nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The punishment related to the Takigawa Incident was concluded within the Faculty of Law and has almost nothing to do with the Faculty of Science, and although this character setting is inaccurate historically, it shows that the 'incident was the oppression of thinking and ideology of pre-war university staff' has a figurative meaning to this day.
Japanese: 滝川事件は法学部のみの処分で決着し、理学部とはほとんど関係のない事件であるので、この人物設定は歴史的な意味では正確さを欠くものともいえるが、「思想信条を理由に大学教員が弾圧された戦前の事件」としては象徴的な意味を今なお持っていることを示している。
English: "Toimaru" were organizations specialized in transport, warehousing and commission sales, which based themselves in cities by the rivers and ports where nengumai (rice paid as land tax) was unloaded.
Japanese: 問丸（といまる）は、年貢米の陸揚地である河川・港の近郊の都市に居住し、運送、倉庫、委託販売業を兼ねる組織。
English: By the late Kamakura period, Toimaru functioned not only as subordinates to the landlords who owned the ports, but also as agents which managed the transports of nengumai as to meet the demands of other manor owners who used the ports.
Japanese: 鎌倉時代末になると問丸は、港湾を所有する領主に隷属して仕事をするだけではなく、その港湾を利用する他の領主の要求にも応じ、年貢米の輸送管理を引き受けた。
English: As a result of expansion of their business, Toimaru began handling other general goods, and by the Muromachi period, some of them had also started the wholesale business.
Japanese: 後には、様々な展開を見せ始め、一般の商品も取り扱うようになって室町時代には問屋へと展開するものもあった。
English: There were also some Toimaru which monopolized the rights over the transport business in ports, and there were even some which, under the policy of the "rakuichi-rakuza" (Free Market, Free Guilds), were forced to dissolve their business and guild that had become far too powerful for the smooth and fair operations of transportation business in the ports.
Japanese: また現地の港湾からの流通に対する独占的権利を確立して港湾支配を確立したものの、逆に特権によって他者の流通を妨げる存在に成長したために楽市楽座政策によって座とともに解体に追い込まれたものもある。
English: As the ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on a set of codes) collapsed during the early to mid-Heian period, the system of taxation called so (tax) evolved into the nengu; the name nengu (annual tribute), however, kept something from its precedent, "koso" (the tribute-tax).
Japanese: 律令制における租が、平安初期～中期に律令制が崩壊・形骸化したことにともなって、年貢へと変質したが、貢租（こうそ）という別称に名残が残っている。
English: Throughout the medieval period and the early-modern times, the feudal lords imposed the nengu on the populace including the peasants.
Japanese: その後、中世・近世を通じて、領主が百姓をはじめとする民衆に課する租税として存続した。
English: The taxation system under the ritsuryo system, which was started during the late 7th century to the early 8th century, was called "the soyocho (tax paid by rice, labor, or textile) system", and it was imposed on and collected from each member of the community.
Japanese: 7世紀末～8世紀初頭に始まった律令制における租税は、租庸調制と呼ばれ、人民一人ひとりを対象に課税・徴税する性格が強かった。
English: Such a taxation system greatly depended on systems which closely controlled the populace, such as the ancient systems used to maintain the koseki (household registers) and keicho (yearly tax registers), as well as the Koku-gun-ri (-go) system (an administrative system used to divide lands and regions).
Japanese: こうした租税制度は、古代の戸籍制度・計帳の整備や国郡里（郷）制といった緻密な人民支配システムに大きく依存していた。
English: During the 9th and the 10th centuries, however, there appeared a wealthy class of peasants, who independently developed and integrated the cultivation fields.
Japanese: しかし、9世紀～10世紀ごろになると、百姓層の中で田地を開発・集積する富豪層が出現するようになった。
English: This wealthy class of peasants, who were called "tato" (cultivators), accumulated wealth by developing and integrating fields (Eiden), as well as performing suiko (government loans, often seed rice, made to peasants in Japan from the 7th through the 12th centuries), and gained control over the ordinary peasants by involving them in their business.
