nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The main tower of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum which looks like kura-zukuri style of two-story wooden tiled roof remained after World War II and steady efforts are being continued as the foothold of the Mingei Movement after the war.
Japanese: 木造瓦葺き2階建ての蔵造りを思わせる日本民藝館本館は、第二次世界大戦にも焼け残り、戦後も民芸運動の拠点として地道に活動を継続している。
English: The word "mingei", folk art, that is now established as an expression in modern Japanese such as "Mingeihin selling space" or "Mingei style furniture" is a coined term Yanagi and others started to use.
Japanese: 「民芸品売り場」「民芸調の家具」など、現代日本語の表現として定着している「民芸」という言葉自体が、柳らによって使い始められた造語である。
English: Japanese military history is characterized by the long feudal battles inside the nation and the overseas expedition during the age of imperialism.
Japanese: 日本の軍事史（にほんのぐんじし）は、国内安定から長い封建的な戦いと帝国主義による海外遠征に特徴づけられる。
English: Japan experienced an all-out war in the Second World War in which its army and navy suffered disastrous damages, and Japan proper was occupied by the U.S. army.
Japanese: 日本は第二次世界大戦で総力戦を経験、日本の陸海軍は壊滅的な損害を蒙り、日本本土はアメリカ軍に占領された。
English: Its activities reached the peak in the trade with European countries in 16th and 17th centuries
Japanese: その活動は16世紀から17世紀にかけての南蛮貿易によるヨーロッパ諸国との貿易で頂点に達する。
English: Japan's naval technologies, however, came to lag behind those of European countries because of the isolation policy taken during the Edo period.
Japanese: 江戸時代の鎖国によってその技術は西洋に比べて見劣りするようになった。
English: As a result of having hurried the modernization and industrialization of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Navy became the third largest navy in the world in 1920.
Japanese: 近代化と工業化を急いだ結果1920年(大正9年)には帝国海軍は世界第三位になった。
English: The history of the large-scale military campaigns of the Imperial Navy began with the 1895 Sino-Japanese War and the 1905 Russo-Japanese War ended with the Imperial Navy's near perfect victory; however, in the Great East Asian War (the Pacific War) the fighting power of the fleets of the Imperial Navy was almost completely annihilated by the United States Navy and the Imperial Navy was officially dissolved at the end of the war.
Japanese: 帝国海軍の大規模戦役の歴史は、1895年(明治28年)の日清戦争に始り、1905年(明治38年)の日露戦争ではほぼ完全勝利したが、大東亜戦争（太平洋戦争）で米国海軍と戦い、艦隊戦力は壊滅状態となり、その後公式に消滅した。
English: In terms of budget, it is one of the top navies in the world; however, it is denied of many offensive roles.
Japanese: 予算の面では世界のトップクラスの海軍であるが、攻撃的な役割の多くは失った。
English: We will explain the history of Japan's trade, as it concerns foreign trade.
Japanese: 日本の貿易史（にほんのぼうえきし）では、日本の対外貿易に関する歴史について説明する。
English: Japanese islands were divided from the Eurasian Continent about 10,000 years ago when the last glacial period ended.
Japanese: 日本列島は最終氷期が終わったおよそ1万年前にユーラシア大陸から切り離された。
English: Therefore, Japan came to be a group of solitary islands literally separated from neighboring areas until it developed the art of ship-building and navigation.
Japanese: そのため日本は造船・航海技術の発達が見られるまで、文字通り孤島となって近隣地域と隔絶されることになる。
English: In ancient times, China occupied the central position in East Asia.
Japanese: 中国では古代において東アジアの中心的な位置を占めており早くに文明が起こった。
English: In China, civilization occurred during earlier times and as the center of East Asia, China built a tributary system with neighboring countries and areas.
Japanese: 中国は自らが東アジアの中心となり近隣諸国・地域との冊封体制を構築していった。
English: During the late 4th century, the five kings of Wa opened up again, paying tribute to the Southern Dynasty during the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasty in China, but after that Japan ceased to have contact with the Chinese continent for a long time.
Japanese: 4世紀後期には倭の五王が南北朝時代(中国)南朝への朝貢を再開するも、その後日本は長きにわたり大陸との接触を行っていない。
English: In the 7th century, Japan started to send Japanese envoys to Sui Dynasty China, but this envoy was not under tributary system.
