nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Recently, however, Panasonic Electric Works Co., Ltd. is increasing its market share by developing a toilet basin made from resin.
Japanese: しかし最近ではパナソニック電工が樹脂製の便器を開発しシェアを伸している。
English: In contrast, the two top share companies of the toilet basin fall behind the household appliance manufacturers in the introduction of new materials except for the technology of electronics control or pottery and the two have a tough time in the market of onsui senjo benza.
Japanese: 逆に便器のトップシェア2社は、エレクトロニクス制御技術や陶器以外の新素材導入では家電品メーカーに水を空けられており、温水洗浄便座では苦戦している。
English: Shogatsugoto-hajime (New Year Preparations) means to begin preparations for welcoming the New Year.
Japanese: 正月事始め（しょうがつごとはじめ）とは、正月を迎える準備を始めること。
English: The day to start preparations was 13th December in the lunar calendar, and is now also 13th December in the solar calendar.
Japanese: かつては旧暦12月13日(旧暦)、現在は新暦12月13日に行われる。
English: In the past there was a custom of going to the mountains on this day to collect wood necessary for New Year including firewood to cook Ozoni (soup containing vegetables and rice cakes) and pine and bamboo for the Kadomatsu decorations.
Japanese: 昔はこの日に門松やお雑煮を炊くための薪など、お正月に必要な木を山へ取りに行く習慣があった。
English: According to the Senmyoreki lunisolar calendar used until the middle of the Edo period, the 13th of December was always a 'day of the ghost' in the 27 mansions or divisions of Chinese astrology and this day was auspicious for everything except weddings, so it was chosen as a good day to welcome the god of the New Year called Toshigama-sama.
Japanese: 江戸時代中期まで使われていた宣明暦では12月13日の二十七宿は必ず「鬼」になっており、鬼の日は婚礼以外は全てのことに吉とされているので、正月の年神様を迎えるのに良いとして、この日が選ばれた。
English: In the subsequent calendar reform the date and designation in the 27 mansions disappeared however the date for starting New Year's preparations remained 13th December.
Japanese: その後の改暦で日付と二十七宿は同期しなくなったが、正月事始めの日付は12月13日のままとなった。
English: The term "kezuribushi" means shavings of dried flesh of bonitos, mackerels, sardines, and other fishes.
Japanese: 削り節（けずりぶし）とは、カツオ、サバ、イワシ等の干し魚を薄く削ったものである。
English: Formerly, it had been popular under the name of "katsuobushi" which meant literally "shavings of dried bonito," but since the term was often used to include products of fish other than bonito, it became to be called "kezuribushi" (shavings of dried fish) in order to avoid misunderstanding caused by its name.
Japanese: かつては、鰹節と呼び、広く流通していたが、かつお以外を原料とするものまで混じっていたことから、商品としての誤解を避けるため、「削り節」と呼ぶこととなった。
English: Small packets of shavings of dried bonito have become a hit under the brand name of "katsuo pack" (literally, packages of dried bonito) as a convenient item for use at home.
Japanese: カツオを原料とした削り節の小袋（かつおパックという商品名）が家庭で手軽に使える商品として、ヒット商品となった。
English: Their popularity was further encouraged by a TV scene, where a well-known chef fed a huge volume of shavings out of katsuo packs into a pan to make katsuo-dashi (bouillon of bonito flesh.)
Japanese: また、テレビでの高名な調理師が番組で鰹ダシを取る際に、鍋に山のように入れるシーンが放映されたことなどから、一段と用いられるようになった。
English: In the early-modern times, the term "ongyoku" meant music or an art of musical performance.
Japanese: 音曲（おんぎょく）とは、近世において音楽、あるいは音楽を用いた芸能のことを指した。
English: Although it has become almost an obsolete word today, its meaning has changed to indicate traditional arts covering mainly traditional Japanese music of early-modern times as well as other concerned music.
Japanese: 転じて、現代では古語に近いが、近世邦楽を主として、その他の関連する音楽を中心とした伝統芸能を意味している。
English: Therefore, the term "ongyoku" often excludes ancient music and such religious music as gagaku (ancient Japanese court dance and music) and syomyo (chanting of Buddhist hymns).
