nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: In 914, Kiyoyuki MIYOSHI pointed out the deterioration of Daigaku-ryo in Article four of his 'Iken Junikajo' (12 opinions), but evidence that confirms the deterioration of Daigaku-ryo itself, such as a drop in the number of students, cannot be found in historical materials prior to or after the opinions.
Japanese: 914年、三善清行は「意見十二箇条」の第4条で大学寮の荒廃ぶりを記しているが、前後の史料を見る限り学生数の減少などの大学寮そのものの荒廃を裏付ける事実は確認されていない。
English: Therefore, it is considered that he issued a warning against the situation where the equality of education was vanishing due to the loss of kangakuden and the rise of Daigaku-besso.
Japanese: 勧学田の喪失と大学別曹の興隆によって教育の公平さが失われていく現状に対する警告であったと考えられている。
English: Meanwhile, there was a change in the government official appointment system; the system called 'Dokyo' was introduced (in the mid-ninth century for the Kidendo department and after the late ninth century for the Kidendo, Myobodo [study of Codes], and Sando [study of mathematics] departments), whereby Daigaku-ryo students, by the recommendation of professors, were appointed as government officials of the jo (inspector [third highest of the four administrative ranks of the ritsuryo period]) and sakan (secretary) ranks without examination.
Japanese: 一方において任官制度にも変化が生じ、「道挙」と呼ばれる在学中の学生が教官の推薦によって無試験で判官・主典級官職に任官される制度（紀伝道では9世紀中期、紀伝道・明法道・算道では9世紀末期以後）が導入された。
English: Furthermore, in the 10th century, a similar system called 'Donenkyo,' in which the target appointment position was Jo (a provincial governor) was introduced.
Japanese: 更にこれが10世紀には諸国の掾への任官を対象とした「道年挙」も開始された。
English: In addition, in the latter half of the 10th century, Daigaku-besso (Kangaku-in colleges, Shogaku-in colleges, and Gakkan-in colleges) were allowed to use the system called 'Innenkyo,' whereby their students were appointed as Jo of provinces by recommendation without examination.
Japanese: 更に10世紀後期には大学別曹（勧学院・奨学院・学館院）に対しても自己の所属する学生を諸国の掾への無試験任官の推挙を行う「院年挙」を認めるようになった。
English: As a result, for students other than those who stayed in Daigaku-ryo and aspired to a teaching career such as hakase (professor), graduation was no more a prerequisite for job appointment, and this prompted Daigaku-ryo's examinations to lose substance and to become simplified.
Japanese: これによって大学寮に残って博士などの教官職を目指す者以外にとっては卒業は任官の必須の要件ではなくなり、大学寮の試験そのものが形骸化・簡略化されるきっかけとなった。
English: In the latter half of the 10th century, it was often the case that entrance exam questions were given to applicants in advance, or that preference was given to particular applicants by influential people.
Japanese: 10世紀後期に入ると、試験問題の出典が予め受験者に通告されたり、権力者による情実の横行などがしばしば行われた。
English: Eventually, during the Insei period (period of cloistered imperial rule), it became more common that influential people arranged the allocation of successful applicants, or that job appointment or success in an entrance exam was decided by applicants' offering of jogo (bribes for appointment) to Daigaku-ryo.
Japanese: 遂に院政期には権力者による合格者の枠配分や大学寮への成功(任官)（財政支援）によって任官や合格が決まるなどの例も見られるようになる。
English: Furthermore, in the late Heian period, Daigaku-ryo became unable to function because the Kanshi Ukeoi system (the system that allows the succession of governmental posts by heredity) was introduced, and government positions were monopolized by people from distinguished families (because the nobility abused the Oni system, through which descendents of higher rank officials were given preference when assuming a post).
Japanese: 更に平安時代末期には、官司請負制の導入や官吏（官僚）が門閥で占められるようになって（貴族による蔭位の制の濫用）その機能を果たさなくなった。
English: This trend also reached Daigaku-ryo, where professors, with the aim of bequeathing the post of hakase to their descendants, tried to monopolize knowledge by denying access to education to people other than their household, and they gave lectures only to their children and a handful of disciples not at Daigaku-ryo but at their private residences.