Japanese: 7世紀なって日本は遣隋使を送るようになるが、これは冊封体制のもとではなかった。
English: Chagan, the capital of Tang became an international city with envoys and merchants from West Asia and India, and various kinds of commodities and knowledge were spread to Japan and East Asia from Chagan.
Japanese: 唐の都の長安は西アジアやインドからの使節や商人が集まる国際都市となり、長安を中心にさまざまな商品や知識が日本を始め東アジア各地に広まっていった。
English: During this period, the relationship between Japan and Silla worsened, causing Japan to deepen their exchanges with Bo Hai (kingdom in Manchuria and North Korea).
Japanese: この間日本は新羅との関係が悪化し、朝鮮半島をめぐる地域情勢が不安定になると日本は渤海(国)との交流を深めていった。
English: Bo Hai exported Yakuyo ninjin (ginseng) and fur products to Japan, and Japan exported silk and cotton products to Bo Hai.
Japanese: 渤海からは薬用人参や毛皮などが、日本からは絹・綿などの貿易が見られるようになった。
English: After the envoy to Tang was abolished in 894 and Tang was ruined in 907, commerce with ordinary Chinese citizens continued.
Japanese: 894年に遣唐使が廃止され907年に唐が完全に滅んだ後も民間レベルでの交易が続くようになった。
English: After the Koso War in 875, Tang lost power to a unified China and Hanchin, local forces in various places showed the independent trends.
Japanese: 875年に起こった黄巣の乱以降、唐は統一中国を治める能力を失い、各地の地方勢力である藩鎮が自立傾向を示した。
English: China was officially divided for 70 years (Godai-Jikkoku period), but in reality it lasted for more than 100 years.
Japanese: 表向きは唐が滅亡してから70年ほどであった（五代十国時代）が、事実上1世紀以上にわたって中国は分裂状態にあった。
English: It was the Northern Sung Dynasty that unified China again, but it can not be said that the Sung Dynasty was able to exert a controlling force over the whole area of China, since Sung was confronted with the Ryo and Jin Dynasties, but it can be thought that society achieved stability, and agriculture and commerce made remarkable progress in China during this period.
Japanese: これを再び統一したのは北宋であったが、宋王朝は遼や金(王朝)などと対立していたことなどから、中国全土に対して強力な支配を行っていたとは必ずしもいえないが、宋のもとで中国の社会が安定し農業や商業が飛躍的に発展したと考えることはできる。
English: On the other hand, in Japan, after abolishing their envoy to the Tang Dynasty, they continued trade in Korokan and also the commerce with ordinary Chinese merchants continued on the private-sector level at Hakata and Tsuruga.
Japanese: 一方日本では遣唐使の廃止以降、鴻臚館での貿易は続けられていたものの、一般の宋の商人は博多や敦賀に来航し、民間レベルでの貿易を行っていた。
English: TAIRA no Tadamori who was interested in the trade between Japan and Sung, made the trade prosperous and grasped authority by bringing imported goods to the Imperial Court.
Japanese: 日宋貿易に関心を寄せた平忠盛は独自にこれを活発にし、輸入品を朝廷にもたらして権力を持つようになった。
English: After that, TAIRA no Kiyomori developed trade with Sung into prosperity by improving Owada no tomari and built a strong political system on the basis of profits from this trade.
Japanese: その後平清盛は大輪田泊を改修するなど貿易を振興し、そこから得られる利益をもとに平氏政権を磐石なものにしていった。
English: After the collapse of the Taira clan government, the Kamakura Bakufu approved trade with Sung by ordinary citizens and trade between Japan and Sung continued just before the Southern Sung Dynasty was overthrown in the 13th century.
Japanese: 平氏政権の崩壊後も鎌倉幕府は民間貿易を認め、13世紀の南宋が滅亡する直前まで日宋貿易は続いた。
English: During this period, silk goods and ceramics were exported to Sung, and in the middle of the 12th century, Sung currency was introduced in Japan.
Japanese: この間日本には絹織物や陶磁器などが輸出され、とくに12世紀中ごろからの宋銭がもたらされた。
English: The 13th century was called 'the century of Mongolia' and Mongolia swept across the Eurasian Continent.
