nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Currently the Kagamiyama proposal cannot be supported any more as it is, and newer jobo reconstruction proposals based on the result of excavation described above are presented by Akihiro KINDA, Nobumasa INOUE, and others.
Japanese: もはや鏡山案はそのままの形では成り立たない状況となっており、上記のような発掘成果を受けた新たな条坊復元案が金田章裕や井上信正などによって提示されている。
English: On April 20, 2006, the Tsukushino City Board of Education announced that the remains of a street about 8-meter wide and side ditch had been found that is assumed to be the southern border of jobo, in a place about 1.7 kilometers south of the north end of the remains of Dazai-fu government.
Japanese: 2006年4月20日、筑紫野市教委は、大宰府政庁跡の北端から約1.7キロメートル南で条坊の南端と推定される幅約8メートルの道路と側溝の遺構が見つかったと発表した。
English: The City Board of Education supposes that these remains are the southern border of jobo based on the facts including that few remains have been found south of this location.
Japanese: 市教委は、この場所より南側ではほとんど遺構が発見されていないことなどを根拠として、この遺構を条坊の南端と推定している。
English: Otani no. 1 tumulus (Okayama Prefecture), which is an unexampled five-stack square tumulus, is widely accepted to be his grave.
Japanese: 他に例のない5段積みの方墳である大谷1号墳（岡山県）がその墓との説が有力である。
English: During the Jinshin War, he said that Tsukushi army was against foreign enemies and should not be used for domestic fights and declared neutrality.
Japanese: 壬申の乱の際、筑紫の軍は外敵に対するもので国内の争いに用いるべきではないとして中立を宣言した。
English: As a result, he contributed to the victory of Prince Oama (Emperor Tenmu) and was valued by Emperor Tenmu, and built the foundation for his descendants to flourish as the Tachibana clan.
Japanese: 結果的に大海人皇子（天武天皇）の勝利に貢献して天武天皇から重用されることとなり、子孫が橘氏として繁栄する礎を築いた。
English: He proposed to introduce Kueiden (lands directly managed by the government to secure revenues) in 823 when he was in the post of Dazai no daini, and incorporated Tane Province into Osumi Province in the following year 824.
Japanese: -大宰大弐として赴任中の弘仁14年（823年）に公営田の導入を建議、翌天長元年（824年）に多褹国を大隅国に編入した。
English: The Kyushu dynasty theory maintains that Dazai-fu was the capital (the City in Yamato) of the ancient Kitakyushu dynasty.
Japanese: 九州王朝説では、大宰府が、古代北九州王朝の首都（倭京）であったと主張している。
English: However, there are no academic papers in refereed journals that discussed positively Kyushu Dynasty, and the Kyushu dynasty theory and related arguements are not regarded as scientific theories in general.
Japanese: しかし、査読のある学術雑誌において、九州王朝を肯定的に取り上げた学術論文は皆無であり、一般に九州王朝説および関連する主張は科学的な学説とはみなされていない。
English: Sueki is earthenware which was produced during periods from Kofun to Heian in Japan.
Japanese: 須恵器（すえき）は、日本で古墳時代から平安時代まで生産された陶質土器である。
English: It is easily-distinguishable from the contemporary Haji ware by its color and quality, but some are intermediate between the two.
Japanese: 同時期の土師器とは色と質で明瞭に区別できるが、一部に中間的なものもある。
English: The kanji for earthenware '陶器' was read 'Suemono' or 'Sueutsuwamono' during Heian period but it is unknown that it goes back to the Kofun period.
Japanese: 平安時代には「陶器」と書いて「すえもの」「すえうつわもの」と読まれていたが、それが古墳時代に遡るかはわからない。
English: In order to avoid confusion with 陶器 which is read "Toki" meaning earthenware nowadays, the archaeological term "Sueki" is commonly used.
Japanese: 陶器（とうき）と混乱を避けるため、現代の考古学用語としては須恵器が一般化している。
English: Sueki originated in Korean Peninsula (especially in Kaya which was in the south of the peninsula), and early Sueki looks so similar to the one created in the peninsula that it is hard to distinguish between the two.