Japanese: こうした富豪層は田堵と呼ばれ、開発・集積した田地の経営（営田）や出挙の実施などで富を蓄積し、一般の百姓を自らの経営下に組み込んでいった。
English: As such a class division furthered among the population of peasants, the governmental control based upon the ritsuryo system gradually relaxed, and the bureaucratic procedures such as the household registers (koseki), the yearly tax registers (handen), and allotting of cultivation fields (handen) were no longer carried out.
Japanese: このような百姓内の階層分離が進んでいく中で、政府による律令制的支配は徐々に弛緩していき、戸籍・計帳の作成や班田などが実施されなくなっていった。
English: Under such circumstances, controlling each member of the community by imposing and collecting taxes was no longer possible, and the government and the ruling class were becoming aware of the necessity for a new control system.
Japanese: そうなると、人民一人ひとりを収取（課税・徴税）単位としていた人別支配はもはや不可能となり、政府や支配層にとって別の支配体制を構築する必要が生じていた。
English: First, the kokuga (provincial government office) that governed public fields, together with the "tato" who were rapidly gaining power, established a control system of imposing and collecting taxes based on land units.
Japanese: まず、公田を支配していた国衙が、当時台頭しつつあった田堵と連携して、土地を収取単位とする支配体制を築き始めた。
English: The kokuga reorganized the public fields into myoden (rice field lots in charge of a nominal holder), and placed the tato in charge of managing the myoden.
Japanese: 国衙は、国内の公田を名田に再編成し、名田経営を田堵へ請け負わせ始めた。
English: The tato, who were given the managerial position over the myoden, paid in return an amount which corresponded to the taxes formerly paid by rice, textiles, tributes, labor, or the shozei-suiko (interest for the loan of cereal seeds) to the regional offices.
Japanese: 名田経営を請け負った田堵は、従前の田租や調・庸・雑徭・正税出挙に相当する分量を国衙へ納入した。
English: Among the taxes mentioned above, those that corresponded to tax paid by rice and the shozei-suiko were called kanmotsu (the tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes), and those that corresponded to tax paid by textiles, tributes, labor were called zoyaku (the miscellaneous duties).
Japanese: 上記のうち、主として田租や正税出挙に由来するものを官物（かんもつ）といい、主として調・庸・雑徭に由来するものを雑役（ぞうやく）といった。
English: The taxation system centered on the myoden (known as the myotai or myoden system) was also introduced to shoen (manors in medieval Japan) that were expanding their areas of control since the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
Japanese: 以上のような名田を中心とする収取体制（これを名体制または名田制という）は、11世紀～12世紀以降、一円化して領域制を高めつつあった荘園にも導入された。
English: The cultivation fields in the shoen were integrated into the myoden, and the tato undertook the management of the myoden and the payment of taxes to the manor owners.
Japanese: 荘園内の田地は名田へ再編成され、田堵らが名田経営と領主への貢納を請け負った。
English: Among taxes paid to the feudal lord, what corresponded to the kanmotsu (rice harvested from the landlords' cultivation fields) in Kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government offices) came to be called "nengu".
Japanese: 領主への貢納のうち、国衙領でいう官物にあたるもの（田地からの収穫米）が年貢と呼ばれるようになった。
English: Through the medieval period and early-modern times, the nengu was the principal financial resource for the ruling class, which the ordinary population continued to bear its burden.
Japanese: こうして成立した年貢は、その後の中世・近世を通じて、支配層の主要な財源として位置づけられ、被支配層にとっては年貢を負担する義務が課され続けたのである。
English: As the commercial economy developed during the Kamakura period, the circulation of money increased, and in some cases, the nengu was paid by coins.
Japanese: 鎌倉時代になると、商品経済が発展していき、貨幣流通が増加し、中には銭貨で年貢を納入する代銭納が行われるケースも出てきた。
English: However, such cases were very rare, and in most cases, shokan (the administrative officer of shoen) or jito (the manager of shoen) exchanged the rice brought in as the nengu for money.
Japanese: ただし、そうしたケースは非常にまれで、物納された年貢を荘官や地頭が換金することの方が多かった。
English: In the Muromachi period, the monetary economy developed further, and the payment of the nengu by coins became widely spread mainly in the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto).
