nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Bunchi seiji (civilian government) refers to a form of the governance practiced from the fourth shogun Ietsuna TOKUGAWA to the seventh Ietsugu TOKUGAWA.
Japanese: 文治政治（ぶんちせいじ）は、4代将軍徳川家綱から7代将軍徳川家継までの時期の政治をさす。
English: The form of the government of the first shogun Ieyasu TOKUGAWA to that of the third Iemitsu TOKUGAWA is called budan seiji (administration by military command), and it was a time to establish the basis for the Tokugawa shogunate,
Japanese: 初代徳川家康から3代将軍徳川家光までの治世は武断政治とも言われ、徳川幕府の基盤を固める為の時期であった。
English: In this period of time, daimyo who opposed the bakufu or who violated the regulations of Buke Shohatto (code for the warrior households) mercilessly received sanctions such as kaieki (sudden dismissal and deprivation of position, privileges and properties) and genpo (a punishment with deprivation of social status and part of territory), no matter whether they were shinpan (Tokugawa's relatives), fudai (hereditary daimyos) or tozama (outside daimyo).
Japanese: この時期、幕府に逆らう大名、或いは武家諸法度の法令に違反する大名は親藩、譜代、外様の区別なく容赦なく、改易、減封の処置を行った。
English: After Iemitsu TOKUGAWA died of illness, as his successor Ietsuna TOKUGAWA was still immature, Shosetsu YUI conspired with Chuya MARUBASHI and others to take Ietsuna TOKUGAWA into their custody, and staged a rebellion criticizing the politics of the bakufu and demanding the relief of ronin (the Keian Incident [1651]).
Japanese: 徳川家光が病没すると、後継である徳川家綱が幼弱であった為、由井正雪は丸橋忠弥等と共謀し、徳川家綱を奪取し、幕政批判と牢人救済を掲げた反乱を起こした（慶安の変（1651年））。
English: In addition, Shozaemon HETSUGI attempted to attack Roju (senior councilors of the Tokugawa shogunate), and owing to such restlessness the cabinet officials of the shogunate were obliged to change their policy from the budan seiji.
Japanese: また、戸次庄左衛門による老中襲撃計画もあり、幕閣は武断政治からの方針転換を迫られることとなった。
English: In the place of immature Ietsuna TOKUGAWA, his uncles such as the lord of the Aizu Domain Masayuki HOSHINA and Tadakiyo SAKAI took charge of the political affaires to assist the shogunate government.
Japanese: 幼弱の徳川家綱に代わり、幕政を補佐したのが彼の叔父に当たる会津藩主保科正之や酒井忠清等であった。
English: He eased a restrictive measure called Matsugo yoshi no kin (ban on adoption as a son on one's deathbed) in order to reduce the number of kaieki sanctions, which was the cause for the increased ronin.
Japanese: 彼は、浪人発生の原因である大名の改易を減らす為に、末期養子の禁を緩和した。
English: The bakufu revised Buke Shohatto (Kanbunrei) in 1663, and forbade junshi (following one's master to the grave) and abolished the system of Shoninnosei (forcing daimyo to offer a hostage) (these two measures were called 'two good actions in the Kanbun era').
Japanese: 1663年武家諸法度を改正（寛文令）し、殉死を禁止し、大名からの人質を出す証人の制を廃止した（これを寛文の二大美事という）。
English: These policies broke a traditional mindset handed down from the Sengoku period (the period of warring states), and the relation of master to servant between shogun and daimyo as well as between the lord of the domain and his vassal was converted from a personal relationship into a relationship in which a follower served his master's family.
Japanese: これにより、戦国時代からの遺風を消し、将軍と大名、藩主と家臣の主従関係は個人同士の関係から、主人の家に従者は仕える関係に転換することとなった。
English: Around this time the class of honbyakusho (farmers who had land as well as the obligation to pay land tax,) began to decline due to divisional succession of agricultural lands.
Japanese: この頃になると、農村では農地の分割相続により本百姓の零落が始まった頃であった。
English: As the Edo bakufu and each domain relied on the yield of rice for their source of funds, Bunchi Seigen-rei (the law to control the division of lands) was issued in 1673 for the purpose of maintaining the honbyakusho class.