Japanese: 須恵器の起源は朝鮮半島（特に、その南部の伽耶）にあり、初期の須恵器は半島のものと区別をつけにくいほど似ている。
English: However, the term "Sueki" refers to only hard earthenware created in Japan and fired in an oxygen-reduction atmosphere.
Japanese: しかし、用語としては日本で製作された還元焔焼成の硬質の焼物だけを須恵器という。
English: The earthenware created in Korean Peninsula goes by just "earthenware" as a common name or by slightly more subdivided names such as Kaya ware, Silla ware and Baekje ware.
Japanese: 朝鮮半島のものは、普通名詞的に陶質土器と呼ばれるか、伽耶土器・新羅土器・百済土器などもう少し細分した名で呼ばれている。
English: Whereas the ancient pottery including Haji pottery was made with clear characteristics of stacking up ring-shaped clays which was unique to Japanese archipelago, Sueki was made using the potter's wheel which was a completely different technique.
Japanese: 土師器までの土器が日本列島固有の特徴（紐状の粘土を積み上げる）を色濃く残しているのに対し、須恵器は全く異なる技術（ろくろ技術）を用いて製作された。
English: In addition, since it was fired in an oxygen-rich atmosphere, it was reddish in color on the surface.
Japanese: また、酸化焔焼成（酸素が充分に供給される焼成法）となったため、表面の色は赤みを帯びた。
English: On the contrary, Sueki was fired in Anagama kiln (a Japanese pottery kiln that utilizes wood ash to glaze pottery) at high temperatures of more than 1,100 degrees C in an oxygen-reduction atmosphere.
Japanese: それに対し、須恵器は窖窯（あながま）を用い1100度以上の高温で還元焔焼成する。
English: Although the oxygen supply runs short in a closed Anagama kiln, the firing proceeds by high temperature.
Japanese: 閉ざされた窖窯の中では酸素の供給が不足するが、高熱によって燃焼が進む。
English: If the oxygen supply is enough, the fuel turns into carbon dioxide and water, but the fuel turns into carbon monoxide and hydrogen in an oxygen-reduction atmosphere.
Japanese: 燃料からは、酸素が十分なら二酸化炭素と水になるところ、一酸化炭素と水素が発生する。
English: These deprive oxide in the clay of oxygen, which is reduction, and turn into carbon dioxide and water.
Japanese: これが粘土の成分にある酸化物から酸素を奪う、つまりは還元することで二酸化炭素と水になる。
English: The characteristic color emerges when red ferric oxide in the clay changes into ferrous oxide through reduction.
Japanese: 特徴的な色は、粘土中の赤い酸化第二鉄が還元されて酸化第一鉄に変質するために現れる。
English: In the Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan), it is written that Sueki was made by toraijin (settlers) and in the meantime, it is also written that the Sueki craftsman visited Japan as a follower of the Prince of Silla Amenohiboko around the first century B.C. during the reign of Emperor Suinin.
Japanese: 『日本書紀』には、百済などからの渡来人が製作したの記述がある一方、紀元前1世紀頃、垂仁天皇（垂仁3年）の時代に新羅王子アメノヒボコとその従者として須恵器の工人がやってきたとも記されている。
English: For that reason, the possibility that Silla-group Sueki (or earthenware) was spread cannot be denied.
Japanese: そのため新羅系須恵器（若しくは陶質土器）が伝播していた可能性が否定しきれない。
English: However, at present, early Sueki was not found at Kagamiyama ruins of old kilns in Ryuocho, Shiga Prefecture, which is closely-linked to this description, or either in Tajima region where Amenohiboko is said to have lived.
Japanese: しかし、現在のところ、この記述と関係が深いと思われる滋賀県竜王町の鏡谷窯跡群や天日矛が住んだといわれる旧但馬地方でも初期の須恵器は確認されていない。
English: Consequently, this technique is considered to have been conveyed from Baekje to Japan via Kaya.