Japanese: 「13世紀はモンゴルの世紀」とも呼ばれ、モンゴルがユーラシア大陸を席巻した。
English: In China, Mongolia ruined Jin in the Joshin tribe dynasty and Sung which was driven out to southern China by Jin, and established the Yuan Dynasty and Mongolian Dynasty in China.
Japanese: 中国においても北部を支配していた女真族王朝の金、金に追われ南部に逃れていた宋を次々と滅ぼし、中国にモンゴル人王朝の元(王朝)を建てた。
English: In addition, Mongolia wanted to enlarge its control territory and tried to extend its influence to Japan and Vietnam.
Japanese: 元はさらにその支配領域を拡大しようとベトナムや日本にまで手を伸ばす。
English: Although the relationship with neighboring countries was worsened, trade among ordinary citizens continued, and Japan's trade with the Jiagnan region was getting especially prosperous with the development of its economy.
Japanese: 近隣諸国との関係が悪化する中でも民間や地方ベースでは交易が続けられており、とくに江南地方は経済拡大が続いていたこともあって、その規模はむしろ発展していった。
English: However, in Japan, since the social security had declined when the Kamakura bakufu was ruined and the Imperial Court was divided, the piracy by wako (Japanese Pirates) was rampant and the trade with China didn't carry on smoothly because of the social security worsening and public administration stagnating.
Japanese: しかし日本では鎌倉幕府が滅び朝廷が分裂する中で治安が悪化、倭寇が出没するようになり貿易船を襲うなど海賊行為が横行し、社会不安や行政機能の停滞などもあって、貿易は円滑なものとはいえなかった。
English: During this period the Ming Dynasty replaced the Yuan Dynasty, uniting China and sought Japan to take countermeasures against the wako and to bring tributes to the Ming Dynasty from Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
Japanese: この間に中国では元に替わって明が中国を統一し、対日政策として倭寇対策や朝貢を室町幕府に求めるなどした。
English: Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA responded to this demand, was appointed King of Japan and started to monopolize the trade with Ming using Kangofu (certificate to show that a ship was lawfully registered by Ming).
Japanese: 足利義満はこれに応じ日本国王に封じられ勘合符を使用して独占的に貿易を行うようになる。
English: After the Onin War, the initiative for trade with Ming gradually moved to the Ouchi clan, Hosokawa clan and merchants in Sakai or Hakata.
Japanese: 応仁の乱後は日明貿易の日本における主導権は大内氏や細川氏、堺や博多の商人に移っていった。
English: But after a while Ryukyu made enormous profits by reselling imported goods from Ming to Japan and Korea.
Japanese: しかしやがて明からの輸入品を日本や朝鮮などに転売することで巨額の利益を上げていった。
English: After the destruction of the Ouchi clan in the middle of 16th century, the trade between Japan and the Ming Dynasty in China came to an end and Ming also enacted a policy to prohibit trade.
Japanese: 16世紀中ごろの大内氏の滅亡で日明貿易は終焉を迎え、明も海禁政策をとるようになっていった。
English: During this period Eiraku-tsuho (bronze coins struck in the Ming Dynasty) and textile products from Ming and mineral resources such as copper and handicraft such as lacquer wares and folding screens from Japan were traded.
Japanese: この間明からは永楽通宝や繊維製品が、日本からは銅などの鉱物資源、漆器や屏風などの工芸品が行きかった。
English: Yi Dynasty Korea also demanded that Japan take countermeasures against wako (Japanese pirates) and seizing on the opportunity, envoy exchanges came to be conducted and trade between the two countries prospered.
Japanese: また日本に倭寇対策を求めたのは李氏朝鮮も同様で、これを機に両国間で使節派遣が行われるようになり、貿易も盛んになっていった。
English: However, after Muromachi bakufu lost its centripetal force, wako (Japanese pirates) made frequent appearances and Japan-Korea trade was interrupted for some time.
Japanese: しかし室町幕府が求心力を失った後、再び倭寇が出没するようになり、また日朝貿易は一時的に中断した。
English: In the middle of 15th century, Yi Dynasty Korea opened trade with Japan again, but the Yi Dynasty tried to regulate this trade relationship.
Japanese: 15世紀中ごろには再び貿易が再開されるも、これは李氏朝鮮が貿易に統制をかけようとした目的があった。.
