nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Under the four-tiered hierarchy, Zojishi had Kanjin Zonin (lower-ranking government official), toneri (servant) and further, a great number of artisan which were ranked according to their skills and mastery from top to downward, ookitakumi, sukunatakumi, chojoko, banjoko, and others.
Japanese: 四等官の下には官人雑任・舎人、更には技術や熟練度によって位置づけられた大工・少工・長上・番上以下多数の工匠を抱えていた。
English: A major revenue source for Zojishi was originally fuko (salary); however, after the Law Permitting Permanent Ownership of Newly Cultivated Land was enacted, early manor and the like was added to the source.
Japanese: 財源は封戸が主であったが、墾田永年私財法施行以後は初期荘園なども加えられるようになった。
English: These revenue sources were, accordingly, for the temple through Zojishi; therefore, the sources could be used as a way of supervising and controlling priests at the positions with management roles and lower called 'sango' as well as the temple in a sense, other than the regulations and the central monastic office.
Japanese: こうした財源は造寺司を経由して寺院の財源となるために、一面においては僧尼令や僧綱とは別の意味で寺院や三綱以下の僧侶を監督・統制する手段ともなり得たのである。
English: Due to the tightening of regulations on Buddhism after the Dokyo Incident occurred at the end of the Nara period and the financial trouble of the Imperial Court, temple construction had slowed down and most of Zojishi were abolished by the early Heian period; since then, temples and their revenue resources were supervised by betto (head priest) and sango.
Japanese: だが、奈良時代末期の道鏡事件をきっかけとした仏教に対する規制強化や朝廷の財政難などによって造寺事業は縮小され、遅くても平安時代初期には殆どの造寺司は廃止され、財源や寺院の監督は別当や三綱に移ることになった。
English: Zogusho was an extra statutory office responsible for castle building and repairing headed by Zogukyo (Minister of Making and Mending Palaces).
Japanese: 造宮省（ぞうぐうしょう）とは、宮城の造営・修理を掌る造宮卿（ぞううぐうきょう）を長とする令外官。
English: When the Taiho Ritsuryo Code was enacted in 701, Zogushiki (Office of Making and Mending Palaces) was established, and in 708, Zogushiki was raised to Zogusho.
Japanese: 大宝律令制定時（大宝(日本)元年（701年））に設置された造宮職（ぞうぐうしき）が、和銅元年（708年）に省に昇格したものである。
English: Although it is unknown the period of the establishment, there had been an office 'Zogukan' before the ritsuryo system was established; on September 8, 701, immediately before the completion of the Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code), Zogukan was renamed Zogushiki.
Japanese: 律令制の確立する以前に造宮官（ぞうぐうかん）という官司が存在していた（設置時期は不詳）が、大宝律令が完成する直前の大宝元年7月27日(旧暦)（701年9月4日）に造宮職に改められた。
English: Later, the idea of removing the capital to Heijokyo turned into reality; on April 12, 708, Zogushiki was raised to Zogusho with OTOMO no Tauchi appointed the first minister of Zogusho.
Japanese: その後、平城京への遷都構想が本格化した和銅元年3月13日(旧暦)（708年4月8日）に造宮省に昇格して初代造宮卿に大伴手拍が任命された。
English: Construction of the new castle in the new capital was considered an important project--The head of Zogusho was given Junior Second Rank, as equivalent to its government post, which was the highest among all ministers, while the head of the Ministry of Central Affairs ranked Senior Fourth Rank, Upper Grade, which was the highest among the statutory eight ministries; besides, the head of Zogusho was appointed among military clans like the Otomo clan, as their ability to supervise the laborers mobilized for the construction project was counted on.
Japanese: 八省の卿のうち、最も高い中務卿は正四位上であるにも関わらず、造営卿の官位相当が最高で従二位とされ、また工事に動員された人士の監督のために造宮卿には大伴氏などの軍事を司ってきた氏族より任命されるなど、遷都に際して新しい宮殿の造営を重視していた。
English: Under the four-tiered hierarchy of government officials, there were Kanjin Zonin (lower-ranking government official), Shoryo (chief), Sanshi (court official in charge of calculation), Ko (workman [a craftsman in the "chojo" rank and a carpenter in the "banjo" rank]) and so on.
