nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule on December 9, 1867 finalised the resignation of Yoshinobu as shogun and the abolishment of the bakufu, thus the Edo bakufu came to an end (although some say the end of the Edo bakufu was the time of the surrender of Edo Castle in 1868).
Japanese: 後の慶応3年12月9日の王政復古の大号令において慶喜の将軍辞職と幕府の廃止が決定、江戸幕府は幕を閉じた（1868年の江戸開城の時とする見解もある）。
English: The 264 years of the Edo bakufu are referred to as the 'Edo period' or 'Tokugawa period,' and the Tokugawa family took a significant amount of control over Japan.
Japanese: この間の264年間を「江戸時代」もしくは「徳川時代」と呼び、徳川家が実質的に日本を支配した。
English: The system of rule of the Edo bakufu was called the shogunate system, in which both bakufu (the central government) and domain (the local government) controlled the people.
Japanese: 江戸幕府の支配体制は幕藩体制と呼ばれ、中央政府である幕府と地方政府である藩の二重支配になっていた。
English: Shogun gave shuinjo (licenses for foreign trade) to daimyo (feudal lords) and guaranteed their status as feifs, while the daimyo formed a domain within their given feifdom and controlled it.
Japanese: 将軍は大名に対して朱印状を与えてその知行を保障し、大名は当該知行内に藩を形成し、支配していた。
English: In 1664, the Kanbuninchi was conducted, whereby shuinjo were issued to daimyo across the country at the same time.
Japanese: 寛文4年（1664年）には全国の大名に一斉に朱印状を交付する寛文印知が行なわれた。
English: However, the terms 'tenryo' and 'domain' were not used in official documents of the Edo period.
Japanese: ただし、「天領」「藩」の用語は江戸時代においては公式文書で使用されることはなかった。
English: Under the control of the Edo bakufu, all daimyo were obliged to participate in Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords in the Edo period were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo) and to engage in castle construction and flood prevention works.
Japanese: 江戸幕府の支配下、各藩大名に対して参勤交代を強いたり、築城・治水工事を命じたりした。
English: The Edo bakufu aimed to weaken the domains by placing them under large financial burdens and not letting them revolt against the bakufu.
Japanese: 大きな財政負担を与えることで弱体化させ江戸幕府に対して武力反抗できないようにする政策を執った。
English: Under the political structure of the Edo bakufu, it is considered that the country was ruled by the shogun himself during the rules of the first shogun, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, the second shogun, Hidetada TOKUGAWA, the third shogun, Iemitsu TOKUGAWA, the fifth shogun, Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA, the eighth shogun, Yoshimune TOKUGAWA, and the eleventh shogun, Ienari TOKUGAWA,
Japanese: 政治機構内においては初代徳川家康と二代徳川秀忠、三代徳川家光、五代徳川綱吉、八代徳川吉宗、十一代徳川家斉の治世は征夷大将軍親政で政治が行なわれた。
English: The other shogun are often considered to have left political matters to Bakufu cabinet officials, or to have merely followed the orders made by the former shogun (or his father).
Japanese: しかし、それ以外の将軍は幕閣に政治を任せるか、前将軍（または将軍の父）である大御所に唯々諾々と従う存在であったかのように思われがちである。
English: Although some were more competent than others, every shogun was to at least some extent involved in politics, and it is also true that none of them acted as a complete dictator.
Japanese: 歴代の徳川将軍は能力の優劣はあったとしても、それぞれにおいてそれなりに政治に関与していた事実は確かであり、また逆に完全に独裁者として振る舞っていた訳でもない。
English: Even under the rule of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, whose governance had the strongest aspects of dictatorship of all the shoguns, there were cabinet officials in the Shogunate who remonstrated against the shogun and were engaged in formulation of policies.
Japanese: 歴代将軍の中でも一番独裁性の強かった徳川家康の治世においても、諌言したり政策立案する幕閣は存在したのである。
English: Rather than being angry, Ieyasu actually liked the vassals who remonstrated against him, and when there was a difference of opinion he would sometimes have physical fights with them.
Japanese: 家康はむしろ諌言する家臣を好み、また意見の相違で家臣とつかみ合いの喧嘩をする事もあった。
English: On the other hand, the third shogun Iemitsu TOKUGAWA was completely different, and during the early stage of his reign, he simply followed Ogosho Hidetada TOKUGAWA.