English: In the 16th century, during the Renaissance period, Europeans who visited Japan admired Japan very much.
Japanese: ルネサンス期の16世紀にヨーロッパ人は日本に到着し、極めて日本を賞賛した。
English: Marco POLO described Japan as having a golden temple and palace, therefore Japan was considered to be a country of gold.
Japanese: マルコポーロが金の寺や宮殿の説明をしていたので、日本は黄金の国と考えられていた。
English: But due to the abundant ores resources in the top layer of soil in the volcanic mountain terrain, Japan went into the age of industry before digging out of large scale ores.
Japanese: しかし、火山地形による表層の鉱石の豊かさにより、大規模の鉱石発掘がされる前に工業の時代に突入した。
English: A refined feudal society was established in Japan with rich preindustrial arts and a developed culture.
Japanese: 日本はこの時代、豊富な前工業時代的技術と高い文化を兼ね備えた洗練された封建社会であった。
English: Europeans who visited Japan in the first stage of this era were surprised at the art of craftsmen and metal crafts from Japan.
Japanese: 初期に到着したヨーロッパ人たちは日本の職人の技能と金属細工に驚かされた。
English: Therefore the Japanese became well known as craftmen who were able to make effective use of their limited resources.
Japanese: それゆえ日本人はその限りある資源を職人の技術で有効利用することで有名となった。
English: The quality of copper and iron were the best in the world, and weapons made out of those materials were very sharp while Japan also stood unrivaled in the art of paper products.
Japanese: 銅と鉄の品質は世界最高で、その武器は最も鋭く、紙の技術は並ぶ国がなかった。
English: Portuguese vessels (4-small-size ships in common each year) used to arrive in Japan bringing Chinese products (silk, porcelain).
Japanese: ポルトガルの船(毎年、通常大体小さなサイズの4艘の船)がほとんど中国の商品(絹、磁器)をつんで日本に来ていた。
English: In 1557 when Portugal acquired Macau and was recognized as a formal trade partner with China, Portugal began to control its trade with Japan and recognized the most successful bidder the trade with Japan.
Japanese: 1557年ポルトガルがマカオを取得し、中国と正式な貿易パートナーとして認められるとポルトガル国家は日本への貿易を制限しだし、最高落札者に日本との交易を認めた。
English: As the result of this conference, an armed merchant ship of 1,000 to 1,500 tons was given exclusive rights to trade each year (an armed merchant ship was 2 to 3 times as large as junk or galleon ships).
Japanese: 協議の結果、1艘の1,000-1,500トンのキャラック船(武装商船大きなジャンク船やガレオン船の2,3倍の大きさ)に毎年排他的に交易する権利が与えられた。
English: Trade with Portugal was gradually overwhelmed by trading with junk ships from China and in 1592 trading by ships with a shogunal charter for foreign trade began at the rate of 10 ships a year.
Japanese: ポルトガルとの交易は次第に中国のジャンク船との貿易に圧迫され、1592年に朱印船貿易が年に約10隻の割合で始まった。
English: In 1600 the Liefde was cast up on the coast of Japan and William ADAMS arrived in Japan as the first Englishman.
Japanese: 1600年リーフデ号が日本に漂着し、ウィリアム・アダムスがイギリス人として初めて日本に到着した。
English: In 1605 on the order of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, 2 members of the Liefde crew were sent to Hollanders in the city of Pattani in the Kingdom of Thailand in order to start trade with Japan.
Japanese: 1605年徳川家康の命でリーフデ号の乗組員の2人がタイ王国のパッターニーのオランダ人に日本と交易するように招待するために送られた。
English: Victor Sprinckel, Head of the Netherlands trade office in Pattani in Thailand, refused their landing, as he was too busy to cope with the situation caused by Portugal which was hostile to the Netherlands in southern Asia.
Japanese: パッターニーのオランダ交易所の所長のVictorSprinckelは南アジアで敵対するポルトガルとの折合いをつけるのに忙しかったので上陸を拒んだ。
English: However, Dutch, Jacques SPECX struggled to arrive at Hirato in 1609 and obtained permission to trade from Ieyasu through William ADAMS.
