nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: However, this changed due to the series of wars against powerful western European nations and the unequal treaties that followed.
Japanese: しかしこうした事態に変化をもたらしたのが、相次ぐ西欧列強との戦争とその後の不平等条約締結である。
English: Missionary work was limited to the ports of treaty until that period, but the Treaty of Tianjin signed after the Arrow War (Second Opium War) allowed travel inland of the Qing dynasty (permit to propagate inland) and many foreign missionaries entered the country and went inland.
Japanese: それまで布教活動は条約港に限り認められていたが、アロー号戦争（第二次アヘン戦争）後結ばれた天津条約では、清朝内陸への布教を認める条項（内地布教権）が挿入されており、以後多くの外国人宣教師が内地へと入っていった。
English: The foreign missionaries dealt with Chinese society with an attitude of missionary belief and the arrogance of those belonging to a winning nation, and they often ignored customs, leading to frequent clashes with local bureaucracy and Kyoshin (Chinese gentry).
Japanese: 外国人宣教師たちは、宗教的信念と戦勝国に属しているという傲岸さが入り交じった姿勢で中国社会に臨み、その慣行を無視することが多く、しばしば地域の官僚・郷紳と衝突した。
English: The presence of rice Christians (people who ate church meals) further complicated this situation.
Japanese: そしてさらに事態を複雑にしたのは、ライス・クリスチャン（キリスト教会の飯を食う者）の存在である。
English: Peasants who suffered from natural disasters such as famine, and had nobody to turn to, found themselves being rescued by the charity work of missionaries and embraced Christianity, bringing with them a whole family or even a village.
Japanese: 飢饉などの天災により寄る辺をなくした民衆などは宣教師の慈善活動に救いを見出し、家族ぐるみ・村ぐるみで帰依することもあった。
English: Even people who became socially weak due to the internal conflict within China at that time sought patronage and entered the faith, which contributed to the expanding influence of Christianity.
Japanese: また当時中国の内部対立の結果社会的弱者となった人々も庇護を求めて入信し、キリスト教徒の勢力拡大に寄与した。
English: For example, local and Hakka people frequently opposed each other, resulting in a dispute called the Punti–Hakka Clan War, but the local officials often suppressed the Hakka, and seeking help, all the Hakka became believers of Christianity.
Japanese: たとえば南方では、現地人と客家がしばしば対立して土客械闘という争いを起こしていたが、地方官は客家を弾圧することが多く、救いを求めて客家が一斉にキリスト教に入信するようなことがあった。
English: A recent study stated that some members of the Byakuren sect, which was the source of the Boxers, became believers of Christianity to avoid the oppression of officials.
Japanese: さらに最近の研究では、後に述べるように義和団の母胎となったと言われてきた白蓮教徒も、官憲の弾圧から逃れるために、その一部がキリスト教に入信していたことも分かってきた。
English: Kyukyo Incident (the historical materials refer to it as '教案' [Kyoan]) was the feud or incident between the foreign missionary and their believers versus Kyoshin and common people.
Japanese: 外国人宣教師やその信者たちと、郷紳や一般民衆との確執・事件を仇教事件（史料では「教案」と表記される）という。
English: Specifically, many incidents developed from the missionaries entering conflicts over land boundaries between believers and common people, and antipathy towards the construction of churches.
Japanese: 具体的には信者と一般民衆との土地境界線争いに宣教師が介入したり、教会建設への反感からくる確執といった民事事件などから発展したものが多い。
English: The historical documents began to mention the word 'Kyoan' from the 1860's and incidents occurred frequently along the Yangtze River in the 1890's.
Japanese: 1860年代から、史料には「教案」の文字が見られはじめ、1890年代になると主に長江流域で多発するようになる。
English: Despite being the same Chinese, believers were strongly protected due to the unequal treaty, and sometimes used military threats, so incidents usually ended to the church's favor.
Japanese: 何故なら、布教活動や宣教師のみならず、同じ中国人であるはずの信者も不平等条約によって強固に守られ、時には軍事力による威嚇を用いることさえあったため、おおむね事件は教会側に有利に妥結することが多かったからである。
English: Commoners who were unsatisfied with the judgments of the local officials attacked the church, its priest, and believers, and often tried to resolve the situation with violence.