Japanese: また逆に三代将軍徳川家光の場合、治世の初期は大御所・徳川秀忠に従う存在でしかなかった。
English: After the death of Hidetada, Iemitsu let the Bakufu cabinet officials conduct most of the political works and people's perception that Iemitsu personally engaged in politics is said to be the result of propaganda by cabinet officials.
Japanese: 秀忠死後は政治のかなりの部分を幕閣に任せており、家光が親政を行なったというのは幕閣がそのように宣伝した結果であるとも言われている。
English: Basically, no shogun was a complete dictator nor a complete puppet of the cabinet officials (other than when the shogun was very young), and there was a system in place whereby the shogun had the final say on issues discussed by cabinet officials (mainly senior councilors, "roju").
Japanese: 基本的にどの治世においても将軍は完全な独裁者、もしくは（将軍が幼少の場合を除き）幕閣の完全な傀儡という状態ではなく、老中を中心とする幕閣による合議で決定された事案を将軍が決裁するシステムが存続した。
English: The eighth shogun Yoshimune TOKUGAWA conducted the largest-scale reformation of the shogunate government since its foundation, thus earning the title 'Restorer of the Edo bakufu.'
Japanese: 八代将軍徳川吉宗は、江戸の開幕以降最大の幕政改革を行ない、「江戸幕府の中興の祖」と呼ばれている。
English: Tozama daimyo, who began to serve the Tokugawa clan after the Battle of Sekigahara (including the Toyotomi-related daimyo who fought as the East squad in the Battle of Sekigahara).
Japanese: 関ヶ原の戦い以降から徳川家に仕え始めた外様大名（関ヶ原の戦いで東軍として戦った豊臣系大名も含む）
English: The fact that all the important roles were taken by Fudai daimyo was a particularly major shift from the Kamakura and Muromachi periods.
Japanese: 特に、幕府の要職には全て譜代大名をもって充てた事は、鎌倉幕府、室町幕府からの大きな転換であった。
English: In the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, major senior vassals and shugo daimyo (provincial military governors, who became feudal lords) took important roles and were sometimes even stronger than the shogunal family or regent.
Japanese: 鎌倉・室町幕府においては、（時によっては将軍家・執権すらしのぐほどの）有力御家人・守護大名が要職に就いていた。
English: The Gotairo (Council of Five Elders) system at the end of the Toyotomi government was a collective leadership system by powerful daimyo, however they were unable to prevent Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, a tozama daimyo, from usurping power.
Japanese: また、豊臣政権末期の五大老制は有力大名による集団指導体制であり、外様大名である徳川家康の政権簒奪を防ぐことができなかった。
English: The fudai daimyo, merely vassals to Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, who himself had been a simple daimyo under the Toyotomi government, were mainly uninfluential, small daimyo.
Japanese: 元は豊臣政権時代は一大名に過ぎなかった徳川家康のさらに臣下であった譜代大名は、さほど有力ではない小大名が中心であった。
English: In other words, the Edo bakufu was not a dictatorship of the Tokugawa shogun himself, but a dictatorship in the framework of the Tokugawa family.
Japanese: つまり、徳川将軍個人の独裁体制ではないものの、徳川家という枠組において独裁体制を敷いていたのである。
English: Due to this fact, even if the shogun was not involved in politics, he would not become a complete puppet of the cabinet officials, and equally usurping of power could be prevented.
Japanese: またこの事により、あまり政治に関与しなかった将軍であっても、幕閣の完全な傀儡になる事はなく、政権の簒奪も未然に防止することが可能となった。
English: "Edo" (also described as Yedo, Yeddo, Yendo, Jedo) is the former name for Tokyo.
Japanese: 江戸（えど,日本語以外ではEdo、Yedo、Yeddo、Yendo、Jedoなど諸表記あり）は、東京の旧称である。
English: It refers to an area centered around Edo Castle that encompasses the center of present day Tokyo Special Ward (Chiyoda and Chuo Wards and their surrounding areas).
Japanese: 特に、江戸城を中心とする現在で言う東京特別区中心部（東京都千代田区・中央区(東京都)周辺）を指す。
English: Edo did not become the capital until the Meiji Restoration when it was renamed Tokyo because the Imperial Palace was not located there; However, Edo served as the seat of Bakufu authority and thus the defacto capital of Japan (administrative capital) in the Edo period, and developed into a political and economic center of power.
