nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: This reform provoked high-ranked vassals' antipathy in particular those who were afraid of being weakened.
Japanese: この改革は、特に弱体化されることを恐れた上級家臣を中心に反感が強かった。
English: Even the middle or lower-ranked vassals disliked this reform because it could have diminished their territory substantially.
Japanese: 実質減封となる場合もあったので、中堅以下の家臣であってもこれを嫌った。
English: Decisive action or proposition of this change often created a disturbance of the domain duties, contributing to the internal squabbles (over headship rights) in a daimyo family.
Japanese: この転換を断行・あるいは企図したために、藩政が混乱して、お家騒動の背景の一つとなることもよくあった。
English: Thus, in the domains in which the system had been converted into the kuramaichigyo, the samurai who had status which would have been enforced in the conventional system were honorably granted the designation of kyujin or a social status of Kakaku (family status) of kyujin.
Japanese: かくして、蔵米知行制に転換した諸藩にあって、本来であれば、知行を与えられる格式を持つ武士に対して、給人という呼称や、給人という格式の家格を、栄誉的に与えたのである。
English: The feudal retainer of the status who was designated kyujin was from the families which were generally called 'lower of the upper' in the Edo period.
Japanese: 江戸時代に、給人を名乗る格式の藩士は、一般に「上の下」とされる家柄の者である。
English: The feudal retainer who was designated as higher-ranked than kyujin had a status called Kakaku (family status) and usually not called kyujin.
Japanese: 給人より格上の呼称を持つ藩士は、その格式を家格として称したので、通常は、給人という呼称は用いなかった。
English: The fact was that the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) did not intend to use or settle this designation of kyujin, however, there existed a status or Kakaku called kyujin or kyujin-seki in many domains.
Japanese: 幕府が諸藩を指導して給人という呼称を用いさせたり定着させようとした事実はないにも関わらず、多くの諸藩には、給人または給人席という身分・家格が存在した。
English: It is called Gofun (胡粉) because it was brought from Ko (胡) which meant the western part of China before.
Japanese: かつて中華人民共和国の西方を意味する胡から伝えられたことから、胡粉と呼ばれる。
English: Clamshells are used to realize a higher whiteness degree, but materials like oyster and scallop shells are also used because they work easily.
Japanese: 白色度の高いものにはハマグリが用いられるが、加工の易さからカキ(貝)、ホタテガイの貝殻も用いられる。
English: The shellfishes are the same as those eaten, but shells with a higher whiteness degree are searched from all over the country.
Japanese: それぞれの貝は食用になるものと同様だが、各地からより白色度の高い貝が探し求められている。
English: Crush shells after exposure to the sun, mix it with water to make it clayey, roll it out on a board and completed after exposing to the sun again.
Japanese: 晒した貝殻を粉砕、水で溶き、粘土状になったものを板の上に延ばして更に晒して造られる。
English: Roto (郎党; retainer) or rodo was a family member or a follower of his master's house in the samurai society of medieval Japan.
Japanese: 郎党（ろうとう、ろうどう）は、中世日本の武士社会における主家の一族や従者。
English: A class of samurai who had come from Johei Tengyo kunkosha (people who distinguishably served in the Johei and Tengyo War) or their descendants were also a Tato-fumyo (cultivator/tax manager), a rice field manager.
Japanese: 平安時代中期に承平天慶勲功者やその子孫の中から登場した武士階層は、田堵負名、すなわち田地経営者としての側面も持っていた。
English: They worked hard at their training of martial arts while managing rice field, and whenever mobilized for military by kokuga (provincial government offices) they participated in the military activities.
Japanese: 武士たちは在地にあって田地経営を行いながら武芸の鍛錬に励み、国衙から軍事動員が課せられたときは軍事活動に参加した。
English: Thus, they were acknowledged as local samurai by kokuga and thereby obtained their status as a samurai.
Japanese: こうして彼らは国衙から「国内武士」としての認知を受け、それによって武士身分を獲得していた。
English: In order to maintain a certain level of fighting power, the above mentioned local samurai established the relation of master to servant with their followers who were called roto.