Japanese: 江戸幕府や各藩の財源は米に依存する為、本百姓を維持する為に1673年分地制限令を発布した。
English: At the same time, as the improvement of water supply became a major issue a long with the expansion of Edo as a city, Tamagawa Josui Water Supply was constructed.
Japanese: また、この時期は、江戸が都市として拡大していく中で上水道の整備が課題となった為、玉川上水が整備された。
English: Furthermore, the administration of each domain was stabilized due to the reduced burden of military service in the long-lasting peace, and each domain set out the development of new fields in response to the great famine of the Kanei era, which consequently produced economic growth within the domain.
Japanese: また、諸藩も安定した平和による軍役の負担の軽減により藩政も安定し、また、寛永の大飢饉を背景に、新田開発が進展し、結果として領内の経済も発展してきた。
English: During this period, in addition to above mentioned Masayuki HOSHINA, the following feudal lords called rulers of virtue appeared and they conducted good governance: the lord of the Okayama Domain Mitsumasa IKEDA, the lord of the Mito Domain Mitsukuni TOKUGAWA, and the lord of the Kaga Domain Tsunanori MAEDA.
Japanese: この時期に、善政を行い、名君と呼ばれた藩主に前述の保科正之の他に、岡山藩主の池田光政、水戸藩主の徳川光圀、加賀藩主の前田綱紀が挙げられる。
English: However, the bakufu began having serious financial problems starting from the reconstruction of Edo city, which was burnt down due to the Great Fire in the Meireki era, to the decline of gold produced from Sado Gold Mine in the Sadoga-shima Island, and the comparative fall of the rice price against the prices of other commodities.
Japanese: しかし、明暦の大火による江戸の消失と再建、佐渡島佐渡金山からの金採掘の減少、諸物価に対する米価の下落は、幕府財政を逼迫することとなった。
English: As Ietsuna TOKUGAWA had no hair, Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA, the lord of the Tatebayashi domain and Ietsuna's younger brother, succeeded to the position of shogun.
Japanese: 徳川家綱に後継となる子供が居なかった為、家綱の弟である館林藩主徳川綱吉が後を継いだ。
English: However, immediately after Tsunayoshi assumed the position of shogun, his sobayonin (lord chamberlain), Yoshiyasu YANAGISAWA gripped the real power over the bakufu, making use of adverse situations including the incidence in which Wakadoshiyori (junior councilor) Masayasu INAGA was stabbed to death inside the palace.
Japanese: 綱吉が将軍に就任したすぐの時期に、若年寄の稲葉正休が殿中で刺殺されたこともあり、側用人の柳沢吉保が実権を掌握した。
English: As Tsunayoshi was fond of learning Confucianism since he was the lord of the Tatebayashi Domain, his knowledge of Confucianism was reflected in his policies.
Japanese: 綱吉は館林藩主の頃より、儒学を好んで学んでおり、それが政策に反映された。
English: This new code stated "the warriors should be encouraged to elevate their literary and military arts as well as loyalty to one's master and filial piety, and should acquire their proper courtesy."
Japanese: これには、「文武忠孝を励まし、礼儀を正すべきこと」と記載されている。
English: The new code made a clear departure from "Kyuba no michi" (the spirit of samurai) mentioned in the previous Buke Shohatto issued in the Genna era, indicating the bakufu's intention of establishing public order through the courtesy based upon loyalty to one's master and filial piety (in addition, the appeasement of Matsugo yoshi no kin (ban on adoption as a son on one's deathbed), which had been adopted in the age of Ietsuna, was clearly stated).
Japanese: 従来の元和(日本)の武家諸法度に記載されていた「弓馬の道｣から大きく内容を変え、主君に対する忠と父祖に対する孝を基盤とした礼儀による秩序を構築するものであった（また、家綱の頃に採用された末期養子の禁の緩和が明記された）。
English: In an attempt to elevate the authority of the shogun, the bakufu's Imperial Court policies of the bakufu were also eased; the number of Imperial domains was increased by adding the lands with the total production of 10,000 koku crop yields, Yushima Seido (Sacred Hall at Yushima) was built, and Nobuatsu HAYASHI was appointed Daigaku no kami (Director of the Bureau of Education).