Japanese: その風潮は大学にも及んで博士の地位を世襲させるために特定の家系の家学として知識の独占を図るようになり、授業も大学寮ではなく自らの私邸を用いて限られた子弟や門人に対してのみ行われるようになった。
English: Daigaku-ryo went into a decline due to the collapse of the systems of kangakuden and suiko, which were used to provide professors and students with financial aid and to maintain facilities.
Japanese: また教授や学生の学資や施設の維持に用いられていた勧学田や出挙の仕組みの崩壊によって衰微した。
English: In 1154, the Daigaku-ryo office building collapsed, but it was not rebuilt, and Myogyodo-in college was used as the office building instead ("Heihanki" [The Diary of TAIRA no Nobunori]).
Japanese: 1154年には大学寮庁舎が倒壊する事故が起きるが再建されずに替わりに明経道院が庁舎を兼ねるようになった（『兵範記』）。
English: As for qualifications for enrollment, only children and grandchildren of nobles of Goi and above or those of Tozaishibu (families in charge of documenting their generations) were qualified, but children of government officials of Hachii (Eighth Rank) and above were allowed to enroll if they wish.
Japanese: 入学資格としては、五位以上の貴族及び東西史部（代々記録を司った）の子供および孫に限られていたが、八位以上の官人の子供にも希望があれば入学が許されていた。
English: Also, although few in number, there were cases in which common children of hakucho (inferior servant) status, who did not have kabane, were allowed to enter Daigaku-ryo (Guidelines on recruitment of monjosho [students of literary studies] and myobosho [students of law studies], which were drawn up in the Tenpyo era [from 729 to 749], stated that 'children of hakucho and zonin' [lower-ranking government officials] were qualified).
Japanese: また、少数であるがカバネを有しない白丁身分（庶民）の子弟であっても入学が許された例も存在している（天平年間に設置された文章生・明法生の採用規定に「白丁雑任の子」と規定されていた）。
English: Daigaku-ryo students had to take graduation examinations, and if they achieved a mark of 80 percentages, they then had to take one of the following examinations given by the Shikibu-sho (the Ministry of Ceremonies): Sinshi (Daigaku student who passed a subject of the official appointment test), Myobo (law), Myogyo (the study of classic Confucian writings), San (mathematics), or Shusai (Daigaku student who passed a subject of the official appointment test).
Japanese: 卒業試験試問を受験し、その試験結果が8割に達すれば式部省が実施する進士・明法・明経・算・秀才(科挙)のいずれかの試験を受け､
English: The organizational structure of Daigaku-ryo resembles modern universities; it was headed by 'Daigaku no kami' (Director of the Bureau of Education, equivalent to today's university presidents), and classes were conducted by hakase (equivalent to today's university professors).
Japanese: 組織としては現在の大学に類似し、大学頭（「だいがくのかみ」、現在の大学の学長に相当）がトップで、博士（現在の大学教授に相当）が教鞭をとっていた。
English: Initially, Daigaku-ryo offered four subjects: Kyo (Confucianism) and San (mathematics) as well as two supplementary subjects, Sho (calligraphy) and On (Chinese pronunciation).
Japanese: 学科は経（儒教）・算及び付属教科の書・音（中国語の発音）の四教科だった。
English: Afterwards, Daigaku-ryo comprised Kidendo (the study of Chinese history), Monjodo (literature), Myogyodo (the study of Confucian classics), Myobodo (study of Codes), and Sando (study of mathematics) while Kidendo and Monjodo were integrated later (people of succeeding generations assumed that Kidendo was absorbed by Monjodo but this is wrong. In reality, the name of the doctorate was 'Monjo Hakase' while the name of the department was 'Kiden (do).'