Japanese: そのため古代の音楽や宗教音楽である雅楽や声明などを含めないことが多い。
English: Today, the word "ongyoku" is little used except some cases, and is usually called 'ongaku' ('music').
Japanese: 現代では一部を除いてあまり使われなくなり、「音楽」と呼ばれることが多い。
English: However, "ongyoku" is now used as an indication to solely auditory elements of those traditional arts excluding their visual elements.
Japanese: ただし、これらの伝統芸能のうち、視覚的要素をのぞく聴覚的要素のみを指す言葉としても、“音曲”という言葉は用いられる。
English: "Utagaki" is a kind of folkway based on a magical belief, where young men and women gather on a specific time and date to exchange courtship songs and ballads.
Japanese: 歌垣（うたがき）とは、特定の日時に若い男女が集まり、相互に求愛の歌謡を掛け合う呪的信仰に立つ習俗。
English: At present, it is practiced mainly in the mountainous area in southern China and northern Indochina.
Japanese: 現代では主に中国南部からインドシナ半島北部の山岳地帯に分布している。
English: In ancient times, there existed a custom of utagaki in the Mt. Tsukuba area in Hitachi Province and other places in Japan, as is learned from the "Manyoshu" (the "Anthology of Ten Thousand Leaves")
Japanese: 古代日本の常陸筑波山などおいて、歌垣の風習が存在したことが『万葉集』などによりうかがうことができる。
English: To give an overview of utagaki currently practiced in southern China and northern South-East Asia, the custom is most typically observed in the manner that men and women in their teens and 20s gather together in the evening of a holiday (in many cases, at the beginning of spring) and exchange love songs so that couples may enter relationships with each other.
Japanese: 現代の中国南部および東南アジア北部で見られる歌垣を概観すると、祝祭日（多くの場合、播種前の春先）の夜に10代半ばから20代の男女が集会し、互いに求愛歌を掛け合いながら、対になり恋愛関係になる、といった類型が多い。
English: Songs and ballads exchanged in an utagaki gathering are, in many cases, with fixed melodies and stylized lyrics, following a syllabic meter of three, five, or seven syllables per line.
Japanese: 歌垣での歌謡は、多くの場合、固定的な旋律と定型的な歌詞を持ち、三・五・七などの音数律に従う。
English: Singers of those songs and ballads are required to have sufficiently good skill and education to improvise any song in line with said rules, and as well they have to attract the attention of their partners.
Japanese: 歌い手は、これらの約束事を守りながら即興でうたう技量と教養を必要とし、なおかつ相手の気を惹かなければならない。
English: Contents of the songs and ballads are not limited to courtships but also include creation myths, harvests, work for ample crops, funerals, and so on.
Japanese: 歌謡の内容は求愛歌だけにとどまらず、創世神話歌、収穫歌、豊作労働歌、葬送歌などがある。
English: Although the custom of utagaki may be observed in both swidden and rice-growing farmers, it is prominent among the people in mountainous areas of slash-and-burn agriculture.
Japanese: 歌垣の習俗は、焼畑農業民にも稲作民にも見られるが、特に山岳焼畑地帯で顕著である。
English: In ancient Japan, the custom of utagaki was practiced as an event based on a magical belief of the people, irrespective of age and sex, who gathered on a fixed time and day at a specific place to exchange courtship songs while eating and drinking together in order to form couples who may eventually fall in love.
Japanese: 古代日本における歌垣は、特定の日時と場所に老若男女が集会し、共同飲食しながら歌を掛け合う呪的信仰に立つ行事であり、互いに求愛歌を掛け合いながら、対になり恋愛関係になるとされる。
English: Kagai' written in kanji as '嬥歌' is a dialect for 'utagaki' spoken in the Togoku region (eastern part of Japan, especially the Kanto region,) which is also considered to have originated from 'kakeai' ('calling each other in rhythmic dialogue').
Japanese: また、東国方言の「かがい（嬥歌）」も「懸け合い」に由来すると考えられている。
English: Spring and autumn were purported to be good seasons for utagaki festivals, which were assumed to have an aspect of preliminary celebration and gratitude for production.