Japanese: 上記のような在地武士たちは、戦力を一定以上確保するために、自らに従う者を「郎党」と呼んで主従関係を結んだ。
English: Roto could not be declared as having equal status to samurai but had the right to ride a horse like local samurai and the obligation to participate in battles.
Japanese: 郎党は、武士と同身分であるとは言い切れないものの、在地武士と同様に騎乗する権利を持ち、戦闘に参加する義務を負っていた。
English: Some roto originated from lower ranked people or shoju (retainers), and some were peasants who had formed a relation with a local warrior to become a roto.
Japanese: 郎党の出自を見ると、下人・所従から郎党になった者もいれば、百姓身分の者が在地武士と主従関係を持って郎党となった者もいた。
English: Like roto, 'ienoko' (followers) followed samurai and participated in battles.
Japanese: 郎党と同様、武士に従いながら戦闘に参加したのが「家の子」（子弟）である。
English: The difference between the ienoko and the roto was that the ienoko was a family member or a son of samurai and had a blood tie, while roto was not.
Japanese: 家の子と郎党の差異は、家の子が武士の一族・子弟であり、血縁関係を有していたのに対し、郎党はそうでなかったという点にある。
English: Sometimes a samurai created master to servant relationships among samurai and became another samurai's roto.
Japanese: 武士間で主従関係を結んで、ある武士が別の武士の郎党となることもあった。
English: Around the eleventh century, as leading samurai like MINAMOTO no Yorinobu who should be called toryo (a leader) appeared, many samurai connected master to servant relationships with toryo and become roto for the toryo.
Japanese: 11世紀ごろに武家の棟梁と呼ぶべき指導的な武士（例えば源頼信など）が登場すると、多数の武士が棟梁と主従関係を結んで、棟梁の郎党となっている。
English: According to the modern military system, warriors who are allowed to fight on horseback (Umamawari and above) correspond to officers and Kachi correspond to noncommissioned officers.
Japanese: 近代軍制でいうと、馬上の資格がある侍（馬廻以上）が士官に相当し、徒士は下士官に相当する。
English: At the battle field, they fought as the forerunners of their lords and in peaceful time, they served as the guards (Kachi-gumi (Kachi teams)) of castles or engaged in administrative jobs (metsuke (police)) or subordinates of kanjo-bugyo (commissioner of finance) as middle class managers.
Japanese: 戦場では主君の前駆をなし、平時は城内の護衛（徒士組）や中間管理職的な行政職（目付、勘定奉行の配下など）に従事した。
English: Ieyasu TOKUGAWA established nine Kachi-gumi (Kachi team) in 1603 as the organization of the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
Japanese: 江戸幕府における徒歩組（かちぐみ）は、徳川家康が慶長8年（1603年）に9組をもって成立した。
English: During the period when the bakufu was stable, there were 20 Kachi teams under Kachigashira (superintendant of Kachi teams) and each team had two kumigashira (head of Kachi team) and 28 Kachi.
Japanese: 幕府安定期には20組が徒歩頭の下にあり、各組毎に2人の組頭が、その下に各組28人の徒歩衆がいた。
English: Their family status were initially gokenin (kakaezeki (the lowest rank of gokenin)), but it became fudai (the highest rank of gokenin) in 1862.
Japanese: 家格は当初御家人（かかえぜき）だったが、文久2年（1862年）に譜代となった。
English: The term Shuinchi/Kokuinchi means the lands which were secured (approval/confirmation of ownership) by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun)/daimyo (feudal lords) in the Edo period as the property of shrines/temples.
Japanese: 朱印地・黒印地（しゅいんち・こくいんち）とは、江戸時代に幕府・大名より神社・寺院の領地として安堵（領有権の承認・確認）された土地のことである。
English: These names derived from the fact that Shuinchi were secured by the bakufu with shuinjo (letter stamped with shuin (red stamp)) and Kokuinchi were secured by the daimyo with kokuinjo (letter stamped with kokuin (black stamp)) respectively.
