nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: In 1414, at the enthronement of Emperor Shoko, there was a dispute between Tsunetsugu ICHIJO, who was kanpaku, and Mochimoto NIJO, who was Gon Dainagon (provisional chief councilor of state).
Japanese: 古くは1414年、称光天皇の即位に際して関白の一条経嗣と権大納言の二条持基との間に争論があった。
English: Disputes concerning inmyodenju became serious during the Edo period in which inmyodenju settled in Nijo family.
Japanese: 印明伝授をめぐる争論が本格化するのは、二条家に印明伝授が定着した江戸時代に入ってからである。
English: At first in 1611, at the enthronement of Emperor Gomizunoo, there was a dispute between Akizane NIJO and Nobutada KONOE, and according to the judgment of Hidetada TOKUGAWA, who was seii taishogun at that time, Akizane NIJO should conduct inmyodenju.
Japanese: まず1611年、後水尾天皇の即位の際、二条昭実と近衛信尹との間で争論となり、時の征夷大将軍であった徳川秀忠の裁定によって二条昭実が印明伝授を行うことに決定した。
English: Then, in 1687, at the enthronement of Emperor Higashiyama, a large dispute arose because Tsunahira NIJO, the head of the Nijo family at that time, was Gon Dainagon at the age of 16, and he was only three years old when his father Mitsuhira JIJO died, so it was doubted whether he was taught details of inmyodenju from his father.
Japanese: 続いて1687年の東山天皇即位の際は、時の二条家当主の二条綱平が当時、まだ16歳の若さで権大納言であり、しかも父である二条光平が死去した時、二条綱平はまだ3歳で、印明伝授の内容を父から伝えられたかどうか疑念を持たれたことから、大きな争論となった。
English: What made the situation worse for the Nijo family was that the library of the Nijo family was totally burnt down in 1675 and almost all their ancestral documents had been lost.
Japanese: 二条家にとってさらに悪いことには、1675年の火災で二条家の文庫は全焼しており、先祖伝来の文章もほとんど失われてしまっていた。
English: Fuyutsune ICHIJO, the Sessho, and Motohiro KONOE, the Sadaijin (minister of the left), insisted that inmyodenju should have been done not by Tsunahira NIJO, who had never assumed the position of minister and whose initiation by his father was doubtful, but by them because their families had also handed down the tradition.
Japanese: 摂政の一条冬経と左大臣の近衛基煕から、まだ大臣の地位に就いておらず、父からのきちんと伝授がなされたかどうか疑わしい二条綱平ではなく、自らの家にも伝承があるので、ぜひ印明伝授を行いたいとの主張がなされた。
English: Finally, it was determined that after Emperor Reigen checked the traditional theory of each family, he initiated with inmyodenju which he had been initiated in the past to Tsunahira NIJO who would conduct inmyodenju.
Japanese: 結局この時は、霊元天皇がそれぞれの家説を確認した上で、かつて自らが受けた印明伝授を二条綱平に伝え、二条綱平が印明伝授を行うことになった。
English: At the enthronement of Emperor Nakamikado in 1710, a conflict occurred between Iehiro KONOE, the Sessho, and Tsunahira NIJO, the Udaijin (minister of the right)
Japanese: 1710年の中御門天皇即位の際は、摂政の近衛家煕と右大臣二条綱平との間で争いとなった。
English: At the time, Tsunahira NIJO was in mourning and it was uncertain whether or not he could conduct inmyodenju and the Konoe family desired to conduct inmyodenju partly because of strong wish by Motohiro KONOE who was Taiko (retired imperial regent).
Japanese: 当時二条綱平は東山天皇の死去に伴う服忌中であり、印明伝授を行うことが危ぶまれており、太閤であった近衛基煕の強い意向もあって近衛家が印明伝授を希望した。
English: In this case also, according to the judgment of Retired Emperor Reigen, it was determined that the Nijo family should conduct inmyodenju, not Tsunahira NIJO in mourning but Yoshitada NIJO did.
