nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: As for local government, the five provinces close to the capital, Yamato Province, Yamashiro Province, Kawachi Province, Izumi Province, and Settsu Province were grouped into the Kinai and the other provinces were divided into seven 'Do' (circuits).
Japanese: 地方統治は、中央に近い大和国・山城国・河内国・和泉国・摂津国の五国を畿内とし、その他を七つの道（どう）に区分した。
English: There were three tiers of administrative districts, province, county, and village (township), with a provincial governor deployed in each province, a local magistrate deployed in each county, and a village chief (township head) deployed in each village.
Japanese: 行政区画としては、令制国・郡・里（郷）の三層に分けて、国には国司、郡には郡司、里には里長（郷長）を置いた。
English: The provincial governor was sent from the central government, whereas the local magistrate or village chief was appointed for life from local powerful clans who had ruled the area, which virtually meant that they were approved to govern the areas they originally ruled as administrative districts of the central government.
Japanese: このうち、国司には中央から派遣されたが、郡司・里長はかつての在地首長である地域の豪族層が終身官として任命され、実質上自分の支配地域を行政単位として認められていた。
English: This has led to the view that the Japanese Ritsuryo system included the ruling of the people by local powerful clans in parallel with the ruling of the people by the state based on the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: これについては、日本の律令制が、律令に基づく国家による人民支配と並行して、在地首長による氏族制的な人民支配をも内包していたとする見解がある。
English: These were the Left and Right Capital Offices, responsible for the capital, the Kyoto area; the Settsu Office, responsible for Naniwa, the capital's gateway for foreign diplomacy; and the government's Kyushu Offices, responsible for the Saikaido Road, the state's gateway for foreign diplomacy.
Japanese: 首都である京域を管轄する左右京職、首都の外交窓口である難波を管轄する摂津職、国家の外交窓口である西海道を管轄する大宰府である。
English: A transportation system was established for quickly and smoothly transferring information between the central and local governments, and based on the transportation system, a road system was developed.
Japanese: 中央と地方の情報伝達を迅速・円滑に行うために駅伝制が実施され、この駅伝制の下で、中央と国内各地を結ぶ道路網が整備されていた。
English: The road system was a highway in ancient Japan with long, wide straight sections, some of which can be seen today.
Japanese: 道路網は、幅員が広く長い直線区間を持つ古代日本のハイウェイであり、現代までその痕跡が残っている。
English: Government post' refers to the positions in the government office, which were generally divided into the four classes of Kanikan (director), Sukekan (assistant director), Jokan (secretary), and Sakan (clerk).
Japanese: 官職とは官庁における役職で、押し並べて官庁内では役職が四階級、即ち長官（かみ）・次官（すけ）・判官（じょう）・主典（さかん）に区分されていた。
English: According to the Ritsuryo system, all government officials were given ranks, which was known as the Kani-Soutousei system.
Japanese: 律令において、全ての官職は相当する位階が定められており、これを官位相当制という。
English: For example, the Left and Right Chuben (the middle posts of benkan), which were the assistant directors of the Benkan's Office, were given the Shogoinojo (Senior Fifth Rank, Upper Grade) and as such, the Left and Right Chuben were selected from those who held the Shogoinojo.
Japanese: 例えば、弁官局の次官である左右中弁は正五位上と定められ、正五位上の者の中から左右中弁が選任されていたのである。
English: Those at the Fifth Rank or above received a number of privileges such as being granted fields, fiefs, stipends, and servants, and developed into a special social class.
Japanese: 位階のうち五位以上の者には位田・位封・位禄・位分資人が給与されるなど多くの特権が与えられており、特別の身分階層を形成していた。
English: According to the Japanese Ritsuryo system, government of the people was based on the creation of the ancient family register system (detailed records of the people registered for each household) and yearly tax records (a register for collecting taxes of tributes and tax in kind), which were updated every year.
