王権の国内支配が安定し、むしろ王権内部の皇位継承抗争が目立った。
English: In this era, Buddhism was brought to Japan from Kudara (Baekje, Paekche), and Buddhist culture, such as Asuka culture and Hakuho culture in the later era, developed.
Japanese: この時期には百済から仏教が伝来し、後の飛鳥文化・白鳳文化などの仏教文化へと発展していった。
English: Towards the end of the sixth century, the Sui Dynasty unified China in 400 years, centralizing political powers in east Asian nations.
Japanese: 6世紀末、400年ぶりに中国を統一した隋の登場は、東アジア諸国の政治権力の集中化をもたらした。
English: In Wa as well, Prince Shotoku and the Soga clan reformed national politics by sending Japanese envoys to Sui Dynasty China, establishing Kani junikai (twelve grades of cap rank) and introducing a Seventeen-Article Constitution.
Japanese: 倭国でも7世紀前半にかけて聖徳太子と蘇我氏により遣隋使派遣・冠位十二階制定・十七条憲法導入などの国政改革が行われた。
English: However, powerful families were still strongly resistant, and the move to concentrate powers was stagnant, though attempted later as well.
Japanese: しかし豪族層の抵抗も根強く、権力集中化はその後も企図されたが、その動きは伸び悩んだ。
English: The Taika Reforms in around the middle of the seventh century was such a move to strengthen powers, achieving a certain level of advancement.
Japanese: 7世紀中ごろの大化の改新も権力集中化の動きの一つであり、一定の進展を見せている。
English: However, the biggest opportunity for centralizing power was provided with the defeat in the Kudara restoration war during the latter half of seventh century (Battle of Hakusonko or the Battle of Baekgang).
Japanese: しかし、権力集中化への最大の契機は、7世紀後半の百済復興戦争における敗北（→白村江の戦い）であった。
English: Various powers in Wa consented to the reformation of national systems, accelerating the speed of centralizing power.
Japanese: 倭国内の諸勢力は国制整備を進めることで一致し、権力集中化が急速に進み始めた。
English: Furthermore, Emperor Tenmu who won the Jinshin War concentrated power thoroughly and attempted to deify the Emperor.
Japanese: さらに壬申の乱に勝利した天武天皇は権力集中を徹底し、天皇の神格化を図った。
English: In addition, the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) was introduced to realize control by the Emperor, producing Taiho Ritsuryo (the Taiho Code) in the early eighth century.
Japanese: 併せて、天皇支配を具現化するために律令制の導入を進め、8世紀初頭の大宝律令制定に結実した。
English: In this era, life in the middle and southwestern areas of Hokkaido and the northern part of Aomori Prefecture entered the Satsumon period (featured by earthenware with patterns called Satsumon).
Japanese: なお、この時期北海道中西南部・青森県北部においては擦文時代を迎える。
English: The early eighth century is called the Nara period, because the capital (Heijo-kyo capital) was placed in Nara.
Japanese: 8世紀初頭から末にかけては奈良時代と呼ばれ、奈良に都城（平城京）が置かれた。
English: The Ritsuryo system based on Odo omin shiso (the principle that all the land and people belong to the emperor) intended unified control of the nation by the Emperor and national government officials, and the people were controlled through henko-sei (a system for organizing the people), handen-sei (a land-allotment system based on Ritsuryo), Soyocho system (a tax system, corvee) and troops (in ancient Japan).
Japanese: 王土王民思想に基づく律令制は、天皇とその官僚による一元的な支配を志向しており、民衆に対しては編戸制・班田制・租庸調制・軍団(古代日本)などの支配が行われた。
English: It is considered that the policies to increase arable land, such as Sanze-isshin Law (a law allowing farmers who created new arable lands to own them for a period of three generations) and Konden einen shizai Law (a law allowing farmers who created new arable lands to own them permanently), were for supporting the strengthening the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 三世一身法・墾田永年私財法などの農地拡大政策もこうした律令制強化の一環だったと考えられている。
English: However, entering the latter half of the eighth century, farmers became hierarchical, and situations to force the change in control based upon the Ritsuryo system, for example, an increase in the farmers to replace those who fled, were created.