Japanese: 四等官の下には官人雑任・将領・算師・工（長上・番上）などが属していた。
English: Zogusho was abolished with Chokushisho on May 31, 782, as government reorganization in preparation for the administrative reform and the removal of capital to Nagaokakyo led by Emperor Kanmu.
Japanese: だが、桓武天皇による行政改革と長岡京遷都に向けた組織の再編成を目的として、延暦元年4月11日(旧暦)（782年5月27日）に勅旨省とともに廃止された。
English: After that, Zogusho revived with FUJIWARA no Oguromaro appointed the head when the removal of capital to Heiankyo took place; however, it was abolished when 'Tokusei dispute' broke out between FUJIWARA no Otsugu and SUGANO no Mamichi in 805 and the construction of Heiankyo was canceled.
Japanese: その後、平安京遷都時に藤原小黒麻呂を長官とする造宮職が復活したが、延暦24年（805年）の藤原緒嗣と菅野真道による「徳政論争」によって平安京造営が中止された際に廃止された。
English: Machidai originally represented Kyoto citizens as a manager of town officials; Later, it became authorized to act as a proxy in execution of secretarial works of the Kyoto city magistrates, gradually recognized as a subordinate organization of the city magistrates.
Japanese: 元は町役人の元締役として京都市民の代表的な地位にある存在であったが、後に京都町奉行の事務業務の代行を委任される事が多くなり、町奉行の下部組織として認識されるようになった。
English: Some town officials in Edo and Osaka adopted another way of pronunciation 'Chodai' for 'Machidai' and assisted town councilors and town chief.
Japanese: 町代を「ちょうだい」と読ませた町役人は江戸・大坂にも存在したが、町年寄や町名主を補佐する事を職掌とした。
English: In contrast, Machidai in Kyoto headed town officials including the town chiefs: There was one Machidai for each group of towns (i.e., each district) with one or two subordinate Machidai below, for heading town officials including town chief in each town of the group (Kamigyo area had 12 groups of towns and Shimogyo area had 8 groups of towns).
Japanese: これに対して京都の町代は京都のうち上京に12、下京に8あった「町組」と称される組（地域）単位に1名、その下に１ないし2名の下町代が付属され、組内にある各町の町名主以下の町役人を統率した。
English: Several clerks (up to six) and a copyist were assigned to the Machidai room for miscellaneous duties and note taking.
Japanese: 町代部屋には雑用・筆者のために数名の小番（定員6名）と筆耕が配属された。
English: Generally, these roles were inherited by the selected influential town chiefs, and their salaries called 'Yakugin' and the maintenance costs of the Machidai room were charged to the towns.
Japanese: これらの役職は有力な町名主から選ばれて代々世襲されるのが原則であり、町代の給料にあたる役銀及び町代部屋の維持費用は町々の負担とされた。
English: During the Kyoho era (1716-1735), the duties of Machidai were expanded to cover supervising temples and shrines, examination of replacement of the town officials and purchase and sale of an estate, guard at festivals and events, arrest of a criminal, participation in city magistrates' examination, and so on.
Japanese: 享保年間には更に職務が拡大され、寺社の管理や町役人の交替及び家屋敷の売買に関する吟味、祭事の際の警備、罪人の捕縛・吟味への参加なども担当した。
English: As ordinance and convention had been established in the towns in Kyoto before the Edo period, which ranged too wide for police sergeants and constables to comprehend, it became also an important duty for Machidai to answer the questions from the police sergeants and constables based on the precedents--As such, Machidai became authorized to act as a proxy in execution of secretarial works necessary for facilitating the duties and operations of the Kyoto city magistrates' office, thereby contributed to keep organization of the city magistrates' office.
Japanese: 更に京都の町は江戸幕府以前からの様々な法令・慣習などが定められており、奉行所の与力・同心がこれらを把握する事が困難となっていたために、彼らからの諮問を受けた町代が先例などに基づいて回答を行う事も町代の重要な職務となるなど、奉行所の職務・運営を円滑化に必要な事務業務の代行が町代に委任されるようになって、町奉行の組織維持のための一端を担うようになっていった。
English: Machidai, a townsman who originally represented the Kyoto citizens, gradually built up a position in the Kyoto city magistrates' office, and also formed relationship with the court nobles, temples, and shrines, which were quite influential in legislature and administration of Kyoto.
