nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The law provided major restrictions to government-approved prostitution by abolishing forced apprenticeship.
Japanese: 強制的な年季奉公の廃止など、公娼制度を大規模に制限する法令であった。
English: However, since it was announced abruptly with no preparation period, the Meiji Government had to have local governments deal with aftercare services for liberated women in pleasant quarters, particularly prostitutes, such as finding new jobs and compensating for their lost income.
Japanese: しかし準備期間が全くないまま唐突に発せられた点は否めず、解放された女性の転職、収入面の補償などのケアは個々の地方に任される状態であった。
English: Such being the case, the Geishogi Kaiho Rei didn't really function as a law; thus it didn't make a big difference in the condition of those women.
Japanese: このため、法令としてはあまり機能せず、女性がおかれた状態はあまり変わらなかったという。
English: The Geishogi Kaiho Rei wasn't very effective in changing the situation directly; however, as its by-product, in some regions, opportunities for women to study and to achieve vocational skills for light industry were created with the intent of preventing poor peasants from selling their daughters into prostitution.
Japanese: 芸娼妓解放令は直接的に機能したとは言い難い状態であったが、同令がきっかけとなり、貧農の娘の身売りを防ぐために、女性に対して教育や軽工業に対応する技能習得の場が設けられた地方もある。
English: After the middle of Meiji period, many of these women's educational and vocational institutions formed the basis of manufacture, where female labor was recognized and utilized.
Japanese: これらの中には、明治時代中期以降に女性労働力に着目したマニュファクチュアの基盤を形成したものも多い。
English: Shuyoshi, also called hoyoshi, raised and trained falcons and hunting dogs, and had complete control over hunting such as falconry and so on.
Japanese: 主鷹司は放鷹司とも書き､鷹や猟犬を飼育・調教し、鷹狩などの狩猟を取り仕切った。
English: Due to the Buddhist thought of 'ahimsa,' Shuyoshi was abolished in 721, and in a period from 764 to 769 under Dokyo's government, and then Hojoshi (literally, office of returning animals to nature) was established.
Japanese: 「不殺生」といった仏教思想により、721年、および道鏡政権下の764年から769年までは廃止されて放生司(ほうじょうし)が置かれた。
English: Shuyoshi was revived in the Enryaku era, but it was abolished practically because nobody came to be appointed as government posts of Shuyoshi from 861 due to part of downsizing measures.
Japanese: 延暦年間には復活したが、人員削減政策の一環として861年からはここの官職は任命されなくなり、実質的に廃止された。
English: In the Ritsuryo system, it was conventional to divide the Capital into the east part and west part, and to call the east part 'Sakyo,' and call the west part 'Ukyo.'
Japanese: 律令制に置いては首都を東西に分けて東側を「左京（さきょう）」、西側を「右京（うきょう）」と呼ぶ慣わしがあった。
English: Therefore, Kyoshiki was established in the east part and the west part, respectively, and each office was called 'Sakyoshiki' (Eastern Capital Offices) and 'Ukyoshiki' (Western Capital Offices).
Japanese: このため、京職も左右それぞれに設置されて「左京職（さきょうしき）」・「右京職（うきょうしき）」と呼ばれていた。
English: Kyoshiki was equivalent to Kokushi (Provincial Offices) in the province, but, its social status was higher than that of Kokushi, and Kyoshiki was treated as kyokan (central government official) while Kokushi was treated as an outside official (local official).
Japanese: 京職は地方における国司にあたるが､格式はそれらより高く､国司が外官（地方官）であるのに対し､京職は京官（中央官）扱いであった。
English: In order to assist administrative affairs, Borei (chief of the four districts of the capital) was placed at each jo (east-west district), and Bocho (chief of each district of the capital) (town mayor) was placed at each bo (north-west district), and then, the Capital was supervised in every hole and corner.
Japanese: 行政事務を補佐するために各条ごとに坊令､各坊ごとに坊長（町長）が置かれ､末端まで統治した。
English: As hikan (low-level bureaucrat), ichi no tsukasa (governmental organization) existed, and Sakyoshiki having jurisdiction over Higashi no ichi no tsukasa, and Ukyoshiki having jurisdiction over Nishi no ichi no tsukasa handled affairs concerning market.