Japanese: 室町時代に入ると、貨幣経済が一層進展し、年貢の銭納または代銭納（銭貨による年貢納入）が畿内を中心に広く普及するようになった。
English: As a result of the Taiko kenchi (the nationwide land survey done by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) carried out in the Azuchi-Momoyama period, the complicated pattern of control and rights over the land were almost entirely dissolved.
Japanese: 安土桃山時代に実施された太閤検地により、一つの土地に対する重層的な支配・権利関係がほぼ全て解消された。
English: The cultivator of the land was considered the only person who was entitled to own the land, and the productivity of the land was measured by kokudaka, an estimated amount of rice to be produced from the land.
Japanese: 一つの土地の耕作者がその土地の唯一の権利者となり、土地の生産力は米の見込生産量である石高で計られることとなった。
English: The murauke system (a village's collective responsibility for tax payment) was established in order to collect the nengu from the village as a collective unit, in which an amount of nengu was determined from the total kokudaka of the entire village.
Japanese: 年貢については、石高を村落全体で集計した村高（むらだか）に応じた額が、村の年貢量とされ、年貢納入は村落が一括納入の義務を負う村請（むらうけ）の形態が採用された。
English: The control system of villages based on the Taiko kenchi and the murauke system was continued throughout the Edo period.
Japanese: 江戸時代になっても、太閤検地による村落支配体制はほぼそのまま継承され、村請制がとられた。
English: In the early Edo period, kemi-ho (annual crop inspections), with which the amount of the crop yield during that year was estimated and the rate of nengu to be paid each year was determined, was carried out.
Japanese: 江戸時代前期の年貢徴収は、田を視察してその年の収穫量を見込んで毎年ごとに年貢率を決定する検見法（けみ-）を採用していた。
English: However, due to the risk whereby the revenue can vary greatly year by year, jomen-ho, which employed a fixed nengu rate regardless of the amount of the harvest, was employed during the mid-Edo period.
Japanese: しかし、年によって収入が大きく変動するリスクを負っていたことから、江戸中期ごろになると、豊作・不作にかかわらず一定の年貢率による定免法（じょうめん-）がとられるようになった。
English: For the areas where rice cannot be produced, the baino-sei system, in which rice to be paid as nengu was purchased with money earned by selling other kinds of crops, was employed as an exception.
Japanese: 米が取れない地域の一部では商品作物等の売却代金をもって他所から米を購入して納税用の年貢に充てるという買納制が例外的に認められていた。
English: However, as the production of commercial crops became widely spread during the mid-Edo period, baino-sei was carried out even in suburban villages where rice can be produced, to which the Edo bakufu virtually took an acquiescence policy.
Japanese: だが、江戸時代中期以後商品作物の生産が広まってくると都市周辺部の農村など本来は米の生産が可能な地域においてもなし崩しに買納制が行われていき、江戸幕府さえもが事実上の黙認政策を採らざるを得なくなった。
English: In Japanese, there is an expression "it is time to pay the nengu" when one has to give up something.
Japanese: 日本語では、物事をあきらめなくてはならない時のことを「年貢の納め時」という。
English: This shows that common people tried very hard to avoid paying the nengu.
Japanese: 何とかして年貢納入を回避しようと、庶民が必死に努力していたことを物語っている。
English: "Saimen no Bushi" referred to a group of warriors who attended Daijo-tenno (the Retired Emperor) by guarding and serving the emperor during the Kamakura period.
Japanese: 西面武士（さいめんのぶし）とは、鎌倉時代、太上天皇に仕え、身辺の警衛、奉仕などにあたった武士集団のこと。
English: It is said that it was organized by the Emperor Gotoba in around 1200 to counter the military force organized by the Kamakura bakufu.
Japanese: 1200年ごろ、後鳥羽天皇が鎌倉幕府の軍事力に対抗して結成したとされる。
English: One of the theories has it that the Saimen no Bushi was organized in preparation to overthrow the bakufu, while another theory holds it that it was created by the Retired Emperor who simply liked military arts, and that it has no relation to the Kamakura bakufu.