Japanese: だが、本来は京都市民の代表であった町人身分の町代が次第に町奉行所において地位を固めるようになると、京都の司法・行政に大きな影響力を与えた公家や寺社などとも関係を結んでいくようになってきた。
English: To counter the trend, the Kyoto city magistrates managed to keep the class system and the Kyoto citizens had antipathy toward Machidai, who had become the ruler's proxy--Machidai caught between these two sides.
Japanese: こうした風潮に対して身分制度を維持しようとする町奉行側、支配側の代理人と化した町代への反感と嫉妬を抱く市民側の双方から、町代が圧迫を受けるようになる。
English: To make matters worse, as the position of Machidai was hereditary, some incompetent Machidai emerged.
Japanese: また、世襲によって町代としての能力の無い人物が町代になる例も発生した。
English: From 1871 to 1872, the groups of towns filed a suit against Machidai ('Machidai kaigi' suit) and the city magistrates supported the groups side, which made a great impact on Machidai.
Japanese: 文化(日本)14年（1817年）から翌年にかけて町組による町代改義と呼ばれる訴訟が起こされて町奉行側が町組側を支持したことにより、町代は大きな打撃を受けることになった。
English: The Seven Generals (or "Nanasho") are the feudal lords who were reared by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI from an early age and famous as the brave generals.
Japanese: 七将（ななしょう）とは豊臣秀吉子飼い大名で猛将として知られた7人の武将をあらわす。
English: Some sources include Iemasa HACHISUKA (lord of Tokushima-jo Castle in Awa Province) and Takatora TODO (lord of Uwajima-jo Castle in Iyo Province).
Japanese: 資料によっては蜂須賀家政（阿波国・徳島城主）、藤堂高虎（伊予・宇和島城主）も加わっている。
English: Toshiie MAEDA, one of the five regents of Hideyoshi and a mediator between the Militarist Faction (including Masanori FUKUSHIMA and Kiyomasa KATO who rose to power using their military forces) and the Civilian Faction (including Mitsunari ISHIDA and Nagamasa ASANO who rose to power through their statesmanship) died.
Japanese: 五大老の一人で武断派（福島正則、加藤清正ら武力でのし上がった者）と文治派（石田三成、浅野長政ら政治向きなことでのし上がった者）の対立を仲裁していた前田利家が死去。
English: Without any mediator, the feud between the two factions turned violent.
Japanese: 2派の関係を仲裁するものがいなくなったのでさらに2派の確執が増した。
English: The Seven Generals, with long-harbored resentment, schemed to defeat Mitsunari by heading their armies to Kiyomasa KATO's residence near the Osaka-jo Castle and attack Mitsunari together.
Japanese: 以前から三成に深い恨みを抱いていた七将は手勢を率いて大坂城下の加藤清正の屋敷に集合し、そこから三成を襲い三成を討ち取る計画を立てていた。
English: Mitsunari perceived their scheme and fled with his chief vassal Kiyooki SHIMA (also known as Sakon SHIMA) to the residence of his ally Yoshinobu SATAKE (Ukyo no daibu).
Japanese: しかし三成はそれを察知し盟友・佐竹義宣(右京大夫)の屋敷に重臣・島清興（左近）らとともに逃れた。
English: Having noticed that Mitsunari had fled, the Seven Generals started to raid each one of the feudal lords' residences near the Osaka-jo Castle, and the army of KATO headed for Satake's residence.
Japanese: 七将は三成がいないことが分かり、大坂城下の諸大名の屋敷をしらみつぶしに探し、佐竹邸にも加藤軍が迫った。
English: Sneaked out of Satake's residence in female attire, a band of Mitsunari and Sakon arrived at Tokugawa's residence in Fushimi--Reported on their arrival by Masanobu HONDA, Ieyasu decided to give refuge to Mitsunari to increase military capability during the internal trouble of the Toyotomi.