Japanese: 後に紀伝道（中国史）・文章道（文学）・明経道（儒教）・明法道（法律）・算道の学科構成となり、更に紀伝と文章が統合された（紀伝が文章に吸収統合されたと言うのは後世の誤りで、実際は博士号は「文章（博士）」、学科は「紀伝（道）」と称した）。
English: Also, it is considered that Daigaku-ryo came to use 'XX do' for the name of departments before or after the introduction of the Jogan-shiki Code.
Japanese: また、学科の呼称に「○○道」という方式を用いたのは、貞観式制定前後であると考えられている。
English: Incidentally, Ondo (study of pronunciation of the Chinese language) taught by On Hakase (professors of pronunciation of Chinese language) and Shodo (calligraphy) taught by Sho Hakase (professors of calligraphy) were subjects that supplemented the study of Myogyodo, and it is considered that the two subjects were practically integrated with Myogyodo by the middle of the Heian period.
Japanese: なお、音博士の音道と書博士の書道(大学寮)は、明経道の学習を補助するための学科であり、平安時代中期には明経道に実質的に統合されたと考えられている。
English: Other contemporary educational institutions were Onmyo-ryo (Bureau of Divination), Tenyaku-ryo (Bureau of Medicine), and Uta-ryo (Bureau of Traditional Music), which were educational institutions for gikan (bureaucrats with specialized skills).
Japanese: 他に教育機関としては技官養成機関である陰陽寮・典薬寮・雅楽寮などが存在した。
English: Monjosho (students of literary), myogyosho (students of classic Confucian studies), sansho (students of mathematics), and myobosho (students of law) lived in Monjo-in, Myogyodo-in, Sando-in, and Myobodo-in, respectively.
Japanese: 文章生は文章院、明経生は明経道院、算生は算道院、明法生は明法道院で暮らしていた。
English: 2 Ritsugaku Hakase (equivalent to Shoshichiinoge): Taught Myobodo introduced in 728 and also referred to as 'Myobo Hakase'
Japanese: 律学博士（正七位下相当）2名　明法道（法学）を教える　728年設置　明法博士とも
English: 1 and later 2 Monjo Hakase (Shoshichiinoge to Jugoinoge [Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade]): Introduced in 728 and taught literature
Japanese: 文章博士（正七位下→従五位下）　1名→2名　728年新設　文学を教える
English: In government-regulated organizations at that time, the lowest rank of the ikai (court ranks) was Hachii (the rank of Shoi also existed below Hachii), and the definition of a noble of the time was a person ranked Jugoi (Junior Fifth Rank) or above whereas persons ranked between Juhachii (Junior Eighth Rank) and Shorokui (Senior Sixth Rank) were regarded as government officials (bureaucrats), who were not nobles in the strictest sense.
Japanese: 当時の官制においては、位階は八位まで（その下に初位というのも存在した）で、当時の貴族とは従五位以上を指し、従八位から正六位までは官人（官僚）であり、厳密には貴族ではなかった。
English: Incidentally, the word '-ryo,' if it can be defined in a modern sense, corresponds to the following organizations: bureaus, authorities, agencies of extra-ministerial bureaus, or governmental universities.
Japanese: また寮とは、現在に例えるならば局、院、外局の庁、または付属大学校に相当する。
English: It was the Emperor Saga who upgraded the status of Monjo Hakase from Shoshichiinoge to Jugoinoge, the rank from which persons could join the peerage, and the post of Monjo Hakase became a gateway to success for contemporary scholars.
Japanese: 文章博士を正七位下から貴族に相当する従五位下にしたのは、嵯峨天皇であり、これにより当代学者の登竜門となった。
English: As a result, the department attracted legions of gifted and talented persons such as ONO no Takamura, SUGAWARA no Kiyomasa, HARUZUMI no Yoshitada, SHIMADA no Tadaomi, MIYAKO no Yoshika, and KI no Haseo while welcoming an unparalleled boom, and it can be said that the department reached its peak with the appearance of SUGARAWA no Michizane.