Japanese: 江戸は明治維新により東京とされるまで皇居を置かなかったため都ではなかったが、江戸時代には江戸幕府が置かれた事実上の日本の首都(行政首都)であり、日本の政治経済の中心地として発展した。
English: The Edo Castle was the residence of successive Tokugawa shoguns, or Seii taishogun (literally, "the great general who pacifies barbarians"), and the city of Edo was both the site of bakufu administrative organs and the personal castle town of the Tokugawa Clan that ruled over the shogunal domain.
Japanese: また、江戸城は徳川氏の征夷大将軍の居城であり、江戸は幕府の政庁が置かれる行政府の所在地であると同時に、自身も天領を支配する領主である徳川氏（徳川将軍家）の城下町でもあった。
English: The political center had shifted back to Kyoto by the end of the Edo Period, and the 15th shogun Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA never resided in EDO.
Japanese: 幕末になると政治的中心が再び京都に移り、15代将軍徳川慶喜は将軍としては江戸に一度も居住しなかった。
English: In 1868 (the first year of the Meiji Period), Edo was renamed Tokyo in accordance with an imperial edict, and Edo Castle became the Imperial Palace in Tokyo after the Emperor's arrival.
Japanese: 1868年（明治元年）に発せられた江戸ヲ称シテ東京ト為スノ詔書により江戸は東京と改称され、続く天皇の東京行幸により江戸城が東京の皇居とされた。
English: In the following year, all of the functions of the new Meiji government were transferred to Tokyo from Kyoto, paving the way for Tokyo to become the capital city of Japan.
Japanese: 翌年には明治新政府も京都から東京に移され、日本の事実上の首都となる。
English: Along with the renaming of Tokyo to Edo, the Tokyo-fucho (Tokyo prefectural office) was established to govern the town magistrate (In 1871, Tokyo-fu (Tokyo Prefecture) was re-established in accordance with the Haihan-chiken system [Abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures]).
Japanese: また、東京への改称とともに町奉行支配地内を管轄する東京府庁が開庁された（1871年、廃藩置県に伴い新・東京府に更置）。
English: Under the wartime governance in 1943, Tokyo-fu and Tokyo-shi were both abolished, and Tokyo-to (Tokyo Metropolis) was established in their place.
Japanese: 1943年の戦時体制下で、東京府と東京市は廃止されて、東京都が設置された。
English: The town of Edo was roughly categorized into an uptown area west of Edo Castle where samurai lived, and a downtown (shitamachi) area facing several rivers and moats beginning with the Sumidagawa riverwhere commoners lived.
Japanese: 江戸の町は、大きく分けて見ると江戸城の西に広がる山の手の武家屋敷と、東の隅田川をはじめとする数々の河川・堀に面した庶民の町（下町）に大別される。
English: Channel networks of rivers and moats and kura (the earthen-walled storehouses) characterized the Edo cityscape, and those river port cities in the Kanto area where the kura cityscape have survived such as Kawagoe, Tochigi, and Sawara are called "small Edo" for their architectural resemblance to Edo and the fact that these cities were actively traded with Edo.
Japanese: 川・堀の水路網と蔵は江戸を象徴する町並の特徴であり、蔵造りの町並が残された川越市、栃木市、佐原市などの関東地方の河港都市は、江戸に似た構造という点や江戸と交流が深かったという点から「小江戸」と呼ばれている。
English: The first written record pertaining to the name 'Edo' first appeared in "Azuma Kagami" (The Mirror of the East), a Kamakura-bakufu (c.1185 - 1333) history, but the name itself is said to be a place name that emerged in the latter half of the Heian Period (794 - c.1185).
Japanese: 「江戸」という地名は、鎌倉幕府の歴史書『吾妻鏡』が史料上の初見で、おおよそ平安時代後半に発生した地名であると考えられている。
English: Although there are many theories on the etymology of the Edo as a place name, the theory that the Character "e" [江] refers to a river or mouth of a river, and "to" [戸] as a gate or theshhold and hence "entry to a river" has been widely accepted.
