nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Territorial lords in Japanese history were not like those under the serf system in Europe who owned the land and people in his or her territory as his or her private property without any restrictions, but possessed a system of certain rights and responsibilities concerning tax-collecting and territory-control.
Japanese: 日本の歴史上の領主はヨーロッパの農奴制における領主のように無制限に所領の土地と人民を私有財産として所有したのではなく、徴税権・支配権にかかわる一定の権利義務の体系を所持した存在であった。
English: Chigyo indicates this system, and understanding the concept of chigyo is indispensable for understanding the position of the territorial lord class in Japanese history.
Japanese: この体系が知行であり、日本史における領主階層のあり方を理解する上で、知行の概念の理解は欠かせない。
English: Around the ninth and tenth centuries, the nation-governing system based on a framework like the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) had changed into a decentralized system called myoden (rice field lots in charge of a nominal holder) relying on rich farmers called tato who constituted a new wealthy class.
Japanese: 9世紀・10世紀頃、統治体制が律令制的な枠組みから、新興階層の富豪層である田堵などに依存した名田と呼ばれる分権的な体制へ変質していった。
English: Entering the eleventh century, in addition to this trend, the trend of levying tax evenly on shoen (manors) and Kokugaryo (the territory governed by a provincial government office) (called Ikkoku heikinyaku) was also generated, and the system in which tax was collected from shoen and Kokugaryo, which had been reorganized into Gun, Sato (an area within Gun) and Ho (an area within Sato), (called shoen koryo sei) was established.
Japanese: 11世紀になるとこの流れに、各々の国内の荘園・国衙領への一律的な課税（一国平均役）の動きが加わり、荘園と郡、郷、保に再編成された国衙領を個々の収取単位とする体制（荘園公領制）が成立した。
English: Then the class of 'ryoshu' (territorial lord), who newly managed each unit of these tax-collection areas and were engaged in handling disputes among people in the areas, appeared.
Japanese: すると、新たにこれらの収取単位を管理し、紛争処理に携わる「領主」という階層が登場するようになった。
English: Ryoshu came to acquire incomes of nengu (land tax), kuji (public duties) and buyaku (labor service) through execution of the right to control areas he managed.
Japanese: 領主は所領に対して支配権を行使することで、年貢・公事・夫役といった収益を得ていった。
English: The control right that ryoshu executed here was called chigyo, ryochi, ryoshu, or shinshi.
Japanese: このとき、領主が行使した支配権は、知行（ちぎょう）・領知（りょうち）・領掌（りょうしょう）・進止（しんし）などと呼ばれた。
English: However, the control right that a ryoshu could execute was not necessarily the same, being largely different depending upon rank and social status.
Japanese: ただし、この当時、領主が行使し得た支配権は決して一様ではなく、領主の地位・身分などによって大きな差があった。
English: The smallest power of chigo was that of nanushi (village headman) who used it for myoden of shoen or Kokugaryo.
Japanese: 小は個々の荘園や国衙領を分割編成した名田を百姓身分の名主が知行した。
English: For a shoen or Kokugaryo, which had been organized into Gun, Sato, and Ho, shokan (an officer) appointed by the ryoshu of the shoen or Gunji (an officer for Gun), Goji (an officer for Go - Sato) and Hoji (an officer for Ho), all of whom were appointed by the kokushi (provincial governor) (also called zuryo), executed their respective chigyo right, working for maintaining security and for collecting taxes.
Japanese: さらに荘園や、郡・郷・保を単位とする国衙領は荘園領主や国司（受領）に任命された荘官・郡司・郷司・保司らが知行して治安維持、租税徴収に当たった。
English: Increasingly more samurai were appointed to these positions, leading to the appearance of the jito (manager and lord of manor) position during the Kamakura period.
Japanese: この地位にはしだいに武士が任命されることが多くなって鎌倉時代の地頭につながっていく。
English: Furthermore, the powerful groups that executed the chigo right over many manors as a ryoshu of shoen or executed the chigyo right over the entire public land in a province as a chigyo-koku (provincial fiefdom) (described later), typically including Sekkan-ke (the families which produced regents) and kanji (state-sponsored temples), reigned over them.