Japanese: すなわち小野篁、菅原清正、春澄善縄、島田忠臣、都良香、紀長谷雄などの英才秀才が集まり、空前未曾有の盛況を呈し、菅原道真においてその極に達したと言える。
English: During the Edo period, the name Daigaku no kami became the title that had been inherited for generations by the heads of the Hayashi family, a Confucian scholar family, thus being incorporated into the organizations of the Edo bakufu (Japanese federal government headed by a shogun) as the name of its supreme educational officer.
Japanese: 大学頭の名称は、江戸時代に儒学者の林家の当主が代々継承する称号として､また幕府の最高教育官の名称として幕府機構の中に取り込まれた。
English: The Tenyakuryo (Bureau of Medicine) was an institution established under Japan's Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code); specifically, it was under the purview of the Kunaisho (Imperial Household Agency) of the Ritsuryo system, and was the bureau responsible for giving medical care and providing doses of medicine.
Japanese: 典薬寮（てんやくりょう）は、律令制により制定された機関で、宮内省律令制度下に属する医療・調薬を担当する部署。
English: Those working at the Tenyakuryo provided medical care--and trained those who offered such care--for the officials at court, as well as overseeing gardens of medicinal herbs and other such projects.
Japanese: 典薬寮は宮廷官人への医療、医療関係者の養成および薬園等の管理を行った。
English: There were also ihakase (Masters of medicine), harihakase (Masters of acupuncture), anmahakase (Masters of massage), jugonhakase (Masters of healing magic), and yakuenshi (an official in charge of managing medicinal-herb garden), under whom the bureau's students, called Itokugyosho (distinguished scholars of medicine), learned.
Japanese: また、医博士、針博士、按摩博士、呪禁博士、薬園師がおり、その下には学生である医得業生が学んでいた。
English: Starting in the late Heian period, appointment to the bureau became a hereditary privilege of the Wake and Tanba clans, and the Komori family of the Tanba clan achieved a complete monopoly over the position of Tenyaku no kami.
Japanese: 平安時代後期以降、和気氏と丹波氏による世襲となり、典薬頭は専ら丹波氏の小森家が独占した。
English: But because the Komori family at that time were only Rokui no Kurodo (Chamberlain of Sixth Rank), even as the Tenyaku no kami (the head of Tenyakuryo) they were too low-ranked to take part in the actual medical examinations given to the Emperor, meaning their job was limited to more clerical and administrative duties.
Japanese: 小森家は六位蔵人を兼ねたため、典薬頭であっても実際の天皇の拝診には携わらない事務職的存在となった。
English: The position of Tenyaku gon no suke (assistant chief of Tenyakuryo) was also hereditary, resting with the Fujiki family, a family of Shinto priests who oversaw Kamo Wakeikazuchi Jinja Shrine, but those holding this position actually performed acupuncture, and were one of the family lineages permitted to perform medical examinations of the Emperor.
Japanese: また、典薬権助の地位は賀茂別雷神社の社家である藤木家が世襲したが、こちらは実際に鍼を行い、天皇の診察もする家系であった。
English: Leading up into the Edo period, there were many cases where the most outstanding private civilian doctors in Kyoto and the other provinces were given office and rank and appointed as Tenyakuryo physicians (goteni); candidates--both young and old--for official posts of Tenyaku Taijo (Senior Secretary of the Bureau of Medicine) rank or lower were chosen from among the teni (doctors) either due to their superior skills or due to a long record of distinguished service.
Japanese: 江戸時代に至っては、京都や諸国の優秀な民間医が官位を与えられて典薬寮医師（御典医）に登用されるケースが多くなり、典薬大允以下の役職は、典医の中から技術の優劣や年功の長幼によって選ばれた。
English: Towards the end of the Edo period, a new type of doctor was added to those practicing traditional Chinese medicine, and its practitioners began to be appointed to the Tenyakuryo: this type comprised doctors, for example Mitsuaki IRAKO, who followed the trends in Western (specifically, Dutch) medicine.
Japanese: 江戸時代の後期になると、伝統的な漢方医学に加え、伊良子光顕などオランダ医学の流れを汲む者も登用されるようになった。
English: In 1869, the Tenyakuryo was abolished during the reform of government institutions that followed the Meiji Restoration, but among all the institutions based on the ritsuryo system, the Tenyakuryo had the rare distinction of having managed to maintain, both in word and in deed, its official functions from when it was founded right up until the moment it was dissolved.