Japanese: 地名の語源は諸説あるが、江は川あるいは入江とすると、戸は入口を意味するから「江の入り口」に由来したと考える説が有力である。
English: Indeed, Edo was established west of the Sumidagawa River estuary which served as a provincial border between Musashi Province and Shimosa Province, and Hibiya inlet stretched across the area where the Edo Castle was later constructed.
Japanese: 当時の江戸は、武蔵国と下総国の国境である隅田川の河口の西に位置し、日比谷入江と呼ばれる入江が、後の江戸城の間近に入り込んでいた。
English: Edo was founded in the late Heian Period by a clan of the Chichibu party that claimed the name of Kanmu-Heishi (the Taira clan) who entered the plains along the Irumagawa River ((Saitama Prefecture) (Present-day Arakawa (Kanto)) from Kawagoe City from the Chichibu region of Musashi province.
Japanese: 江戸の開発は、平安時代後期に武蔵国の秩父地方から出て川越市から入間川(埼玉県)（現荒川(関東)）沿いに平野部へと進出してきた桓武平氏を称する秩父党の一族によって始められた。
English: In the 11th century, Shigetsugu of the Chichibu clan built his own residence (later, the Edo Castle) on a hill overlooking Sakurada, and founded the EDO clan by renaming himself EDO Taro after the place name Edo.
Japanese: 11世紀に秩父氏から出た江戸重継は、江戸の桜田（のちの江戸城）の高台に居館を構え、江戸の地名をとって江戸太郎を称し、江戸氏を興す。
English: When MINAMOTO no Yoritomo raised an army in 1180, EDO Shigenaga, the son of Shigetsugu, initially fought against the Miura clan that was allied to Yoritomo as an ally of Ise-Heishi (Taira Clan), but later made peace with the Yoritomo and became a gokenin (shogunal retainers) of Kamakura bakufu (headed by Yoritomo).
Japanese: 重継の子である江戸重長は1180年に源頼朝が挙兵した時には、当初は伊勢平氏方として頼朝方の三浦氏と戦ったが、後に和解して鎌倉幕府の御家人となった。
English: According to historical records, Nagashige EDO, who was a member of the Edo clan and held the post of jito (manager and lord of manor) donated Maeshima Village of Edo-go (Area around present-day Tokyo Station) to the Tokuso family in 1261, because the area became ruined and unmanageable due to famine.
Japanese: 弘長元年10月3日(旧暦)（1261年）、江戸氏の一族の一人であった地頭江戸長重が正嘉の飢饉による荒廃で経営ができなくなった江戸郷前島村（現在の東京駅周辺）を北条氏得宗家に寄進した。
English: Historical records reveal that Nagashige became a retainer of the Tokuso family, and the land was again donated to Enkaku-ji Shrine by the family before 1315.
Japanese: 長重はその被官となり、1315年までに得宗家から円覚寺に再寄進されていることが記録として残されている。
English: With the collapse of the Kamakura bakufu and the ensuing turmoil of the Northern and Southern Court Period, the Edo clan initially allied itself to the Southern Court serving Yoshisada NITTA, but later changed allegiances to the Northern Court and served as the Kamakura Kubo (Governor-general of the Kanto region).
Japanese: 鎌倉幕府が滅びると、江戸氏は南北朝時代(日本)の騒乱において初め新田義貞に従って南朝(日本)方につき、後に北朝(日本)に帰順して鎌倉公方に仕えた。
English: However, the power of the EDO clan gradually waned throughout the Muromachi Period, prompting it to relocate to Kitami of Tama County (Present-day, Kitami, Setagaya Ward, Tokyo Metropolis).
Japanese: しかし、室町時代に次第に衰え、本拠地を多摩郡喜多見（現在の東京都世田谷区喜多見）に移した。
English: Sukenaga OTA (later, Dokan OTA), a powerful military commander and chief retainer of the Ogigayatsu-Uesugi clan (a branch family of the Uesugi clan, Kanto Kanrei [shogunal deputy for the Kanto region]) entered Edo and built the Edo Castle over the site of the former residence of the Edo clan.
Japanese: 代わって江戸の地には、関東管領上杉氏の一族扇谷上杉家の有力な武将であり家老であった太田資長（のちの太田道灌）が入り、江戸氏の居館跡に江戸城を築く。
English: According to one theory, the construction of the Edo Castle began in 1456 and was completed in the following year.