Japanese: 地方官の裁定に不満な民衆は、教会や神父たち、信者を襲い、暴力的に解決しようとすることが多かった。
English: Even the Zeng Guofan, who rendered distinguish service by subjugating the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, stated that even if foreigners were at fault, they must not make it a bigger deal by writing this in official records.
Japanese: 太平天国平定の功労者であった曾国藩ですら、もし外国人の方に非があったとしても、公文書に記載し事を大きくしてはならないと述べたという。
English: This opposition further increased the spread of superstitions and rumors that often occur when encountering foreign cultures.
Japanese: こうした対立に、異文化遭遇の際に起こりがちな迷信・風説の流布が拍車をかけた。
English: The rumors suggested that missionaries put street orphans into an orphanage to extract their organs for use as medical ingredients, and such like.
Japanese: 当時、宣教師たちは道路に溢れていた孤児たちを保護し、孤児院に入院させていたが、それは子供の肝臓を摘出し、薬の材料にするためだといった類のものである。
English: These frequent Kyukyo Incidents built antipathy toward Western Europe and Christianity and spread the loss of trust toward the bureaucracy and Kyoshin (those who worked under government officials), who were obliged to bow to the foreigners demands.
Japanese: 仇教事件の頻発は、一般民衆の中に、西欧及びキリスト教への反感を醸成し、外国人に平身低頭せざるを得ない官僚・郷紳への失望感を拡大させたといえる。
English: The advancement of the German Empire became noticeable in Shandong Province at the end of the 19th century and the Kyukyo Incidents occurred alongside it.
Japanese: 19世紀末、山東省ではドイツ帝国の進出が目立つようになり、それに伴い仇教事件が頻発するようになった。
English: Germany regarded the Shandong Province with great interest not only due to the presence of Qufu City, which was the birthplace of Confucius, but from the perspective of the Christian missionary work.
Japanese: ドイツは、山東省を国家権益の観点のみならず、孔子の生地である曲阜がありキリスト教布教の観点からも特に重視していた。
English: The enthusiastic missionary work in Shandong Province brought about anti-foreign emotions among the people that increased with time.
Japanese: そして山東省における熱烈な布教活動はその反動として民衆の排外的な感情を呼び起こし、時を追うごとに高まっていったのである。
English: Because the Boxers were Haijoteikai (the predecessor) of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, their united origin cannot be specified.
Japanese: 義和団は、太平天国における拝上帝会のようにその起源を単一のものに特定できない。
English: Perhaps because of this, there are theories stating that they originated from Byakuren sect, and another which claimed that they were a vigilante committee with the official recognition of local officials.
Japanese: そのためもあって白蓮教的な拳法に由来するという説と、団練という地方官公認の自警団に求める説とがある。
English: At first, this organization captured robbers and handed them over to government offices, and was characteristic of a vigilante committee in that it maintained security and defended the territory.
Japanese: この会は初め盗賊を捕まえて役所に突き出すなど郷土防衛や治安維持を担った自警団的性格をもっていた。
English: They attacked the Catholic side, destroying churches and murdering priests in 1897 (Soushukyoan).
Japanese: 1897年にカトリック側を襲撃し、教会の破壊や神父の殺害を決行した（曹州教案）。
English: The Qing dynasty suppressed them after receiving protests from Germany, and the situation temporarily cooled down.
Japanese: こうした動きに対してのドイツの抗議をうけた清朝が弾圧し、一旦鳴りを潜めるようになる。
English: However, their power spread to the northwestern part of Shandong Province in 1899 and they merged with the school called Divine Fist.
Japanese: しかし1899年になると山東省の西北方面に勢力を拡大し、そのころ神拳という一派と融合していった。
English: In addition, a conflict between the local military organization and Christians occurred in other areas of Shandong.
Japanese: また山東の別の箇所でも在地の武術組織とキリスト教が対立する事件が発生した。
English: It was caused by common people seeking help from the Plum Blossom Martial Art school after receiving unfair judgment over a land dispute regarding the building of a church.
Japanese: 例によって教会建設に端を発する土地争いの裁判で不利な判決を言い渡された一般民衆が梅花拳という拳法の流派に助けを求めたのが、きっかけである。
English: They later changed the name to 'Giwa Martial Art' (former name of the Boxers) in order to prevent the trouble spreading to the whole Plum Blossom Martial Art, which has a long history.