Japanese: 被官に市司（いちのつかさ）があり､それぞれ左京職が東市司を､右京職が西市司をそれぞれ管轄し市場に関する事務を取り扱った。
English: Thereafter, the power of security was usurped by Kebiishi (officials with judicial and police powers) in the Heian period, and Kyoshiki came to lose its substance along with the ruin of the imperial capital (esp. Kyoto).
Japanese: のち､平安時代になると治安権限を検非違使に奪われ､京の荒廃とともに形骸化した。
English: In the Muromachi period, Soke (the head family or house) of the Hosokawa clan, one of three kanrei (shogunal deputy), which inherited the post of Ukyo no daibu (Master of the Western Capital Offices), was called the Keicho family.
Japanese: 室町時代には、三管領のひとつ細川氏宗家が右京大夫の職を世襲したため、細川氏宗家は京兆家とよばれた。
English: In the Sengoku period (period of warring states) when the imperial court and court nobles started selling their official court ranks due to financial difficulties, Ukyo no daibu, pronoun of Shogunal Deputy the Hosokawa clan which was the samurai family of pedigree, was believed to be the nifitiest official court rank for Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) in provinces (especially for daimyo in the Tohoku region) who wanted to add dignity.
Japanese: 戦国時代になり、朝廷や公家が経済的に困窮し、官位が売られるようになると、武家の名門である、管領細川家の代名詞とも言える右京大夫は、地方の戦国大名（特に東北地方の大名）にとって箔付けのために最も人気のある官位であったという。
English: Remarks: Kyoin which supervised both Sakyo and Ukyo by itself was established under FUJIWARA no Nakamaro's government.
Japanese: 備考：藤原仲麻呂政権下で左右京を一人で統治する京尹（きょういん）が置かれた。
English: Tenka (天下, also pronounced tenga, tenge, or amenoshita) is a notion which means the whole world.
Japanese: 天下（てんか、てんが、てんげ、あめのした）とは、全世界を意味する概念。
English: The definition of the word is "futen no moto," which means a space with no geographical limits, but depending on usage, it sometimes means a certain geographical notion.
Japanese: 字義的には「普天の下」という意味で、地理的限定のない空間のことであるが、用法によっては一定の地理概念と同じ意味に用いられることもある。
English: Generally speaking, Tenka is accompanied by a fixed principle of order and it means an area, people or a nation which is subject to such a principle of order.
Japanese: また一般に天下は、一定の秩序原理を伴い、その対象とされる地域・民衆・国家という形で捉えられる。
English: In other words, while the existence of "sekai" (the world) is recognized objectively even without "a view of the world," "Tenka" exists ideologically based on the fixed principle of order.
Japanese: すなわち一般に「世界」は「世界観」がなくても客観的に存在しているものと認識されるが、「天下」は一定の秩序原理によって観念的に成立している。
English: In China, Tenka generally referred to the space which the emperor of the Chinese dynasty ruled based on the fixed universal principle of order.
Japanese: 中国における天下は、一般に中国王朝の皇帝が主宰し、一定の普遍的な秩序原理に支配されている空間であった。
English: What existed in the center of Tenka was the area which the Chinese dynasty directly ruled, and it was called "Ka", "Ka", "Chuka", "Chuka", or "Chugoku" etc.
Japanese: 天下の中心にあるのが中国王朝の直接支配する地域で、「夏」「華」「中夏」「中華」「中国」などと呼ばれる。
English: Surrounding the above area, there were areas which were distinguished from the Chinese dynasty called "Shiho" and "i."
Japanese: その周囲には「四方」「夷」などといった中国王朝とは区別される地域があった。
English: However, these areas were deemed as the ones that were to be incorporated into the principle of order of the emperor of the Chinese dynasty.
Japanese: しかし、これらの地域もいずれは中国の皇帝の主宰する秩序原理に組み入れられる存在として認識されていた。
English: According to the iron swords and inscriptions on the swords which were excavated at the Eta Funayama Tumulus in Kumamoto Prefecture, however, they used the title of "Yamato Okimi" (amenoshita shiroshimesu okimi) (literally, the Grate King of Yamato) inside Japan around in the late fifth century.