Japanese: 将軍権威の浮揚の為に朝廷政策も緩和され禁裏御領を1万石加増し、湯島聖堂を建立し、林信篤を大学頭に任命した。
English: In addition Tsunayoshi, having no successor, issued Shorui Awaremi-no-rei (the law prohibiting cruelty to animals) in 1865, which was a notorious law providing for extreme animal welfare.
Japanese: また、綱吉には後継者がいなかったため、1685年悪名高い、極端な動物愛護令である生類憐みの令を発布した。
English: It cannot be denied that this law accelerated financial difficulties of the Edo bakufu, but it was designed to strengthen bunchi seiji by establishing a sense of morality among the common people, as seen in the law of mourning or the prohibition of abandonment of children issued around the same time.
Japanese: これにより、江戸幕府の財政難に拍車がかかったことは否めないが一方で、同時期に出された服忌令、捨子禁止令からも見られるように、道徳観を民衆に扶植することで、文治政治を強化する狙いがあったともいえよう。
English: The above-mentioned worsening of the chronic budget deficit that had been built up since the rule of Ietsuna, the previous shogun, was due to the excessive spending by Tsunayoshi and his mother Keishoin, as well as the enforcement of the Shorui Awareminorei.
Japanese: 綱吉並びにその母である桂昌院の散財、生類憐みの令の採用等と相俟って先代家綱の頃からの慢性的な財政赤字は、先述のように悪化していった。
English: Therefore, the bakufu appointed Kanjoginmiyaku (a post of the Edo bakufu to support commissioners at the finance ministry) Shigehide OGIWARA (later he became kanjo bugyo [commissioner of finance]) to gain profit from money emissions (seignoirage) by issuing Genroku Koban (oval gold coin), however, it in turn caused inflation, which threatened the common people's life.
Japanese: その為、勘定吟味役（後に勘定奉行）に荻原重秀を登用し、元禄小判を行い、幕府は貨幣発行益（シニョレージ（seigniorage））を得たけれども、インフレーションを招き庶民の生活を苦しめることとなった。
English: As Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA had no son who could succeed him, the lord of the Kofu domain Ienobu TOKUGAWA, who was his nephew, became the sixth shogun, and after Ienobu, Ietsugu TOKUGAWA assumed the position of the seventh shogun, although he was still little.
Japanese: 徳川綱吉に後継となる男子が生まれなかった為、甥の甲府藩主徳川家宣が6代将軍に次いで、7代将軍に幼児の徳川家継が就任する。
English: In this period Akifusa MANABE and a Neo-Confucian scholar Hakuseki ARAI led the government because the shogun was weak and immature.
Japanese: この時期は将軍が病弱･幼年ということもあり、間部詮房や朱子学者である新井白石が政治を主宰した。
English: The challenge of this government was 'how to enhance the status and authority of the shogunate, regardless of a shogun's own personality,' due to the fact that Shogun Ietsugu was not gifted with longevity and he was immature, and therefore, it can be said that the policies in this age were under the influence of Neo-Confucianism just as in the age of Tsunayoshi.
Japanese: この政権の課題は、将軍が短命･幼弱ということもあり、「如何にして将軍個人の人格よりも将軍職の地位とその権威を高めるか」であり、綱吉の頃と同様、朱子学の影響を受けた政策と言える。
English: Immediately after Ienobu assumed the position of shogun, Hakuseki ARAI abolished the order Shorui Awareminorei and dismissed the sobayonin Yoshiyasu YANAGISAWA.
Japanese: 新井白石は家宣が将軍就任後すぐに、生類憐みの令を廃止し、側用人の柳沢吉保を罷免した。
English: And in order to resolve the government's problems, he firstly decided to use the authority of the Imperial Family (by establishing the Kaninnomiya family and fixing the engagement between a daughter of the Emperor Reigen, Imperial Princess Yoshiko, and Ietsugu TOKUGAWA).
Japanese: そして政権の課題を解決する為に行ったことは第一に天皇家の権威を借りることとした（閑院宮家の創設、霊元天皇の息女、吉子内親王と徳川家継の婚約）。
English: Secondly, by issuing the second edition of Buke Shohatto in the Hoei era, he established the dress code and limited the use of the family crest of Hollyhock, which belonged to the Tokugawa family.