Japanese: その後歴史ある梅花拳全体に累が及ぶのを避けるため「義和拳」と改名した。
English: This meant that people other than practitioners of Plum Blossom Martial Art started to participate in the anti-Christianity movement.
Japanese: これは反キリスト教を核に梅花拳以外の人々も多く参加し始めた状況に対応する意味もあった。
English: As the anti-Christianity movement spread, groups from various areas merged together, becoming the Giwa Martial Art.
Japanese: 反キリスト教運動が広がりを見せる中で、各地のグループが次第に統合していき、義和拳となったのである。
English: The martial art organization previously mentioned started to have very strong sect like characteristics and practiced shamanistic ceremonies within the group.
Japanese: 以上に挙げた武術組織は、極めて強い宗教的性格を有し、内部ではシャーマニズム的な儀式も持っていた。
English: Many of the characters within "Journey to the West" and "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" such as Goku SON, Zhuge Liang, and Zhao Yun, were worshipped as deities.
Japanese: 神として祀られたのは、孫悟空や諸葛亮、趙雲といった『西遊記』、『三国志演義』の登場人物が多かった。
English: The Boxers declared that the people who possessed them became immortal beings who could repel not only swords but bullets too.
Japanese: 義和団では、それらが乗り移った者は、刀はおろか銃弾すら跳ね返すような不死身になると喧伝した。
English: The spread of the Giwa Martial Art force was rapid, like the flame of a burning field, but one reason was that local high officers were reluctant to put them under control.
Japanese: 義和拳の勢力拡大は燎原の野火の如く急激であったが、それには地方大官が取り締まりに消極的だったことも一因である。
English: Ikuken, who was the junbu (local government official) of Shandong Province and was sympathetic to Giwa Martial Art since their attacks targeted only institutions related to Christianity, dismissed 蒋楷, the government official of Pingyuan County in Shandong Province who tried to suppress the Boxers, and even tried to acknowledge Giwa Martial Art as a danren (a vigilance committee of local community).
Japanese: 山東巡撫毓賢（いくけん）は、義和拳の攻撃対象がキリスト教関連施設に限定されていることをもって、彼らに同情的で、義和拳を取り締まろうとした平原県知県蒋楷を逆に罷免し、義和拳を団練として公認しようとすらした。
English: Giwa Martial Art' became known as 'the Boxers' under these circumstances, and the following paragraphs will use the term 'the Boxers.'
Japanese: 「義和拳」が「義和団」と呼ばれるようになるのには、こうした背景があったのであり、以下の文章では「義和団」に統一する。
English: Ikuken was reassigned due to the demands of the powerful European nations and the United States, and YUAN Shikai was assigned to suppress the Boxers at the end of 1899.
Japanese: 1899年末、毓賢は欧米列強の要求によって更迭され、かわって袁世凱が赴任し義和団を弾圧した。
English: The Boxers were expelled from Shandong Province and shifted to Zhili Province (current Hebei Province and Beijing City), and the land between Beijing and Tianjin cities became full of Boxers.
Japanese: 山東省から押し出された義和団は直隷省（現在の河北省と北京市）へと展開し、北京と天津市のあいだの地帯は義和団であふれかえる事態に至った。
English: Zhili Province had a greater amount of jobless and refugees from natural disasters than Shandong Province, so Boxers absorbed them and expanded fast.
Japanese: 直隷省は山東省以上に、失業者や天災難民が多くおりそれらを吸収することによって義和団は急速に膨張した。
English: They eventually targeted not only foreigners and Chinese Christians, but merchants that handled foreign goods, and even railways and electricity lines, and began to attack one after another.
Japanese: そして外国人や中国人キリスト教信者はもとより、舶来物を扱う商店、はては鉄道・電線にいたるまで攻撃対象とし、次々と襲っていった。
English: There were several groups within the Boxers led by some famous leaders such as 王成徳, 宋福恒, and Zhang Decheng, and each managed several thousand Boxers members.
Japanese: 当時の義和団にはいくつかのグループがあり、有名な指導者には王成徳や宋福恒、張徳成といった人々がおり、各々が数千人の義和団をまとめていた。
English: The Boxers were permitted to go on rampages in neighborhoods of the capital Beijing, but the massive scale of the Boxers was just one reason for this.