Japanese: このときも霊元上皇の裁定によって二条家が務めることとなり、服忌中の二条綱平に代わって二条吉忠が印明伝授を行うことになった。
English: At the enthronement of Emperor Sakuramachi in 1735, also Iehisa KONOE, the kanpaku, wanted to conduct inmyodenju.
Japanese: 1735年の桜町天皇即位時も、関白である近衛家久が印明伝授を希望した。
English: In the end, in this case also, Emperor Nakamikado ordered Yoshitada NIJO, the sadaijin, to conduct initiation, but Emperor Nakamikado agreed to pay regard to the tradition handed down in Konoe family, too.
Japanese: 結局このときも中御門天皇が左大臣の二条吉忠に伝授を命じたが、中御門上皇は近衛家の伝承も尊重することを認めた。
English: In 1739, Emperor Sakuramachi ordered Munemoto NIJO to have the Nijo family continue to conduct inmyodenju.
Japanese: 1739年、桜町天皇は二条宗基に対し、印明伝授は二条家が行い続けるよう命じた。
English: During the late Edo period, in line with social movements such as rising of kokugaku (study of Japanese literature and culture), critical views against shinbutsushugo (syncretization of Shinto with Buddhism) in which Buddhism and Shintoism were united came up.
Japanese: 江戸時代の後期になると、国学が盛んになるなどの社会の動きに対応して、仏教と神道が結びついた神仏習合に批判的な意見が見られるようになった。
English: Under such circumstances, blame started to be concentrated on sokuikanjo which was a Buddhist ritual performed during the enthronement ceremony.
Japanese: そのような中、即位式の仏教儀礼である即位灌頂に非難が集まるようになった。
English: In sokuikanjo which was conducted at the enthronement of Emperor Komei in 1847, many court nobles showed a negative attitude against performing sokuikanjo at the enthronement ceremony.
Japanese: 1847年の孝明天皇即位の際に行われた即位灌頂では、多くの公家たちが即位式に即位灌頂を行うことに拒否感を示した。
English: At the enthronement of Emperor Meiji in 1868, as a result of the pursuit of making the enthronement ceremony follow Shinto, the color of Buddhism was excluded totally and sokuikanjo was discontinued.
Japanese: 1868年の明治天皇即位時には、即位式の神道儀礼化が追求された結果、仏教的な色彩は全て追放され、即位灌頂は廃止されることになった。
English: Repeated conflicts concerning inmyodenju at the time of enthronement were a sign of its importance.
Japanese: 何度も繰り返された即位時の印明伝授についての争論もその重要性の表れである。
English: The importance had been attached weight repeatedly by emperors and retired emperors and members of Sekkan-ke who were involved in such conflicts.
Japanese: 争論の渦中にあった天皇や上皇、そして摂関家の人々からその重要性が繰り返し強調された。
English: During the Edo period, the Nijo family, who were mainly responsible for maintaining sokuikanjo, prayed for a satisfactory completion of the ritual to Chinju (local Shinto deity) and Tenjin (literally, heavenly gods) before sokuikanjo and, immediately before inmyodenju, the whole family conducted Shinto ritual of purification.
Japanese: 即位灌頂を中心的に担ってきた二条家では江戸期、即位灌頂の前に鎮守や天神に儀式の無事成功を祈り、印明伝授の直前には二条家を挙げて潔斎の神事を行った。
English: Sokuikanjo was the ceremony based on Buddhism, however, the Nijo family prayed for a satisfactory completion of sokuikanjo in Shinto ritual showed that the pre-modern court noble society had an element of shinbutsushugo.
Japanese: 即位灌頂は仏教に基づく儀式であるが、二条家が神道式の儀式で即位灌頂の無事を祈る点は、近世の公家社会は神仏習合の要素があったことを示すものである。
English: Sokuikanjo may be comparable to the ceremony of unction which was conducted during the enthronement of kings in Western Europe, for example.