Japanese: しかし、熊本県の江田船山古墳から出土した鉄剣・鉄刀銘文などによれば5世紀後期ごろには国内に対して「ヤマト大王」（アメノシタシロシメスオホキミ）と称していたことが判明している。
English: The above is thought as the evidence that the notion of "own Tenka which is different from that of China" had already been born by that time.
Japanese: これは、その時期までに、倭国内で「中国世界とは異なる独自の天下」概念が発生していた徴証だと考えられている。
English: According to Suishu (the Book of the Sui Dynasty), the King of Wa called himself "Hiizurutokoro no tenshi" (literally, the king of the place where the sun rises) in the letter he sent to Emperor Yodai in 607, and this fact also suggests the existence of the different notion of Tenka from the Chinese world.
Japanese: 『隋書』によれば7世紀初頭の大業3年（607年）に倭国王（原文「俀國王」）が隋皇帝煬帝への親書に自らを「日出處天子」と称したことも、中国世界と異なる天下概念が存続していたことを物語っている。
English: Along with the philosophy of regarding people as public citizens, which was the characteristics of the Ritsuryo system, it was understood as "Tenka komin" (Tenka citizens).
Japanese: 律令制の特徴である公民思想を伴って、「天下公民」という形で把握された。
English: Although the notion of "Tenka" once became out of use in the Heian period according to the development of the dynastic state, it again started to be used according to the development of samurai society as the word which was almost synonymous with "Japan," as shown by the fact that the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu was understood as "the creation of Tenka."
Japanese: 王朝国家の進展に伴って、平安時代には一時「天下」の概念は廃れるが、鎌倉幕府の成立が「天下の草創」と認識されたように、武家社会の進展に伴って日本とほぼ同義の意味で使用されるようになった。
English: The reason for the above is because Korea was included in the Tenka of the Chinese dynasty for a quite long time.
Japanese: それは中国王朝を中心とする天下のなかにあった時期が極めて長かったことによる。
English: There was the notion of the Korea-centered Tenka in the period of old dynasties like Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje as well as in the Goryeo period, but the notion was criticized from the standpoint of meibunron (the theory of justification of titles and social standings) when Neo-Confucianism was introduced in the late Goryeo period.
Japanese: 高句麗・新羅・百済の古代王朝、そして高麗の時代にも朝鮮を中心とする独自の天下概念がなかったわけではないが、高麗後期に朱子学が流入すると、名分論の立場から朝鮮中心の天下的世界認識に批判が加えられた。
English: Neo-Confucianism created the sho-chuka shiso (literally, mini-Sinocentrism) under which Korea was understood as "sho-chuka" (mini-China) or "sho-ka" (mini-China).
Japanese: 一方で朱子学は自国を「小中華」「小華」などと認識する小中華思想を生んだ。
English: The philosophy of sho-chuka brought the trend to regard Yomei-gaku (Neo-Confucianism based on the teachings of Wang Yangming), which was popular in China in the Ming dynasty but was not so in Korea, as a heresy, as well as the cognition to define China ruled under the Qing dynasty as "China subjugated by iteki (barbarians)," and accordingly it promoted the idea that Korea is the mainstream of chuka (China).
Japanese: 小中華主義は明代中国に流行しながら朝鮮では流行しなかった陽明学を異端視する風潮、清朝による中国支配を「中国が夷狄の支配に服するもの」と規定する認識となり、朝鮮こそが中華の本流であるという思想をはぐくんだ。
English: The notions of China-centered "Tenka" and Korea-centered "Tenka" co-existed in Korea.
Japanese: 朝鮮では中国を中心とする「天下」概念と朝鮮を中心とする「天下」概念が並存していた。
English: In Vietnam, the notion of Tenka appeared in the 13th century when the ethnic consciousness was whipped up by the Mongol invasion.
Japanese: ベトナムにおける天下の概念は、13世紀の元寇を契機として民族意識が昂揚するとともに出現した。
English: The above notion of Tenka defined the Vietnam dynasty, which started from the Tran dynasty, as the successor of Nanetsukoku (南越国) (the Kingdom of Nanyue) and deemed its original territory from the Lingnan area of China to the northern part of Vietnam as its own Tenka.