Japanese: しかし、8世紀後半に入ると、百姓階層の分化が始まり、百姓の逃亡が増加するなど、律令支配の転換を迫る状況が生じていった。
English: In addition, China-centered consciousness, in which Silla was considered a barbarian country and Emishi in the northeastern area as well as Hayato in the southern Kyushu area were considered kegaimin (outsiders), heightened.
Japanese: また、新羅を蕃国とし、東北地方の蝦夷・南九州の隼人を化外民とする中華意識が高まった。
English: In Japan, the government demanded that Silla should bring tributes to Japan and also tried to encourage Emishi and Hayato to become integrated into the control based Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 日本は、新羅へ朝貢を要求するとともに、蝦夷・隼人らを「教化」して律令支配へと組み込もうとしていった。
English: In Buddhism, the idea of national defense was strengthened, and the Todai-ji and Kokubun-ji Temples were constructed due to the wishes of Emperor Shomu on the pretext of kokka goji (defending and maintaining the nation).
Japanese: 仏教では鎮護国家思想が強まり、聖武天皇の発願で東大寺・国分寺が国家護持の名目で建立された。
English: The era from around the end of the eighth century to around the end of twelfth century is called the Heian period, with the Heian-kyo constructed by Emperor Kanmu as the national capital.
Japanese: 8世紀末頃から12世紀末頃までは平安時代と呼ばれ、桓武天皇の築いた平安京が都とされた。
English: In the first half of the Heian period, farmers became more hierarchical and the national system based on the Ritsuryo system that had continued from the previous period had reached its limit.
Japanese: 平安前期には百姓階層の分化が一層進み、前代から引き続いた律令国家体制に限界が生じていた。
English: Therefore, starting in the early eleventh century, the national government actively promoted the reformation of the national system through decentralization, establishing a system called a dynastic nation-state.
Japanese: そこで政府は11世紀初頭ごろから地方分権的な国家体制改革を精力的に推進し、王朝国家と呼ばれる体制が成立した。
English: In the dynastic nation-state, Zuryo (the head of the provincial governors), to whom a considerable amount of the authority to control the province was transferred, and its kokuga (provincial government offices) controlled local areas.
Japanese: 王朝国家では、大幅に統治権限を委譲された受領とその国衙機構による地方支配が展開した。
English: Under the control of Zuryo and Kokuga, the Fumyo system (a system for tax collecting) was formed for the Revenue system, and the samurai class appeared via the kokuga forces system.
Japanese: この受領・国衙支配のもと、収取体系においては負名体制が形成し、軍事面においては国衙軍制を通じて武士階層が登場した。
English: In central politics, Sekkan-seiji (politics based on Sekkan - regent or a top adviser to Emperor), in which the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan played a dominant role, was established.
Japanese: また、中央政治においては11世紀に藤原北家が政権中枢を担う摂関政治が成立した。
English: The number of shoen (private estates) had increased considerably from around the end of the 12th century to the early 13th century, and a medieval control system called shoen koryo sei (a system of public lands and private estates) was established.
Japanese: 12世紀末から13世紀にかけて荘園の増加が著しくなり、荘園公領制と呼ばれる中世的な支配体制が確立した。
English: In the same era, insei in which Daijo tenno (a retired emperor) administered the affairs of state as Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power) started, and it is said that in this era, ancient times ended and the medieval period started.
Japanese: 同時期には太上天皇が治天の君として政務に当たる院政が開始しており、この時期が古代から中世への画期であるとされている。
English: Through the two wars, the Hogen War and the Heiji War, near the end of the Heian period, samurai advanced into the political world, generating the Taira clan government.