Japanese: しかし、1609年オランダ人のJacquesSpecxは2艘の船で平戸にたどり着き、ウィリアム・アダムスを通じて家康から貿易許可を戴いた。
English: The beginning of the Edo period overlapped the end of trade with Spain and Portugal, and in this period the economic and religious relationship with Europeans arrived at certain extent.
Japanese: 江戸時代の始まりは南蛮貿易の終わりと重なり、ヨーロッパ人との経済的、宗教的に交易がある程度の域に達した。
English: In the beginning of the Edo period, the first Japanese European style galleon ship for ocean navigation, San Juan Bautista (500 ton) started on a voyage for Europe with a Japanese delegation headed by Tsunenaga HASEKURA through America.
Japanese: 江戸時代始めには日本初のヨーロピアンスタイルの遠洋航海用ガレオン船サン・フアン・バウティスタ号(500トン)が日本の支倉常長使節団をのせてヨーロッパ経由でアメリカに航海した。
English: In this age Tokugawa Shogunate gave charters for trade to 350 armed trading ships with 3 masts.
Japanese: この時代、幕府は350艘の、3本マストの武装交易船の朱印船に許可をだした。
English: After 1638 only Hollanders as Europeans were permitted to trade with Japan at Dejima, Nagasaki for 200 years.
Japanese: その後1638年以降は西洋人としてオランダのみ出島で2世紀に渡り、交易することとなった。
English: After the death of Ieyasu in 1616 Hidetada TOKUGAWA began an isolation policy and the policy was completed 25 years afterwards by Iemitsu TOKUGAWA, the successor of Hidetada.
Japanese: 家康の死後、1616年に徳川秀忠は鎖国政策を開始し、25年後に秀忠の後継の徳川家光により鎖国が完了した。
English: Because of its national isolation, commerce with England, Spain and Portugal who traded with Japan until that time stopped and commerce with ordinary citizens was also prohibited.
Japanese: このため既存のイギリス、スペイン、ポルトガルとの交易が途絶え、また民間貿易も禁止された。
English: Trade partners and their places for association were also limited: that is, Hollanders and Chinese were approved trade in Nagasaki and Dejima, Koreans were approved trade in Tsushima, Ryukyuans in Satsuma and Ainu tribe in Matsumae Province.
Japanese: 貿易相手とその交渉の場も限定され、オランダと中国は長崎・出島、朝鮮は対馬、琉球は薩摩、アイヌは松前藩とされた。
English: Trade in Nagasaki included, gold, silver and copper products that were exported from Japan, and marine products that were also exported to China.
Japanese: 長崎における貿易では金、銀、銅が日本から輸出され、また中国に対しては海産品も輸出されている。
English: Afterwards Hakuseki ARAI limited the trade volume, but Okitsugu TANUMA promoted trade after he took political power.
Japanese: その後新井白石により貿易量が制限されるようになるが、田沼意次が政治の中心につくと輸出が奨励されるようになる。
English: In the middle of 19th century, Edo became a city with a one million population and Osaka and Kyoto, having a population of 400,000, respectively.
Japanese: 19世紀の中期には江戸は100万人都市となり、京都と大阪は40万人都市となった。
English: For example even if a territory could not produce rice in their land, the economic scale was expressed by the rice amount corresponding to the converged worth of rice and the converged rice amount became the standard for taxation.
Japanese: 例えばその土地に米を生産する事が出来なくてもその経済規模を何万石の米相当と判断して其れに課税をした。
English: Tax rate in Edo era was 40 % on the revenue and this was very high when compared with those in other Asian countries.
Japanese: 税率は40パーセントぐらいで他のアジア諸国と比べると格段に高い数値を示している。
English: On the other hand, another opinion says that the cash crop (soybean, cotton, etc.) was not taxed, so farmers having lands of common size could lead a reasonably good life.
Japanese: が、実は換金作物（大豆、綿、等）には税金がかからず、普通の土地持ちの百姓はそこそこな生活をしていたという見解もある。
English: Feudal lords collected mainly rice as taxes, but they had monetary economy in Edo period therefore it was necessary to turn rice into cash.
Japanese: 大名は米を主に税金として集めたが江戸時代は貨幣経済なので何かするときは換金する必要がある。
English: Whether they had a poor crop or good harvest, it was necessary for feudal lords to have a stabilized monetary conversion, therefore in 1730, the world's first futures transaction of rice was started in the dojima rice exchange in Osaka.