Japanese: さらにその上には荘園領主としていくつもの荘園を知行し、また後述の知行国の形で一国の公領もろとも知行する摂関家や官寺に代表される権門が君臨した。
English: Entering the middle era of the Heian period, high-class nobles, dominant temples and shrines (or powerful groups in other words) took hold of the right to collect taxes in a province, acquiring the right to freely appoint kokushi there.
Japanese: 平安中期頃になると、高級貴族や有力寺社（権門勢家）が、ある国の租税収取権を掌握し、国司を自由に任命する権利を得るようになった。
English: This indicates that the chigyo right was expanded to be executable over an entire province, and a province in such a state was called a chigyo-koku.
Japanese: これは知行権が一国単位に拡大したものであり、こうした国を知行国といった。
English: The custom of calling territorial control as chigyo, ryochi, ryosho, or shinshi continued throughout the medieval period.
Japanese: 中世を通して、所領支配を指して知行・領知・領掌・進止などと呼ぶ慣習は続いていった。
English: Concerning the control range indicated by each of these terms, there are largely two different opinions.
Japanese: これらの語の指し示す範囲については、大きく2つの見解に分かれている。
English: The other is as follows; As a result of detailed investigations of historical materials concerning the medieval period, it is considered that the term of shinshi indicated land control, but that of chigyo the right of obtaining profits from land.
Japanese: もう1つは、中世史料を詳細に検討した結果、進止の語が土地支配を意味するのに対し、知行の語は土地からの収益処分を指すものとした見解である。
English: Opinions denying the latter were proposed, but according to the latter opinion, the state of the national control and tax-collecting systems during the medieval period could be understood more concretely.
Japanese: 後者には異論も出されているが、この見解に従えば、中世期の支配・収取のあり方をより具体的に理解することができる。
English: A feature of the medieval period was that, concerning land-controlling rights and tax-collecting rights, persons in various social statuses, such as nobles in Kyoto, powerful temples and shrines, local ryoshu, jito and nanushi, were related with each other and formed multi-tiered right oriented relationships (this structure called shiki-no-taikei (literally, a job system)).
Japanese: 中世期の特徴は、土地の支配権および収益権をめぐって、中央貴族や有力寺社、在地領主・地頭・名主など様々な主体が入り組みながら重層的な権利関係を形成している点にあった（これを職の体系という）。
English: Around the latter half of the Kamakura period, the multi-tiered relationship disappeared mainly due to the appearance of jito, and it was oriented so as to introduce a unified control system.
Japanese: しかし、鎌倉時代後期頃から、主に地頭によって、重層的な関係を解消し、一元的な支配体系が指向されるようになっていった。
English: During the Muromachi period, such a trend was accelerated, the shugo-ryogoku system (in which shugo, or provincial constable, controlled the province) was formed by shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable), and then entering into the Sengoku Period (period of warring states) (in Japan), the daimyo-ryogoku system (a system whereby a daimyo controlled a feudal domain) was developed by daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku Period.
Japanese: こうした動きは室町時代に入ると一層加速していき、守護大名による守護領国制が形成され、さらに戦国時代(日本)の戦国大名による大名領国制へ発展していった。
English: In such a trend, territorial control, having been carried out by persons in various social statuses, became conducted by samurai alone.
Japanese: その中で、様々な主体が担っていた所領支配は、武士の手中へと収まっていった。
English: Then the term of 'chigyo' came to indicate the territory that a samurai was awarded and was protected by his lord.
Japanese: それから、「知行」の語は、武士が主君から給付・安堵（保証）された所領を意味するようになった。
English: The size of a chigyo area, called chigyo-daka, was used as the standard of the amount of military service a lord levied on his samurai, and a chigyo-daka was expressed by kandaka (the money corresponding to the amount of rice production based on the size of the chigyo area chigyo) during the Sengoku Period.