Japanese: 首都北京近辺における義和団の横行を許したのは、義和団の強大化だけが原因ではない。
English: The Qing dynasty tried to suppress them due to strong interference by the powerful western European nations, but there were several high officials, like the former Ikunen, who were sympathetic to the Boxers' pro-Qing slogan, 'Support Qing, destroy the foreigners' and 'Revive Qing, destroy the foreigners'.
Japanese: 西欧列強の強い干渉によって清朝は鎮圧を行おうとしたが、義和団の「扶清滅洋」（清を扶〔たす〕け洋を滅すべし）、あるいは「興清滅洋」（清を興〔おこ〕し洋を滅すべし）という清朝寄りのスローガンに対し、さきの毓賢同様同情を示す大官が複数おり、徹底した弾圧には至らなかった点も原因である。
English: Even Empress Dowager Cixi was the same in resenting the powerful countries, and was lenient when handling the Boxers.
Japanese: また列強を苦々しく思っていた点は西太后以下も同じであり、その点も義和団への対処に手心を加えることとなった。
English: The Boxers began to rampage as if it was justified, and the unexpected situation brought panic to the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: こうして義和団が我が物顔で横行するようになり、しばらくすると、不測の事態が発生し清朝を慌てさせた。
English: However, the Qing dynasty was cornered when a secretary of the Japanese Embassy was assassinated by the soldiers of Tofukusho that guarded Beijing after being dispatched from Gansu Province in June 1900, and Klemens von Ketteler of the envoy of German Empire, was killed several days later by Boxers.
Japanese: 1900年6月、甘粛省から呼ばれて北京を警護していた董福祥（とうふくしょう）配下の兵士に日本公使館書記が殺害され、数日後今度はドイツ公使ケットラー（KlemensvonKetteler）が義和団に殺害されると、清朝は一層の窮地に立たされたのである。
English: The Qing dynasty's 'proclamation of war' toward the allied western powers was often debated alongside the search for the origin of the Boxers.
Japanese: 義和団の源流は何かという問題と並んでよく論じられるのが、清朝の列強への「宣戦布告」である。
English: The proclamation was decided after holding four conferences in the presence of the empress in order to determine how to handle the Boxers as well as the powerful allied nations.
Japanese: この決定は義和団及び列強連合軍に対しどう対処するかについて、4度御前会議が開かれた末、決定された。
English: It was certainly partly driven by emotions such as rage, but historical study will not accept unintelligent arguments such as simply the "'proclamation of war' was equal to lunacy".
Japanese: 激昂に駆られた感情的な側面があるのは確かであるが、それのみを重視して「宣戦布告」＝狂気の選択といったような不可知論的説明は歴史学では採らない。
English: The Taku Forts were set up at the mouth of the Hai River for the defense of naval vessels traveling upriver to Beijing and Tianjin cities.
Japanese: 大沽砲台とは海河河口に備えられており、北京や天津へと遡航する艦船への防御の要となる砲台であった。
English: The allied western powers demanded that the forts be handed over by May 20 but they attacked and reduced them to rubble after the Qing dynasty refused.
Japanese: それが5月20日の時点で列強への引渡しを求められ、なおかつ清朝側が拒否後攻め落とされた。
English: The fact that the allied western powers used force despite not being at war or being conquered by Boxers motivated the anti-foreign war party within the Qing dynasty and led to the decision made by Empress Dowager.
Japanese: 交戦状態でもないにもかかわらず、また義和団に占拠されていたのでもないにもかかわらず、列強がこの挙に出たことが、清廷内の排外主戦派を勢いづかせ、西太后の決心を促した。
English: Furthermore, what drove the Qing dynasty to the 'proclamation of war' was the ongoing interference in the administration of justice such as the previous Kyukyo Incident, and oppression by powerful western nations demanding Shandong Province's junbu (government official title that existed from Ming to Qing dynasty) be handed over (this was described by Gangyi as the 'build up of anger over generations of reign').
Japanese: さらに言えば、これ以前からあった仇教事件のような列強の司法への介入、山東巡撫の更迭要求等のいくつもの列強の圧力、すなわち「累朝の積憤」（積もり積もった怒り。剛毅の言）が次第に清朝を「宣戦布告」へと追いやったと言える。
English: The 'reference' problem: This 'reference' was the document from the allied western powers demanding the retirement of Empress Dowager, and she decided to declare war after being enraged by it.