Japanese: その天下概念は当初陳朝にいたるヴェトナム王朝を南越国の後継と位置づけ、その領域であった中国の嶺南地方からヴェトナム北部に至る地域に固有の天下概念を設定するものであった。
English: However, around the end of 18th century in the end of the Lê Dynasty, the historical view that regarded Lingnan as orthodox territory of the Vietnam dynasty came to be criticized.
Japanese: ところが18世紀末の黎朝末期のころになると、南越をヴェトナム王朝の正統とする史観に批判が加えられた。
English: Based on the above, it is thought that tenkakokka (Tenka and the state) was defined as the territory of present Vietnam, which Europeans referred to "Tonkin" or "Cochinchine" at the time.
Japanese: このことは当時のヨーロッパ人が「トンキン」「コーチシナ」と呼んだ今日のヴェトナムの領域に天下国家が設定されるようになったと考えられている。
English: The territory of Vietnam's "Tenka" changed under the influence of Sino-Vietnam relations.
Japanese: ヴェトナムの「天下」は主に中越関係に影響されながら、その領域を変容させた。
English: Among the nomads in North Asia and Central Asia represented by those in Mongolia, the notion called "Tenguri" exists as the comparable or similar notion to "Ten" (the sky or heaven) of Chinese dynasties.
Japanese: モンゴルを代表とする北アジア・中央アジアの遊牧民においては、中国王朝の「天」に対応あるいは類似する概念として「テングリ」概念が存在する。
English: At present, Tenguri is closely related to the religious life of nomads of the Kamchatka peninsula to the Sea of Marmara.
Japanese: テングリは今日においてはカムチャツカ半島からマルマラ海にまで遊牧民族の信仰生活に密接にかかわっている。
English: Tenguri is believed to be the god of destiny or Ten itself since it is the presiding god of Ten, and it sometimes appears as the god of creation.
Japanese: テングリは天の主宰神として運命神であるとともに、天そのものでもあり、創造神として現れることもある。
English: Religious services for Tenguri are conducted based on Shamanism at present, and it is believed that the Shamanism of Asian nomads has its unique view of the world called "Uchu Sangaikan" (literally, the view of three realms of the universe).
Japanese: また今日ではテングリに対する祭祀はシャーマニズムに基づいて行われるが、アジアの遊牧民のシャーマニズムには宇宙三界観と呼ばれる独特の世界観があるとされている。
English: In their view, a hero, or a savior, was sometimes dispatched to the earth as the proxy of Tenguri, and this hero was called "the son of Tenguri."
Japanese: 地上にはテングリの代理者として救世主的な英雄がしばしば遣わされ、この英雄は「テングリの子」というように呼ばれていた。
English: The chanyu (the nomadic supreme rulers) of Xiongnu and the khan of the Mongolian Empire such as Genghis Khan called themselves "the son of Tenguri."
Japanese: 匈奴の単于やチンギス・カンをはじめとするモンゴル帝国のハーンはこの「テングリの子」を称した。
English: By doing so, they monopolized the idea of salvation on the earth to be recognized as the sole monarch on the earth.
Japanese: 彼らはこのことにより地上の救済を観念上独占し、地上における唯一の君主として君臨する者と主観された。
English: As shown by the above, the nomads in Asia also had a view of the world based on the fixed principle of order, which was similar to the notion of "Tenka."
Japanese: このようにアジアの遊牧民にも一定の秩序原理に基づいた「天下」概念類似の地上世界観が存在したとされる。
English: However, in their notion there existed only the dual structure consisting of those who obeyed "the son of Tenguri" and those who confronted him, and the stepwise structure of order, such as the order of kai (the Chinese vs. barbarians) did not exist or was hardly seen.
Japanese: しかし、そこには「テングリの子」に服属する者と敵対する者という二元的構造が存在するのみで、華夷秩序のように段階的な秩序構造は存在しなかったか希薄であった。
English: It is thought that "Tenka" was not established as the world in the Yin dynasty era.
Japanese: 殷の時代には世界としての「天下」はいまだ成立していなかったと考えられている。
English: When the personified notion of Ten was created in the Zhou dynasty era, germination of the notion of "Tenka" came to be seen.