Japanese: 倒幕準備のために創設したとする説の他、武芸を好んだ上皇が鎌倉幕府とは関係なく創設したとする説もある。
English: The group's central members were the gokenin (immediate vassals of the shogunate) from Kyoto and the eastern regions, and many powerful gokenin and other outstanding bushi (samurai) from the west Japan belonged to the group.
Japanese: 関東や在京の御家人を中心に構成されており西日本の有力御家人、武勇に優れた武士が多く所属していた。
English: Together with Hokumen no Bushi (a group of warriors guarding north side of imperial palace), which was organized by Emperor Shirakawa to guard the Retired Emperor earlier, Samen no Bushi played a central role in the military affairs of the imperial palace.
Japanese: すでに上皇警護には白河天皇によって創設された北面武士があり、ともに院の軍事の中枢を担った。
English: In 1221, they participated in the Jokyu War as the army of the Retired Emperor, but were defeated after about one month of the battle.
Japanese: 1221年の承久の乱においては上皇軍として参戦したが、一ヶ月あまりで鎮圧された。
English: Monks, bushi (samurai) and doctors taught reading, writing, soroban (using an abacus), and other practical knowledge and skills to children of ordinary citizens at these institutes.
Japanese: 僧侶や武士や医師などが、庶民の子弟に読み書きそろばんや実務上の知識・技能を教育した施設をいう。
English: Later, in the Edo period, with the development of commerce and trade, and with the rise in importance of documents, the demand for practical education grew, which led to the spread of Terakoya initially in city areas such as Edo and Kyoto.
Japanese: その後、江戸時代に入り、商工業の発展や社会に浸透していた文書主義などにより、実務教育の需要が一層高まり、先ず江戸や京都などの都市部に寺子屋が普及して行った。
English: From the 1690s, it spread to agricultural and fishing villages, and became even more widespread after the middle of the Edo period (eighteenth century), especially around the Tenpo era (1830s) during the late Edo period.
Japanese: 寛政年間（1690年代）頃から農村や漁村へも広がりを見せ始め、江戸時代中期（18世紀）以降に益々増加し、特に江戸時代後期の天保年間（1830年代）前後に著しく増加した。
English: The teachers (shisho) of Terakoya were often monks, priests, doctors, bushi, ronin (masterless samurai), calligraphers, and townspeople.
Japanese: 寺子屋の教師（師匠）には、僧侶・神官・医師・武士・浪人・書家・町人などが多かった。
English: Many students that finished their schooling went on to schools to train teachers for Terakoya such as the Ashikaga gakko, which trained Terakoya teachers who taught throughout Japan.
Japanese: 修学者の多くが、各地の寺子屋教師となっていた足利学校のように、寺子屋の教師を養成する学校すらあった。
English: In addition, different from juku (after-school lessons) of the present, a shisho of Terakoya was often a mentor for life.
Japanese: また今日の塾と違い、当時の寺子屋の師匠は、往々にして一生の師である例も多かった。
English: The students of a Terakoya were called 'Fudeko' and when the shisho died, the Fudeko would chip in to pay for the shisho's grave.
Japanese: 寺子屋の生徒を「筆子」といい、師匠が死んだ時には、筆子が費用を出し合って師匠の墓を建てる事が珍しくなかった。
English: These graves are called Fudekozuka, and there are over 3,350 graves confirmed to be Fudekozuka just in the Boso Penninsula.
Japanese: そのような墓を筆子塚といい、房総半島だけでも3350基以上の筆子塚が確認されている。
English: The Terakoya not only taught basic reading, writing and calculation, but also a comprehensive curriculum that included subjects required for daily life such as geography, people names and preparing letters.
Japanese: 寺子屋では、「読書算」と呼ばれる読書・習字・算数の基礎的な知識の習得に留まらず、地理・人名・書簡の作成法など、実生活に必要とされる内容の教育が総合的に行われていた。
English: Education first started with learning numbers and then went on to writing.
Japanese: 教育は第一に数字の習得から始まり、次いで文字の習得が為される事が多かった。
English: Terakoya was the name used mostly at Kamigata (Kyoto, Osaka, Ise) and it was called 'Tenarai-shinanjo' or 'Shuseki-shinan' in Edo.