Japanese: 第二に宝永の武家諸法度を発布し、衣服の制度を制定し、徳川家の家紋である葵の紋所の使用を制限した。
English: Thirdly, he simplified the reception of Chosen Tsushinshi (Joseon missions dispatched to Japan), and changed the honorific title used to address the Japanese sovereign in messages sent by the Joseon Dynasty from "Tycoon of Japan" to "King", which was a higher title.
Japanese: 第三に朝鮮通信使の待遇を簡素化し、李氏朝鮮から日本宛の国書を「日本国大君殿下」から「国王｣へと修正させた。
English: The second action taken in considering Japan's import surplus through the trade in Nagasaki, was restricting the international trade through Nagasaki by issuing a new law in 1715 to limit the amount of international trade called 'Kaihakugoshi shinrei' or 'Nagasaki shinrei' (which meant that gold and silver were drained out of Japan; and the outflow of gold and silver meant the decrease of the domestic circulation of money and eventually indicated the risk of cooling economy because the currency was backed by the amount of gold and silver at that time).
Japanese: 第二に、長崎貿易は大幅な輸入超過であることを鑑み（つまり、金銀が海外に流出することを意味した。金銀の海外流出は貨幣の裏づけが金銀である以上、国内の貨幣流通量を減少させることとなり、景気を冷え込ませることを意味した）、1715年海舶互市新例（長崎新令）を発布し、長崎貿易を制限した。
English: The economic difficulties of the Edo bakufu, triggered in the age of Ietsuna, became increasingly serious during the civilian government.
Japanese: 家綱の頃に端を発した、江戸幕府の財政難は文治政治の時代に悪化の一途を辿った。
English: Although the Edo bakufu relied on rice for its source of funds, the fall in the price of rice in relation to the prices of other commodities went unresolved from the reign of the fourth shogun through to that of the seventh; the issue was finally resolved by the Kyoho reforms introduced by Yoshimune TOKUGAWA.
Japanese: 江戸幕府の財源は米に依拠しているにもかかわらず、米価がその他の物価に対し相対的に下落していく傾向を放置した状態であり、4～7代将軍の頃には解決できず、徳川吉宗の享保の改革を待つこととなる。
English: The Shindo incident is a peasants' revolt that took place in Shindo Village (present-day Hiratsuka City), Osumi County, Kanagawa Prefecture in 1878.
Japanese: 真土事件（しんどじけん）は1878年（明治11年）、神奈川県大住郡真土村（現平塚市）に起こった農民暴動。
English: Kyoka IZUMI wrote a novel titled "Kanmuri Yazaemon" on the theme of this incident and started his career as a novelist.
Japanese: また泉鏡花はこの事件を素材とした『冠弥左衛門』を書いて文壇にテビューした。
English: In November 1876, 65 peasants including Yaemon KANMURI filed a lawsuit against Choemon MATSUKI, the ward mayor and kocho (the officer in charge of administrative affairs), for the redemption of the lands to the Yokohama Court and won the case.
Japanese: 1876年（明治9年）11月、冠弥右衛門ら六五名は区長兼戸長職にあった松木長右衛門に土地の請け戻しを横浜裁判所に訴え、勝訴。
English: Yaemon KANMURI and others lost the case at the second court and faced a strict levy of legal costs and arrears of farm rent.
Japanese: 二審では冠弥右衛門らは敗訴し、訴訟費用や延納小作料の厳しい請求を受けた。
English: Late at night on October 26, 1878, 26 villagers led by Yaemon KANMURI set fire to the house of Choemon MATSUKI, and murdered seven people and injured four people.
Japanese: 1878年（明治11年）10月26日深夜、冠弥右衛門以下26名の村民が松木長右衛門の家を焼打にし、7名殺害、4名に傷を負わせた。
English: Within one month after the incident, about 1,800 people sent a petition for sparing lives of Kanmuri and others to the prefectural government.
Japanese: 事件発生から一ヶ月の間に約1,800名による冠らの助命嘆願書が県庁に寄せられた。
English: In May 1879, Torin MATSUMOTO, the chief priest of Kencho-ji Temple, submitted a petition for mitigation of a penalty to Yasushi NOMURA, the Governor of Kanagawa Prefecture, together with Kozen IMAKITA, the chief priest of Engaku-ji Temple, and Sonkei TAA, the chief priest of Shojoko-ji Temple (also known as Yugyo-ji Temple in Fujisawa).