Japanese: 知行面積＝知行高は、主君が武士に賦課する軍役の基準となり、その知行高の算出は、戦国期においては貫高により表された。
English: During the Edo period when the society was peaceful and stabilized, chigyo-daka played the role of an index indicating the social status of a samurai within the samurai class where a strict system existed.
Japanese: 平和で安定したこの時代、知行高は、厳格な体系を持つ武士内部の身分指標の役割を持つようになった。
English: During the Meiji period, the control of land and of collecting taxes by samurai was abolished in the trend of modernizing the nation, and the concept of chigyo disappeared.
Japanese: 明治維新を迎えると、国家近代化の中で、武士による土地・収取支配は廃止され、知行の概念も消滅することとなった。
English: 遥任 (yonin) (the expression of 遙任 was also used sometimes) indicates that the person who was appointed to a kokushi (governor) of a province did not live in the province.
Japanese: 遥任（ようにん、旧字体で遙任と表記することもある）とは、日本の奈良時代・平安時代などに、国司が任国へ赴任しなかったことを指す。
English: Yonin kokushi received his income, salary, and taxes from his deputy called mokudai who was sent to the province.
Japanese: 遥任国司は、目代と呼ばれる代理人を現地へ派遣するなどして、俸禄・租税などの収入を得た。
English: This was because, during the Nara period, control based upon the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) functioned effectively and, to extend the control based on the Ritsuryo system over every part of the country, it was necessary for the kokushi to move to the assigned province to maintain direct control.
Japanese: 奈良期はまだ、律令制による統治が有効に機能しており、律令制に基づく支配を地方まで貫徹するため、国司が任地へ赴き、現地支配を行う必要があったためである。
English: However, entering the Heian period, the following custom began to be employed: When there was a Sangi (councilor) while being a legislator, was awarded with a small number of shikifu (or fuko) (families that the Sangi could control), he was appointed to kokushi as well, with his yonin approved, (called sangikenkokusei - literally, the system in which a Sangi was allowed to assume a kokushi as well).
Japanese: しかし、平安時代に入ると、弘仁年間には議政官にも関わらず職封（封戸）が低かった参議に対して国守との兼務・遥任を認める例が慣例として現れた（参議兼国制）。
English: A shinno-ninkoku indicates a province where, to assign a governmental position to each of the shinno (princes) whose number had increased, the post of the provincial government head (kokushi) was allocated to a shinno.
Japanese: 親王任国とは、増加した親王に官職をあてがうため、特定の国の長官（国守）に親王を当てることとしたものである。
English: Because it never happened that a shinno moved to the province to whose kokushu he was appointed, it can be said that the Imperial court publicly approved the yonin system.
Japanese: 親王が現地へ赴任することはまずあり得ず、いわば遥任を朝廷公認で制度化したのである。
English: In the ninth or tenth century, powerful farmers called fugo appeared and continued to increase their strength in various areas of the country.
Japanese: 9世紀・10世紀頃になると、各地で富豪と呼ばれる有力農民が登場・成長していた。
English: At that time, it became difficult to maintain control over each person like in the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code), based on a family registration system and Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of rice land), and therefore, kokushi (provincial governors) reorganized Koden (fields administered directly by a ruler) into myoden (rice field lots in charge of a nominal holder) and came to entrust the work of managing myoden and collecting taxes from there to powerful farmers (called tato).
Japanese: 古代の戸籍制度・班田収授法などによる律令制的な人別支配の維持が困難となっていた当時、国司は公田を名田という単位へ再編するとともに、有力農民層（田堵という）へ名田の経営と名田からの租税徴収を請け負わせていった。
English: Such a control system was called myotaisei or ochotaisei, and with this system, kokushi able to secure a certain amount of tax income.
Japanese: こうした支配体制を名体制（みょうたいせい）または王朝体制（おうちょうたいせい）などというが、これにより、国司は一定の租税収入を確保することができるようになった。
English: Against this background, the Imperial court started entrusting tax collection and military affairs to kokushi.