Japanese: また、即位灌頂は例えば西ヨーロッパでの君主即位に行われた塗油の儀式との比較することができよう。
English: In sokuikanjo, a person from Sekkan-ke centering on the Nijo family initiated mudra and mantra and the emperor to be enthroned carried them out.
Japanese: 即位灌頂は、二条家を中心とする摂関家の人物が印相と真言を伝授し、即位する天皇が実修する。
English: The act to initiate mudra and mantra by a person from Sekkan-ke has the color of the family business of Sekkan-ke rather than being a religious ritual.
Japanese: 摂関家の人物が印相と真言を伝授する行為は、宗教的な儀式というよりも摂関家の家業としての色彩が強い。
English: By conducting sojuikanjo, the emperor was identified with Dainichi Nyorai and obtained extremely high religious authority.
Japanese: 即位灌頂を行うことにより、天皇は大日如来と同一化し、極めて高い宗教的な権威を得ることになる。
English: The fact that there was no intervention by clergymen such as notable Buddhist priests meant that, although the emperor could have high religious authority under situation in which influence from the religious world was excluded, there was remoteness in the emperor's authority.
Japanese: その過程で高僧など聖職者の介在がないということは、天皇は宗教界の影響力が排除された中で高い宗教的権威を持つことが可能であると言え、天皇の権威の隔絶性を意味するとされる。
English: From the Kamakura period through the Muromachi period, however, it has been pointed out that there is a case in which a priest conducted inmyodenju.
Japanese: もっとも鎌倉時代～室町時代については、僧侶が印明伝授を行った例があることが指摘されている。
English: Wesak is celebrated in Southeast Asia as well as in Hong Kong and Taiwan, but in East Asia where Mahayana Buddhism (Northern Buddhism) had spread, the birth of Buddha (called Kanbutsue, Buttan, Gotane, Busshoe, Yokubutsue, Ryugee or Birthday of Buddha) is celebrated in its place.
Japanese: この祭りは東南アジアや香港・台湾などでも行われているが、大乗仏教（北伝仏教）の伝わった東アジアではウェーサーカ祭の代わりに灌仏会（佛誕、降誕会、仏生会、浴仏会、龍華会、釈迦誕生日）が行われる。
English: According to Mahayana Buddhism, Wesak celebration is the equivalent of Vaisakha in Sanskrit (same as Vaisakha, the second month in the Indian calendar).
Japanese: 大乗仏教に伝わっていることによると、ウェーサーカ祭は、サンスクリット語でいうVaisakha（インド暦第二の月・ヴェサーカ）に該当する行事とされている。
English: It is called Ka-sone-la-pyae in Myanmar, meaning the festival of full moon, and is celebrated in February of the Myanmar calendar.
Japanese: ミャンマーでは満月祭を意味するKa-sone-la-pyaeと呼ばれ、ミャンマーの暦で2月に当たる。
English: The date of Wesak celebration depends on the region and the calendar adopted by different sects of Buddhism.
Japanese: ウェーサーカ祭の正確な開催日は、その地域や宗派の採用する暦によって異なる。
English: In Theravada Buddhism, which uses a calendar based on the year of Buddha's death, Wesak is celebrated on the day of Uposatha (usually in May or June of their calendar) when there is a full moon.
Japanese: 仏滅紀元を採用する上座部仏教では、満月の出るUposathaの日（たいてい仏滅紀元の5月か6月）にウェーサーカ祭を行う。
English: The celebration falls on different dates of the Gregorian calendar but is usually held some time in April or May.
Japanese: 西洋のグレゴリオ暦では年ごとに異なるが、大体4月か5月に当てはまる。
English: Wesak is unofficially called the celebration of the birth of Buddha because it is part of the three greatest celebrations in Buddhism along with Enlightenment and Nirvana. (In Japanese Buddhism, the birth, the enlightenment, and death of Buddha are celebrated on different dates, but Southern Buddhism teaches that they all occurred on the same day of the same month.)