Japanese: 日本の律令制においては、人民統治の基盤として、古代の戸籍制度（世帯＝戸ごとに人民を詳細に記載登録したもの）と計帳（調・庸の税を徴収するための台帳）が作成され、毎年更新されていた。
English: The national government uniformly allotted rice fields of the same area, known as 'kubunden,' to people who met certain requirements, based on the family register, and when the person died, confiscated the allotted fields.
Japanese: 国は、戸籍を基にして、一定の資格を持つ者に対し一律に同じ面積の田を口分田として班給し、その者が死ねば口分田を収公していた。
English: Under the Ritsuryo system, kubunden were defined as private land, not public land (a fact that repudiated the existing concept of state ownership of both land and people).
Japanese: 律令では、口分田は公地ではなく私地と規定されていた（これにより従来の公地公民の概念は否定されつつある）。
English: Types of field other than kubunden were fields given to those at the Fifth Rank or above, fields given specially by the emperor, fields given to those who did meritorious deeds for the state, fields allotted according to government post, fields given to temples for maintenance and operation costs, fields given to shrines for maintenance and operation costs, and fields left over after allotment of the above.
Japanese: 口分田の他の田には、五位以上の者へ班給された位田、天皇から特別に与えられた賜田、特に功績を残した者に与えられた功田、官職に応じて班給された職田、仏教寺院の維持運営にあてられた寺田、神社の維持運営にあてられた神田、以上の班給の残りの乗田があった。
English: Residential land and parks were also allotted but not confiscated, and selling and buying at the owner's discretion were permitted.
Japanese: また、宅地と園地も班給の対象とされたが、収公はされず、自由に売買できた。
English: Generally, those who were allotted rice fields were required to pay land tax, tax in kind, and tributes, although some of people were exempted.
Japanese: 田地の班給を受けた者は、原則として租庸調を納税する義務を負ったが、中には納付義務が免除される田地もあった。
English: Rice fields subject to rice tax were called Yusoden, and rice fields exempt from rice tax were called Fuyusoden; kubunden, fields given to those at Fifth Rank or above, fields given by the emperor, fields given for meritorious deeds for the state, and fields given to local magistrates were treated as Yusoden, and fields allotted to government posts other than local magistrate, fields given to temples, and the fields given to shrines, were treated as Fuyusoden.
Japanese: 田租の賦課対象となる田地を輸租田といい、田租が免除された田地を不輸租田というが、口分田・位田・賜田・功田・郡司への職田が輸租田とされ、郡司以外の職田・寺田・神田のみが不輸租とされた。
English: At that time, a government loan system called suiko existed, where provincial governors or provincial magistrates partly forced peasants to borrow rice from the rice tax and charged them interest on it.
Japanese: 当時、出挙という貸借制度があったが、国司や郡司は田租の稲を半ば強制的に百姓へ貸し付けて、利子の稲を得ていた。
English: This interest was called public suiko or shozei, and was as important a resources as the rice tax.
Japanese: これは公出挙または正税と呼ばれ、田租と並んで地方の貴重な財源となった。
English: The tax in kind was imposed on male peasants, and paid with local specialties including silk, cloth, salt, paper, dye, seaweed, and oil.
Japanese: 調(律令制)は、男性に賦課された物納税であり、絹や布、塩、紙、染料、海草、油などの地域の特産品が納められた。
English: For that purpose, laborers were selected from among the peasants to deliver the taxes to the capital, Kyoto.
Japanese: そのため、百姓の中から運搬する者（運脚という）が選ばれ、都まで運送していった。
English: The tributes were originally paid as labor to be carried out in the capital, but were later substituted with cloth, rice, salt and the like.
Japanese: 庸は、元来、都での労役に従事することだったが、その代替として布、米、塩などを中央へ納付する内容となっていた。
English: The irregular corvee was labor carried out on public works or miscellaneous work at government offices within a province and ordered by the provincial governor.
Japanese: 雑徭は、国司の命に従って、国内の土木工事や政府機関での雑用に従事する労役義務である。
English: In China, there was a labor obligation called 'saka,' separate from the irregular corvee, and there are various opinions about the relationship between the saka and the irregular corvee.