Japanese: 三成、左近一行は女装して佐竹邸を抜け出し、伏見の徳川邸に到着、家康は本多正信から伝えられ家康は豊臣家が内で争っている間に力を蓄えておく思惑があったので三成を匿うことにした。
English: Ieyasu flatly rejected the request by the Seven Generals in the next morning to extradite Mitsunari, saying 'Over my dead body'.
Japanese: 翌朝、七将が家康に三成を引き渡すように要求したが家康は「三成を斬るならば先にこの家康を斬れ」と言って要求をはねつけた。
English: Ieyasu forced Mitsunari to promise to retire in exchange for being saved from extradition, and had his second son Hideyasu YUKI send Mitsunari to his home caste, Sawayama-jo Caste.
Japanese: 家康はその代わり三成を隠居させると約束させ、次男・結城秀康に三成を三成の居城・佐和山城に送り届けた。
English: All the Seven Generals took the leading role in the Eastern army in the Battle of Sekigahara, which broke out about one and half years later.
Japanese: この約1年半後に関ヶ原の戦いが起こり七将は皆、東軍の中核となって戦った。
English: Naijusho was an extra statutory office established in the latter half of the Nara period under the ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 内豎省（ないじゅしょう）は日本律令制で奈良時代後期に設置された令外官。
English: Naijusho controlled over the Naiju officials who attended the emperor and the female attendants, while guarded the Imperial Palace.
Japanese: 天皇に近侍する内豎及び後宮十二司を統括するとともに、内裏の警護にあたった。
English: Naiju' originally meant the middle and low ranked court officials and government officials who were in charge of miscellaneous affairs and guard in the Imperial Palace, which were gradually organized into a leading agency 'Naijusho' (内豎所) to be established.
Japanese: 内豎は元々内裏の雑務や警備を担当する童子や中小役人の事を指していたが、次第に組織化されて内豎所という統率機関が設置されていた。
English: On August 12, 767, Naijusho was established to expand the duties of the Naijudokoro (Royal Pages Office).
Japanese: 神護景雲元年7月10日(旧暦)（767年8月8日）に内豎所の機能を拡大する形で設置される。
English: According to "Shoku Nihongi" (Chronicle of Japan Continued), it was supposedly staffed by one Kyo (minister), one Taifu (senior assistant minister), one Sho (junior assistant minister), two Daijo (senior secretary), two Shojo (junior secretary), one Daisakan (senior recorder), and three Shosakan (junior recorder), with subordinate staff such as Shojo (a low-rank official to convey petitions), Shisho (a person doing miscellaneous duties about documents), Shibe (low rank bureaucrats), Jikicho (factotum) and Naiju officials, in the same way as Hassho (eight ministries and agencies).
Japanese: 『続日本紀』によれば、卿・大輔・少輔が各1名、大丞・少丞が各2名、大録が1名、少録が3名であり、その下に八省と同じように省掌・史生・使部・直丁などの職員や内豎がいたと考えられている。
English: YUGE no Kiyohito (Senior Third Rank, concurrently served as Vice-Councilor of State and Outer Palace Guard, a real younger brother of Dokyo) was appointed Naijukyo (Minister of Naijusho); FUJIWARA no Korekimi (Junior Fourth Rank, Upper Grade, Head of the Headquarters of the Palace Guards of Left) concurrently took the office of Naijutaifu (Senior Secretary of Naijusho), and FUJIWARA no Oyori (Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade, Head of the Headquarters of the Palace Guards of Right) concurrently took the office of Naijusho (Junior secretary of Naijusho).
Japanese: 内豎卿には、道鏡の実弟の弓削浄人（正三位中納言兼衛門督）が任じられ、内豎大輔に藤原是公（従四位上左衛士督）、内豎少輔藤原雄依（従五位下右衛士督）が現職を兼務したまま就任した。
English: The above-mentioned officials led the Palace Guards, which were the military organizations of the Imperial Palace, and played leading roles of the administrations of Empress Koken, Empress Shotoku, and priest Dokyo (In 769, FUJIWARA no Odamaro [Junior Fourth Rank, Upper Grade, middle controller of the left at the Great Council of State, later concurrently served for Headquarters of the Military Guards of the Right] was appointed to Naijutaifu to replace Korekimi.).