Japanese: 「照会」問題―この「照会」とは列強が西太后に引退を求めたとされる文書であり、これを見て激昂した彼女が宣戦を決めたという。
English: It is believed that it was forged by someone belonging to the war party of Qing dynasty or a Aisin-Gioro Saii party, and it was designed to push the indecisive Empress Dowager towards war.
Japanese: 清朝主戦派の誰か、愛新覚羅載イ（さいい）一派と目されている、によって捏造されたと考えられているが、それは煮え切らない態度を示す西太后の背中を押すためだったと考えられている。
English: Power struggle within the Qing dynasty: a plan to get rid of the Emperor Guangxu, who supported the Hundred Day's Reform, was progressing within the Qing imperial court.
Japanese: 清朝内の権力争い―清廷内には戊戌変法を支持した光緒帝を廃位しようとする計画が進められていた。
English: The plan was hindered by the powerful western nations, Li Hongzhang, and some imperial princes, so the Boxers were used to remove these groups.
Japanese: その障害となったのが、列強と李鴻章や一部の親王であり、それらを排除するために義和団を利用したという。
English: While placing Boxers against the allied western powers, they criticized Li Hongzhang for compromising with the allied western powers.
Japanese: つまり列強に対しては義和団をあてる一方で、列強に妥協的だという理由で李鴻章らを媚外として批判したのである。
English: The allied forces of the western powers were planning to intervene with military force from the end of May after receiving the request of envoys stationed in Beijing.
Japanese: 北京駐在公使の要請を受けて五月末より、列強の連合軍は軍事介入を計画していた。
English: Around two thousand members of the allied forces led by Vice Admiral Edward Hobart Seymour of the British marines headed for Beijing at the beginning of June by repairing and marching along the Beijing-Tianjin Railway (Beijing to Tianjin) but this proved to be slow, and progress was hindered by the Boxers as well as 甘軍 of the official Qing dynasty army led by Dong Fuxiang at Langfang, and they were forced to retreat to Tianjin.
Japanese: 六月初旬にはイギリス海軍中将シーモア（EdwardHobartSeymour）率いる連合軍約2000名が北京を目指したが、義和団によって破壊された京津鉄道（北京－天津間）を修繕しながら進軍したため、その歩みは遅く、また廊坊という地では義和団及び清朝正規兵董福祥の甘軍によって阻まれ、天津への退却を余儀なくされた。
English: In other words, the allied western powers dispatched an army to China and implemented a clean up operation of the Boxers even before proclamation of war by the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: つまり清朝の宣戦布告以前より、列強は中国に軍隊を派遣し義和団掃討作戦を実施していたことになる。
English: The Qing dynasty criticized the attack of Taku Fort at Tianjin as 'impolite rampancy' on June 17 and it became one of the important motives for the proclamation of war.
Japanese: 6月17日、天津にある大沽砲台の攻撃について、清朝は「無礼横行」と非難し、宣戦布告をする重要な動機のひとつとなった。
English: Eight allied western powers dispatched an army to suppress the Boxers: Great Britain, the United States of America, the Russian Empire, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Empire of Japan.
Japanese: 義和団鎮圧のために軍を派遣した列強は八ヶ国あり、その内訳はイギリス・アメリカ合衆国・ロシア帝国・フランス・ドイツ・オーストリア・ハンガリー帝国・イタリア王国と大日本帝国である。
English: It was a mixed army consisting of slightly less than 20,000 soldiers, but Japan and Russia dispatched the most soldiers.
Japanese: 総勢約二万人弱の混成軍であったが、最も多くの派兵をおこなったのは日本とロシアであった。
English: This was because nations other than Japan and Russia could not dispatch many military forces to China as they had their own various problems.
Japanese: これは日露以外の各国は、それぞれが抱える諸問題のため多くの兵力を中国に送る余裕が無かったことに起因する。
English: Great Britain was at war against Holland in South Africa (Boer Wars) so they in particular did not have many surplus soldiers, so they requested Japan to dispatch their soldiers instead, which is why they sent a great number of soldiers.