Japanese: ウェーサーカ祭が「釈迦の誕生日」と非公式に呼ばれることがあるのは、この祭りが釈迦の誕生・悟り（ニルヴァーナ、涅槃）・入滅（パリニルヴァーナ、般涅槃）の三大仏事に結びついているからである（日本の仏教では降誕会・成道会・涅槃会は別々に行われるが、南伝仏教ではこれらは同じ月の同じ日に起こったこととされる）。
English: Ebusshi was a monk and specialist who was mainly engaged in the production of Buddhist paintings and coloring of statues.
Japanese: 絵仏師（えぶっし）とは、僧侶にあって、主に仏教絵画の制作や仏像の彩色などに従事した専門職。
English: After the Northern Sung period (China) or Kamakura period (Japan), although there were exceptions, a Zen monk who mainly produced ink-wash paintings was called gaso (an artist monk) and was sometimes distinguished from other ebusshi; however, occasionally both terms were used together, and a clear distinction was not always made.
Japanese: 中国北宋もしくは日本鎌倉時代以後に、主に水墨画を描く禅僧（例外あり）を特に画僧（がそう）と呼んで、他の絵仏師と区別される場合もあるが、両者が混用される場合もあり、厳密な区別がある訳ではない。
English: In Japan, along with the introduction of Chinese culture including Buddhism, the organization of edakumi (painter) and eshi (often master painter) who specialized in the production of painting was also introduced.
Japanese: 日本では仏教をはじめとする中国文化とともに絵画の制作を専門とする画工・画師の仕組も導入された。
English: In the period of Prince Shotoku, a system for eshi was set up, and under the Ritsuryo system, Edakumi no Tsukasa (Bureau of Painting) was established.
Japanese: 聖徳太子の時代に画師の制度が制定され、律令制において画工司が設置された。
English: Eshi and edakumi at that time did not always specialize in Buddhist subjects, and there were eshi who worked for Zojishi (Officials in Charge of Building Temples) such as Todai-ji Temple.
Japanese: 当時の画師・画工は必ずしも仏教専門のものではなかったが、東大寺などの造寺司に所属する画師も存在した。
English: In 808, Edakumi no Tsukasa was integrated into the Naishoryo (Bureau of Skilled Artisans) and eshi then belonged to the bureau.
Japanese: なお、画工司は大同(日本)3年（808年）に内匠寮に統合され、画師たちも同寮に属している。
English: The practice of Esoteric Buddhism required many Buddhist paintings, such as mandalas, and these paintings along with ascetic practices and ritual were inseparable; this naturally created a demand for highly skilled artists capable of producing this style of work.
Japanese: 密教には曼荼羅をはじめとする多くの仏教絵画が必要とされ、それら仏教絵画と修業・儀式とは切っても切り離されないものであり、それらの作成するための技能を持った専門的な能力を有するものが必要とされた。
English: Furthermore, after the mid Heian period, it became common practice that artisans specialized in Buddhist subjects were ordained as monks and entered on the register of a Buddhist sect; they were thus distinguished from general artisans or those working for the Imperial court.
Japanese: 更に平安時代中期以後、仏教関連の専門の工匠も僧籍に入る習慣が生まれ、宮廷あるいは一般を対象とした工匠との区別が図られるようになった。
English: For this reason, eshi and edakumi who specialized in Buddhist paintings came to wear priestly attire, but monks with artistic talent, of course, also produced Buddhist paintings; it is thought that in this way ebusshi originated.
Japanese: このため、仏教絵画を扱う画師・画工が僧形を採り、あるいは僧侶の中で画才のある者が仏教絵画にも参加する形で、絵仏師の原形が生み出されたと考えられている。
English: However, at that time it appears that monks who produced such Buddhist paintings were included in busshi (a sculptor of Buddhist statues); therefore, 定豊, 平慶, and 玄朝, who played an active part in the creation of Buddhist paintings in the 10th century, were all called 'busshi.'