Japanese: 時期としては春秋に行われ、生産の予祝・感謝としての性格を持っていたとされる。
English: As for venues for utagaki meetings, well-bounded places were selected such as mountain tops, seashores, riversides, market places, and so on; for example, Mt. Tsukuba in Hitachi Province, Otome no Matsubara park in the same Province, Mt. Kishima-dake in Hizen Province, Mt. Utagaki-yama in Settsu Province, Tsubakichi (also known as Tsubaichi) marketplace in Yamato Province, Karuno-ichi marketplace in the same Province, and so on.
Japanese: 場所は、山頂、海浜、川、そして市など、境界性を帯びた地が多く、常陸筑波山、同童子女松原、肥前杵島岳、摂津歌垣山、大和海石榴市、同軽市などの例がある。
English: In the light of ancient belief in kotodama (soul or power of language), it may be explained that one with magically stronger kotodama could win in a poetry contest and dominate his/her opponent while the other one who lost the contest had to submit himself/herself to the opponent.
Japanese: 古代の言霊信仰の観点からは、ことばうたを掛け合うことにより、呪的言霊の強い側が歌い勝って相手を支配し、歌い負けた側は相手に服従したのだ、と説かれる。
English: Similarly, a relationship between a man and woman coupled in an utagaki meeting was determined by the strength of each one's kotodama.
Japanese: 歌垣における男女間の求愛関係も、言霊の強弱を通じて決定されることとなる。
English: Ancient songs and ballads related to "utagaki" can be found in "Kojiki" ("The Records of Ancient Matters,") "Manyoshu" ("The Anthology of Myriad Leaves,") "Hitachi no kuni fudoki" ("the topography of Hitachi Province"), "Hizen no kuni fudoki" ("the topography of Hizen Province") and so on.
Japanese: 古代歌謡としての歌垣は、『古事記』『万葉集』『常陸国風土記』『肥前国風土記』などに見える。
English: In volume nine of the Manyoshu Anthology, there was a poem composed by TAKAHASHI no Mushimaro at an utagaki festival held in Mt. Tsukuba, which reads, 'Let's go to kagai (dialect of "utagaki") where men and women gather to exchange poems, and I would interact with a married woman while my wife might be pursued by any other man・・・,' from which we can see how things were going on at an utagaki gathering at that time.
Japanese: 万葉集巻九の「〈……率(あども)ひて　未通女壮士(おとめおとこ)の　行き集(つど)ひ　かがふ刊歌(かがい)に　人妻に　吾(あ)も交はらむ　吾が妻に　人も言問(ことと)へ……」は、筑波山の歌垣で高橋虫麻呂が詠んだ歌であり、当時の歌垣の様子を伺い知ることが出来る。
English: As time advanced, aspects of utagaki fest as a meeting for magical belief, preliminary celebration, and gratitude for production became weaker than ever and gradually formed its characteristics as an event for courtship among unmarried persons.
Japanese: 時代が下るにつれて、呪的信仰・予祝・感謝行事としての性格は薄れ、未婚者による求婚行事となっていった。
English: For example, in "Kojiki" ("The Records of Ancient Matters"), there is described an anecdote of Emperor Kenzo and HEGURI no Shibi who had fought for the love of a woman by exchange of poems at Tsubakichi (or Tsubaichi) market.
Japanese: 、『古事記』には顕宗天皇と平群鮪とが女をめぐり海石榴市で歌をたたかわせた逸話が残っている。
English: In the Nara Period, utagaki was merged with toka (singing and dancing) imported from China, and became one of performance arts for court.
Japanese: 奈良時代に入ると、中国（唐）から伝来した踏歌と合流し、宮廷芸能の一つとなった。
English: Utagaki festivals were held in large scale in March, 734, at Suzaku-mon Gate in the then capital city Heijo and in April, 770, at Kawachi-Yugeno-miya Palace, each of which was attended by two hundred and several tens of nobles and naturalized clans.
Japanese: 天平6年(734年)2月には平城京朱雀門で、宝亀元年(770年)3月には河内由義宮で歌垣が開催され、それぞれ貴族・帰化氏族が二百数十名参加する大規模なショーであった。
English: Today, traces of utagaki can be seen in such customs as Moashibi in Okinawa, Utagei in the Aizu region, Fukushima Prefecture, and Kakeuta in the Senboku region, Akita Prefecture.