Japanese: 特にイギリスは南アフリカでオランダと戦争状態にあったため（ボーア戦争）多くの兵力を送る余裕がなく、日本に派兵を要請したことも日本の大量派兵の一因である。
English: In addition, the United States was in the middle of Philippine-American War so, like Great Britain, they only dispatched a small number of soldiers.
Japanese: また、アメリカ合衆国は米比戦争を戦っていたため、イギリスと同様に派兵は少数にとどまった。
English: Japan dispatched the Fifth Division of the Imperial Japanese Army (around 8000 members) led by Yasumasa FUKUSHIMA, under the order of Minister of the Army Taro KATSURA.
Japanese: 日本軍は陸軍大臣桂太郎の命の下、第5師団(日本軍)（およそ8000名）を派兵し、その指揮は福島安正に委ねられた。
English: Yasumasa FUKUSHIMA was assigned to be the commander as he was fluent in English, French, German, Russian and Chinese, and because of his experience having just returned from a trip to observe Russia and the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: 彼は英語・フランス語・ドイツ語・ロシア語・中国語に堪能で、当時ロシアや清朝を調査する旅行から帰国したばかりであったが、その経験を買われて指揮官に据えられたのである。
English: It was of course for the protection of the legation, but other main objectives included expansion of Japanese interests in China, establishing Japanese advantage at the Korean Peninsula by defeating the Qing dynasty, and restrainment of Russia which was sending a great army just like Japan, and Japan also dispatched troops alongside the allied western powers to show its presence as the 'military policeman of the Far East' (in order to correct the unequal treaty).
Japanese: 公使館の保護は無論であるが、中国における日本の権益拡大や、清朝を叩くことで朝鮮半島における日本のアドバンテージを確立すること、日本についで大軍を送っていたロシアへの牽制、列強側に立って派兵することで「極東の憲兵」としての存在感誇示（＝不平等条約改正）などが主要目的であった。
English: The official army of Qing dynasty was attacking the Concession (foreigners in China holding autonomy or extraterritoriality), but the frontal army of Chinese imperial guard division led by Nie Shicheng, and the left Chinese imperial guard division led by Bagyokukon, clashed with allied forces and the Qing dynasty side was defeated during the battle.
Japanese: 租界を攻撃していた清朝の正規軍、聶士成（じょうしせい）の武衛前軍や馬玉崑（ばぎょくこん）率いる武衛左軍と衝突したが、戦闘は連合軍が清朝側を圧倒した。
English: Nie Shicheng died in battle as a result and Tianjin was conquered several days later on July 14.
Japanese: 結果聶士成を戦死せしめ、数日後の7月14日には天津を占領するに至る。
English: There were supposedly 4000 dead bodies of the Boxers and the Qing dynasty soldiers on top of the south gate of Tianjin Castle.
Japanese: 天津城南門上にはおよそ4000名の義和団・清朝兵の遺体があったという。
English: Furthermore, the allied forces started to march toward Beijing on March 4 but moved slowly since the pace of each nation did not match.
Japanese: そして8月4日には連合軍は北京に向けて進軍を開始したが、各国の足並みが揃わず歩みが遅かった。
English: The contradicting military strategies and the difference in the enthusiasm of each army toward the battle were causes, but it was mainly due to lack of basic agreement about whether to arrive in Beijing early or not.
Japanese: 軍事作戦上の齟齬や各国軍の戦闘への積極性の違いも原因であったが、そもそも北京に早く到達すべきかどうかという根本的な点で意見の一致を見ていなかった為である。
English: While Great Britain and Japan stressed that embassies should be freed before arrival, there was a view that progressing toward Beijing would strengthen the resentment of the Qing dynasty and the Boxers towards embassies instead.
Japanese: イギリスや日本が北京の公使館を少しでも早く解放すべきと主張する一方で、北京進攻はかえって公使館に対する清朝・義和団の風当たりを強くするという意見もあったのである。
English: There also was one nation that planned military intervention on a much bigger scale by using the Boxers to increasing confusion in the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: また義和団による清朝の混乱をさらに拡大させることで、一層大きな軍事介入を画策する国もあった。
English: At any rate, the allied forces marched slowly causing further trouble to those in Beijing waiting to be rescued, and they were later criticized for this.