Japanese: 朱印地は幕府より朱色の印が押された朱印状により、黒印地は大名より黒の印が押された黒印状により所領の安堵がなされたので、その名称がある。
English: However, they were gradually deprived of their lands by the daimyo during the Sengoku period (period of warring states) and finally they lost all lands through taiko kenchi (the cadastral surveys conducted by Hideyoshi) conducted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI.
Japanese: しかし、戦国時代には諸大名により所領が次第に侵蝕されていき、豊臣秀吉の太閤検地によりそれが決定的となった。
English: In the Edo period, some lands that were formerly owned by temples/shrines were returned to them and secured by the bakufu/daimyo with shuinjo/kokuinjo.
Japanese: 江戸時代に入り、各寺社がかつて領有していた土地の一部が寺社に返還され、幕府・大名より朱印状・黒印状によってその所領が安堵された。
English: Although Shuinchi/Kokuinchi were deemed not as private lands but as public lands, temples/shrines were exempted from tax and all revenues obtained from lands belonging to them.
Japanese: 朱印地・黒印地は寺社の私有地ではなく公領という扱いであるが、領内の租税は免除されており、収益は全て寺社のものとなった。
English: Among such lands, however, even the largest one, that of Nikko Toshogu shrine, was equivalent to tens of thousands of koku crop yield and the smallest one was equivalent to merely one koku crop yield.
Japanese: しかし、その土地は最も広い日光東照宮でも1万石、最も狭いものではわずか1石であった。
English: Under such circumstances, it was almost impossible to maintain the management of temples/shrines only by the revenues obtained from Shuinchi/Kokuinchi and many of temples/shrines managed to sustain themselves relying on revenues obtained from the lands reclaimed by themselves or rice/money donated by the daimyo.
Japanese: このため、朱印地・黒印地からの収益だけで寺社の経営が成り立った例はほとんどなく、多くは自ら開墾した土地、あるいは大名などから寄進された米や金銭で経営を維持していた。
English: Shuinchi/Kokuinchi became nationally-owned lands by 'Agechi-rei' (confiscation command of territory) issued in 1872 and only limited precincts remained as the estate of temples/shrines.
Japanese: 明治4年の「上知令」によって朱印地・黒印地は国有地とされ、寺社にはごくわずかの境内地だけが残された。
English: Chingokokka refers to a government policy to stabilize internal affairs using Buddhism or a thought that Buddhism has power to protect and stabilize a country.
Japanese: 鎮護国家（ちんごこっか）は、政府が仏教を利用して内政の安定を図ろうとした政策、または、仏教には国家を守護・安定させる力があるとする思想。
English: The thought was advocated in "Ninno gokoku hannyaharamitsu kyo Sutra" and "Golden Light of the Most Victorious Kings Sutra."
Japanese: 思想としては『仁王護国般若波羅蜜経』や『金光明最勝王経』に説かれている。
English: During the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties in China and Nara period in Japan, Buddhist services, such as Ninno-e festival and Saisho-e (lecture series based on the Suvarnaprabhasottama-sutra), were often held because it was believed that a country would be protected by recitation of these Buddhist scriptures.
Japanese: この経典を供養することで国家が守護されるとされているところから、南北朝時代_(中国)の中国や奈良時代の日本で盛んに仁王会や最勝会などの法要が行われた。
English: Moreover, in the Kamakura period, Japan was at a turning point, and the attacks of Mongolia, for example, made the society unstable.
Japanese: また、鎌倉時代には、時代の転換期であり、また蒙古の襲来など、社会情勢が不安定であった。
English: Therefore, the founders of Kamakura New Buddhism had energetically preached that Buddhist doctrines of their school would save the country, for example, Eisai's "Kozengokoku-ron" and Nichiren's "Shugo kokka-ron" (Treatise on protection of the nation) and "Rissho Ankoku-ron" (Treatise for Spreading Peace Throughout the Country by Establishing the True Teaching).
Japanese: それ故、栄西の『興禅護国論』、日蓮の『守護国家論』、『立正安国論』など、鎌倉新仏教の開祖たちによって、仏教の思想（自派の教義）こそ国を救うものであると盛んに説かれている。
English: Especially, Nichiren energetically spread the thought in "Rissho Ankoku-ron" and preached that the country and people would be saved by erection of the Kokuritsu kaidan (the establishment of the National High Sanctuary).