Japanese: 周の時代に人格的な天の概念が成立すると、それにあわせて「天下」概念の萌芽が見られる。
English: "Shiho" referred to the territory of the dynasty including China, its center where the emperor of Zhou resided, and the surrounding regions where different ethnic groups lived.
Japanese: 「四方」というのは王朝成立の対象領域で、その経営の中心は周王のいる中国であり、その周囲にある異民族のいる土地のことである。
English: "Banpo" referred to "tami" (the people) and "kyodo" (territory), and "tami" included the people of different ethnic groups and "kyodo" included the land of different ethnic groups.
Japanese: 「万邦」というのは「民」と「疆土」のことで、「民」は異民族も含めた民、疆土にも異民族の土地が含まれていた。
English: During the last stage of Zhou (the Chunqiu period and the Warring States period [China]), lords of various places which had been ruled by Zhou began to administer independently and assimilated into their own territory and surrounding regions.
Japanese: 周の後期（春秋時代・戦国時代(中国)）には、周に封建制されていた諸侯が各自の国内・周辺地域に対する政治支配と同化を進めた。
English: Because of these movements, a common cultural or economic sphere was established in many provinces, and the notion of "China" became widespread in the area located along the middle reaches of the Yellow River.
Japanese: これにより多くの国に共通の文化圏、経済圏が形成され、黄河中流域を中心に「中国」概念も拡大された。
English: The usage of "Tenka" is seen in "Chunqiu Zuoshi Zhuan" (Master Zuo's Commentary to the Spring and Autumns) and "Kokugo" (history book) etc.
Japanese: 『春秋左氏伝』『国語(歴史書)』などには「天下」の用法が確認される。
English: When the regions which had been ruled by Zhou were politically unified by the Qin dynasty, the notion of "Tenka" became a clear geographical notion which corresponded to the reality in politics.
Japanese: 秦によって、周の支配していた地域が政治的に一元化されて統合されると、現実の政治世界に対応する明確な地理概念として「天下」概念は顕在化した。
English: The unification by Qin was the "unification of Tenka," and the fact that China unified Tenka meant the expansion of China.
Japanese: 秦の統一は「天下の統一」であり、中国が天下を統一したということは中国の拡大であった。
English: During the Han dynasty era, this notion of "China = Tenka" changed under the influence of actual sakuho relations, and the contemporary notion of "Tenka," which means the world including other surrounding ethnic groups, was established.
Japanese: 漢代になると、この「中国＝天下」概念が現実の冊封関係に影響されて変容し、周辺諸民族をも含めた現代的意味での世界として「天下」概念が成立した。
English: Sakuho relations means the lord-vassal relations between the emperor of China and the heads of neighboring states, and by making such relations, the regions under the rule of the heads of those states were ideologically incorporated into the principle of order of the Chinese emperor.
Japanese: 冊封関係とは、周辺国家の首長を皇帝の臣下として君臣関係を取り結ぶもので、このことにより周辺国家の首長の支配下にある地域は、観念的に皇帝の主宰する秩序原理に組み入れられた。
English: During the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (China), a plural number of emperors appeared in China and the phenomenon of political division of Tenka was seen.
Japanese: 南北朝時代(中国)には一時中華の内部に複数の皇帝が出現し、天下の政治的分裂という現象が見られた。
English: In the Tang dynasty era, the emperor of the Chinese Empire ruled the states of northern nomads as "Great Khan."
Japanese: 唐の時代には中華帝国の皇帝は北方遊牧民族の諸国に対しても「大可汗」として君臨した。
English: Although the Tang dynasty had military clashes with the Islamic empire (Caliphate) at the west front such as the Battle of Talas or negotiations including trade, its notion of Tenka, unlike that of the Qin and Han empires, did not include the nations which stood on an equal footing with it, such as Xiongnu.
Japanese: タラス河畔の戦いに代表されるように、西方で匹敵するイスラーム帝国と軍事的衝突や交易など交渉があったが、唐朝はかつての秦漢帝国と異なり、その天下概念には匈奴のような対等国は基本的には存在しなかった。
English: However, in the Northern Sung dynasty era, strong dynasties like Liao and Jin appeared in the northern region.