Japanese: 中国では雑徭とは別に差科と呼ばれる労役義務が存在しており、差科に対する雑徭の位置付けについては諸説がある。
English: Soldiers were conscripted from the adult male population and assigned to 'gundan' (army corps), which were deployed every three to four counties.
Japanese: 成年男性の中から徴兵され、3～4郡ごとに置かれた軍団に兵士として配属された。
English: After training in the gundan, soldiers were transferred to the central Kinai region and served as guards called 'eshi' in the area around palace for one year.
Japanese: 軍団で訓練を受けた兵士は、中央たる畿内へ配転されて衛士として1年間、王城周辺の警備に当たった。
English: Soldiers from the Kanto region were deployed for three years as guards in northern Kyushu to defend the coast.
Japanese: また、関東の兵士は、北九州に防人として3年間配属され、沿岸防備などに従事した。
English: The ryomin included the nobles, who were high-ranking officials; low-ranking officials; general peasants, who were sometimes called 'public people'; and lower level functionaries, including semi-free skilled craftsmen known as 'shinabe' and 'zakko.'
Japanese: 良民は、高級官僚である貴族を初め、下級官人、一般の百姓（公民と呼ばれることもあった）、雑色人（品部・雑戸という工芸技術を持つ半自由民）があった。
English: The senmin were known as 'the five lowly kinds,' which were 'ryoko,' families of the keepers of imperial tombs; 'kanko,' servants belonging to government offices and involved in government work; 'kunui,' government-owned slaves; 'kenin,' slaves owned by nobles or powerful people for odd jobs; and 'shinui,' private servants.
Japanese: 賎民は五色の賎と言われ、陵戸（天皇・皇族の陵墓を代々守る家系）、官戸（諸官庁に属し公用に従事）、公奴婢（官有の奴隷）、家人（貴族や有力者に属し雑用に従事）、私奴婢（私有の奴隷）があった。
English: Among the senmin, kunui and shinui were treated as slaves and could be bought and sold.
Japanese: 賎民のうち、公奴婢と私奴婢は売買の対象とされるなど、奴隷として位置づけられていた。
English: It is considered that the formation of the ancient Japanese state was completed with the establishment of the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 律令制の確立を以って、古代日本の国家建設がひとまず完了したと考えられている。
English: The construction of the state was not triggered internally, but chiefly by external factor of tension in East Asian international relations, mainly with the Tang Dynasty.
Japanese: ただし、その国家建設は内発的なものではなく、唐を中心とする東アジアの国際関係の緊張を背景とする外発的な要因を主としていた。
English: For this reason, the Ritsuryo system, on which the construction of the state was based, was introduced from China basically to attempt to reproduce the Chinese system in Japan, although Japan added a lot its own original amendments.
Japanese: そのため、国家建設の基盤となった律令制も、中国から移入されたものであり、日本独自の改変も多々あるが、基本的には中国の制度を日本で再現しようとする試みであった。
English: There were two opposing opinions about the Japanese Ritsuryo system; one that it was a political system led arbitrarily by the emperor and the other that it was a republican political system for the nobles led by the nobles in the Kinai region.
Japanese: 日本の律令制については、天皇による独断的な政治体制とする見解と、畿内の貴族らによる貴族共和的な政治体制とする見解が対立していた。
English: However, the most popular view now is that it was a political system operated by the emperor and the nobles based on mutual dependence.
Japanese: しかし、その後、天皇と貴族が相互に依存しながら運営して行く政治体制とする見解が出され、有力となっている。
English: From a certain period around the war, it was considered that the Ritsuryo-based Japanese society was based on slavery due to the existence of slaves.
Japanese: 日本の律令制社会は、戦前から戦後のある時期にかけて、奴隷が存在する点から奴隷制社会と目されていた。
English: That idea complied with a historical view of European development, particularly Karl MARX's historical materialism, that classifies human history as primitive society to slavery society to villeinage and so on.