Japanese: 1879年（明治12年）5月、建長寺住職の松本等隣は、円覚寺住職の今北洪川、清浄光寺（藤沢・遊行寺）住職の他阿尊敬とともに神奈川県令野村靖宛に減刑の「嘆願書」を提出。
English: In June 1881, Enshi RYUTEI (the first; Enshi DANSHURO [the first]) (also known as Chibun ARAGAKI, a disciple of Robun KANAGAKI) performed "Miyama no Matsukima Tsukikage" at Minato-za Theater in Sumiyoshi-cho, Yokohama City.
Japanese: 1881年（明治14年）6月、初代柳亭燕枝（談洲楼燕枝(初代)）（仮名垣魯文の弟子のあら垣痴文）は横浜市住吉町港座で『深山の松木間月影』を上演。
English: In July 1881, "Shindo no Matsuniwaki Uekae" was performed at Shimoda-za Theater (also known as Sano-za Theater) in Hagoromo-cho, Yokohama City.
Japanese: 1881年（明治14年）7月、横浜市羽衣町下田座（さの座）にて『真土の松庭木植換』上演。
English: On February 15, 1882, Yaemon KANMURI was discharged from prison on condition that he would carry out shushoku (substitute by a forfeit), because he had a relative to look after.
Japanese: 1882年（明治15年）2月15日、冠弥右衛門、養親を理由として、収贖（しゅうしょく・罰金での代替）による出獄を許可される。
English: On April 29, 1883, as the representatives of 61 villagers in Horiyamashita Village, Osumi County, more than ten people led by Shigejiro NANJO intruded on the house of Tahei YAMAGUCHI in the same village and threatened him.
Japanese: 1883年（明治16年）4月29日、大住郡堀山下村61名の総代として、南条繁次郎以下十数名が、同村山口太平宅に押し寄せて恐迫。
English: On October 14, 1883, more than 40 peasants in Koyasu Village, Osumi County gathered at a place called Tanzawayama in that village and attempted to attack Kitaro OMORI, Sadaemon OTSU, Sanemon SUZUKI and others with bamboo spears.
Japanese: 1883年（明治16年）10月14日、同郡小易村農民40余名が、同村字丹沢山に集結して竹槍などを持ち出して、同村大森幾太郎、大津定右衛門、鈴木三右衛門らを襲おうと計画。
English: At night on March 29, 1884, more than 40 people from Yoshigiwa Village and seven other villages in that county gathered at Yawatashita, Okami Village and consulted as to how they could repay debts from Hachiroemon OSHIO of Toda Village, and the talks ended in disorder.
Japanese: 1884年（明治17年）3月29日夜、同郡吉際村ほか7ヶ村の民40余名が大神村字八幡下に集結して戸田村小塩八郎右衛門からの負債返済方法を協議し、不穏の形勢を示す。
English: In March 1884, Yaemon KANMURI became an ascetic of Komyo-ji Temple in Kamakura, and started pilgrimages to temples and shrines throughout the country.
Japanese: 1884年（明治17年）3月、冠弥右衛門鎌倉の光明寺に徒弟入りし、全国の寺社巡礼開始。
English: On May 15, 1884, Jinzo KONDO and other 10 people in Yamashita Village, Yurugi County attacked Usaburo TSUYUKI, a usurer in Isshiki Village in that county, and his employee Kosuke TSUYUKI at an inn called Kawasakiya in Oiso-juku, and murdered them with a sword.
Japanese: 1884年（明治17年）5月15日、淘綾郡山下村の近藤甚蔵ほか10名が同郡一色村の高利貸露木卯三郎とその雇人露木幸助を大磯宿の旅館川崎屋に襲って両人を斬殺。
English: On October 1, 1892, Kyoka IZUMI started serializing "Kanmuri Yazaemon" in 'Hinode Newspaper' published in Kyoto.
Japanese: 1892年（明治25年）10月1日、泉鏡花『冠弥左衛門』京都の「日出新聞」に掲載開始。
English: Bansho-wage Goyo (Government Office for Translation of Barbarian Books) was a translation organization established by the Edo Bakufu in 1811.