Japanese: 江戸城は、一説には長禄2年（1456年）に建設を始め、翌年完成したという。
English: Even after entering into priesthood in 1478 by shaving his head and calling himself Dokan, Sukenaga OTA ruled over the southern Kanto region from his base of power in the southern Kanto region until his assasination in 1486.
Japanese: 太田資長は文明(日本)10年（1478年）に剃髪し道灌と号し、文明18年（1486年）に謀殺されるまで江戸城を中心に南関東一円で活躍した。
English: In the time of Dokan, the Hirakawa River (present-day, Kanda-gawa River and Nihonbashi-gara River in Tokyo) poured into Hibiya inlet, and the area around Edo Maejima east of the Hibiya cove and west of the Edo-minato Port served as an influential port of Musashi Province during the medieval period rivalling the ports of Asakusa and Shingawa (however, in the "Tokyoshi Shiko", Hibiya inlet is identified as Edo-minato Port).
Japanese: 道灌の時代、現在の神田川(東京都)並びに日本橋川の前身である平川（平河）は日比谷入江に流れ込んでおり、西に日比谷入江、東に江戸湊（但し『東京市史稿』は日比谷入江を江戸湊としている）がある江戸前島周辺は中世には、浅草や品川湊と並ぶ、武蔵国の代表的な湊であった。
English: Due to their proximity to the Ara-kara River and Tone-gawa River (present-day, Furutone-gawa River and Naka-gawa River) estuaries, the ports of Edo and Shinagawa served as important hubs for riverine transportation from inland areas of the northern Kanto to places such as Kamakura and Odawara Castle, and locations as far as western parts of Japan.
Japanese: 江戸や品川は利根川（現在の古利根川・中川）や荒川(関東)などの河口に近く、北関東の内陸部から水運を用いて鎌倉・小田原城・西国方面に出る際の中継地点となった。
English: After the death of Dokan and the collapse of the Ogigayatsu-Uesugi clan, the Edo Castle was taken over by the Gohojo clan and used as its subsidiary castle.
Japanese: 道灌の死後、扇谷上杉氏の衰亡と共に、江戸城は後北条氏の支城となった。
English: During the later years of the Gohojo clan, HOJO Ujimasa seized direct control over the castle and led the Ota clan and the Chiba clan.
Japanese: 後北条氏末期には北条氏政が直接支配して太田氏や千葉氏を統率していた。
English: It was Ieyasu TOKUGAWA who transformed a regional castle town into a huge metropolis.
Japanese: 一介の地方の城下町から巨大都市への大改造を実現した人物は、徳川家康であった。
English: With the destruction of the Gohojo clan by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI in the Siege of Odawara (1590), TOKUGAWA Ieyasu, who was assigned to govern and develop former Gohojo territories designated Edo as the central place in the Kanto region from where he would govern.
Japanese: 1590年、後北条氏が小田原の役で豊臣秀吉に滅ぼされると、後北条氏の旧領に封ぜられ、開拓の命を受けた徳川家康は、関東地方の中心となるべき居城を江戸に定めた。
English: In the very same year, Ieyasu moved from Sunpu and took residence in Edo Castle, but it is said that Edo Castle was then an aging and humble castle.
Japanese: 同年の旧暦8月1日(旧暦)（八朔）、家康は駿府から居を移すが、当時の江戸城は老朽化した粗末な城であったという。
English: Ieyasu prioritized the construction of the surrounding castletown over the expansion of the main castle enclosure by levelling Mt. Kado and reclaiming the Hibiya inlet to expand the habitable areas and build residences for vassals and townspeople.
Japanese: 家康は江戸城本城の拡張は一定程度に留める代わりに城下町の建設を進め、神田山を削り、日比谷入江を盛んに埋め立てて町を広げ、家臣と町民の家屋敷を配置した。
English: It is said that the earth of the newly reclaimed land had not yet hardened due to the rushed nature of the reclamation project, and massive plumes of dust were blown into the air even after the earth had dried.
Japanese: 突貫工事であったために、埋め立て当初は地面が固まっておらず、乾燥して風が吹くと、もの凄い埃が舞い上がるという有様だったと言われる。
English: The Edo Castle in this period constituted a central Honmaru (a main enclosure) and Ninomaru (second bailey), as well as the extensions that included Nishinomaru (west compartment), Sannomaru (third bailey), Fukiage and Kitanomaru (north compartment).