Japanese: いずれにしても連合軍の歩みは緩慢であったため、それだけ北京で救援を待つ人々に苦渋を強いることになり、後々批判されることになる。
English: There were several severe battles, but looking at the whole campaign, the allied forces were relatively untroubled.
Japanese: 激戦はいくつかあったが、連合軍は全体的にみて苦戦したというわけではなかった。
English: While the Qing dynasty army and Boxers had more soldiers than the allied army, they were under-equipped with weapons.
Japanese: 清朝軍と義和団は、連合軍と比べ圧倒的な兵数を有していたものの、装備という点で全く劣っていたためである。
English: The exceptions were Taku Fort, the frontal army of Chinese imperial guard division of Nie Shicheng, and the modern left Chinese imperial guard division led by Bagyokukon, but they could not operate smoothly since many soldiers were unfamiliar with their weapons.
Japanese: 例外は大沽砲台や聶士成の武衛前軍、馬玉崑率いる武衛左軍といった近代化部隊であったが、これすら兵器の扱いに不慣れな兵士が多かったために効果的な運用ができなかったという。
English: There were some who 'accidentally exploded their own bombs, and because of this, the Qing dynasty army could not resist the allied army.
Japanese: 中には「所々ニ於ケル自己ノ弾薬ノ破裂ハ、遂ニ抵抗シ得サルニ至ラシメタリ。
English: Seven hundred dead bodies of the enemy (Qing dynasty army, improved by a writer) were said to be lying around' (the review of Japanese army concerning offense and defensive battle of Taku Fort); they were not able to utilize modern weapons due to lack of training and destroyed themselves with explosions in some cases.
Japanese: 敵（清朝兵：加筆者）ノ死屍七八百ハ砲台内ニ横タワレリト云フ」（大沽砲台の攻防についての日本軍の批評）とあるように、訓練不足のため近代兵器を活用できず、暴発などで自滅した例も有った。
English: The weapons the Boxers had were mostly swords and spears and only a few had firearms.
Japanese: 義和団に至ってはその装備していた武器は刀槍がほとんどで、銃器を持った者などわずかしかいなかった。
English: The Boxers failed to reach the level of a military organization, and even the Qing dynasty army lacked leadership and was not united, being described as old-fashioned by the Japanese army.
Japanese: また軍隊組織としてみた場合、義和団は言うに及ばず、清朝軍すら全体を統括指揮する能力に欠けており、その点も前近代的であると日本軍からは評されている。
English: However, the Japanese army did not look down upon them, and stated 'everyone stood with their own two feet and strongly resisted with portable weapons from the Qing dynasty such as swords, spears, and muzzle loaders, and they were brave enough to make our army have a difficult time at battles' indicating that they had strong morale.
Japanese: しかし日本軍も彼らを決して侮っていたわけではなく、「彼等ノ携帯兵器多クハ清国在来ノ刀・槍・剣、若クハ前装銃ニシテ、皆取ルニ足ラサルモノナリシモ、能く頑強ノ抵抗ヲ為シ、我兵ヲ苦メタル勇気ハ称スルニ余リ有リ」という声もあるように、士気はすこぶる高かったようである。
English: However, morale could not compensate for underprepared battle operations and equipment, and this stance brought about great casualties; most of the dead and injured in this battle were Boxers or soldiers of the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: ただ作戦・装備が劣る点を士気によって補おうとする姿勢は多くの犠牲を生むことになり、この戦乱の死傷者の多くは義和団あるいは清朝軍の兵士で占められた。
English: The military force consisted of the Eight Banners and Beiyang army as well as 40,000 soldiers, but many soldiers were already lost at the time of the battle of the castle, having been killed in battle or having lost the will to fight and fled when being defeated by the allied forces invading from Tianjin.
Japanese: 北京には八旗や北洋軍ほかおよそ4万人強の兵力が集められたが、さきに天津から進攻する連合軍との戦いで敗れ、戦死あるいは戦意喪失による逃亡によって城攻防戦の際にはすでに多くの兵が失われていた。
English: Looting by allied forces began just after the occupation, and many of the treasures of the Forbidden City supposedly flowed out of China due to this.
Japanese: 占領直後から連合軍による略奪が開始され、紫禁城の秘宝などはこれがきっかけで中国外に多く流出するようになったと言われる。