Japanese: これらの人々は孝謙天皇称徳天皇・道鏡政権の中核を担う人々であり、宮廷内における軍事組織である衛府を指揮していた（なお、神護景雲3年（769年）に是公に代わって藤原雄田麻呂（従四位上左中弁、後に右兵衛督兼務）が大輔に任じられている）。
English: Just at that time, Chokushisho (Bureau of Edicts) was established as an economic organization to support the key position of the administration of Empress Shotoku and priest Dokyo; In contrast, Naijusho was considered as a military organization to support the key position of the administration--It is considered that the administration formed these offices as a kind of high ranked court official organization to maintain their own political and military power based in the Grand Council of State to cope with the main steam of the FUJIWARA clan (potential rival of the administration) and the Imperial family's influence.
Japanese: 同じ頃、称徳天皇及び道鏡の政権中枢を支える経済機関として勅旨省も設置されており、対して内豎省は政権中枢を支える軍事機関として構想され、太政官を拠点に政権とは潜在的な競争関係にある藤原氏主流や皇親勢力に対抗するための政治・軍事力を保持するために組織された一種の家司機関であったと考えられている。
English: Later, when Empress Shotoku demised and priest Dokyo and his younger brother were exiled (ironically, Naijutaifu FUJIWARA no Odamaro headed the exile), the organization became meaningless and abolished on March 28, 772, and Naiju was divided and incorporated into Konoefu (Inner Palace Guard), Chuefu (Middle Inner Palace Guard), Sayuhyoefu (Left and Right Division of Middle Palace Guards).
Japanese: その後、称徳天皇が崩御し、道鏡兄弟が追放される（皮肉にも、その中心人物は内豎大輔藤原雄田麻呂であった）と組織の存在意義は失われ、宝亀3年2月16日(旧暦)（772年3月24日）に廃止され、内豎は近衛府・中衛府・左右兵衛府に分割編入された。
English: Later, Naiju was revived in the original form, then abolished with the duties replaced by Otoneri (Imperial Attendants), but finally after the Konin era, Naiju and Naijusho (内豎所) were revived as subordinate organizations of Kurododokoro (Board of Archivists).
Japanese: その後、旧来の形での内豎が復置されたり、廃止されて大舎人が替わりに職務を担ったりしたが、弘仁年間以後に内豎・内豎所が蔵人所の下部組織の形で復活することになる。
English: The term "gokenin in Kyoto" (zaikyo gokenin) refers to a gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) who was permanently stationed in and around Kyoto under jurisdiction of the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
Japanese: 在京御家人（ざいきょうごけにん）とは、鎌倉幕府傘下の京都及びその周辺部に常駐する御家人のこと。
English: The Retired Emperor Gotoba took advantage of these circumstances to appoint gokenin in Kyoto to kebiishi (officials with judicial and police powers) or government official (especially one of low to medium rank) to be efu (a palace guard).
Japanese: 後鳥羽院はその事情を利用して在京御家人を検非違使や衛府の官人に任命した。
English: He often gave shoryo to them or added them in the Hokumen no bushi (the Imperial Palace Guards for the north side) or the Saimen no bushi (the Imperial Palace Guards for the west side) in his own right.
Japanese: 独自に所領を与えたり、北面の武士・西面の武士に加えることが多かった。
English: The same was true of kyoto-shugo (military governor of Kyoto) who was the representative of the Kamakura bakufu in Kyoto.
Japanese: それは、鎌倉幕府において京都の代表を務める京都守護にも言える事であった。
English: The gokenin in Kyoto began to be strongly influenced by the Imperial Court which was before their eyes, rather than the Kamakura bakufu,
Japanese: 在京御家人は鎌倉（幕府）よりも目の前にある朝廷の影響を強く受けるようになった。
English: The bakufu assigned gokenin in Kyoto who remained loyal to it during the war to keep their position and shoryo, and those who moved to Saigoku after given shoryo there after the war, to Rokuhara Tandai.