Japanese: 特に、日蓮は立正安国論の中で盛んにこれを喧伝し、政府による国立戒壇の建立によって国家と人々は救済されると説く。
English: The term, 'National Buddhism' is sometimes used in recent years.
Japanese: 近年では、「国家仏教（こっかぶっきょう）」という表現が使われることもある。
English: However, historians and Buddhist scholars have not yet reached a united opinion regarding what would define 'National Buddhism.'
Japanese: しかし、実際のところ歴史学者や仏教学者の間でも何をもって「国家仏教」と定義づけるのかについては統一した見解が出されているわけではない。
English: Moreover, some say that the usage of 'National Buddhism' does not reflect the realities of ancient Buddhism; therefore, it is inadequate.
Japanese: また「国家仏教」という表現そのものが古代仏教の実態を反映しておらず不適当とする考え方もある。
English: First of all, in fact, the temples called kanji had been erected and maintained by so called Chingokokka, and Buddhist services had been held to pray for peace and security of the country and the Imperial Family.
Japanese: まず、鎮護国家とされる国家によって官寺と呼ばれる寺院の建立・維持が行われて国家と皇室の安泰を祈るための法会が行われたという事実は存在する。
English: However, there had been no specific policy that intended to establish Buddhism as the national religion.
Japanese: しかし、その政権が仏教の国家宗教化を意図した具体的な政策例は存在しない。
English: Moreover, there has been controversy about how far the Soni ryo and the Sogo applied to temples other than kanji.
Japanese: また、僧尼令や僧綱についても官寺以外に対してどこまで適用されたかについても議論がある。
English: It is thought that the Soni ryo and the Sogo strictly controlled the kanji and the official monks.
Japanese: 僧尼令や僧綱が官寺・官僧を厳格に統制していたのは事実であると考えられている。
English: Among these, aside from family temples of nobles or local ruling families, whether small temples worshiped by people in villages could be supervised has been questionable.
Japanese: このうち貴族や豪族の氏寺はともかく、村々の住民が信仰の中心として建てた小規模な寺まで実際に監督することが可能であったのかについては疑問が残されている。
English: In fact, although Japanese Soni ryo prohibited erection of private temple by monks and nuns, other private temples were regulated for the first time by Daijokanpu (official documents issued by Daijokan, Grand Council of State) in the Enryaku era of the Heian period.
Japanese: 実際、日本の僧尼令では僧尼が私寺を建立することは禁じたものの、その他の私寺に関しては平安時代の延暦年間の太政官符において初めて規制された。
English: Therefore, Soni ryo and Sogo were applied to monks and nuns, and they did not regulate Buddhism itself.
Japanese: これは僧尼令や僧綱の対象が僧尼であって仏教そのものを対象にした法令ではなかった事実の反映である。
English: Furthermore, documents, such as the Official History, and Buddhism tales, such as "Nihon genho zenaku ryoiki" (set of three books of Buddhist stories, written in the late eigth and early ninth century, usually referred to as the Nihon Ryoiki), portrayed monks and nuns who did not comply with Soni ryo.
Japanese: 更に正史などの記録や『日本現報善悪霊異記』のような仏教説話には僧尼令の規定とは違った僧尼の姿が描き出されている。
English: On the other hand, shidoso with ascetic practice were allowed to enter the Buddhist priesthood as official monks.
Japanese: しかし、修行の実績がある私度僧には却って得度を許して官僧へ取り込む措置すら取られている。
English: It is true that Buddhism was protected and that the kanji had been erected and systematically maintained by Chingokokka to pray for peace and security of the country and Imperial Family.
Japanese: 鎮護国家において仏教が保護されて官寺が建立されてその監督体制が整備されて国家と皇室の安泰が祈願されていたのは事実である。
English: However, comparing with gosan (Zen temples highly ranked by the government) of the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) or the Jiin Shohatto (laws for temples) of Edo bakufu, whether it may be called 'National Buddhism' remains debatable.