Japanese: 平安末期には保元の乱・平治の乱両乱を経て武士が政治に進出していき、その結果、平氏政権が登場した。
English: The Japanization of culture that had gradually advanced from the Nara period produced a Japanese-style culture, using hiragana (Japanese syllabary characters) and katakana (another set of Japanese syllabary characters) started and narrative literature, typical examples being "The Tale of Genji" and "Makura no soshi" (the Pillow Book), flourished.
Japanese: 奈良時代から漸次的に進んでいた文化の日本化が国風文化として結実し、平仮名・片仮名の使用が開始し、『源氏物語』・『枕草子』に代表される物語文学などが花開いた。
English: Esoteric Buddhism and Mappo-shiso (the "end of the world" belief) were believed widely, syncretization of Shinto with Buddhism advanced, and many temples were built.
Japanese: 密教や末法思想が広く信じられ、神仏習合が進み、寺院が多く建てられた。
English: For more information about the histories of these small islands, refer, starting with the northern areas, to the history of the Amami Islands, to the history of Okinawa Prefecture and to the Sakishima history of the Sakishima islands.
Japanese: 以降の詳細は、北から奄美諸島の歴史、沖縄県の歴史、先島諸島先島の歴史などを参照のこと。
English: The eighth century is called the Kamakura period, and the Kuge (court nobles) government in Kyoto and the military government in Kamakura coexisted during this era.
Japanese: 12世紀末頃から14世紀頃までは鎌倉時代と呼ばれ、中央の公家政権と関東の武家政権が並立した。
English: The Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) with MINAMOTO no Yoritomo as its chief defeated the Taira clan government in the Jisho-Juei War.
Japanese: 源頼朝を首長とする鎌倉幕府は、治承・寿永の乱で勝利して平氏政権を打倒した。
English: In the process, the bakufu acquired the right of appointing Shugo and Jito (military governors and estate stewards), growing into a government that could rank with the Imperial Court (the Kuge government).
Japanese: その過程で守護・地頭補任権を獲得し、朝廷（公家政権）と並びうる政権へと成長した。
English: As a result of the Jokyu War during the first half of thirteenth century, the Kuge government became a parasite on the back of the military government.
Japanese: 13世紀前半の承久の乱の結果、公家政権は武家政権に寄生する存在となった。
English: After that, the regency in which the Hojo clan, the head of gokenin (immediate vassals of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods), practically controlled the bakufu politics was established.
Japanese: その後、御家人筆頭である北条氏が幕府政治を実質的にリードする執権政治が確立した。
English: Starting around the middle of the 13th century, the social system started changing drastically: For example, money had become used in the economy, goods were circulated actively, and samurai, such as jito (managers and lords of manors), had advanced into shoen koryo (public lands and private estates).
Japanese: 13世紀中期頃から、貨幣経済の浸透と商品流通の活発化、村落の形成、地頭ら武士による荘園公領への侵出など、大きな社会変動が生じ始めた。
English: This move was accelerated due to the Mongol invasion attempts against Japan, and the measures taken by the bakufu against this move appeared in the forms of Tokuseirei (ordering the return of land sold and the dissolution of debts) and the tyranny of the patrimonial head of the main branch of the Hojo clan.
Japanese: この動きは13世紀後半の元寇によって加速し、幕府の対応策は徳政令発布や得宗専制という形で現れた。
English: In the local societies, Akuto (persons against the established social control system in medieval times) and soson (communities consisting of peasants' self-governing associations) appeared in history, effectively and rapidly changing the shoen koryo sei.
Japanese: また在地社会では悪党・惣村などが出現し、荘園公領制の変質化が急速に進行した。
English: During this period, the Imperial Court was divided into the Southern Court for Daikakuji-to (imperial lineage starting with Emperor Kameyama) and the Northern Court for Jimyoin-to (imperial lineage from Emperor Gofukakusa to Emperor Gokomatsu).