Japanese: もっとも、当時はこうした仏教絵画を制作する僧侶は、仏像そのものの制作にあたる仏師のうちに含まれていたと考えられ、10世紀に活躍した仏教絵画の作家である定豊・平慶・平慶などは全て「仏師」と称されている。
English: At the beginning of the 11th century, in relation to the general busshi who carved Buddhist statues and were actually called kibusshi (a sculptor of wooden Buddha statues), the concept of ebusshi who produced Buddhist painting first appeared, but there is a theory that it was actually in the latter half of the Kamakura period that the term 'ebusshi' came into wide use.
Japanese: 11世紀に入ると、仏像を制作する「木仏師」と呼ばれる一般的な仏師に対して、仏教絵画を制作する「絵仏師」という概念が現れるようになるが、「絵仏師」の語が広く用いられるようになったのは鎌倉時代後期とする説もある。
English: In 1068, Kyozen was made Hokkyo (the third highest rank of Buddhist priests) as a reward for painting the Buddha of the Hojo-ji Temple, and since then, from the late Heian period through to the early Kamakura period many ebusshi, such as Chijun and Jonin, were magnificently prolific.
Japanese: 治暦4年（1068年）、教禅が法成寺御仏図絵の賞として法橋を授けられて以後、平安時代後期から鎌倉時代初期にかけて、智順・成忍など多くの絵仏師が活躍した。
English: Against this background, over time the status of ebusshi came to be passed on to their children or disciples through a vocational system, and as seen in the Takuma school founded by Tameto TAKUMA, schools specializing in training of ebusshi came to be formed.
Japanese: それに伴い、絵仏師の地位も子弟や門人に職の体系として継承されるようになり、詫摩為遠を祖とする宅磨派のように、絵仏師を専門とする流派が成立するようになった。
English: At the same time, monks who made ink-wash paintings emerged; they were mainly from the Zen sect, and while still maintaining their relationship with Buddhism, they freely depicted their own inner world using their own style of artistic interpretation.
Japanese: これに対して禅宗を中心として仏教との関連性を保ちながらも自由な発想と解釈のもとで自己の内面世界を水墨画などに描き出す僧侶が現れた。
English: Through the social interactions between monks, especially Zen monks, and literati, monks who made bokugi appeared (a well known example of an artist monk who was not of the Zen sect was Jakufun Gyokukan of the Tendaishu sect).
Japanese: 文人と僧侶の交流を通じて、墨戯を行う僧侶が現れるようになり特に禅僧にその傾向が強かった（天台宗の若芬玉澗のように非禅僧の画僧も存在する）。
English: They created works of art related to Buddhism, such as paintings of Hakui Kannon (Buddhist deity of mercy, wearing white robes), Zenshu Soshi (Zen sect founder, including Daruma (Bodhidharma) and Zenki-zu (Zen acts) of Sansei (Budai Heshang), as well as literati paintings (monks often specialized in either category).
Japanese: 彼らは白衣観音や達磨などを始めとした禅宗祖師や散聖（布袋和尚）の禅機図など仏教に関連する題材とともに、文人画などを手がけた（どちらを主とするかあるいは専芸とするかは人によって異なる）。
English: The following can be listed as representative gaso of the Sung and Yuan Dynasties: Kako Chunin, Mokkei Hojo, and Sesson Fumei, while Sekito and Hachidai Sanjin are representative of the later Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Japanese: 代表的な人物としては宋(王朝)元(王朝)の花光仲仁・牧谿法常・雪窓普明、時代が降り明清の石濤・八大山人なども挙げられる。
English: It is known that the term 'gaso' was used for the first time in Japan in "Kuge nichiyo kufuryakushu" (essays on Buddhism by Gido Shushin).