Japanese: これは、人類の歴史を原始社会→奴隷制社会→農奴制社会→…と類型化したヨーロッパ的な発展史観、なかんづくカール・マルクスの唯物史観に準拠した考え方であった。
English: In particular, historical materialism, which strongly influenced the Japanese post-war historical school, further advanced the historical view of development to consider that ancient Asian society was generally based on slavery in the Asiatic mode of production.
Japanese: 特に、戦後の歴史学に強い影響を及ぼした唯物史観は、発展史観の度合いをさらに強め、古代アジアの社会はアジア的生産様式の中で総体的奴隷制度が行われたと考えていた。
English: In those days, the biggest theme of Japanese historians was how to apply Japanese history to the European historical view and therefore they evaluated the Ritsuryo system from that historical point of view.
Japanese: 当時の日本史学界の大きなテーマは、日本の歴史をいかにヨーロッパ的史観へ当てはめていくか、というものであり、そうした観点から律令制への評価が行われていたのである。
English: There is an opinion that the government of the people under the Ritsuryo system was simply nothing but a structure of exploitation based on oppression on the people.
Japanese: さらに、律令制に於ける人民統治の実態は単なる人民圧迫に基づいた搾取構造でしかなかった、という考えも存在している。
English: In fact, it was taught that the burden on the people increased, while the ruling class, i.e., the noble class, continued living luxuriously and had less to do with the politics.
Japanese: 実際、人民の負担が増加傾向にあるにもかかわらず、肝心の支配層、すなわち貴族階級は贅沢を続け政治から遠ざかっていくようになる、と教えられる時期も有った。
English: Recently, the most popular current theory is that the above-mentioned view emphasizes the wrong points because it adapts Japanese society based on the Ritsuryo system to the historical view of European development, merely to match that Japanese society with the realities of the Western powers' colonial rule.
Japanese: だが、この見解も日本の律令制社会をヨーロッパ的な発展史観に当て嵌め、欧米列強がかつて行った植民地支配の実態と重ね合わせているだけで、本末転倒な見方とする意見が現在では多くなってきている。
English: In fact, although it was argued that the Law Permitting Permanent Ownership of Newly Cultivated Land was very much like the main cause of the Ritsuryo system collapse by allowing the development of the manorial system, it has been proved that the law was for reinforcing the Ritsuryo system as part of the land policy, which was undertaken to guarantee the livelihoods of the people.
Japanese: 実際、墾田永年私財法は荘園制を発生させ律令制を崩壊に追いやった元凶のように論じられていたが、実態は人民の生活保障のために執られた土地政策の一環で、律令を否定するどころか律令の法目的を補強するものであった事が判明している。
English: The system where soldiers were garrisoned at strategic posts in Kyushu was replaced with the 'kondei' system of military service for the purpose of lightening the burden on the people, and only peasants from northern Kyushu were conscripted.
Japanese: また、防人制も人民負担の軽減から健児制に取って代わられ、農民徴用も九州地方出身者のみに限定している。
English: By studying the reality of the society based on the Ritsuryo system, it has become apparent that slavery did not generally exist in society because the essential slave class was limited to the nui and other senmin.
Japanese: 律令制社会の実態を観察すると、本質的な奴隷身分は奴婢などの賎民に限られており、社会全体に奴隷制が存在していなかったことが明らかになっている。
English: Accordingly, the idea of 'the Ritsuryo system equals slavery' or 'the Ritsuryo system equals a system of exploitation based on a dictatorship' was refuted and, instead, the concept of villeinage that views the peasants as serfs, has been suggested.
Japanese: このことから、「律令制＝奴隷制」、「律令制＝独裁制に基づく搾取制」という考えが否定されていき、代わって百姓を隷属農民として見る隷農制という概念が提示されるようになった。
English: As seen in these examples, the Ritsuryo system has gradually been re-evaluated from an East Asian, rather than a European, viewpoint
Japanese: こうした例に見られるように、律令制に対する評価は、徐々にヨーロッパ的な視座ではなく、東アジア的な視座からの再評価が行われるようになっている。
English: Fukoku kyohei refers to a policy that makes state economics grow and encourages reinforcement of military forces.