Japanese: 大名は不作時も豊作時も安定した換金が必要となり、1730年に大阪の堂島米会所で世界で初めての先物取引が開始された。
English: This was many years before the establishment of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange in 1819 (present center in the world for grain futures transaction)
Japanese: これは1819年のシカゴ・マーカンタイル取引所（現在の穀物先物取引の世界的中心）の設立より100年以上も前のことである。
English: Due to the Peace Treaty between Japan and United States in 1854, the Japanese isolation policy that had lasted for 200 years was abolished.
Japanese: 1854年の日米和親条約によりおよそ2世紀にわたる日本の鎖国は解かれた。
English: 4 years later, a Treaty of amity and commerce between Japan and United States was concluded, and according to this treaty Japan was not approved a tariff autonomy.
Japanese: 4年後には日米修好通商条約が締結されるが、この条約によると日本側に関税の自主決定権が与えられていないとされていた。
English: These unequal treaties troubled the Meiji Government for a half century.
Japanese: これらの不平等条約は半世紀にわたりその後の明治政府を悩ませることになる。
English: As the main trade items in this period, Japan exported raw silk thread and tea, and foreign countries, especially England, the largest trade partner of Japan exported wool, cotton fabric, military weapons and metals as raw materials for weapon were exported to Japan.
Japanese: このときの主な貿易品目は、日本からは生糸や茶が輸出され、各国、とくに最大の貿易相手国となったイギリスからは毛織物や綿織物、軍事用の武器やその原材料となる金属が日本に輸出されている。
English: Due to the conclusion of commerce treaties with foreign countries including Treaty of amity and commerce between Japan and U.S.A., it came to be possible to use foreign silver coins in Japan.
Japanese: 日米修好通商条約などの通商条約の締結によって諸外国の銀貨が日本国内で使用できることが定められた。
English: In those days it was decided that the exchange rate of gold to silver was 1:15 by the Tokugawa government.
Japanese: 当時日本国内で同じ価値の金と銀との交換比率は幕府によって15と定められていた。
English: But in this rate gold was valued very low when compared to the rate in foreign countries where the exchange rate of gold to silver was 1:115.
Japanese: だがこの比率は諸外国にくらべて著しく金が割安であり、諸外国ではおおむね115の交換比率が成立していた。
English: Therefore foreign merchants could obtain a lot of profits by only bringing silver into Japan, exchanging silver for gold and exchanging gold for silver again in foreign countries, such as Shanghai in China for example.
Japanese: このため外国商人は日本へ銀を持ち込んで、金と交換し、上海などで再度銀と交換するだけで巨利を得ることができた。
English: Feudal government issued Manen koban (gold coin in Manen era) and reduced the amount of gold contained in koban (gold coin) to one third, thus at last stopping the outflow of gold from Japan.
Japanese: 幕府は1860年に金の含有量を3分の1に圧縮した万延小判を発行し、ようやく金の流出を止めることができた。
English: However, the Japanese economy in the end of Edo era encountered inflation due to the reduction of their currency value by one third and domestic products being exported through trade with foreign countries.
Japanese: ところが、正貨の貨幣価値が3分の1に下落したこと、また諸外国との貿易の開始によって国内産品が輸出に向けられたことによって、幕末期の日本経済はインフレーションにみまわれた。
English: The Meiji government took over issues from the Edo feudal government such as the acquisition of foreign currencies and revision of unequal treaties.
Japanese: 江戸幕府から政権を引き継いだ明治政府が直面した課題は、貿易による外貨獲得と不平等条約の改正であった。
English: In 1870 Meiji government established the ministry of industry, employed many foreign specialists, and promoted new industries and improved infrastructure such as railway, shipbuilding, mine, iron manufacture, telegraph, lighthouse, etc.
Japanese: 1870年（明治3年）政府は工部省を設置、また技術導入のためにお雇い外国人を多数採用し、殖産興業推進のため、鉄道、造船、鉱山、製鉄、電信、灯台など産業振興と産業インフラ整備のための幅広い事業を推進した。
English: The term "Bunjin" refers to a type of people in traditional society in China and 'an educated person who is good at literature.'