Japanese: 日本で最初に「画僧」という語が用いられたのは義堂周信の『空華日用工夫略集』であるとされている。
English: During the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), the following monks are known as gaso: Hakuun Egyo, Kao Sonen, Gyokuen Bonbo, Mokuan Reien, and Choun Reiho.
Japanese: 南北朝時代(日本)にかけては、白雲恵暁・可翁宗然・玉畹梵芳・黙庵霊淵・頂雲霊峰などが知られている。
English: In the Muromachi period, following after the three well known gaso, Kichizan Mincho, Taiko Josetsu, and Tensho Shubun, Sesshu Toyo and Sesson Shukei created many great works.
Japanese: 室町時代に入ると、吉山明兆・大巧如拙・天章周文などを経て雪舟等楊・雪村周継によって大成された。
English: Shoryodana is a shelf placed to welcome the ancestors and spirits in the Bon festival, which is a conventional event in Japan.
Japanese: 精霊棚（しょうりょうだな）は日本の習俗的行事お盆において先祖、精霊を迎えるための棚。
English: Generally, it is an altar covered with a sheet made of Manchurian wild rice, on which a Buddhist mortuary tablet, san gusoku (three elements of the altar), and offerings are arranged during the Bon.
Japanese: 一般的には盆期間中、台の上に真菰のござを敷いたものに、仏壇から取り出した位牌、三具足を飾り、お供え物を置くための棚。
English: Mahayana Buddhism is a sect of Buddhism that has been traditionally practiced in central and eastern Eurasian Continent.
Japanese: 大乗仏教（だいじょうぶっきょう、MahāyānaBuddhism）は、伝統的に、ユーラシア大陸の中央部から東部にかけて信仰されてきた仏教の分派のひとつ。
English: According to this sect, to seek to become a Buddha, one must aspire to Buddhahood only in the sprit of wanting to save all suffering living things (Issai Shujo), in other words, from the Mahayana point of view; this spirit of 'ritagyo' (altruistic practices) is the mark which differentiates Mahayana Buddhism from Nikaya Buddhism.
Japanese: 自身の成仏を求めるにあたって、まず苦の中にある全ての生き物たち（一切衆生）を救いたいという心、つまり大乗の観点で限定された菩提心を起こすことを条件とし、この「利他行」の精神を大乗仏教と部派仏教とを区別する指標とする。
English: The word Maha (great) yana (vehicle) first appeared in the "Hannya-kyo Sutra" (Prajna Sutra), and it is thought that the religious community that compiled and defended the "Hannya-kyo Sutra" was central to the beginning of the Mahayana Buddhism movement in general.
Japanese: 大乗（Mahā〈偉大な〉yāna〈乗り物〉）という語は、『般若経』で初めて見られ、一般に大乗仏教運動は『般若経』を編纂護持する教団が中心となって興起したものと考えられている。
English: Based on the content of the Hannya-kyo sutras, it is thought that the teachings by Shomon (Sharavakia), or Setsuissaiubu (Sarvaastivaadin), which were very influential at that time even among other sects of Nikaya Buddhism, were called Hinayana by the Mahayana Buddhism side; however, this remains unclear.
Japanese: 般若経典の内容から、声聞の教え、すなわち部派仏教の中でも当時勢力を誇った説一切有部を指して大乗仏教側から小乗仏教と呼んだと考えられているが、必ずしもはっきりしたことは分かっていない。
English: It is said that teachings of Mahayana were theorized by Nagarjuna and others about 700 years after Shakyamuni's death.
Japanese: なお思想的には、大乗の教えは釈迦死去の約700年後に龍樹（ナーガールジュナ）らによって理論付けされたとされる。
English: On the other hand, it can be seen as a major thought shift in Buddhism occurring from a standpoint of criticism against Theravada Buddhism, which includes the principle of devoted practice of the teachings of Shakyamuni in order to attain nirvana (deliverance from the wheel of life); as the practitioner ultimately remains no more than a believer of the Buddha's teachings, one cannot reach the state of recognizing the truth as a 'Buddha' (Nyorai (Tathagata)).