Japanese: 富国強兵（ふこくきょうへい）とは、国家の経済を発展させて軍事力の増強を促す政策をいう。
English: In China, the policies that were carried out in lords' countries at the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period were called 'Fukoku kyohei', and some examples were given in Shinsaku (Qin strategies) of "Sengoku (warlike period) strategies".
Japanese: 中国では、春秋戦国時代に諸侯の国が行った政策を「富国強兵」といい、『戦国策』秦策に用例が見える。
English: In this period each country appointed thinkers called Shoshi-hyakka (general term of scholars and schools in China), and they introduced new weapons, such as Cavalry Operations and chariots, and conducted military reforms.
Japanese: この時代には各国が諸子百家と呼ばれる思想家たちから人材を登用し、騎馬戦術やチャリオットなどの新兵器を導入して軍事改革を行った。
English: Japan, which fell far behind the Western powers due to its national isolation policy in the Edo era, was heavily burdened by the Ansei Five-Power Treaties long after its start as a renewed nation.
Japanese: 江戸時代の鎖国が原因で欧米列強に国力で大きな差をつけられ、これが安政五カ国条約という新国家を後々まで苦しめる結果となった。
English: Learning a lesson from this, Japan aimed to revise the treaties and improve national security by strengthening its economic power with land-tax reform and encouragement of industries (national enrichment), and military power with the conscription system and reformation of the military system (strengthening of the military) to catch up with other great powers.
Japanese: これを教訓とした日本は、地租改正や殖産興業で経済力をつけ（＝富国）、徴兵制や軍制改革により軍備を増強（＝強兵）して、列強に追いつくことにより条約改正と国家の保全を目指した。
English: It is equivalent to about 4 kilometers in today's Japan, 500 meters in China and about 400 meters in Korea.
Japanese: 現在の日本では約4km、中国では500m、朝鮮では約400mに相当する。
English: 1 ri represented the area of 1800 shaku (unit of length, approximately 30.3 centimeters) square (1800 shaku is equivalent to 360 bu [unit of length in old Japanese system of weights and measures] or 6 cho [unit of length, approximately 109 meters]).
Japanese: 1里は1800尺（360歩(尺貫法)、6町(単位)）四方の面積を表していた。
English: Afterward, although changes occurred through periods, the length of ri has returned to that in the Zhou period because 500 meters has been set as 1 ri in today's China.
Japanese: その後、時代により変動があるが、今日の中国では500mを1里としているので、周代の里に戻ったことになる。
English: Ri' came down to Japan in those days and 1 ri was set as 5 cho in the Ritsuryo System (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).
Japanese: 日本にもこのころに「里」が伝えられ、律令制では5町をもって1里としていた。
English: Therefore, the distance walked in the time to be spent roughly to walk 1 ri was called 1 ri.
Japanese: そこで、1里歩くのにかかる大体の時間から、その時間に歩いた距離を1里と呼ぶようになった。
English: There appeared various length of ri (36 chori, 40 chori, 48 chori and so on) because people's pace of walking was different according to topography and road conditions.
Japanese: 人が歩く速度は地形や道路の状態によって変わるので、様々な長さの里（36町里、40町里、48町里など）が存在することになる。
English: However, as this would cause confusion, 36 chori was fixed as the standard ri in the Edo period with accepting the existence of various ri.
Japanese: しかし、やはりこれでは混乱を招くということで、江戸時代には、様々な里の存在は認めた上で、36町里を標準の里とすると定めた。
English: In the Meiji period, 1 ri was fixed to be equal to 36 cho and other kinds of ri were banned by The Weights and Measures Act which was established in 1891 after joining the treaty of the meter.
Japanese: 明治時代に入り、メートル条約加入後の明治24年(1891年）に制定した度量衡法では、1里＝36町とし、それ以外の里の使用を禁止した。
English: 1 ri is equal to the product of 36 cho multiplied by 360 (shaku per cho) and then 12960 shaku, because 1 cho is equal to the product of 60 ken (a unit of length) multiplied by 6 (shaku per ken) and then 360 shaku.