Japanese: しかし、室町幕府の五山や江戸幕府の寺院諸法度と比較しても、それを「国家仏教」とまで呼べるのかについては議論が残されている。
English: Mizunomi Byakusho (water drinking peasant) refer to those who did not have their own harvesting lands, although they were in the census register, since the Edo period.
Japanese: 水呑百姓（みずのみびゃくしょう）は、江戸時代以降、在方の人別に加わりつつ、石高を所持しない無高の者を指す呼称。
English: Also 'Mizunomi Mutaka' (water drinking people without harvesting land) was often put down with it; moreover there were cases that Mizunomi and Mutaka referred to different things respectively.
Japanese: また、「水呑無高」と併記されることも多く、水呑と無高が別の内容を指す場合もある。
English: Depending on the volume and types of labor, there were services such as Honyaku (whole service), Hanyaku (half service), Shi (sho) hanyaku (quarter service), Mizuyaku (water service).
Japanese: 賦役の負担する量や種類によって、本役・半役・四（小）半役・水役などに分かれていた。
English: After the middle of the 17th century, such a system collapsed gradually and those who had their own harvesting lands and were members of the village community's lands and water management, were called Hyakusho.
Japanese: 17世紀半ば以降、このような制度は崩れていき、石高を所有し入会地・用水管理などの資格を持つ者が百姓と呼ばれた。
English: It was not necessarily the case that all the Hyakushos engaged in agriculture and it was also the case that many of them were in business or industry.
Japanese: 百姓は必ずしも農業を営んでいた訳ではなく、農業以外の商業・産業を営む者も多かった。
English: Therefore, among the people whose positions were Mizunomi Byakusho, there were many rich men who engaged in, for example, trade and sericulture.
Japanese: そのため、身分は水呑百姓であっても、例えば交易業や養蚕業を経営し、富豪と呼ぶべき実態の者も少なくなかったのである。
English: In 1872, the government was working for new policies of agriculture and private law and the Finance Ministry announced the law including the prohibition of the name, Mizunomi that had existed conventionally and the emancipation of Mizunomi from the position.
Japanese: 1872年になると、新しい農業・私法政策に取り組む政府は、旧来から存在していた水呑の呼称の禁止及び身分から解放等を規定した法令を大蔵省から発した。
English: Because of the law, the custom and system concerning Mizunomi came to an end.
Japanese: これにより江戸時代から続く水呑に関する身分慣習及び制度は終焉を迎えた。
English: Giso was a warehouse which was constructed in important domestic places to store rice and other grain in case of natural disasters and famine, and the grain in stock was collected from ordinary people or acquired using the cash contributions by the rich.
Japanese: 義倉（ぎそう）とは、災害や飢饉に備えて米などの穀物を一般より徴収し、または富者から寄付を得て、これを貯蓄するために国内の要地に設けた倉庫。
English: While holding grain for emergencies, to help maintain the giso warehouses and prevent spoilage, old crops were sold (deseri, 出糶, to be on sale) at a fair price or loaned (shakuho, 借放) at a low interest rate to the public.
Japanese: 万一に備える一方で穀物の腐敗の防止と義倉の維持のために古い穀物を安価で売却（出糶）し、また一般に低利で貸し付ける（借放）事も行われていた。
English: In China, Shito zokunin jo (司徒属人條, an article of Shito zokunin) in "Rites of Zhou" talks about its origin that Zhou applied 'Ishi-ho' (委積法, literally, method of goods), and according the definition Sonhei CHO, Takushi shosho (account office) made in the Sui Dynasty (in 585), that was obvious on record, people from the domains to ordinary people were forced to provide a certain amount of foxtail and proso millet and those millets were stored in giso warehouses which were constructed in prefectures.
Japanese: 中国においては、『周礼』の司徒属人條にて周が「委積法」を行ったことに由来しているとされているが、記録の上で明白なのは、隋の開皇8年（585年）に度支尚書長孫平が定義したもので、諸侯から民衆まで一定額の粟・黍を納めさせて州県に設置された義倉に納められた。
English: In the year 747 of the Tang Dynasty, it is estimated there was a total stock of 63,700,000 koku.