Japanese: 一定の租税額が確保できたことを背景として、朝廷は国司へ徴税・軍事などを委任していった。
English: Given wide-ranging rights, kokushi came to control his assigned province through the local powerful persons he employed or his deputy (called mokudai) that he sent to the province.
Japanese: 広範な権限を与えられた国司は、現地の有力者を登用したり、代理人（目代という）を派遣したりして、現地支配を行うようになった。
English: Then the necessity of his moving to the assigned province became weak, and there appeared many kokushi, one after another, who did not actually move to their assigned provinces actually.
Japanese: そうなると、国司が任国へ赴任する必要が薄れて、実際に任国へ赴任しない国司が次々と現れた。
English: This was the yonin during the Heian period, and the number of yonin-kokushi increased with the times.
Japanese: これが平安期の遥任であり、時期を追うごとに遥任国司は増加していった。
English: In such a situation, Emperor Daigo issued in 913 a law to control yonin-kokushi, but could not gain any substantial results.
Japanese: こうした状況に対し、913年（延喜13年）、醍醐天皇が遥任国司を取り締まる法令を発したが、効果はあまりなかった。
English: Then, the head of kokushi who actually moved to their assigned province became called zuryo.
Japanese: そして、実際に任国へ赴任した国司のうち、最高責任者を受領と呼ぶようになっていた。
English: Originally, the highest position of kokushi was kokushu, but when kokushu did not live in his assigned province, a person at the rank of suke, jo or sakan (these ranks were in this order, with suke the highest) was appointed to zuryo.
Japanese: 本来、国司の最高職は国守だったが、遥任により現地に在住しなかった場合は、介・掾・目のうちから受領が出ていたのである。
English: After that, until the Muromachi period when kokushi was virtually extinct, the yonin of kokushi did not stop and became ordinary practice.
Japanese: その後、国司が実質的に消滅する室町時代まで、国司の遥任が収まることはなく、常態化していった。
English: Nanbanboeki indicates trade that was carried on between merchants in Japan and those in Spain or Portugal during the era from around the middle of sixteenth century to the early seventeenth century.
Japanese: 南蛮貿易（なんばんぼうえき）とは、日本の商人とスペイン、ポルトガルの商人（南蛮人）との間で16世紀半ばから17世紀初期にかけて行われていた貿易である。
English: However, having known that Portuguese ships attacked and occupied Malacca, people in Ryukyu refused to trade with the Portuguese.
Japanese: しかしながら、琉球人はポルトガル船がマラッカを攻撃して占拠したことを知っていて、交易を拒否した。
English: In 1557 when Portugal acquired the right of using Macao, goods in Japan, in China and in Portugal were traded with Macao as the trading center.
Japanese: 1557年にポルトガルがマカオの使用権を獲得すると、マカオを拠点として、日本・中国・ポルトガルの三国の商品が取引されるようになった。
English: With Spain having developed Pacific Ocean shipping routes via the American continent, Spanish ships came to visit Japan following Portugal with their operation center located at Manila in Luzon.
Japanese: スペインはポルトガルに遅れてアメリカ大陸を経由しての太平洋航路を開拓し、ルソン島のマニラを本拠として日本を訪れるようになった。
English: Ieyasu TOKUGAWA adopted the posture of actively promoting trade with Spain, and sent Shosuke TANAKA, a merchant in Kyoto, to Nueva Espana (present Mexico) that was a territory of Spain at that time.
Japanese: 徳川家康はスペインとの貿易に積極的姿勢を見せ、京都の商人田中勝介を当時スペイン領のヌエバ・エスパーニャ（メキシコ）に派遣した。
English: Against the Portuguese merchants who had exclusively gained profits from trade of raw silk, Ieyasu made merchants in Kyoto, in Sakai and in Nagasaki form itowappu nakama (the thread tally union) to diminish their profits.