Japanese: 明治2年（1869年）、明治維新に伴う官制改革によって廃止されたが、律令制に基づく機関の中では、最後まで設置当初の職掌を名実ともに保った稀有の存在であった。
English: The office's Betto (head) managed the office overall, while the Nyuko (dairy farmer) of the Shinabe (technicians) under the supervision of the Nyushichojo reared cattle, and cowsmilk was then selected and presented to the Imperial Family for their meals.
Japanese: 別当が総監し乳師長上に統轄された品部の乳戸が乳牛の飼育、牛乳の採取を行って皇室に供御した。
English: Jugonshi, of Shohachiinojo (Senior Eighth Rank, Upper Grade), who attempted to heal patients using incantations; jugonshi disappeared from the Tenyakuryo after their official duties were usurped by the Onmyoryo (Bureau of Divination).
Japanese: 呪禁師（従六位正八位）　呪文等によって治療・陰陽寮に職掌を奪われて消滅
English: The council, which was limited to those of Kugyo status (the highest echelon of the court nobility), was established at the camp of the Left and Right Divisions of the Inner Palace Guard, and was open only to those Kugyo (noble) of Daijin (Grand Minister) status or lower and Sangi (Councilors) who held at least the court rank of Shii (Fourth Rank); at council sessions members would debate government affairs and policies.
Japanese: 左右近衛府の陣に公卿の座を設定し、大臣以下の公卿と四位の参議以上の議政官が出席して、政務を討議した。
English: The council was convened at the camp of the Inner Palace Guard (most often in the area of the Left Division of the Guard), so the council sessions came to be called "Jinnoza" ("meetings at the camp") or "Joza" ("stave meetings").
Japanese: 近衛府の陣（主として左近衛府側）において招集されたので、会議の場を陣座（じんのざ）又は杖座（じょうざ）と呼称された。
English: Originally these meetings were informal in nature, and although decisions were made in accordance with the tosai-gogisei (a system under which the role of members was merely to advise the single individual vested with final decision-making power), the Jin no Sadame gradually became a de facto institution for government policy-making.
Japanese: 本来は非公式の会合であり、意思決定も統裁合議制に則って行われていたが、次第に実質上の政策決定期間となった。
English: Starting in the mid-Heian period, "Bunkoku" also appears in the term "ingu gobunkoku," which refers to the province-sized territories controlled by the Retired Emperors, the Cloistered Emperors, and the Imperial Family, as well as in the term "kanto gobunkoku," referring to the bloc of provinces MINAMOTO no Yoritomo controlled in the Kanto (eastern Japan); starting in the period of Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), "bunkoku" was additionally used to describe the provinces controlled as feudal domains by the shugo daimyo (shugo, which were Japanese provincial military governors, that became daimyo, which were Japanese feudal lords).
Japanese: 平安時代中期以降の太上天皇や法皇、皇族の所領となった院宮御分国、源頼朝の知行国である関東御分国、南北朝時代(日本)以降の守護大名の知行した領国などが当たる。
English: Doso (also pronounced tokura or tsuchikura) were moneylenders during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods.
Japanese: 土倉（どそう・とくら・つちくら）は、鎌倉時代および室町時代の金融業者。
English: Sadaijin (minister of the left), FUJIWARA no Yorinaga was famous as a book collector and his book storerooms were said to have been strengthened by applying caustic lime or oyster shell to their wood walls.
Japanese: なお、蔵書家として名高い平安時代の左大臣藤原頼長の書庫ですら、板壁の上に石灰や蠣殻を塗って補強したものであったとされる。
English: Judging from Yorinaga's character, his book storerooms are thought to have been the strongest storerooms of the time.
Japanese: 頼長の性格からしてその当時のもっとも頑丈な倉庫であったと考えられている。
English: In the late Heian period, a lot of Sung Dynasty Chinese coins were imported into Japan, and a monetary economy prevailed mainly in cities.