Japanese: この時期の江戸城はこれまでの本丸・二ノ丸に、西丸・三ノ丸・吹上・北ノ丸があった。
English: Additionally, the diversion of the Dosan Moat and Hira-kawa River to the central area of Edo Maejima, and the concurrent reclamation project led to the reclamation of more than half of present-day Nishinomaru-shimo area (During this period, the main castle enclosure included Honmaru, Ninomaru, and Nishinomaru [a retreat for Ieyasu]).
Japanese: また道三掘や平川の江戸前島中央部への移設、それに伴う埋め立てにより、現在の西丸下の半分以上が埋め立られている（この時期の本城といえるのはこの内、本丸・二ノ丸と家康の隠居所として造られた西丸である）。
English: Edo rose in political prominence when it became the seat of the Bakufu government when Ieyasu 's became the ruler of Japan after his victory in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, and was annointed "Seii taishogun" in 1603.
Japanese: 家康が1600年の関ヶ原の戦いに勝利して天下人となり、1603年に征夷大将軍に任ぜられると、幕府の所在地として江戸の政治的重要性は一気に高まった。
English: Also, residences of many daimyo (feudal lords serving the Tokugawa family) were built, and a large number of daimyo's vassals and families, and shogunal bannermen and retainers moved in, followed by the influx of merchants and craftsmen who supported the lives of those people, all of which contributed to the rapid expansion of the town.
Japanese: また、徳川家に服する諸大名の屋敷が設けられ、江戸に居住する大名の家臣・家族や、徳川氏の旗本・御家人近世の御家人などの武士が数多く居住するようになるとともに、彼らの生活を支える商人・職人が流入し、町が急速に拡大した。
English: Meanwhile, the Edo Castle and its moats were renovated by daimyo who were consigned to labor by the government, and the castle was reborn as a massive, hardened citadel, and big defense facilities were also constructed in a way to surround the Castle and samurai residences.
Japanese: 一方、江戸城とその堀が幕府から大名に課せられた普請によって整備され、江戸城は巨大な堅城に生まれ変わり、城と武家屋敷を取り巻く広大な惣構が構築された。
English: With the reconstruction of the city after the Great Fire of Meireki in 1657, the city expanded east of the Sumida-gawa River.
Japanese: 1657年の明暦の大火の後、再建事業によって市域は隅田川を超え、東へと拡大した。
English: The population continued to increase, and exceeded one million at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and became known as a city of a "eight-hundred-and-eight-towns" (metaphor for an infinite towns)- one of the world's great metropolises (By some estimates, it was the most populous metropolis in the world.).
Japanese: その人口は絶えず拡大を続け、18世紀初頭には人口が百万人を超え、八百八町といわれる世界有数（一説によると当時世界一）の大都市へと発展を遂げた。
English: Population growth in Edo turned the city into the consumption center of eastern japan, and faciliated its rise to economic prominence as a significant market that linked the farming villages of various regions of eastern Japan, and a hub market that linked the economically advanced Kamigata (Kinki region) and Kanto regions.
Japanese: 人口の増大は、江戸を東日本における大消費地とし、東日本各地の農村と結ばれた大市場、経済的先進地方である上方（近畿地方）と関東地方を結ぶ中継市場として、経済的な重要性も増した。
English: By this time Edo had grown into a large metropolis was referred to in Chinese-style as 'Toto' (literally, Eastern Capital) as described in "Toto Saijiki" (Customs of the Eastern Capital) and 'Higashi Hongan-ji Temple (Taito Ward, Tokyo)' of "Fugaku Sanju Rokkei" (Thirty-six views of Mount Fuji).
Japanese: 当時の江戸は、『東都歳時記』、『富嶽三十六景』の「東本願寺(東京都台東区)」など、漢風に「東都」とも呼ばれる大都市となっていた。
English: From the end of the 18th century through the beginning of the 19th century, Edo surpassed Kamigata (This is a commonly used term referring to Kyoto and the Kansai region) as a cultural center, and the active traffic of people between Edo and the provinces due to economic activities and the sankinkotai (a system that required feudal lords to reside in Edo every other year) facilitated the active transmission of culture between Edo and the provinces.