Japanese: 現代にも歌垣の残存は見られ、沖縄の毛遊び（もうあしび）に歌垣の要素が強く認められるほか、福島県会津地方のウタゲイや秋田県仙北地方の掛唄にも歌垣の遺風が見られる。
English: Customs similar to utagaki are now observed in the southern part of China, Indochina, the Philippines, and Indonesia.
Japanese: 歌垣と同様の風習は、中国南部からインドシナ半島、フィリピンやインドネシアにも存在する。
English: From this fact, ancient Japan is considered to have formed an integral cultural sphere including southeastern Asia and southern China, which viewpoint is claimed now by "Shoyojurin-bunkaron" (a theory of cultural sphere marked by laurel forests) and others.
Japanese: このことから、古代日本の文化は、東南アジアから中国南部にかけての地域と、一体の文化圏を築いていたという見方もある（照葉樹林文化論など）。
English: In many cases, it means a festival held in Japan mostly from the beginning of July through the end of August.
Japanese: 多くの場合日本国内で行われるものを指し、なかでも、7月上旬から8月下旬頃のものを指すことが多い。
English: Any festival held before June, even though it is in 'early summer', is hardly called 'Natsumatsuri'.
Japanese: 6月以前の祭りは「初夏」の時期であっても「夏祭り」と呼ばれることは少ない。
English: To the contrary, festivals in and after September, if held in July under the lunar calendar, are often treated according to summer festivals.
Japanese: 逆に、9月以降の祭りは、旧暦7月に行われる場合は、夏祭りに準じて扱われることが多い。
English: Hereinafter, the term natsumatsuri refers to the summer festivals held in Japan.
Japanese: これ以降は、特に断り書きをしない場合は、日本での夏祭りについて扱う。
English: Many summer festivals in Japan were either originally associated with Urabon-e festival, Tanabata festival, Gion festival, and other festivals, or had a peripheral relationship with them.
Japanese: 日本の夏祭りの多くは、起源的には盂蘭盆会・七夕・祇園祭などが絡んだものや、その周辺的な行事であるものが多い。
English: Also many of the natsumatsuri festivals tend to have originated in the events observed in rural communities to relieve farmers' fatigue from their agricultural work in the summer season, or originated in the events observed in urban communities to hold memorial services for the people who died from epidemic in summer before the Edo Period.
Japanese: また、農村社会では夏季の農事による労働の疲れに関わる行事、都市社会では江戸時代以前の夏季の疫病の死者を弔う行事を起源とするものが多い傾向にある。
English: At the same time, however, a large number of summer festivals have changed their nature in the process of modernization, so that their origins have become obscure in the minds of people who tend to observe natsumatsuri as a glamorous event rather than a solemn ceremony.
Japanese: ただし、近代化によって変質したものも多い（従ってその起源はあまり認識されず、夏祭りは一般的に厳粛な行事ではなく、華やかな行事とされる傾向が強い）。
English: Besides, there are many natsumatsuri that had not existed before the Edo Period but began solely as modern festivals or otherwise started as an imitation of some traditional festivals in other regions (or under their influence).
Japanese: また、江戸時代以前には起源がなく、専ら近現代的な行事として始まったものや、他地域の伝統的な夏祭りを模倣した（またその影響下にある）ものも多い。
English: Above all, natsumatsuri festivals held in a few days before or after the Bon festival of lunar calendar are said to be deeply emotional because many people return to their homes in this season and reunite with each other.
Japanese: とりわけ、8月の旧盆の時期をはさんだ夏祭りは、帰省の時期と相まって、祭礼中での懐かしい人との再会など、感慨深いものがあるとされる。
English: According to folklore research, a natsumatsuri festival is also interpreted to be a result of development of ancient utagaki (a poetry reading party).
Japanese: 古来、夏祭りは歌垣が発展したとの解釈もある、民俗学的に研究されている。
English: At some port towns, a variety of natsumatsuri with abundant local colors are unfurled, including 'Minato Matsuri' (port festivals).
Japanese: 港町では「みなとまつり」など、郷土色豊かなバリエーションが存在する。
English: "Okuribi" is one of the events observed in Bon festivals to usher out from this mortal world to the other world those spirits of the dead that had once returned to their old homes during the Bon period.