Japanese: また、ポルトガル商人に対しては生糸の独占的利益を得ていた為、これを削ぐことを目的として京都・堺・長崎の商人に糸割符仲間を結成させた。
English: However, after that, the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), being afraid that daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) in western Japan would expand their power, and imposed restrictions on foreign trade in addition to the ban of Christianity.
Japanese: しかし、その後の江戸幕府は禁教政策に加え、西国大名が勢力を伸ばすことを警戒したので海外との貿易を制限するようになった。
English: Then Spanish ships and Portuguese ships were prohibited from visiting Japan in 1624 and in 1939, respectively, prohibiting their trade at Hirado.
Japanese: 1624年にスペイン船の来航が禁止され、1639年にポルトガル船の来航が禁止され、平戸での交易を禁止した。
English: In 1543, Fernão Mendes Pinto, a Portuguese, drifted ashore Tanega-shima Island in Kagoshima Prefecture aboard a Chinese ship.
Japanese: 1543年、ポルトガル人FernãoMendesPintoが中国船で鹿児島県の種子島に漂着した。
English: Strictly speaking, from around 270 years before that, Japan imported gunpowder from China and primitive guns called teppo (literally, an iron barrel) existed in Japan.
Japanese: 厳密に言えば270年ほど前に日本には火薬は中国から輸入され原始的な鉄砲と呼ばれる銃は日本国内に存在はしていた。
English: However, they were not made user-friendly to such an extent that they could not be used as a major weapon in fighting, being used only by farmers for expelling harmful animals.
Japanese: しかし、非常に使い勝手が悪く、戦闘では主流な武器にはなれず、せいぜい農民が害獣を追い払うのに使用する程度であった。
English: However, the matchlock guns brought to Japan at that time could be ignited easily, and allowed firing quickly at a speed incomparable with previous guns in Japan.
Japanese: しかし、伝来した火縄銃は、マッチロック式で容易に点火出来る銃であり、従来の物とは比べ物にならないほどの速射が可能であった。
English: At first, every daimyo doubted the real power of this new weapon, but as the effectiveness was confirmed through battles, they bought them and made every effort to mass-produce them in their respective territories.
Japanese: 各地の大名は、伝来当初こそこの新兵器の実力を疑問視したが、合戦でその効果が証明されるとこぞって買い求め、自国での量産化に奔走した。
English: Use of matchlock guns spread at a high speed that was unusual compared even with world standards, and they became used throughout Japan in quite a short time, completely changing fighting styles during the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States).
Japanese: 火縄銃は、世界的に見ても異常な速度で瞬く間に日本全土に普及し、戦国時代の戦闘の形態を一新させた。
English: According to a theory, it is estimated that the number of guns in Japan at that time was largest in the world together with Ottoman Empire.
Japanese: 一説によれば、当時の日本の銃の保有量はオスマン帝国と並んで世界最大規模だったと推定されている。
English: With these ships, it was quite dangerous to sail over oceans because they were easily swayed by the waves.
Japanese: これでは海洋に出たときに波で船が揺れ遠洋航海は危険極まりないものであった。
English: When nanbanboeki started, ships with a keeled bottom, called galleon ships, with a now ordinary V-shaped bottom resistant to waves, began to enter ports in Japan.
Japanese: 南蛮貿易が始まるとヨーロッパからガレオン船と呼ばれる竜骨(船)を使った現在我々が普通に見る船底が尖った波の揺れに強い船が入港されるようになった。
English: In the Genna and Kanei eras (1615 - 1644), the shuinsen that inherited features of wasen in addition to those of the junks and galleons, which had been used for sailing over oceans, became used mostly for shuinsen-using trade.
Japanese: 元和(日本)・寛永年間には、朱印船貿易をする船は従来より外航に用いられたジャンクやガレオン・さらには和船の特徴を引き継いだ、朱印船を主力とするようになる。
English: However, as a national isolation policy was promoted, the necessity of ships sailing over long distances disappeared.