Japanese: 大覚寺統の南朝(日本)と足利氏が支援する持明院統の北朝(日本)に朝廷が分かれた。
English: Defeating the Kamakura bakufu, Emperor Godaigo for Daikakuji-to governed the nation autocratically in his so-called Kemmu Restoration.
Japanese: 大覚寺統の後醍醐天皇が鎌倉幕府を滅ぼし、建武の新政と呼ばれる天皇専制の政治を行った。
English: However, with the increasing frustration of samurai, Takauji ASHIKAGA left the new government, supported the Jimyoin-to group, and chased the Daikakuji-to group to Yoshino in the south.
Japanese: しかしながら、武士層の不満が増すと、足利尊氏はそれを背景に新政から離反し、持明院統を擁立して大覚寺統を南の吉野に追った。
English: Changes in the nature of shoen koryo sei made confrontations in each social class of the nation apparent, developing into nation-wide confrontations with the confrontation between the Northern Court and the Southern Court used as a legitimate reason.
Japanese: 荘園公領制の変質が、社会各層における対立を顕在化させ、南北朝の争いを大義名分とする全国的な抗争が展開した。
English: In culture, there was the tendency to behave extravagantly, thinking little of social classes or social order, as typically seen in "Basara."
Japanese: 文化面では、ばさらに代表されるように、身分秩序を軽視し華美な振る舞いに走る傾向が見られた。
English: In addition, renga (linked verses) were popular, and there was a tendency for the general public as well to have an interest in culture, as seen in Nijo Kawara Rakusho (the lampoon at the Nijo river beach).
Japanese: また、連歌が流行し、二条河原落書など文化の庶民化への動きが見られた。
English: The era from the 14th century to the 16th century is called the Muromachi period, and the bakufu was placed in Muromachi of Kyoto.
Japanese: 14世紀頃から16世紀頃までは室町時代と呼ばれ、京都の室町に幕府が置かれた。
English: The Shugo (provincial constable) placed in each province strengthened control of the province by obtaining economic privileges, such as hanzei (the system in the Muromachi period where the Muromachi bakufu allowed military governors, or Shugo, to collect half of the taxes from manors and demesnes as military fund) and through expanding Shugouke (the contract system that a manor's owner entrusted a provincial constable to manage his manor and pay the customs).
Japanese: 各国に置かれた守護も半済等の経済的特権の公認や守護請の拡大などを通じて、国内支配力を強めた。
English: Then Shugo took over the functions of Kokuga, grew into Shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable) and established the control system called the Shugo-ryogoku system (Shugo-controlling province system).
Japanese: それから、国衙機能を取り込んでいき、守護大名へと成長して、守護領国制と呼ばれる支配体制を築いた。
English: The mutually complementary system established by the bakufu and Shogo daimyo is called the Muromachi bakufu-Shugo system.
Japanese: こうして幕府と守護大名が構築した相互補完的な支配体制を室町幕府-守護体制という。
English: Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA completed the Meitoku treaty to unify the Northern and Southern Courts, conducted trade between Japan and the Ming Dynasty in China and was awarded the title of King of Japan by the emperor of the Ming Dynasty.
Japanese: 足利義満は明徳の和約を遂げ、また日明貿易を行い明皇帝から日本国王に冊封された。
English: However, the Shugo daimyo tried tenaciously to expand their power, and many battles were fought between the bakufu and Shugo.
Japanese: しかしながら、守護大名の拡大指向は根強く、幕府対守護の戦乱が多数発生した。
English: However, the system became shaky due to the Onin War and collapsed with Coup of Meio as the turning point, moving history into the Sengoku period (period of warring states) (in Japan).
Japanese: しかし、応仁の乱によって大きく動揺すると明応の政変を契機としてついに崩壊し、戦国時代(日本)へと移行した。
English: A social principle in this era was self-help, and the move to unite, or ikki (uprising), in each social class prevailed.