Japanese: 送り火（おくりび）とは、お盆の行事の一つで、お盆に帰ってきた死者の魂を現世からふたたびあの世へと送り出す行事である。
English: Its scale differs variously ranging from a small fire in front of the door step of each house or in its garden to a large scale bonfire prepared as an event of the local community.
Japanese: 家庭の玄関先や庭で行われるものから、地域社会の行事として行われるものまで、さまざまな規模で行われている。
English: Okuribi is said to have established itself as an annual event after the Muromachi Period when Buddhism became widespread among the common people.
Japanese: 仏教が庶民の間に浸透した室町時代以後に年中行事として定着したといわれている。
English: Famous bonfires on mountain sides are Gozan Okuribi (bonfires on five mountains) in Kyoto and Takamado-yama Daimonji Okuribi (bonfires on the Mt. Takamado) in Nara.
Japanese: 山の送り火としては、京都の五山送り火・奈良の高円山大文字送り火などが有名。
English: The origin and implication of the term "okuribi" as well as the contents and times of the events differ by regions where they are used and observed..
Japanese: 地方によってその由来や意味あい、行事の内容、行われる時期などはそれぞれ異なっている。
English: "Toro Nagashi" which is also referred to as "Shoryo Nagashi" (floating lanterns down a river carrying the spirits of the dead) is a Japanese festival where people hold a memorial service for the spirits of the deceased by floating paper lanterns and other offerings in a river or in the sea for Bon festivals.
Japanese: 灯籠流し（とうろうながし）または精霊流し（しょうりょうながし）は、死者の魂を弔って灯籠（灯篭）やお盆の供物を海や川に流す日本の行事。
English: However, the events of Toro Nagashi are not performed simultaneously in Japan because the time of Bon festival is interpreted differently depending on region, and, in some cases, the event may be held as a special memorial service for particular persons from the past.
Japanese: しかしながら、「お盆」時期についての解釈が地方によって異なることや、特別の追悼行事として行う場合もあり、日本全国で一斉に行われるわけではない。
English: Due to the problem of contamination of the sea and rivers, lanterns are recently not so often floated directly as in the past.
Japanese: 近年は海や川の汚染が問題になり、灯籠をそのまま海に流すことは昔と比べると少なくなっている。
English: In such a case, people must either collect the floated lanterns at a downstream area of the river or gather them together on a dry river bed or seashore.
Japanese: その場合は、川の下流などで灯籠を回収したり、河川敷や海岸に集め回収することになる。
English: But, quite often, people leave them floating away because of costs for collection.
Japanese: しかし、費用の問題から回収せずにそのまま流してしまう例も少なくない。
English: "Shoro Nagashi" in Nagasaki Prefecture is a kind of flashy festival but is much showy compared with those of the other areas.
Japanese: 長崎県の精霊流し（しょうろうながし）は、他の地域と異なる派手な行事である。
English: This "Shoro Nagashi" became popular among the people through a folk song "Shoro Nagashi" composed by Masashi SADA and sung by his duo "Grape"; with the words of song as "… anata wo Wasurenai …" ("never forget you ….")
Japanese: これは、さだまさしによる精霊流し(グレープ)・精霊流し〜あなたを忘れない〜などでも有名である。
English: At a riverside sanctuary such as Varanasi (Banaras), a ceremony of floating lanterns, called "Puja" ("memorial service" in Sanskrit), is performed every night.
Japanese: ワーラーナシー（バラナシ）など河岸の聖地ではPuja（プージャー、サンスクリット語の供養より）という灯篭流しが毎晩行われる。
English: Loy Krathong (Thailand)
Japanese: ロイクラトーン（タイ）（「ローイクラトン」「ロイクラトン」「ローイカトン」とも）
English: Those lanterns were originally made of leaves of banana, but recently many of them are made of breads in consideration of the environment.
Japanese: 灯篭は、もともとバナナの葉で作られていたが、最近は環境に配慮しパンで作られた物も多く売られている。
English: The inside of a lantern, decorated with pretty blooms, is equipped with candles and incense sticks and also contains chips of human hairs and nails of each participant.
Japanese: 灯篭の中には、きれいな花を飾り、ろうそくや線香を立て、自分の髪の毛や爪などを入れる。
English: These days, young couples use this festival to assure their mutual love by floating lanterns together.