Japanese: 乱に際して幕府側に留まって地位・所領を保全された既存の在京御家人に加えて乱後に西国に所領を与えられて拠点を移した御家人が配属された。
English: Gokenin in Kyoto took charge of maintaining the security of the city as kagariya guards in exchange for receiving a shoryo called kagariya ryosho (a granted estate for kagariya guarding service) as a benefit.
Japanese: 在京御家人は篝屋料所と呼ばれる所領を手当として与えられた代わりに篝屋守護として京都市中の警固にあたった。
English: But they were also often recruited for such occasions, including the conflicts against some powers such as the Imperial Court, Enryaku-ji Temple and so on, or battles against Akuto (a villain in the medieval times) who became active in Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto) and Saigoku after the Mongol invasion attempts against Japan,
Japanese: だが、朝廷や延暦寺などの諸権門との対立や元寇以後には畿内・西国で活発化した悪党との戦いに駆り出される事も多かった。
English: In addition, miuchibito (private vassals of the tokuso) sent to Rokuhara Tandai came to supervise the gokenin in Kyoto.
Japanese: 更に六波羅探題に派遣された御内人が在京御家人の監督をするようになった。
English: Most of the samurai who eventually went down with Rokuhara Tandai, in the assault on it by Takauji ASHIKAGA on the eve of the fall of the Kamakura bakufu, were the members of the Hojo clan and miuchibito.
Japanese: 鎌倉幕府滅亡前夜、足利高氏による六波羅探題攻撃において、最終的に六波羅探題と運命をともにした武士のほとんどが北条氏一族及び御内人であった。
English: Only few gokenin in Kyoto were included among them because many gokenin switched to the Ashikaga side or withdrew from the front after judging the movement of Takauji.
Japanese: 在京御家人がほとんどいないのは、高氏の動向を見て足利氏に寝返ったり戦線を離脱した者が多かったことを物語っている。
English: Gokenin who survived it were reorganized into hokoshu (a military post in Muromachi Shogunate), etc. under the jurisdiction of the Muromachi bakufu.
Japanese: 生き残った在京御家人は室町幕府のもとで奉公衆などに再編成されることになる。
English: As an imperial commissioner which was unregulated by the ritsuryo codes (ryoge no kan), 'junsatsushi' was in charge of the inspection of the operations of local governments under the command of the emperor himself, directly reporting to the emperor on the performance evaluation of the local officials, such as 'shishi' (provincial governors) and 'kenrei' (prefectural governors).
Japanese: 律令には規定のない使職（令外官）の一つであり、皇帝の命令によって、地方の監察を行い、州の刺史や県の県令などの地方官の勤務評定を上進した。
English: It is believed that the first junsatsushi were designated as early as in 634 in the Shoto period (in early Tang), which consisted of 13 'shodo chucchoku taishi' (literally, a traveling commissioner in charge of promoting and downgrading one's office and rank based on the presence or absence of his achievements), one of which was a 'kan fuzoku shi' (literally, an inspector to supervise local customs).
Japanese: その始まりは、早くも初唐の貞観(唐)8年（634年）に、諸道黜陟大使（一名、観風俗使）13名が任命されたのが、それであるとされる。
English: Thereafter, many examples of junsatsushi can be seen until circa 713.
Japanese: その後、開元年間の初期（713年頃）までは、多くの例を見ることができる。
English: Li Qiao's report to the throne which was written in 696 referred to 44 subjects of shodo junsatushi (travelling commissioners) and 30 and more investigative visits in accordance with 'kyaku' (supplementary imperial ordinances which were augmented to revise a preceded administrative law in the statutes [Ling 令] of the ritsuryo law).
Japanese: 696年の李喬の上奏文によれば、686年の諸道巡察使の科目は44件を数え、その他、格（勅令）による訪察が30余ヵ所あったという。
English: Junsatsushi were sent out on the circuit in March and returned to report the emperor in November, and during that period they were required to rate thousands of local governors, which Li Qiao had described to be quite hard.
Japanese: 巡察使は、3月に出発して、11月に帰還し報告をするが、その間に、千人単位の地方官を評定する必要があったので、それだけの数をこなすのはとても難しいと述べられている。
English: In 733, the empire under the Tang dynasty, which had previously been divided into 10 administrative regions called 'dao' circuits of inspection, was redivided into 15 dao circuits, each of which had a 'saiho shochishi' stationed.