Japanese: しかし鎖国政策が推し進められた結果、遠距離航行をする船舶の必要性は消滅していった。
English: Goon and hoko indicate factors and concepts that constituted master-servant relationships among samurai during medieval Japan.
Japanese: 御恩と奉公（ごおんとほうこう）とは、中世日本において、主に武士の主従関係を構成した要素・概念。
English: The master-servant relationships among samurai during the medieval period were not one-sided but were established based upon mutually beneficial ones in which benefits were not only given by a master and received by his servant, but also given by a servant and received by the master.
Japanese: 中世の武士間の主従関係は、決して片務的なものではなく、主人・従者が相互に利益を与え合う互恵的な関係で成り立っていた。
English: Here, the benefits a master gave his servant was called goon, and the benefits given by his servant to the master hoko.
Japanese: ここで、主人が従者へ与えた利益を御恩といい、従者が主人へ与えた利益を奉公といった。
English: The relationships of 'goon and hoko' had been formed gradually among samurai class during the middle to the latter half era of the Heian period.
Japanese: 平安時代中期～後期から武士層に「御恩と奉公」の関係が徐々に形成されていた。
English: However, it was after MINAMOTO no Yoritomo became the leader of the samurai in the Kanto area, or Kamakura-dono (lord of Kamakura), that the relationships of 'goon and hoko' were firmly established.
Japanese: しかしながら、本格的に「御恩と奉公」が成立したのは、源頼朝が関東武士の盟主＝鎌倉殿となってからである。
English: After that, the relationships of 'goon and hoko' continued functioning as a base for establishing the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), and were inherited by the later Muromachi bakufu and Edo bakufu as well.
Japanese: 以降、御恩と奉公の関係性は、鎌倉幕府の成立基盤として機能し続け、その後の室町幕府や江戸幕府にも引き継がれた。
English: Specifically, goon indicated that a master guaranteed control of an area by his servant or that a master awarded an area newly to his servant.
Japanese: 御恩の具体的な内容は、主人が従者の所領支配を保障すること、又は新たな土地給与を行うことである。
English: The former benefit was called honryoando and the latter sinonkyuyo.
Japanese: 前者は本領安堵（ほんりょうあんど）と呼ばれ、後者は新恩給与（しんおんきゅうよ）と呼ばれた。
English: When the Kamakura bakufu was established, the benefit of honryoando or sinonkyuyo, or that of goon, was given by Kamakura-dono to gokenin (immediate vassals of the shogunate) in the form that Kamakura-dono appointed them to jito (the managers and lords of manors).
Japanese: 鎌倉幕府が成立すると、鎌倉殿が御家人を地頭へ任命するという形で本領安堵・新恩給与、すなわち御恩がほどこされるようになった。
English: Hoko specifically indicated the military role that a servant should play for his master and the economical burden that the servant should bear for his master.
Japanese: 奉公の具体的な内容は、従者が主人に対して負担した軍役・経済負担などである。
English: When the Kamakura bakufu was established, gokenin played, for the Kamakura-dono, the economical roles as samurai, called Kanto-mikuji, in addition to the services of military roles, such as military roles in emergency, the Oban-yaku role for guarding the imperial court and bakufu, the Ikoku keigo ban-yaku role (the role for guarding against attacks from foreign countries) and the Nagato keigo ban-yaku role (also the role for guarding against attacks from foreign countries at a station placed in Nagato, present Yamaguchi Prefecture).
Japanese: 鎌倉幕府が成立すると、御家人は鎌倉殿に対して、緊急時の軍役、内裏や幕府を警護する大番役、その他異国警護番役や長門警護番役などの軍役奉仕のほか、関東御公事と言われる武家役を果たした。
English: Around the tenth century during the Heian period when a large social change occurred, the Imperial court abandoned the policy of entrusting tax-collecting affairs and military affairs solely to the central government system and promoted to entrust these affairs to kokushi (provincial governors) or rich persons, or, in other words, to introduce the kanshiukeoi-sei system.