Japanese: 最近は若いカップルが一緒に灯篭を流して愛を確かめ合うという行事になっている。
English: A pot is filled with soup and prepared beef (or pork) offal and boiled until the offal absorbs the soup; cabbage and Chinese chives are added, and eaten when ready.
Japanese: 汁を張った鍋の中に、下処理したウシ（またはブタ）の白もつ（腸）を入れて味がつく程度に煮込み、後にキャベツやニラ等を入れ、頃合いになったら食べる。
English: The base soup is usually soy sauce with garlic and chili pepper or miso.
Japanese: 汁の味付けには醤油味にニンニクや唐辛子を入れたものと、味噌味のものがある。
English: Champon noodles are usually put into the pot and boiled to complete the dish after you eat the offal and vegetables.
Japanese: もつ・野菜を食べた後の仕上げにちゃんぽん麺を入れて煮込むのが一般的である。
English: In Motsunabe served in restaurants, beef intestines are mostly used, but various kinds of offal can be used, considering the name of Motsunabe.
Japanese: 飲食店で提供されるもつ鍋は一般的に、主に牛の白もつのみを入れるものが多いが、もつ鍋本来の意味からは、白もつのみではなく多種多様なもつ肉が対象になる。
English: Actually, Motsunabe dishes made from many kinds of offal besides intestines are not unusual.
Japanese: また実際に白もつ以外の多くのもつを同時に入れるもつ鍋も決して特殊なケースではない。
English: As some local restaurants expanded their business to Tokyo in about 1992, right after the collapse of the bubble economy, Motsunabe was taken up by the media; as a result, it became a boom, with its advantage of low price and being a good match for Japanese sake, and came to be known nationwide.
Japanese: 地元の店舗がバブル景気崩壊直後の1992年頃に東京へ進出したことによって、安くて酒によく合うなどもあり、メディアに注目される様になり、ブームとなって全国的に知れ渡るようになった。
English: However, it didn't take root in big city areas like Tokyo; part of the reason was that there was a BSE issue and also the popularity was just temporary.
Japanese: その後牛海綿状脳症問題や、本質は一過性流行であったこともあり、東京などの大都市圏などでは絶対的に定着するには至らなかった。
English: In the Kansai area, though, it has taken root as the forms of Horumonyaki (grilled beef or pork offal) and Horumonnabe (beef or pork offal cooked in stock), which are different from the Motsunabe of Hakata, Fukuoka Prefecture.
Japanese: なお、関西圏ではホルモン焼き・ホルモン鍋として、福岡博多のもつ鍋とは別流として定着している。
English: And, since the 'Mini-bubble economy' in about 2006, it has been gaining popularity again in the Tokyo area.
Japanese: また、2006年頃の「小バブル景気」に伴い、東京圏にて人気が再燃しつつある。
English: In Fukuoka, having nothing to do with the dropping popularity in the Tokyo area, it still remains popular after being affected by the BSE issue; there are many Motsunabe restaurants of long standing, and it is the second most popular dish, just behind Hakata ramen (Chinese noodles) in general izakaya restaurants.
Japanese: 地元福岡では元々の郷土料理であることもあって、東京圏での流行廃りとはあまり関係もなく、BSE問題の余波は受けつつも根強い人気が続いており、老舗も多く、一般の居酒屋でも博多ラーメンに次ぐ人気メニューとなっている。
English: Bijinga is a general term for paintings that are in the motif of so-called feminine beauty, or feminine looks and inner beauty.
Japanese: 美人画（びじんが）は、一般に女性的な容姿や内面の美しさ、いわゆる女性美をモチーフにした絵画のことを指す。
English: Similar figure paintings can be found in all ages and countries, but the term "bijinga" originated in Japan.
Japanese: このような人物画は古今東西にあるが、美人画という用語は日本発祥の呼び方である。
English: While many bijinga paintings are of the school of ukiyoe (Japanese woodblock prints) from the Edo period, Western paintings having the same theme are also called bijinga.
Japanese: 多くは江戸時代の浮世絵の流れを汲んでいるが、洋画であっても同じ主題のものであれば美人画と呼ぶ。
English: In fact, bijinga in ukiyoe is stylized and is not a realistic depiction of beautiful women.