Japanese: 一方、釈迦の教えを忠実に実行し、涅槃（輪廻からの解脱）に到ることを旨とした上座部仏教に対し、それが究極においてみずからはどこまでも釈迦の教えの信奉者というにととどまるもので、自身が「仏陀」（如来）として真理を認識できる境地に到達できないのではないかという批判的見地から起こった仏教における一大思想運動という側面もある。
English: Based on the Jataka Legend that Shakyamuni continued his mortification to save all living things (Issai Shujo) from suffering, this school had a theory, if they kept doing charity after the example of Shakyamuni's spirit (aspiration for Buddhahood), in the distant future, they too could have a life as a Buddha (Sango Jobutsu).
Japanese: 釈迦が前世において生きとし生けるものすべて（一切衆生）の苦しみを救おうと難行（菩薩行）を続けて来たというジャータカ伝説に基づき、自分たちもこの釈尊の精神（菩提心）にならって善根を積んで行くことにより、遠い未来において自分たちにもブッダとして道を成じる生が訪れる（三劫成仏）という説を唱えた。
English: This trend is subtle in the "Hannya-kyo Sutra," but some sutras, including the "Hokke-kyo Sutra" (the Lotus Sutra) and the "Nehan-gyo Sutra" (The Sutra of The Great Nirvana) stipulated it clearly.
Japanese: この傾向は『般若経』には希薄だが、明確に打ち出した経典として『法華経』や『涅槃経』などがある。
English: Ritagyo, which gives preference to salvation of others over one's own Gedatsu (being liberated from earthly desires and the woes of man), had not been practiced in Buddhist regions before Mahayana.
Japanese: 自分の解脱よりも他者の救済を優先する利他行とは大乗以前の仏教界で行われていたものではない。
English: It is said that, around the time of birth of Christ, Buddhist regions were so devoted to the study of Shakyamuni's teachings that they were unable to respond to wishes of ordinary people.
Japanese: 紀元前後の仏教界は、釈迦の教えの研究に没頭するあまり民衆の望みに応えることができなくなっていたとされる。
English: On the other hand, the defining feature of Mahayana Buddhism is that it declared that ordinary people, those who had not renounced the everyday world and become monks, could become a Buddha in the future world as long as they continued ritagyo.
Japanese: 一方、出家者ではない俗世間の凡夫でもこの利他行を続けてさえいけば、誰でも未来の世において成仏できる（ブッダに成れる）と宣言したのが大乗仏教運動の特色である。
English: Although shomon and engaku (paccekabuddha, who have come to Bodhi independent of any other person) attain nirvana by rejecting life as humans, they themselves cannot convey new teachings or save people from suffering.
Japanese: 声聞や縁覚は人間的な生活を否定して涅槃を得てはいるが、自身はブッダとして新しい教えを告げ衆生の悩みを救える、というわけではない。
English: However, Mahayanic seekers claimed that they could ultimately become Buddha even as they lived in the real world, called themselves Bosatsu (Bodhisattva), and created Mahayana Sutras that conveyed their new thoughts, often using artistic expressions.
Japanese: が、大乗の求道者は俗世間で生活しながらしかも最終的にはブッダに成れると主張し、自らを菩薩と呼んで、自らの新しい思想を伝える大乗経典を、しばしば芸術的表現を用いて創りだしていった。
English: Schools of Buddhism in areas where Mahayana Buddhism has traditionally been believed regarded that Shakyamuni preached Mahayana teachings at some point during the 40-something years after his Jodo (completion of the path to becoming a Buddha by attaining enlightenment); however, when the Mahayana Sutras began to become established, there was already criticism from inside Buddhism that they had been created without the permission of Buddha and could therefore not be regarded as orthodox Buddhism.