Japanese: この時代の社会原則は自力救済であり、各階層内において連帯の動き＝一揆が浸透した。
English: In culture, the Muromachi culture, which is characterized by interaction among people in different social strata, as seen in renga, sarugaku (the predecessor of Noh), and drinking tea, flourished.
Japanese: 文化面では、連歌・猿楽・喫茶など身分を超えた交流に特徴付けられる室町文化が栄えた。
English: The era from the latter half of 15th century to the latter half of 16th century is called the Sengoku period (in Japan).
Japanese: 15世紀後期から16世紀後期にかけての時期を戦国時代(日本)と呼ぶ。
English: During this period, Sengoku daimyo (the daimyo, that is Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) who came from the Shugo daimyo, Shugodai (deputy of Shugo, provincial constable), or from Kokujin (local samurai) appeared, and the power of the Sengoku daimyo destroyed the medieval control system, raising their levels of independency, for example, by establishing bunkokuho (a law that individual sengoku-daimyo enforced within their own domains).
Japanese: この時代は、守護大名や守護代、国人などを出自とする戦国大名が登場し、それら戦国大名勢力は中世的な支配体系を徐々に崩し、分国法を定めるなど各地で自立化を強めた。
English: The area over which a daimyo was allowed to control completely by himself developed into a regional nation, with many regional nations established in parallel throughout Japan.
Japanese: 一円知行された領国は地域国家へと発展し、日本各地に地域国家が多数並立した。
English: Nobunaga ODA who appeared around the middle of the 16th century established a strong fighting organization in his territory, for example, by separating samurai from the farmers, and rapidly expanding his territory.
Japanese: そうした流れの中で16世紀中葉に登場した織田信長は、兵農分離などにより自領の武力を強力に組織化して急速に支配地域を拡大していった。
English: During this period, the power to produce agricultural products increased, then these products became circulated more actively within each regional nation, and urban areas were rapidly formed in various parts of Japan.
Japanese: この時代は、農業生産力が向上するとともに、地域国家内の流通が発達し、各地に都市が急速に形成されていった。
English: Trade with European countries (trade with Spain and Portugal) started, and matchlock guns and Christianity were brought to Japan, significantly affecting fighting techniques and religious concepts that Japanese had until then.
Japanese: また、ヨーロッパとの交易（南蛮貿易）が開始し、火縄銃やキリスト教などが伝来し、それまでの戦術や日本の宗教観念に大きな影響を与えた。
English: Nobunaga ODA ousted Yoshiaki ASHIKAGA, the shogun in Muromachi, and established the Kinai government (the government in the Kinai area - roughly corresponding to the present Kansai region) replacing the Muromachi bakufu.
Japanese: 織田信長は室町将軍足利義昭を放逐し、室町幕府に代わる畿内政権を樹立した。
English: However, after Nobunaga was killed in the Honnoji Incident, the job of unifying the control of Japan was inherited by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI.
Japanese: しかし、信長が本能寺の変により滅ぼされると、天下統一事業は豊臣秀吉が継承することとなった。
English: Based on the Kinai government established by Nobunaga, Hideyoshi conquered the areas from Tohoku to Kyushu, completing the job of unifying the control of Japan.
Japanese: 秀吉は、信長の畿内政権を母体として東北から九州に至る地域を平定し、統一事業を完了した。
English: Through Taiko-kenchi (the land survey by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI), he abolished shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) and related posts, ending the medieval period.
Japanese: 太閤検地の実施を通して荘園公領制・職の体系を消滅させ、これにより中世は終焉を迎えた。
English: Hideyoshi died while the Bunroku-Keicho War he started continued, and the Toyotomi government became weakened because there was a problem of who should succeed his position.