Japanese: 「寺子屋」の名称は主に上方（京都・大坂・伊勢市など）で用いられ、江戸では「手習指南所」「手跡指南」などと呼ばれた。
English: This was because 'Koya' in Terakoya sounded like 'shed' and 'Ya' sounded like a shop name and was considered unsuitable as a name for a place of education.
Japanese: 寺子屋の「子屋」が「こや（小屋）」に通じる点や、「屋」が屋号に通じる事が教育の場の名称に適切ではないと考えられたからである。
English: When tension both internally and externally increased near the end of the Edo period, ronin found more work (in government service) and the ratio of shisho who were townspeople rose.
Japanese: 幕末に内外の緊張が高まると、浪人の再就職（仕官）が増えた事により、町人出身の師匠の比率が増えた。
English: Terakoya that taught Koten (classics) which was the basics of Kokugaku also increased, and Terakoya gradually changed with the times.
Japanese: また国学の初歩である古典を教える寺子屋も増えるなど、時代状況に応じて寺子屋も少しずつ変化を遂げて行った。
English: When in 1872, the school system was put in place by the Meiji Restoration, Terakoya gradually ceased to exist.
Japanese: 明治維新期の1872年に学制が敷かれると、寺子屋は次第に消滅して行った。
English: However, practical education by Terakoya had been entrenched among the ordinary citizens and the literacy level of the Japanese in the beginning of the Meiji period was among the top in the world.
Japanese: しかし、寺子屋によって実務的な教育が庶民の間に定着しており、明治初期における日本の識字率は世界最高水準にあった。
English: One of the factors that led to the rapid modernization of Japan in the Meiji period was the high educational standards that Terakoya had provided the ordinary citizens.
Japanese: 明治期の日本が急速に近代化を達成できた要因のひとつに、寺子屋が庶民に高い教育水準をもたらしていた背景をあげることができる。
English: Text books included Oraimono such as "Teikin Orai" (collection of letters used for family education), "Shobai Orai" (a Guide to Commerce), "Hakusho Orai" (a Guide to Farming), "Senjimon" (a poem consisting of one thousand Chinese characters) for learning characters, "Nagashira," "Myojizukushi" for learning names of people, "Kunizukushi," "Chosonzukushi," for learning place names and geography, "Shishogokyo," "Rikuyuengi" for Confucianism, and history books such as "Kokushiryaku," "Juhasshiryaku" and classics such as "Toshisen," "Hyakuninisshu" and "Tsurezuregusa."
Japanese: 教科書としては、『庭訓往来』『商売往来』『百姓往来』など往来物のほか、文字を学ぶ『千字文』、人名が列挙された『名頭』『苗字尽』、地名・地理を学ぶ『国尽』『町村尽』、『四書五経』『六諭衍義』などの儒学書、『国史略』『十八史略』などの歴史書、『唐詩選』『百人一首』『徒然草』などの古典が用いられた。
English: Oraimono, collection of correspondences were frequently used as textbooks because the public during the Edo period often prepared various letters for practical life and eventually 'Oraimono' became a pronoun for textbook.
Japanese: 中でも往復書簡を集めた形式の書籍である往来物は特に頻用され、様々な書簡を作成する事の多かった江戸時代の民衆にとっては実生活に即した教科書であり、「往来物」は教科書の代名詞ともなった。
English: The starting age and graduation age at Terakoya was not particularly fixed, and many started at around 5 to 6 and graduated around 13 to 14, up to 18 years of age.
Japanese: 寺子屋の就学年齢や卒業時期は、特に定まっていた訳ではなく、およそ5～6歳で就学し、13～14歳から18歳になる頃まで修学する例が多かった。
English: There were some Terakoya which only took boys or girls, but most Terakoya were coed.
Japanese: 男子限定や女子限定の寺子屋も少なくはなかったが、男女共学の寺子屋が多数であった。
English: The percentage of children attending school was about 70 to 86 % in the Edo period around 1850s, and was higher compared to foreign countries such as 20 to 25% for major industrial cities in Britain (1837), 1.4% for France (1793) and 20% for the Soviet Union (1920, Moscow).