Japanese: 伝統的に大乗仏教を信仰してきた地域の諸宗派は、これらの大乗の経典は釈迦が成道して以来40数年の間のどこかで説かれたものとみなしていたが、成立しはじめた当時すでに仏教の内部から大乗経典は勝手に創作されたものであり正統な仏教とは言えないという批判があった。
English: Even now, mainly on this basis, Mahayana Buddhism is often evaluated negatively.
Japanese: 現在においても主にこれを根拠に大乗仏教が否定的に評価されることも少なくない。
English: It is said that the current name "Theravada" stems from the fact that, as other sects of Nikaya Buddhism disappeared, a sect of Setsuissaiubu in Nikaya Buddhism renamed themselves 'Theravada' to signify that they were against Mahayana Buddhism, and that the current Theravada is different from the one at the time of the fundamental schism.
Japanese: 現存する上座部の名称は、部派仏教の説一切有部の一派がほかの部派の消滅に伴い、大乗仏教に対立する意味で「上座部」を再度名乗ったことに起源があり、根本分裂のころの上座部とは違うとされている。
English: Therefore, modern Theravada merely descended from a sect in the era of Nikaya Buddhism.
Japanese: したがって現在の上座部は部派仏教時代の一派の流れを汲んでいるに過ぎない。
English: However, as philological study has developed in modern times, many people have pointed out that, since Buddhist thought developed in stages, entire sutras of Buddhism, including Theravada, were established gradually over periods as long as several centuries to begin with, and that the oldest sutras of Hokuden (Mahayana) Buddhism and Nanden Buddhism (Buddhism that spread from India to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asian countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia) do not contain description of 'Nyozegamon' (I heard this); Nakamoto TOMINAGA, who dealt with the 'Hokke-kyo Sutra (the Lotus Sutra) has no meaning theory', is one such person.
Japanese: しかし近代に入ると文献学的研究が進み、仏教思想は段階的に発展したもので、そもそも上座部をも含む仏教の経典全体が数世紀という長時間をかけて徐々に成立してきたものであるだけでなく、北伝・南伝の最古の教典には「如是我聞」の記述が見られないことが日本でも「法華経無内容説」を唱えた富永仲基によって指摘されている。
English: Actually, Nakamoto TOMINAGA and others claimed that "nyozegamon" originally meant "secondhand information", and that it did not mean the information had been heard directly from Shakyamuni.
Japanese: 実際に、富永仲基などは、如是我聞は、もともとは又聞きを意味し、釈迦から直接聞いたという意味ではなかったと主張した。
English: In current academic society, the issue of whether existing Nanden and Hokuden scriptures actually reflect Shakyamuni's words, or whether thoughts of the sangha themselves in each era were transmitted as the words of Shakyamuni to sangha in later era, is hotly debated.
Japanese: 現在の学会でも現存する南伝および北伝の教典に釈迦の言葉が実際に伝えられているのか、それともあくまで、その時代時代のサンガの思想が釈迦の言葉としてのちのサンガに伝えられたのかは大いに議論されている。
English: The bottom line is that, in current studies, there are assertions both that few Nanden and Hokuden scriptures contain direct teachings of Shakyamuni, and that philology has proved that Mahayana Sutras are phony, and there is no established theory.
Japanese: 結局のところ現在の研究では、南伝・北伝のほとんどの教典に釈迦が直接説いた教えは見られないとの主張もあるし、大乗経典が文献学によって紛い物であることが証明されたとする主張などがあり、定説はない。
English: The Theravada Buddhism sect claims even now that Theravada transmits the real teachings of Shakyamuni, while the Mahayana side uses the following argument to claim its orthodoxy; however, there are few concrete counterarguments.
Japanese: しかし現在でも上座部仏教の教団は、上座部が本当の釈迦の教えを伝えていると主張しており、それに対し大乗仏教側にはその正統性を主張する以下のような論もあるようだが、具体的な反論はあまり見られない。