Japanese: 開元20年（733年）に、それまで10道に区分されていた唐朝治下の諸地方を、15道に区分し直し、各道に採訪処置使を設置した。
English: Prior to the redividing of the circuits in 733, when 10 circuits were divided in the reign of the Emperor Jungjong (Tang), 'junsatsushi' (a circuit-riding inspector or investigating commissioner) had been stationed in each circuit.
Japanese: それ以前、中宗(唐)代に10道に分割した時には、巡察使(中国)が置かれていた。
English: During and after the reign of the Emperor Suzong (Tang), the 'saiho shochishi' was renamed as 'kansatsushi' (an imperial inspector), and the empire was divided into 40 or more dao circuits.
Japanese: 粛宗(唐)代以降、名称が観察使と改められ、また、天下は40余道に分割された。
English: Accordingly, the jurisdiction of each inspector extended over more than 10 provinces in the case of a large circuit, and 2 or 3 provinces in the case of a small circuit.
Japanese: よって、領域の広大な道では10州余り、狭いところでも2・3州を管轄とした。
English: Setsudoshi' (a military commissioner in charge of a dao circuit) exercised greater power than 'kansatsushi' (imperial inspector), being a military officer by nature who was assigned the additional civilian post of 'kansatsushi' (imperial inspector).
Japanese: また、観察使より大なるものが節度使となるが、本来の節度使は武官であるため、文官としての観察使を兼務することとなった。
English: According to the Ancient 'ritsuryo sei' (Japanese legal system), the living of the nobility which consisted of 'kugyo' and lower-ranked 'kanjin' (government officials) was secured by the income based on the 'horoku seido' (stipend system) which was designated by the 'ritsuryo ho' (ritsuryo law).
Japanese: 古代律令制においては、公卿以下の官人を構成する貴族階層の生活は律令法で定められた封禄制度によって支えられてきた。
English: The stipend system according to the ritsuryo law, however, collapsed at an early stage, and the nobles attempted to develop their own infrastructures, involving 'guji' (chief priests of shinto shrines).
Japanese: だが、その体制は早い時期に崩壊し、貴族たちは官司をも巻き込んで彼らによる独自の生活基盤形成を図ることになる。
English: Already in the Nara period, dominating nobles occupied the countryside and established their own territories by privatizing reclaimed lands in accordance with the Act for the Privatization of Reclaimed Lands in Perpetuity.
Japanese: 既に奈良時代の段階で有力貴族たちは山野薮沢を占有し、墾田永年私財法を利用して墾田を私有化して自己の所領を形成する。
English: At the end of the ninth century, manor houses are built by nobles so as to unlawfully seize and privatize the surrounding lands and 'shataku' (residence), which was followed by guji (shrine priests) who began to set up 'kanden' (imperial estates) and 'shoshiden' (tax-exempt lands that were provided to cover the labor cost of shoshi officials) in order to prepare 'horoku' (retainer's salary) to be paid to kanjin (government officials) and the other necessary expenses.
Japanese: 9世紀末期には貴族による荘家が設置されて周囲の土地や舎宅を自己のものとして押領し、続いて官司も官人の俸禄や経費調達のために官田や諸司田を設置するようになる。
English: It was in the 10th century when the system to undertake an actual tax collection by kokushi (provincial governors) was established, and accordingly, imperial households, high court nobles and guji financially depended upon 'shinno' (gifts) from the kokushi.
Japanese: 10世紀になると国司による徴税請負体制が確立し、皇室や上流貴族、官司はこうした国司からの進納に依存するところが大きくなる。
English: On the other hand, some middle and lower class nobles, who had been appointed kokushi to rule a local province, decided to settle in the same area, whereas the others became 'zuryo' (custodial governors) and made fortunes or expanded shoen holdings, thus establishing relationships with the Imperial family and 'sekkan-ke' (the families which had produced the regents and the chief advisors to the emperor).
Japanese: 一方、中下流の貴族は国司として地方に下り土着する者が出る一方で受領となって財を築きあるいは荘園を築き、皇室や摂関家などと関係を結ぶ者があった。