Japanese: 唐の天宝(唐)8年（747年）には全国に総額6,370万石の備蓄があったという。
English: In Japan, this system was implemented in the Taika Reforms based on the system in the Sui Dynasty and set forth in Fuyaku ryo (tax structure) of Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code), and all people excluding Imperial princes made contributions according to their levels of wealth.
Japanese: 一方、日本では隋の制度を基にして大化の改新の際に導入され、大宝律令賦役令にて定められ親王を除く全人民がその貧富に応じて納めた。
English: With the deterioration of the Ritsuryo system, a giso warehouse was disappearing, but there appeared to be domains which began to construct giso warehouses due to the influence of Confucianism during the Edo Period.
Japanese: 律令制の衰退に伴い義倉も衰退したが、江戸時代に入ると儒教の影響で諸藩の中に義倉を作る所が現れた。
English: It was believed that after the establishment of the Meiji Government, many of giso warehouses were seized by the government and used to make up a shortfall in state finances.
Japanese: だが、明治政府成立後にその多くが政府に接収されて不足する国家財政の穴埋めに使われたといわれている。
English: On the other hand, both local government and the private sector engaged in business similar to Giso, and built warehouses known as Shaso.
Japanese: これに対して、地域の役所あるいは民間が主体で義倉と同様の事業を行ったものを社倉（しゃそう）と呼ぶ。
English: In the Southern Sung Dynasty China when giso warehouse disappeared, it was thought that Chu His recommended constructing Shaso warehouse as a substitute for Giso, and the Shaso system was brought into Japan along with the doctrines of Zhu Xi (Neo-Confucianism).
Japanese: 義倉が衰退した南宋期の中国において朱熹によって義倉に代わるものとして提唱されたと言われており、日本に朱子学とともに伝来した。
English: During the Edo Period, Ansai YAMAZAKI, Chikuzan NAKAI, Gakuraku KATO, Nobuhiro SATO, and Shoin YOSHIDA created their own Giso concept.
Japanese: 江戸時代には山崎闇斎・中井竹山・加藤岳楽・佐藤信淵・吉田松陰らが独自の義倉構想を立てられた。
English: This idea was supported by many domains, and as early as 1654, Masayuki HOSHINA of the Aizu domain introduced this practice.
Japanese: 諸藩の中にもこれを推奨するところが多く、早くも承応3年（1654年）に保科正之の会津藩がこれを導入している。
English: Unlikely to the initial purpose of the establishment of Shaso, many Shaso warehouses were constructed at the initiative of the dominant class of people who were embracing the doctrines of Zhu Xi (Neo-Confucianism) in Japan and therefore, the mixture with giso warehouses constructed by the dominant class of people was spread.
Japanese: このように日本では本来の設置意義と違って朱子学を奉じた支配階層主導による設置も多く行われ、支配階層による義倉との混同が進んだ。
English: Nonetheless, there were more than a few shaso warehouses under the initiative of the private sector, and it was confirmed that some shaso warehouses survived until the Showa Era.
Japanese: とはいえ、民間主体の社倉の存在も決して少なくなく、昭和時代まで存在が確認できるものもある。
English: After the students of acupuncture (limited to 30 people) finished a two year basic course and seven years of professional training (skill practice and technical book reading) under a Hari hakase, they took the final and commissioning exam held by their Hari Hakase and those who passed it started acupuncture treatment as acupuncturists.
Japanese: 針生（定員30名）は、針博士の下で基礎教養2年及び専門教育7年（実技及び専門書の講読）を受けた後、針博士による卒業・任官試験を受けて合格したものが針師として針治療の実務にあたる。
English: In concrete terms, it was to calculate the volume of tax revenues and audit whether or not it reached the defined volume.
Japanese: 具体的には租税の量を計算し､それが規定の量に達しているか監査するのである。
English: Therefore the skill of mathematics (Sando) was required, by which it continued as a principal job after the collapse of the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: そのため数学（算道）に関する技術が求められ､枢要の職として律令制崩壊後も存続した。
English: The term Kokugaku means educational institutes established, with the aim of nurturing officials, at each province under the Ritsuryo system (the system of centralized government based on the Riysuryo code).