Japanese: ところが北宋の時代には、北方に遼・金(王朝)の強大な王朝が出現した。
English: Under the pressure of these dynasties, the Sung dynasty made a fictitious blood relationship (for example, diplomatic relations assuming Sun as the older brother and Liao as the younger brother) with them.
Japanese: 宋は圧迫されて北方の帝国と国家同士の擬制的な血縁関係（たとえば宋を兄、遼を弟とするような外交関係）を結んだ。
English: As shown by the fact that Goryeo was subject to both dynasties at that time, Tenka was completely divided into two.
Japanese: この時代の高麗なども両王朝に両属する形を取り、天下は全く二分されていた。
English: The Yuan dynasty, the Mongolian Empire which held the vast territory of all time, reunified China, but it made a distinction between nanjin (people of former Southern Sung, namely people of the Konan area) and kanjin (people of former Jing, namely people of the Kahoku area) in its ruling.
Japanese: 空前絶後の支配領域をもったモンゴル帝国、元(王朝)は再び中国を統一したが、その統治においても、政治上南人（元南宋の民、江南の人士）と漢人（元金の民、華北の人士）は区別されていた。
English: The above shows the fact that the political division of Tenka was not resolved even under the rule of Yuan.
Japanese: このことは天下の政治的分裂が元の統治下において解消されなかったことを示している。
English: Thereafter, the Ming dynasty unified "China" in the form akin to the idea of the Qin-Han empire, but its Tenka was the synonym of the territory of the Ming dynasty and did not have the world-wide extent.
Japanese: その後明王朝は秦漢帝国の理念に近い形で「中国」を統合するが、その天下はほぼ明王朝の支配領域と同義であり、世界大の広がりを持ったものではなかった。
English: When the criticism against Neo-Confucianism was stirred up in the end of the Ming era, there also were changes in the Confucian philosophy of "修身斉家治国平天下" (in order to put "Tenka" in order, first train one's own moral, then put own family in order, then put the nation in order, and finally bring peace into Tenka) ("Daigaku" [the Great Learning]).
Japanese: 明末に朱子学に対する批判が起こると、「修身斉家治国平天下」（『大学』）という儒教思想にも変化が起こった。
English: O Fushi, who lived from the end of the Ming era to the beginning of the Quin era, criticized Neo-Confucianism which highly regarded "Daigaku" by arguing that "平天下" (to put "Tenka" in order) described in "Daigaku" was no more than the philosophy of ruling a nation (namely, "治国") and that it could not be applied to the level of Tenka.
Japanese: 明末清初の王夫之は『大学』のあげる「平天下」はつまるところ国を治めるための思想（すなわち「治国」）を述べるに過ぎず、天下の次元には通用しないものであると述べて、これを尊重する朱子学を批判した。
English: The Qing Dynasty, which had been originally iteki (barbarians) for China, began to rule China after the fall of the Ming dynasty, and such reversal in the relation between the Chinese and barbarians in the real world also affected the notion of "Tenka."
Japanese: 一方明王朝の滅亡により本来的には夷狄であるはずの清王朝が中国を支配するという現実世界での華夷の逆転も「天下」概念に大きく影響した。
English: Ko Enbu of the same era expressed his opinion saying that the fall of Ming is "bokoku" (fall of the state), not "botenka" (fall of Tenka), and Tenka continues to exist, so long as the Chinese cultures are maintained, even the Qing dynasty, a dynasty of iteki, becomes the ruler.
Japanese: 同時代の顧炎武は明の滅亡は「亡国」であるが「亡天下」ではなく、夷狄の王朝である清が皇帝となっても、中華の文明が維持される限り天下は継続するものであるという考えを述べた。
English: As seen in the above, there were a lot of studies and criticisms concerning the notion of "Tenka," but at the time "Tenka" was still understood as the one with the Chinese empire in its center.
Japanese: このように「天下」概念に対する検討・批判が加えられたが、このころの「天下」はいまだに中華帝国を中心として捉えられている。
English: The notion of "Tenka," which had been formed based on the order of kai (the Chinese and barbarians) and maintained the diplomatic relations by the sakuho and choko (bringing tribute) system, started to change when George Macartney, a British diplomat, was dispatched in 1793.