Japanese: 文人（ぶんじん）とは、中国の伝統社会に生じたひとつの人間類型であり、「学問を修め文章をよくする人」の意である。
English: The character of Bunjin has greatly changed through long historical transitions in China, been interpreted variously and not always been identical.
Japanese: 中国の長い歴史的変遷によって文人の性格は大きく変化し、研究者によって様々な解釈がなされ、必ずしも一様とはいいきれない。
English: However, 'being educated and good at literature' was a prerequisite for a Bunjin.
Japanese: が、「学問を修め、文章をよくする人」であることが文人たる所以といえる。
English: It was assumed that 'an educated person' had wide knowledge of studies such as History and Sinology, centering on Keisho (most important documents in Confucianism) and Keigaku (study of Keisho in Confucianism).
Japanese: この「学問を修める」とは経書経学（儒学的知識）を中心に、史学・漢学など幅広い知識を有する読書人であることを前提とする。
English: Being good at literature' means having an ability to write good texts and is deeply related with not only being a good writer buy also a skilled calligrapher.
Japanese: 「文章を能くする」とは優れた文章作成能力を差し、能文であるのみならず能筆であることも分ち難く結びついている。
English: Moreover, another condition for a Bunjin is that he has to be a Shijin (Shitaifu [a high ranking official from Kakyo, ancient Chinese higher civil service examinations]).
Japanese: さらにもうひとつ文人である条件を挙げるならば、士人（士大夫）でなければならないということである。
English: In China, although it has been changed through periods, Shijin usually refers to a person who has an education of literature as Confucianist and a ruling or leading status.
Japanese: 中国において士人とは時代的変遷はあるものの概ね、儒家としての人文的教養を身につけ、支配的・指導的な立場にある者のことをいう。
English: So, most of Bunjin were from ruling class and status such as royalty, bureaucracy, landlord and local powerful family.
Japanese: つまり文人は王侯・貴族・官僚・地主・地方豪族などの支配者的な階級・地位の出身者がほとんどであった。
English: However, it should be noted that there were many Bunjins who did not necessarily meet these conditions after the Ming Period.
Japanese: しかし、時代が下った明以降には必ずしもこの条件に当てはまらない文人が多数出現しているという点も看過できない。
English: The prototype of Bunjin was seen in the Six Dynasties Period, and self-self-aware Bunjin began to appear from the third period of Chinese literature in Tang to Sung (Dynasty).
Japanese: 六朝時代にそのプロトタイプが見られるが、中唐から宋(王朝)になると文人的な自覚をもった人物が現れ始める。
English: They basically had the view of human and the world which was mainly based on elegance and vulgarism, and gradually came to have a spirit to seek elegance and taste and love beautiful scenery (outstanding natural beauty).
Japanese: 彼らの意識の根底には雅俗認識を主な価値基準とする人間観・世界観があり、風雅を求め山紫水明を愛する気風が生じてくる。
English: At the same time, Bunjin characters became diversified to include versatility and wide interests, amateurism, anti-secularity, independency, curing and a tendency of recluse.
Japanese: と同時に、多芸多趣味・アマチュアリズム・反俗性・孤高性・養生・隠逸志向などの多様な文人属性が数えられるようになる。
English: It can be said that such added characteristics made up the common image the word 'Bunjin' conjures up today.
Japanese: このような属性の付与をもって今日我々がイメージする一般的な「文人」像が成立したといえる。
English: In addition, it needs to be paid attention to that not all Bunjin clearly identified themselves as 'Bunjin' in those days, but many of them were rather classified into 'Bunjin' in later years.
Japanese: なお、必ずしも文人とされる人物が「文人」という名辞をもって自らをはっきり規定していたのではなく、後に「文人」としての枠組みにその人物を収めた場合も多分にあるということを留意されたい。
English: It is very difficult to define Bunjin in Japan because of the difference in social system between China and Japan, and strictly speaking, its existence might be denied in Japan.
Japanese: 日本の文人については中国との社会制度の違いから、その定義が極めて難しく、厳密に言えばその存在を否定しかねない。
English: However, it is true that especially after the mid-Edo period there were many clearly self-aware Bunjin in Japan and they created Bunjin culture.
Japanese: しかしながら、特に江戸時代中期以降になると明確に文人意識を持ち、文人文化を実現した人々が多数存在したこともまぎれもない事実である。