Japanese: 国学（こくがく）とは、律令制において、官人育成のために令制国に設置された地方教育機関。
English: Their establishment was legislated by the Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code) and each province was obliged to establish one Kokugaku at its kokufu (provincial capital).
Japanese: 大宝律令によって設置が定められ、各国の国府に1校の併設が義務付けられた。
English: Although sons of gunji (local magistrate) who were 13 - 16 years old and clever were eligible for entrance, sons of ordinary people were also allowed to enter in some instances.
Japanese: 入学資格としては郡司の子弟のうち13－16歳の聡明な者とされていたが、場合によっては庶民の子弟の入学を許した。
English: Students were divided into gakusho, candidates for government officials, and isho, candidates for doctors, and the number of students differed depending on the size of province.
Japanese: 生徒には官人候補者にあたる学生（がくしょう）と医師候補者の医生（いしょう）がおり、その数は国の規模によって違っていた。
English: Depending on the results of examinations, graduates from Kokugaku were recruited as local government officials or granted the qualification for entering daigakuryo or tenyakuryo.
Japanese: 卒業者は試験の結果によっては官人に登用されたり大学寮や典薬寮に入る資格を得ることが出来た。
English: In the wake of the institutional reforms implemented by the central government in 757, students were further segmented into kogyosho (講経生), densho (傅生), isho, harisho (students of acupuncture), tenmon no sho (students of astronomy), onmyo no sho (students of onmyo), and rekisansho (students of mathematics).
Japanese: 757年には中央の制度改革に伴って学生が細分化されて講経生・傅生・医生・針生・天文生・陰陽生・暦算生に分かれた。
English: Although it was set down that a kuni no hakase and a kuni no ishi should be allocated as teachers at each kokugaku, it was not uncommon, because of the difficulty in finding suitable personnel, to see provinces where kokugau was not established or a case where a teacher taught at several provinces.
Japanese: 教官としては各国毎に国博士（くにのはかせ）・国医師（くにのいし）を各1名ずつ置く事が定められていたが、人材難に悩まされて国学が置かれない国や一人の教官が複数国を担当することも珍しくなかった。
English: It is contemplated that this system became full-fledged in all provinces only in the late Nara period.
Japanese: 各国で制度が整ったのはようやく奈良時代末期になってからであると考えられている。
English: Also, there exists a record proving the fact that kuni no hakase and/or kuni no ishi were treated like shisho (a person doing miscellaneous duties with documents) and were used for jobs of the provincial government.
Japanese: また、国博士や国医師が史生と同等に扱われて国府の業務に動員されていた記録も存在する。
English: In association with the collapse of the Ritsuryo system in the Heian period, Kokugaku also declined and ceased to exist by the beginning of the 11th century.
Japanese: だが、平安時代に入ると律令制度の崩壊とともに国学も衰退し、11世紀に入る頃までにはほぼ消滅した。
English: As the last record concerning Kokugaku was written in the end of the Heian period (early 12th century), it is believed that Kokugaku were abolished around that time.
Japanese: 記録上でも平安時代末期の12世紀初期を最後に姿を消し、このころに廃絶されたと考えられている。
English: Sonae is a military unit organized during the wartime between the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) (Japan) and the Edo period.
Japanese: 備（そなえ）は、戦国時代(日本)から江戸時代において戦時に編成された部隊。
English: It consists of various foot soldier (Japanese bows, matchlock guns and spears) units, cavalrymen, provision transporters, and so on.
Japanese: 各種足軽（和弓・火縄銃・槍）隊、騎馬武者隊、小荷駄隊などで構成される。
English: Before the Sengoku Period, except for the troops based on the Ritsuryo system (ancient Japan), no troop organization existed that resembled sonae.
Japanese: 戦国時代以前においては律令制に基づく軍団(古代日本)制を除き、備のような系統だった部隊編成は見られない。
English: This is because after the destruction of the Ritsuryo system in Japan, troops had to be organized in a way that stressed relation based on lord-and-vassal bonds such as 'favor and service.'
Japanese: それは律令制崩壊以後の日本においては「御恩と奉公」という主従関係に基づいた、繋がりを重視する部隊編成を行わざるをえなかったためである。