Japanese: 蛮書和解御用（蕃書和解御用、ばんしょわげごよう）は、1811年（文化(元号)8年）に江戸幕府によって設置された翻訳機関。
English: From then on, it continued to exist changing names to Yogakusho (Institute of Foreign Study), Bansho shirabesho (barbarian book checking office) and Yosho shirabesho (foreign book checking office), which became one of the origins of the University of Tokyo.
Japanese: その後も、洋学所、蕃書調所、洋書調所と名を変えて存続し、現在の東京大学の起源の一つとなった。
English: "Bankoku Koho" is a translated name of a commentary on international law, which gave considerable influences to various countries in East Asia by diffusing modern international law in a period from the second half of the nineteenth century to the first half of the twentieth century.
Japanese: 万国公法（ばんこくこうほう）は、19世紀後半から20世紀前半にかけて近代国際法を普及させたという点で、東アジア各国に多大な影響を与えた国際法解説書の翻訳名である。
English: At the same time, it was a term used as a translation of "international law" before the current translation "kokusaiho."
Japanese: 同時に"InternationalLaw"の現在の訳語「国際法」以前に使用されていた旧訳語でもある。
English: The first part of this article will focus on "Bankoku Koho", the first translation of the commentary, translated and named by W. Martin and its re-translations to other languages and it will mention how international law originated in Western Europe brought by this book was accepted in Asian countries.
Japanese: 以下では最初に翻訳命名されたW.マーチンの『万国公法』とその重訳本を中心に記述し、この本がもたらした西欧起源の国際法がアジア諸国にどのように受容されていったかについても触れる。
English: [Remark] In order to distinguish between the translated term and the name of book, hereinafter, "Bankoku Koho" means the name of the book, and bankoku koho means translation of kokusaiho (international law) and international law itself.
Japanese: 〔凡例〕単なる訳語と書名を区別するため、以後『万国公法』と書く場合は書名を意味し、「万国公法」と書く場合は国際法の訳語および"InternationalLaw"としての国際法を指すものとする。
English: Today, the term "kokusaiho" has different meanings compare to the time of its introduction, for example, in the matter of existence or non-existence of the right of national self-determination, and the term "kokusaiho (or international law)" in this article is used to denote one in the modern age.
Japanese: ただ国際法と一口にいっても近代と現代のそれでは、民族自決権の有無など大きく内容は異なるため、この記事における国際法とは近代のそれを指して使用している。
English: When we consider influence to a certain case, it is difficult to determine whether the case was just affected by "Bankoku Koho" or by other factors.
Japanese: ある事件に対する影響を考慮した時、『万国公法』のみの影響と断ずることが困難な時がある。
English: Therefore, in such case, it is described as "bankoku koho" to mean the influence given by the modern international law system including "Bankoku Koho."
Japanese: そういう場合は「万国公法」という表記を用い、『万国公法』も含めた近代国際法体系の与えた影響という意味で使用している。
English: "Bankoku Koho" was the title of Chinese translation of "Elements of International Law," which was the representative work of Henry Wheaton, who was a jurist specialized in international law.
Japanese: 「万国公法」とは、国際法学者であるヘンリー・ホイートンの代表的な著作ElementsofInternationalLawが漢語訳されたときのタイトル名。
English: This translated term, bankoku koho had come to stay as a translation of "international law," as the book "Bankoku Koho" became widely known, and even when translating commentaries on international law other than "Elements of International Law," this term "bankoku koho" was used for the title.
Japanese: またこの訳は、この書が世に広く知られるようになるとともに、"InternationalLaw"の訳語としても定着していき、ElementsofInternationalLaw以外の国際法解説書を翻訳する際においても「万国公法」ということばがタイトルに使われるようになった。
English: The translator was William Martin who was American Protestant missionary, who had been engaged in missionary work in China at that time and the translation was the first book that introduced full-fledged international law to East Asia.
Japanese: 翻訳者は当時中国で布教していたアメリカ人プロテスタント宣教師ウィリアム．マーティンで、その訳書は東アジアに本格的に国際法を紹介した最初の書物である。
English: The translation taught countries in East Asia what was international law and gave significant influences to domestic political reform and foreign diplomacy in various regions.
Japanese: 国際法の何たるかを東アジア諸国に伝え、各地域の国内政治改革や外交に大きな影響を与えた。
English: In particularly in Japan, there was larger and quicker response compare to Qing dynasty in China, where this book was first published, and the influence which the book gave to Japan during the end of Edo and Meiji Restoration period is not negligible.