Japanese: 18世紀末から19世紀初めには、上方にかわる文化的な中心地ともなり、経済活動や参勤交代を通じた江戸を中心とする人の往来は江戸から地方へ、地方から江戸へ盛んな文化の伝播をもたらした。
English: On the other hand, a massive influx of migrants from rural farming villages to Edo caused various urban problems.
Japanese: 一方で、膨大な人口が農村から江戸に流入して、様々な都市問題を引き起こすことにもなった。
English: The population of Edo, which was reported by Rodrigo de Viveroto be around one-hundred-fifty-thousand in 1609, exceeded the one million mark at the turn of the eighteenth century--prompting many to presume that Edo had become one of the biggest if not the biggest city in the world.
Japanese: ロドリゴ・デ・ビベロによって1609年ごろに15万人と伝えられた江戸の人口は、18世紀初頭には100万人を超え、世界一ないしはそれに匹敵する規模であったと推定されている。
English: The literacy rate of adult males living in Edo exceeded seventy per cent by the end of Edo Period, far higher than those of London (20%) and Paris (below 10%), which a Russian revolutionist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, and German archaeologist, Heinrich Julius Schliemann who discovered Trojan Ruins, reported with astonishment.
Japanese: 成人男性の識字率も幕末には70%を超え、同時期のロンドン（20%）、パリ（10%未満）を遥かに凌ぎ、ロシア人革命家メーチニコフや、トロイア遺跡を発見したドイツ人のハインリッヒ・シュリーマンらが、驚きを以って書いている。
English: It is also said that waka (Japanese poetry) was not only cherished by samura, but also peasants- it is considered that this is a result of the popularization of terakoya (elementary education offered in temples).
Japanese: また、武家だけではなく農民も和歌を嗜んだと言われており、その背景には寺子屋の普及があったと考えられている。
English: However, as for population, extant records only reveal the number of townspeople, which was close to six-hundred thousand in the waning days of the Bakufu.
Japanese: ただ、人口に関しては、記録に残っているのは幕末に60万人近くとなった町人人口のみである。
English: "One million people" is an approximate figure based on the retroactive inclusion of several elements of society such as the samurai households, Jisha-gata (those working for shrines and temples including Shinto priests and Buddhist monks), and ostracized castes who were not included in the original population census.
Japanese: 人口100万人とは、幕府による調査が行われていない武家や神官・僧侶などの寺社方、被差別階級などの統計で除外された人口を加えた推計値である。
English: Estimates for the samurai residing in Edo vastly ranges between two-hundred thousand and one million due to many fluctuating factors such as the unaccompanied assignments of regional samura in accordance to the requirements of the Sankinkotai system, and the total population for Edo during its apex has ranged from 680,000 to 1.5 million.
Japanese: 武士の人口は、参勤交代に伴う地方からの単身赴任者など、流動的な部分が非常に多く、その推定は20万人程度から100万人程度までとかなりの幅があり、最盛期の江戸の総人口も68万人から150万人まで様々な推定値が出されている。
English: Estimates of the population offered by miscellaneous documents of contemporaries also vary widely between five-hundred-thousand and two million.
Japanese: 雑記等に記される同時代人の推定も50万人から200万人まで幅がある。
English: The earliest extant record of a census conducted in Edo surivives in an annotation in the "Shoho Jiroku," (Chronicles of the Shoho Era) which indicates that there were 353,588 people in Edo as of June 17th, 1693 (6th year of Genroku), and it is also said that this was ordered by Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA to root out demagogues.
Japanese: 江戸の国勢調査の最古の記録は、『正宝事録』の註釈として記された元禄六年（1693年）六月十七日の35万3588人であり、徳川綱吉が浮説雑説を唱えた者を探すために行われたものである。
English: However, the census system was only formally put into place after hexannual national census surveys were implemented by Yoshimune TOKUGAWA in 1721 (year) and formalized in the document presented by Tadasuke OOKA to Ujinori ARIMA.
Japanese: しかし、実際に人口調査の体裁が整えられてたのは、徳川吉宗によって子午改（6年毎）の全国人口調査が開始された享保六年（1721年）以降であり、大岡忠相から有馬氏倫へ提出した書類の形式で伝えられている。