Japanese: 実際、浮世絵の美人画は様式化されたもので美しい女性をリアルに描いたものではない。
English: The term "bijinga" was created and shaped in The Japan Fine Arts Exhibition in the 1940's and 1950's.
Japanese: 美人画という用語は、1940年代から1950年代の頃に日本美術展覧会で醸成され形作られた言葉である。
English: Before then, various works such as those found in ukiyoe, that are in the motif of women, were categorized as 'bijin-e' (paintings of beautiful women) and 'onna-e' (women pictures); but the latter term, for example, also included symbolic paintings of women with hikime-kagihana (drawn-line eyes and a hook-shaped nose) such as those found in "Genji Monogatari Emaki" (the Illustrated Handscroll of the Tale of Genji).
Japanese: それ以前は、女性をモチーフとした例えば浮世絵に見られる諸作品は「美人絵（びじんえ）」や「女絵（おんなえ）」として分類されていたが、特に後者の呼称では源氏物語絵巻にあるような引目鉤鼻の記号的な女性図をも含んでいた。
English: It is considered that, around the end of the Meiji period, factors such as the rise of new painters who proposed new woman figures (Shoen UEMURA, Kiyokata KABURAGI, Shoen IKEDA, Tsunetomi KITANO, etc.) and changes beginning to be seen in the social cognition of women, which had been feudalistic in the past, contributed to the appearance of bijinga as a new category.
Japanese: 明治末期頃は、新しい女性像を提案する画家（上村松園、鏑木清方、池田蕉園、北野恒富など）の台頭や、過去の封建的な女性に対する社会的認知が変化を見せ始めたことが美人画という新しい分類が生まれた一要因とみなされる。
English: Typical examples of such case include rediscovery of Japanese ukiyoe paintings and 'shijozu' (paintings of Chinese beautiful women) in China.
Japanese: その代表的なものとして日本の浮世絵と中国の「仕女図（士女図‐しじょず）」などが再発見された。
English: However, while there are many Western paintings which depict beautiful women, the themes in most cases concern mythology, or legend, history or religion (although this is not the case with many of the Western paintings after the 19th century), they cannot always be regarded as being the same as the Japanese bijinga.
Japanese: しかしながら、美しい女性を描いた洋画は数多いが、そのテーマはほとんどの場合神話や伝説、歴史、宗教などを主題に据えており（19世紀以降の洋画はそうではないものも多いが）、日本の美人画とは必ずしも同一視しがたい。
English: On the other hand, there is also the view that the subject depicted in bijinga does not have to be a woman.
Japanese: その一方で、美人画に描かれる対象は必ずしも女性に限らないとの考えもある。
English: Sometimes, ukiyoe depicting a young man in a homosexual relationship or an actor in a female role is also counted as bijinga.
Japanese: 衆道における若衆や、歌舞伎の女形を描いた浮世絵も美人画のうちに含める場合がある。
English: Bijinga has long been one of the themes in ukiyoe, and an example of the very early stage is 'Mikaeri Bijin' (Beauty Looking Back), which is nikuhitsu bijinga (hand paintings of beautiful women) by Moronobu HISHIKAWA.
Japanese: 浮世絵においても、古くからあるテーマのひとつであり、ごく初期では菱川師宣の肉筆美人画「見返り美人」がある。
English: Later, with the establishment of nishiki-e (a color woodblock print), bijinga by Harunobu SUZUKI, many of whose paintings depicted beautiful women with girlish innocence, became popular.
Japanese: その後、錦絵の確立とともに、華奢で少女のようなあどけなさを持つ女性を多く描いた鈴木春信の美人画が流行した。
English: After the Bunka-Bunsei period, bijinga of a decadent style such as those drawn by Eisen KEISAI, which are of sadistic taste and represented perverse pathos, became popular.
Japanese: 文化_(元号)・文政期以降になると渓斎英泉が描くような嗜虐趣味や屈折した情念を表すような退廃的な美人画が広まる。
English: Although it may vary according to the times and the painters, bijinga is characterized by stylized woman figures having small eyes, or long-slitted and narrow eyes, and slender faces or faces with large jowls.
Japanese: 時代や絵師によってもかわってくるが、小さい、あるいは切れ長の細い目、細面や下膨れした顔といった様式化された女性像が特色である。