Japanese: 皇帝を中心とする華夷秩序に理念づけられ、朝貢と冊封によって外国との関係を維持していた「天下」概念が変容するのは、1793年イギリスの外交使節ジョージ・マカートニーが派遣されたころからである。
English: Macartney requested the Qing dynasty to conclude a treaty based on the principle of European diplomacy, namely the principle of sovereign equality.
Japanese: マカートニーは主権平等主義に立つヨーロッパ外交に基づいて清と条約を結ぶことを望んだ。
English: The Qing dynasty, however, preferred trade in the choko style (other nations' bringing tribute to China) and refused the trading as equal partners, saying "China has a big land and a lot of products."
Japanese: しかし、清は中国を「地大物博」（土地が広く物産が豊かなこと）と述べ、恩恵を与える朝貢貿易ならまだしも対等貿易は不要であると突き返した。
English: The Opium War occurred in the 19th century, and the Qing dynasty concluded an unilateral and unequal treaty after its defeat.
Japanese: やがて19世紀にはいると阿片戦争が起こり、敗北した清朝はイギリスなどと片務的な不平等条約を結んだ。
English: Regarding the reason for concluding the one-sided treaty, the Qing dynasty explained that it was the favor given by the Emperor.
Japanese: 清朝としては清側に片務的であるのは皇帝の恩恵的配慮によるものであるからだという説明がされた。
English: It can be said that the Qing dynasty tried to grasp European countries based on the traditional notion of "Tenka" even after the Opium War.
Japanese: アヘン戦争後も依然として清朝はヨーロッパ諸国を従来の「天下」概念の中で捉えようとしていたと見ることができる。
English: Britain was discontented with the diplomacy of the Qing dynasty that did not change even after the Opium War and invoked the Arrow War in alliance with France.
Japanese: アヘン戦争後も清朝の外交姿勢が変化しないことを不満としたイギリスはフランスとともにアロー戦争をおこした。
English: After the war, the Treaty of Tianjin was concluded and its provision clearly stated that both China and Britain should be positioned as "equally independent nations."
Japanese: そして、天津条約を締結し、その条文内で中国とイギリスをともに「自主の邦」として並列的に位置づけることを明文化することに成功した。
English: As a result, it became impossible for China to maintain the diplomatic relations with European countries based on the traditional order of kai (the Chinese vs. barbarians), and it established Sorigamon (the government body in charge of foreign affairs) in order to deal with the diplomacy with European countries.
Japanese: この結果、清朝は従来の華夷秩序に基づいてヨーロッパ諸国と外交することが不可能となり、新たに総理衙門を設けて対ヨーロッパ外交をおこなうこととなった。
English: Since the modern system of foreign relations that had been forged by European countries was based on the principle of sovereign equality, in other words, the diplomacy between independent nations, the order of kai was forced to change or dissolve according to the development of such system of foreign relations.
Japanese: ヨーロッパ諸国が主導して形成した近代外交体制は基本的に主権平等主義に基づき、対等国同士の外交という形式を取っていたため、この外交体制の拡大とともに華夷秩序も徐々に変容あるいは解体されることとなった。
English: In the real diplomacy, Korea seceded from the relation of sakuho after Qing's defeat in Japanese-Sino War, and the Qing dynasty's diplomacy based on sakuho and choko ended at that time.
Japanese: 現実の外交関係においては日清戦争での敗戦によって朝鮮が冊封関係から離脱し、そのことにより冊封と朝貢に基づく清朝の外交秩序は終焉を迎えた。
English: With the influence of the above, the notion of "Tenka" also changed from the one which was based on the order of kai.
Japanese: 「天下」概念もこの影響を受けて、従来の華夷秩序に基づくものから変容した。
English: Xue Fucheng, Qing's ambassador to Britain in the latter half of the 19th century, said that "Tenka" based on "kai kakuzetsu" (distinction between the Chinese and barbarians) changed to "Tenka" based on "chugai renzoku" (cooperation between China and foreign countries) under which China and foreign countries maintain the relations on an equal basis.
Japanese: 19世紀後半の清の駐英大使であった薛福成は中華と夷狄を区別する「華夷隔絶」の「天下」から中華と外国が対等に関係を維持する「中外連属」の「天下」へと転換したと述べている。