Japanese: 平安時代の末になると、日本でも大量の宋銭が輸入され、都市を中心に貨幣経済が浸透してくる。
English: Wealthy priests and jinin (associates of Shinto shrines) started high-interested moneylending businesses without security (Mujinsen-doso [unsecured moneylender]) under the protection of powerful temples including Enryaku-ji Temple.
Japanese: このような中、富裕な僧侶、神人などが延暦寺などの有力寺社の保護のもと、無担保で高利の貸金業（無尽銭土倉）をはじめた。
English: Such businessmen then started to take items as collateral and built earthen storehouses in which to store them.
Japanese: これらの業者が担保として物品を預かるようになり、担保品を保管するために土蔵を建てた。
English: On the other hand, due to the instability of society, there was a trend of merchants who owned storehouses being asked to store precious assets or documents in order to keep them safe from accidents and disasters.
Japanese: また、逆に社会の不安定さを反映して土倉を持つ商人に貴重な財産や文書などを預けて災害などに備える風潮も発生した。
English: This trend is considered to have spread not only among merchants but also among the Imperial Court, bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and common people.
Japanese: なお、こうした風潮は商人間のみに留まらず、朝廷や幕府から庶民に至るまで広がっていったと考えられている。
English: It is considered to have developed into Nosenkata (an institution to collect tax from moneylenders and sake breweries) and Kubo-okura (finance branch).
Japanese: 後の納銭方・公方御倉などに発展していく契機となったと考えられている。
English: From the late Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, many sakaya (sake liquor dealers) ran such moneylending businesses and they were often known as doso-sakaya.
Japanese: 鎌倉後期から室町時代になると、これら土倉を営む酒屋が多数出現し、土倉・酒屋と並称されることが多くなる。
English: It is said that, during the Showa period, there were 330 doso in Kyoto and a large number in the Sagano and Sakamoto (Otsu City) outskirts.
Japanese: 京都では正和年間に330件の土倉があり、近郊の嵯峨野や坂本_(大津市)にも多くの土倉があったとされている。
English: The Muromachi bakufu imposed a specific tax called kurayaku (also known as dosoyaku) on doso, and the tax was a major source of revenue for the bakufu.
Japanese: 室町幕府は土倉に対し、倉役（土倉役）と呼ばれる税を課し、主要財源の一つとなる。
English: Particularly in 1393 when, in return for an annual payment of 6,000 kanmon paid by doso to the bakufu, all control rights held by temples and shrines were negated and special taxes were repudiated.
Japanese: 特に明徳4年（1393年）には幕府は土倉に対して年間6,000貫文の納付と引き換えに寺社等が持つ一切の支配権を否定して臨時課役の否認を認めた。
English: However, the bakufu was very strong at the time, and temples could not mount an opposition.
Japanese: しかし、当時は室町幕府の全盛期であったため、これに抗うことは出来なかった
English: Doso, which gained independence from temples became associated with the bakufu and formed doso-za (doso guilds, 土倉方一衆).
Japanese: 寺社から自立した土倉は幕府と結びつきながら、永享年間には土倉による座（土倉方一衆）が形成されるようになる。
English: However, powerful owners of doso-sakaya were appointed to Nosenkata and they naturally came to affect the bakufu's economic policy.
Japanese: が、納銭方に任ぜられるのは土倉・酒屋の中の有力者で、自然と幕府の経済政策に対する影響が大きくなっていった。
English: Doso set high interest of eight to ten mon-ko (monthly interest was eight to ten mon on a borrowing of 100 mon) but the bakufu passed a law that the interest should be four mon-ko (four mon of interest per month) or less.
Japanese: それまで利息は高額なところでは8文子、10文子（元金100文につき月利8〜10文）であったが、4文子以下にするように法令を出した。
English: However, the law was not strictly observed and a doso's average interest was six mon-ko (six mon of interest per month).