Japanese: 江戸における嘉永年間（1850年頃）の就学率は70～86%といわれており、イギリスの主な工業都市で20～25%（1837年）、フランス1.4%（1793年）、ソビエト連邦20%（1920年、モスクワ）と、外国に比べ就学率が高かった。
English: By the end of the shogunate, there were 1,500 schools in Edo, and a total of 15,000 Terakoya throughout Japan.
Japanese: 幕末期には、江戸に約1500校、全国では約15000校の寺子屋が存在した。
English: A movement to establish Terakoya throughout the world as part of improving literacy in the world is the World Terakoya Movement by UNESCO.
Japanese: 寺子屋を世界中に普及させようとしている運動が、国際連合教育科学文化機関が提唱している世界識字教育運動の1つであるユネスコ世界寺子屋運動（WorldTerakoyaMovement）である。
English: Taibon Sankajo refers to the fundamental authorities of Shugo (provincial constable) in the Kamakura and Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
Japanese: 大犯三箇条（たいぼんさんかじょう）とは、鎌倉幕府、室町幕府における守護の基本的権限。
English: Then, Obanyaku (a job to guard Kyoto) was abolished during the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), and the conventional interpretation of Taibon Sankajo had been changed.
Japanese: その後、南北朝時代(日本)に大番役が廃れ、旧来の大犯三箇条の解釈が変わった。
English: Chosen Tsushinshi is the name of envoys dispatched by Yi Dynasty Korea to Japan.
Japanese: 朝鮮通信使（ちょうせんつうしんし）とは日本へと派遣された李氏朝鮮からの国使の名称である。
English: Chosen Tsushinshi originally started as a return call for an envoy and message dispatched by Seii Taishogun (literally, "great general who subdues the barbarians") of the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) to Korea.
Japanese: 朝鮮通信使のそもそもの趣旨は室町幕府征夷大将軍からの使者と国書に対する返礼であった。
English: In 1375, Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA dispatched an envoy from Japan to Korea, and for this, the Korean side sent to Japan an envoy to express a good relationship.
Japanese: 1375年（永和(日本)元年）に足利義満によって派遣された日本国王使に対して信（よしみ）を通わす使者として派遣された。
English: In the Azuchi-Momoyama period, Yi Dynasty Korea sent Chosen Tsushinshi to Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI for checking whether he had an intention of sending his military troops to Korea.
Japanese: 安土桃山時代に、李氏朝鮮から豊臣秀吉が朝鮮に出兵するか否かを確認するため、秀吉に向けても派遣されている。
English: However, the diplomatic relations between the two nations were broken due to the Bunroku-Keicho War, and Chosen Tsushinshi ceased to come.
Japanese: しかし、その後の文禄・慶長の役によって日朝間が国交断絶となったために中断された。
English: In a broader sense, the term of Chosen Tsushinshi is used for indicating all of the Korean envoys that came to Japan in the Muromachi period to the Edo period, but in a narrow sense, this term is used mostly for indicating those in the Edo period.
Japanese: 広義の意味では室町時代から江戸時代にかけてのもの全部を指すが、一般に朝鮮通信使と記述する場合は狭義の意味の江戸時代のそれを指すことが多い。
English: For example, according to "Kaitoshokokuki" (literally, descriptions of various countries across the sea) written by Sukchu SIN, a secretary of the envoy dispatched in 1428, the survey included 15 items including the following: identifying base-places of wako together with a request of prohibiting wako (Japanese pirates) actions, observing Japan's power, such as relationships among wako, shugo daimyo (shugo, which were Japanese provincial military governors, that became daimyo, which were Japanese feudal lords), dominant Kokujin (local samurai) and local clans, states of progress in urban areas, and monetary policies, and checking the states of progress of Buddhism in Japan.
Japanese: 例えば1428年（正長元年）派遣の使節に同行した書記官の申叔舟が著した『海東諸国紀』によると、倭寇禁圧要請と併せて倭寇の根拠地の特定、倭寇と守護大名、有力国人、土豪との関係、都市部の発展状況や通貨政策など国力状況の観察、日本での仏教の展開状況をはじめ15項目の調査内容があったという。
English: Chosen Tsushinshi came to Japan three times in the Muromachi period, and plans of sending it in 1459 and 1479 were not materialized.