Japanese: 秀吉は文禄・慶長の役を実行したが、その最中に死去し、後継者問題も抱えていた豊臣政権は弱体化した。
English: After Hideyoshi unified control of Japan, stabilizing the politics and economy, the magnificent Momoyama culture flourished centered on daimyo and samurai.
Japanese: 秀吉による天下統一が成り、政治や経済の安定がもたらされると、大名と武士を中心として豪壮な桃山文化が栄えた。
English: The era from 1603 to 1867 is called the Edo period, and the Edo bakufu was placed in Edo.
Japanese: 慶長8年（1603年）から慶応3年（1867年）までは江戸時代と呼ばれ、江戸に江戸幕府が置かれた。
English: After this, the bakufu solidified the master-servant relationship with each daimyo by around the middle of 17th century, through enacting Buke shohatto (laws for the military households), making Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo) obligatory, and conducting Kaieki operations (forfeiting the rank of samurai and properties) for powerful daimyo, strengthened control of the Imperial Court, and established its government officer system.
Japanese: この後幕府は、17世紀中葉までに、武家諸法度の発布や参勤交代の義務化、有力大名の改易などを通して、諸大名との主従制を確固たるものとし、朝廷統制を強め、幕府官僚機構を整備した。
English: In parallel, the bakufu made efforts to stabilize society through restricting Christianity-related activities and strengthening the control of trade.
Japanese: 並行して、キリスト教の制限と貿易の管理強化をすすめ、社会の安定化に努めた。
English: In such a situation, the occurrence of Shimabara/Amakusa uprisings led the bakufu to the complete prohibition of Christianity and the complete national isolation that allowed only bakufu-controlled trade.
Japanese: そうした中勃発した島原・天草一揆は、キリスト教禁止の徹底と、幕府による管理貿易である鎖国の完成へとつながる。
English: The Ryukyu Kingdom and the Ezo area (the Hokkaido areas except for the Oshima peninsula occupied by wajin - Japanese: persons whose origin was the main Japanese lands, - Sakhalin and Kurile Islands) were controlled through the Daimyo concerned.
Japanese: 日本の境界領域である琉球王国と蝦夷地（和人地である渡島半島を除く北海道、樺太及び千島列島）の支配は大名を通じて行なわれた。
English: Doubling the arable land increased the population as well as the amount of food produced, supporting the finance of the bakufu and that of each domain through the murauke system (village-wide, collective responsibility for tax payment) and greatly advancing nation-wide distribution-related economy.
Japanese: 倍増した耕地面積は食糧増産と人口増加をもたらし、村請を通じて幕府財政や藩財政を支えるとともに、全国的な流通経済を大きく発展させた。
English: The stabilization of society and economical growth supported the development of urban areas, producing Genroku Culture in the latter half of 17th century.
Japanese: 社会の安定と経済の成長は、都市の発展を支え、17世紀後半の元禄文化に結実した。
English: Therefore, Yoshimune TOKUGAWA promoted the re-strengthening of the bakufu authority and financial reconstruction (Kyoho Reforms).
Japanese: そのため、徳川吉宗は幕府権力の再強化と財政再建（享保の改革）を推し進めた。
English: After that, the efforts to maintain the social system and to reconstruct finance were also made intermittently (Kansei Reforms and Tempo Reforms).
Japanese: その後も体制維持および財政再建の努力は断続的に行われた（寛政の改革、天保の改革等）。
English: However, as commodity economy advanced, disparity in wealth had enlarged in each of the social classes, making the social status system fluid.
Japanese: しかし、商品経済の発達による社会各層での貧富の拡大とそれに伴う身分制の流動化した。
English: Due to domestic social contradictions and pressure from the inside and outside of Japan (for example, ships of Russia, of England, and of US came near to Japan), the bakufu-domain system had reached its limit by around the middle of the 19th century.
Japanese: 19世紀中ごろまでに、国内の社会矛盾と国外からの圧力（ロシア、イギリス、アメリカ船の接近）により、幕藩体制は限界を迎えていた。