Japanese: しかし実際には一般的な土倉の利息は6文子が平均相場であったとされ、法令もあまり守られなかったようである。
English: After the battle between the Southern and Northern Courts and the ensuing collapse of the manorial system, nobles, temples or shrines which served as manor lords faced financial difficulties, and many used the services of doso-sakaya.
Japanese: 南北朝の動乱以降、荘園制が崩れてくると、荘園領主である貴族や寺社の資金繰りが苦しくなり、土倉・酒屋に借金を重ねる。
English: Some actually entered the manor as governor and collected land tax.
Japanese: 実際に荘園領主の代官として現地に乗り込んで年貢を徴収する者も現れた。
English: While the temples and shrines that once acted as sponsors declined, doso-sakaya prospered and became independent.
Japanese: また、スポンサーである寺社の没落と対照的に土倉・酒屋は栄え、独立していく。
English: As important local businessmen with financial strength, these doso-sakaya took the leadership of autonomous cities.
Japanese: これら土倉・酒屋は資金力にものを言わせ、有力な町衆として自治都市の主導権を握る。
English: On the other hand, after the mid-Muromachi period, money brokers called hizeniya, who loaned money at a high daily interest on a small scale, began to encroach on doso's business.
Japanese: その一方、室町時代中期以後には高利・日歩による利息で小規模資本で営業を行った日銭屋（ひぜにや）と呼ばれる金融業者が登場して土倉の営業分野を侵食し始めた。
English: Doso-sakaya were likely to incur people's hatred and were often the target of attack during the Tokusei Ikki (uprising demanding debt cancellation).
Japanese: また、多くの人から恨みを買いやすい土倉・酒屋はたびたび、徳政一揆で襲撃の対象にされた。
English: In addition, the Muromachi bakufu had to make doso-sakaya exempt from the kurayaku tax when Tokuseirei (a debt cancellation order) were issued, which affected financial revenues.
Japanese: また、室町幕府も徳政令が出されると倉役を免除しなければならなかったので財政収入に影響を与えた。
English: The bakufu struggled with the situation, later introduced the buichi-sen tax system, and made it a condition of Tokuseirei that one-tenth (later, one-fifth) of the debt amount should be paid to the bakufu.
Japanese: その対策に苦慮して、後に分一銭を導入して債権額の1/10（後に1/5）を幕府に納入することを徳政令適用の条件とした。
English: Chosan was means of resistance and forms of struggle waged by farmers in Japan from the middle ages to the early modern period.
Japanese: 逃散（ちょうさん）とは、日本の中世から近世にかけて行われた農民抵抗の手段、闘争形態である。
English: Village residents (such as peasants) would leave manors en masse and temporarily take refuge in other areas where they would make demand that the feudal lord take actions such as the reduction of land taxes and the dismissal of the local governor.
Japanese: 村の住民（百姓など）が集団で荘園から退去して一時的に他の土地へ逃げ込み、領主に対して年貢軽減や代官の罷免などを求める。
English: The process was recognized as a lawful means of resistance in the event that a hyakusho moshijo (a written report submitted from a low-ranking person to a higher ranking person) was submitted, kishomon (sworn oath) was made and fixed procedures were adhered to.
Japanese: 百姓申状の提出や起請文の作成など所定の手続きを経ていれば合法的な抵抗手段として認められていた。
English: During the Sengoku Period (Warring States period) (Japan), conflict meant that there were many people who fled due to suffering at the hands of bandits or pirates as well as many who fled in order to avoid heavy land taxes.
Japanese: 戦国時代（日本）には、戦乱に伴って山賊や海賊などの被害が多く、また重い年貢を課されたため逃げ出すものが多かった。
English: It can be said that the capability of Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) was measured by their ability to prevent such people from fleeing.
Japanese: 戦国大名たちはこのような人間が出ないように工夫することも大名としての能力であるといえる。
English: In 1488, the people of Kaga expelled the shugo (provincial constable), Masachika TOGASHI, and formed the monto-ryogoku (territory of followers).
Japanese: 1488年に加賀において守護の富樫政親を追放し、門徒領国を形成した。