Japanese: 1町＝60間×6(尺/間)＝360尺であるので1里＝36町×360(尺/町)＝12960尺となる。
English: 1 ri is equal to the product of 12960 shaku multiplied by (10 over 33) (meter per shaku) and then (43.2 over 11) kilometers and then 3.9 kilometers (the part of overbar is a recurring decimal) because 1 shaku has been fixed as (10 over 33) meters.
Japanese: 1尺＝(10/33)mと定められたので、1里＝12960尺×(10/33)(m/尺)＝(43.2/11)km＝3.9km（上線部は循環小数）となる。
English: There was a period when Chinese ri was called "shinari" (Chinese ri, approximately 500 meters) in Japanese literature for distinction because 1 ri in Japan and in China had quite different length as mentioned above.
Japanese: 上記のとおり日本の1里と中国の1里は長さが大きく異なるため、日本の文献内で中国の里のことを『支那里』と呼んで区別していた時代もある。
English: 1 ri was set as (a half) kilometers, that is, 500 meters and the letter of '里' (ri) has also been used for 'kilometer' in China.
Japanese: 中国では、1里＝(1/2)km＝500mとし、さらに「キロメートル」にも「里」の字を宛てた。
English: The civilization and enlightenment occurred during the transitional phase of Japan in Meiji period, seeing drastic changes in various systems, organizations and cultural customs of Japan as the results of the Westernization.
Japanese: 文明開化（ぶんめいかいか）とは、明治の日本に西洋の文明が入ってきて、制度や習慣が大きく変化した現象のことを指す。
English: While modernization = Westernization was the fundamental issue throughout Meiji period, the term Civilization and Enlightenment is generally applied to the conditions seen in early Meiji period, when the social conditions and customs of people dramatically changed from the former feudalistic society.
Japanese: 近代化＝西欧化そのものは明治時代に於いて一貫した課題であったが、文明開化という言葉は、一般に明治初期に、世相風俗がこれまでの封建社会から大きく変わった時期を指して使われる。
English: The civilization and enlightenment is the phenomenon of absorption and intake of Western civilization flew into Japan in parallel with the renovation of political system, during the time when the strongly feudalistic Japanese culture that had been unbrokenly continued throughout the Edo period was coming to the limits due to the isolationism and the like.
Japanese: 文明開化は、江戸時代を通じて連綿と続いてきた封建制色濃い日本文化が鎖国などの事情で飽和状態に達していた所に、政治体制の刷新にも伴い流入した西洋文明によって発生した日本での西洋文明の吸収・取り込み現象である。
English: The term "文明開化" (civilization and enlightenment) was used by Yukichi FUKUZAWA for the first time in his essay published in 1875, "Bunmeiron no gairyaku" (An Outline of a Theory of Civilization) as the translation of the word, civilization.
Japanese: 「文明開化」という言葉は福澤諭吉が『文明論之概略』明治8年（1875年）の中で、civilizationの訳語として使ったのが始まりである。
English: There were wide variety of ways how the movement took shapes within Japanese society, from the simple imitation of Western culture and customs, to the absorption of those elements as the model cases for fusing with traditional Japanese culture, or rearranging the traditional Japanese culture into Western styles; the movement became an enthusiastic trend during this transitional phase, received by wide variety of people among different social levels.
Japanese: この中では単純に西洋の文化・風俗を模倣したものから、或いはそれら文化や風俗を手本としながら日本の既存文化との融合を図ったもの、更には既存文化を西洋風にアレンジしたものなど多岐に渡り、過渡期的には熱病の如き流行となって様々な社会階層に受け入れられていった。
English: There was a well-known phrase describing the period, saying that "Zangiri atama wo tataite mireba, Bunmei Kaika no otogasuru," ("Knocking on the short-cut hair by removing a topknot, we can hear the sound of civilization") which became the origin of the movement to produce a new style in Kabuki theatrical play called "Zangiri-mono."