Japanese: 平安期の10世紀頃、大きな社会変化を背景として、朝廷は、徴税・軍事をもはや官司機構で担うのではなく、国司や富豪などへ請け負わせる官司請負制への転換を進めていた。
English: In particular, in the Kanto region where fighting occurred frequently, local rich persons or powerful clans had come to bear public military burdens.
Japanese: 特に争乱の多かった関東では、在地の富豪や豪族が公的な軍事力を担うようになっていた。
English: Under such situations, samurai groups formed being centered in the Kanto region, and in such a group, the master took top position and led his servants called Ienoko or roto.
Japanese: こうした状況下で、関東を中心に武士団が形成されていったが、武士団では主人がトップに立ち、家子・郎党と呼ばれる従者たちを率いていた。
English: A factor that enabled connecting a master with his servants in such a situation was the relationship between goon and hoko.
Japanese: こうした主従関係を結びつける契機となったのが、御恩と奉公の関係性である。
English: A master and his servants formed a certain union (samurai group) by establishing mutually beneficial relationships called goon and hoko.
Japanese: 主人・従者の両者は、御恩と奉公という互恵関係を結ぶことで、一定の共同体（武士団）を作っていったのである。
English: However, the master-servant relationship was rather loose, and it often happened that a samurai served more than one master or established a master-servant relationship with a master only temporarily.
Japanese: ただし、当時の主従関係は割とルーズなもので、複数の主人に仕える、一時的にだけ主従関係を結ぶ、といったことも多く見られた。
English: Towards the end of the Heian period when the position heading all samurai in the Kanto region, called Kamakura-dono, was introduced, the master-servant relationship based on goon and hoko gradually became exclusive (not allowed to have any master other than the kamakura-dono) and permanent, making the relationship stronger.
Japanese: 平安最末期に関東武士全体を代表する鎌倉殿という地位が登場すると、御恩と奉公に基づく主従関係は、次第に排他的（鎌倉殿以外の主人を持たない）かつ永続的なものとなり、一層強固になっていった。
English: Thereafter, goon and hoko functioned as a basic factor constituting samurai society that continued until the Meiji Restoration.
Japanese: その後、御恩と奉公は明治維新まで続く武家社会の基本的な成立要素として機能した。
English: By the way, concerning the master-servant relationship based on goon and hoko, there is an opinion that the relationship is interpreted the same as the feudal master-servant relationship, because when it is compared with feudalism found in Medieval Europe, there are some common points.
Japanese: なお、御恩と奉公による主従関係について、中世ヨーロッパに見られた封建制(feudalism)との共通点に着目して、封建的主従関係と理解する見解がある。
English: On the other hand, another opinion has been proposed that the master-servant relationship is specific to Japan, being fundamentally different from that found in European feudalism.
Japanese: その一方、ヨーロッパ封建制と本質的に異なる、日本独自の主従関係であるとする見解も出されている。
English: Zaichokanjin is a general term for a local government official who undertakes the practical business of kokuga (local area) administration from the Heian period to the Kamakura period in Japan.
Japanese: 在庁官人（ざいちょうかんじん）とは、日本の平安時代から鎌倉時代に、国衙行政の実務に従事した地方官僚の総称。
English: Zaichokanjin was a practical government official who was locally employed by kokushi (government administrator sent from the central government), and was professionally an entourage of kokushi.
Japanese: 中央派遣の国司が現地で採用する実務官僚であり、国司の側近としての性格があった。
English: Before that, Japan had been ruled by the ritsuryo system of governance (a constitutional form of governance) built on an ancient family register system, tax book, handenshuju-no-ho (law on the distribution and collection of farmlands) and so on, but at that time, vagrancy, elopement, false family registration of the people dramatically increased and the ritsuryo system of governance ran into an impasse.
Japanese: それ以前は、古代の戸籍制度・計帳・班田収授法などに立脚した律令制統治が行われていたが、この頃には、人民の浮浪・逃亡・偽籍が著しく増加したため、律令制統治が行き詰まりを見せていた。