Japanese: 室町時代には3度来日し、1459年（長禄3年）や1479年（文明(日本)11年）にも派遣計画があったが来日しなかった。
English: It is explained that the failures were due to the death of the envoys or the necessary voyages were dangerous.
Japanese: これは、使者が途中で死亡したことや渡航の危険を理由として説明されている。
English: However, it was also explained that the envoys were not dispatched, because gishi actions (the actions in which shugo daimyo or kokujin negotiated with the Korean side using the name of shogun without getting permission) were rampant and because such a mission became unnecessary since trade between the two nations had became sluggish.
Japanese: しかいながら、偽使（守護大名や国人が将軍の名前を詐称して勝手に交渉すること）の横行や日朝貿易の不振により、必要性が減殺したためだと説明されることもある。
English: Seo-saeng BAK who came to Japan in 1429 made Kinshin (金慎), a student under him, investigate 'how to make a water wheel' closely and made him make a model water wheel, saying that 'Japanese farmers use water wheels,' and also reported a silver-gilding method, how to manufacture paper, how to generate vermillion and how to manufacture medicine called keifun.
Japanese: 1429年、日本に来た朴端生は、「日本の農人、水車の設けあり」として、学生の金慎に「造車の法」を精査させて模型を作り、鍍銀（銀メッキ）、造紙（紙漉）、朱紅、軽粉などの製造法を祖国に報告している。
English: The survey also covered the state of the monetary economy and the progress of shop-based goods-selling business in Japan, and in particular, included descriptions related to technology.
Japanese: 日本の貨幣経済の実態や、店舗商業の発展等にも及んだが、その中で技術にまで言及していた。
English: This is because, prior to starting the mission, he was instructed by Sejong (a Korean king) that 'You should learn how to make paper, how to make hard blades and how to build houses and should bring back the technologies concerned,' or he was instructed to introduce technologies in Japan.
Japanese: これは、渡航前に世宗(朝鮮王)から「倭の紙、堅籾、造作の法また宜しく伝習すべし」と、日本の技術を導入するように命じられていたからである。
English: As described in 'Tsurezuregusa' (Essays in Idleness) (in the 51st section) written 100 or more years ago, water wheels were built and used by farmers themselves at that time.
Japanese: 水車はその百年以上も前に、「徒然草」（第五十一段）に記されており、当時には農民達の手で取り付けられていた。
English: Considering this, it is supposed that there might have existed a significant difference between the technological level of Japan and that of Korea.
Japanese: この事を考えると、日本と朝鮮の間には相当の技術格差があったのではないかと考えられる。
English: The nominal mission of the Tsushinshi sent to Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI in 1590 was to celebrate the unification of Japan by Hideyoshi (this Tsushinshi had an audience with Hideyoshi on December 3).
Japanese: 1590年（天正18年）に豊臣秀吉に派遣された通信使（12月3日（11月7日(旧暦)）に秀吉に謁見）は名目としては秀吉の日本統一を祝賀することが目的であった。
English: However, the actual mission was to check whether the rumor of his intruding Korea was true or not.
Japanese: しかしながら、朝鮮侵攻の噂の真偽を確かめるために派遣された通信使である。
English: Therefore, while the head of the envoy reported that Hideyoshi had the intention of invading Korea, the deputy reported otherwise, and the opinion of the deputy head, who was close to the king, was taken.
Japanese: このために正使は侵攻の意思ありと報告し副使は侵攻の意思なしとの報告が行なわれ、王に近い副使側の意見が採られた。
English: In the Bunroku War, Korea was invaded up to Pyongyang, but it is said that this was because the Korean side made no preparation for the war based on the deputy head's opinion.
Japanese: 文禄の役の際に一気に平壌まで侵攻されたのはこの副使の報告に従い、なんら用意をしていなかったためともされる。
English: In 1596, Tsushinshi came together with the Ming envoy (Sakuho-shi ambassador) who came to Japan for closing the truce negotiation between Japan and the Ming.
Japanese: 1596年（慶長元年）の通信使は日本と明の休戦交渉の締めくくりとして行われた明使（冊封使）の日本への派遣に同行したものであった。