Japanese: この時代を象徴する言葉として有名なものに「散切り頭を叩いてみれば、文明開化の音がする」という言葉があり、散切物と呼ばれる歌舞伎芸能の新形態発生などといった現象がみられる。
English: In "Agra Nabe" (which means, sitting cross-legged around hot pot, eat food and talk frankly) written by Robun KANAGAKI, he said, "you are a dinosaur not eating beef hot pot!" which satirically describe the changing cultural habit of Japanese people even among the general public.
Japanese: 仮名垣魯文の『安愚楽鍋』にある「牛鍋食わぬは開化不進奴」（現代風に意訳すれば「牛鍋を食わないとは、とんでもない時代遅れな奴だ」）といった食文化の変化などが、大衆の生活にも取り入れられていった様子が伺える（後述）。
English: The new Meiji government promoted the policies of industrial development, wealth and military strength of Japan, leaving Asia and entering Europe, while the government also promoted the adaptation of Western culture and customs, such as Western-style architecture, (=>Western style building and pseudo Western style architecture) short-cut hair removing the topknot of a man, Western style clothing, and Western style food and cooking.
Japanese: 明治新政府が推進した殖産興業や富国強兵・脱亜入欧などの一連の政策の推進や西洋建築（→西洋館・擬洋風建築）、散髪、洋装、洋食などの奨励がみられる。
English: However, studies also suggest that such Westernization and the actual adaptation of those styles and customs was limited to the people living in the urban areas or among those educated classes.
Japanese: ただこういった西洋化は都市部や一部の知識人に限られた西洋文明の摂取でもあったとも指摘されている。
English: In rural conditions of local towns and villages, the transition of the lifestyle was much more gradual and slow as the tradition and customs of the late Edo period lasted far longer; people in some area used paper-shaded lamp using rapeseed oil until the beginning of Showa period, and the benefit of those new Western systems such as a new postal service and telegraph communication were not effectively introduced and utilized until much later years.
Japanese: 地方町村部では場所により昭和に入る頃まで明かりといえば菜種油で行灯を灯し、郵便や電信など西洋化の恩恵は中々届かず、また長らく江戸後期の伝統や風習が続くなど、生活の変化は遥かに緩やかなものであった。
English: Yet still, the Prefectural offices in local regions led the exclusion of a traditional culture and customs upon the policy of the new Meiji government, therefore there are many traditions and customs curtailed and vanished under the civilization process.
Japanese: また、地方では新政府の方針に従い県庁主導で従来の生活文化や民俗風習の排除が行われ、文明開化政策の影響で縮小や途絶した民俗風習も多い。
English: The rapid and drastic Westernization was promoted also because of the notion of impending crisis, by seeing the act of the Great Powers of the West exploiting Asian countries to acquire a vast wealth through the management of colonized countries.
Japanese: なお急速な西洋化の一端には、西洋列強国が当時盛んに植民地経営で、莫大な富をアジア諸国から吸い上げていたことに対する危機感も見出される。
English: As the principal part of the wealth and the military strength policy, the introduction and adaptation of Western-style military technologies and skills was strongly promoted; even the food service provided in the military (military ration) was Westernized in order to strengthen the physical power and stamina of soldiers.
Japanese: この中では、上に挙げた富国強兵の一環で西洋軍事技術の導入も盛んに行われ、軍隊では兵隊の腕力や体力を強化する目的で、提供される食事（軍隊食）までもが西洋化された。
English: The early stage of Japanese military was formed by the group of young people composed of the second or third sons collected from rural and agricultural regions; they had grown up by eating traditional Japanese food with rice-centered diet, thus some could not easily accept such Western style dishes so different from their eating habit.
Japanese: ただ当時発足したばかりの日本軍は地方農村部などの次男・三男を集めた集団であり、飯や日本食で育った彼らの中には、あまりに異質な西洋の料理に対して拒否感を示す者も見られた。