Japanese: 特に日本では、最初に刊行された清朝よりも大きく素早い反応を生みだし、幕末明治維新に及ぼした影響は無視できないものがあった。
English: In the international society in East Asia in pre-modern times, international order was formed and maintained having China dynasty, which had significant presence politically, economically and culturally, in its center.
Japanese: 前近代における東アジア国際社会は、政治的・経済的・文化的に大きな存在感を放つ中国王朝を中心とする形で国際秩序が成り立っていた。
English: Neighboring countries of China including Japan, Korea, Viet Nam and Ryukyu has formed and maintained stable international order by taking various stances toward China.
Japanese: 日本や朝鮮、ベトナム、琉球といった中国の周辺諸国は、その中国から様々なスタンスを取ることで安定的な国際秩序を形成維持してきた。
English: Depending on what kind of stance was taken toward Chinese dynasty, neighboring countries were classified into several categories of international relations such as sakuho (conferring a peerage with papers), choko (bringing tributary) and goshi (relation to conduct a limited amount of trade).
Japanese: 中国王朝に対しどのようなスタンスを取るかという点で、（中国王朝から見て）周辺諸国はいくつかの国際関係の種類、たとえば冊封や朝貢、互市に分類される。
English: According to various studies in the past, package of such various international relations has been often expressed as the choko-sakuho system, goshi system or Kaichitsujo (It differs by the target period or researcher.)
Japanese: これまでの諸研究では、このような様々な国際関係を束ねたものを朝貢―冊封体制、あるいは朝貢システム、互市体制、華夷秩序と表現することが多い（対象とする時代や研究者によって異なる）。
English: Kaichitsujo looked from Chinese dynasty was a view of the world based on Sinocentrism projected to the reality and it was international order in which China is recognized as "Ka" (culture) and the more remote from China, which was the center of concentric circle-shaped hierarchy the more remote from "Ka" and come closer to "iteki" (barbarians).
Japanese: 中国王朝から見た華夷秩序は、中華思想に基づく世界観を現実に投影したもので、中国を「華」（文明）と自認し、中国という同心円的ヒエラルキーの中心から離れるに従い「華」から離れ「夷狄」（野蛮）に近づいていくと考える国際秩序である。
English: Uniqueness of this hierarchy was that the area directly controlled by Chinese dynasty and other areas were not separated with clear separating lines such as border between countries but recognized as continuous one.
Japanese: このヒエラルキーが特異なのは、中国王朝が直接支配する領域とそれ以外の地域とが国境のような確固たる分断線によって区切られず、連続したものとして捉えられている点である。
English: In more details, regions are roughly classified into the following three categories:- Regions which were directly controlled by an emperor of China, who received the will of heaven (Administrative districts called "sho (Province)" were set up.)- Indirectly controlled area (Influential persons in outlands were appointed to doshi/dokan (local governor) and a certain level of autonomous control was allowed in exchange of tributes.)- Outside of the territory (regions in which "iteki" lived; land which was not covered by influence of the virtue of the emperor; so-called "kegainochi (land out of states reign)").
Japanese: 具体的には、天命を承けた中国皇帝が直接支配する地域（行政区である省が置かれている）間接統治地域（辺境の有力者を土司・土官に任命し、貢ぎ物と引き替えに一定の自治を認める）版図外（「夷狄」のいる地域、皇帝の徳の感化が及ばない土地。所謂「化外の地」）という大きく分けて三つのカテゴリーがある。
English: It was supported by the concept that in areas which are not directly controlled by an emperor of China such as the second or third categories above, the virtue of an emperor of China lost influence, and the power of control of China decreases accordingly.
Japanese: 前者から後者に行くに従い、漸次中国皇帝の徳が及ばなくなり、同時に中国の支配力も低下していくという観念で支えられている。
English: Even an area is categorized as "outside of territory", it means that the land is just not easy to influence by control of China (or the virtue of an emperor of China) and it should be controlled by an emperor of China.
Japanese: したがって版図外といっても、その地は中国の支配（あるいは中国皇帝の徳）がなかなか及ばないだけで、本来中国皇帝に支配されるべき地であるという意識は捨てられていない。