Japanese: 結局、この技術は百済から伽耶を経て日本列島に伝えられたと考えられている。
English: Suemura ruins of kilns spread in the foothills extending through southern area of Sakai City, Izumi City, Osaka-sayama City and Kishiwada City, and ruins of kilns at Koguma, Yamaguma and Yatsunami in Fukuoka Prefecture are known as places where Sueki production started first.
Japanese: 最初に須恵器生産が始まった場所（窯跡）として大阪府堺市南部、和泉市、大阪狭山市、岸和田市、にまたがる丘陵地帯に分布する陶邑窯跡群、福岡県の小隈・山隈・八並窯跡群が知られている。
English: Other early kilns were built all over Japan such as Suita 32nd kiln in Suita City, Okugatani kiln in Okayama Prefecture, Miyayama 1st kiln and Mitani-Saburo-Ike Seigan (west bank) kiln in Kagawa Prefecture and Yamaguma kiln in Yasumachi, Fukuoka Prefecture.
Japanese: また、吹田市吹田32号窯、岡山県奥ヶ谷窯跡、香川県宮山1号窯・三谷三郎池西岸窯跡、福岡県夜須町山隈窯跡などの初現期の窯跡も日本各地に造られる。
English: Among these ruins of kilns, Suemura ruins of kilns in Osaka Prefecture is the largest in Japan and is located close to Mozu burial mounds which is considered to have the Imperial mausoleum.
Japanese: このうち大阪府の陶邑窯跡群は日本列島最大であり、天皇陵を含むと考えられている百舌鳥古墳群と地理的に近接している。
English: Suemura ruins of kilns are believed to have been controlled to produce the same standard of earthenware under Yamato sovereignty.
Japanese: そして、やがてヤマト王権の管理のもとで、同じ規格の製品を生産するよう統御されるようになったと考えられる。
English: Such 'quality control' can be seen at Fukada Remains and Kokanda Remains in Sakai City.
Japanese: そのような「品質管理」の状況を物語る遺跡として堺市の深田遺跡や小角田遺跡が挙げられる。
English: By this fact, one theory holds that craftsmen to make Suemura-type Sueki spread out to local areas, whereas the other theory holds that craftsmen in local areas learned how to make Suemura-type Sueki and produced them.
Japanese: このことを陶邑工人の地方拡散とみる説、在地工人が陶邑様式を受容して生産したとみる説とがある。
English: Although there are slight regional differences, it is certain that the nationwide-scale standardization was implemented.
Japanese: 微妙な地域差が見出せるものの、列島的規模での規格化の力が働いていることは確かである。
English: Thus, it is considered that Yamato sovereignty was playing the major role in Sueki production.
Japanese: このことから、須恵器生産においてヤマト王権が主導的役割を果たしていたと考えられる。
English: Early Sueki is unearthed only from tumuli, but later one can also be found in the remains of a village of western Japan since it was widely used.
Japanese: 初めのうち古墳からの出土に限られるが、普及が進んだ後期になると西日本で集落からも出土した。
English: After the Nara period, people started to make kilns for Sueki along with kilns to make roof tiles of kokubunji (a status of the state-supported provincial temples) in various places.
Japanese: 奈良時代以降になると、各地方で国分寺の瓦を焼成するために、瓦窯とともに須恵器焼成窯が造られるようになった。
English: Sueki was used basically at the government office of a state or a county, but started to be used daily as serving dish as well.
Japanese: 国や郡の官衙での使用が柱にあったが、それだけに留まらず日常の器としても盛んに用いられるようになった。
English: Minamihiki ruins of kilns that are distributed around Hatoyama-machi of Saitama Prefecture represent those kilns.
Japanese: 埼玉県鳩山町及びその周辺に分布する南比企窯跡群は、その代表例である。
English: In the Heian period, the system changed from "one county one kiln" to "one country one kiln" in western Japan where Sueki production was active, which led decrease in production areas.
Japanese: 平安時代には、これまで須恵器生産が盛んだった西日本で一郡一窯の体制から一国一窯への収斂がみられ、産地の数が減る傾向がでてきた。
English: Behind this trend was the fact that a role of a county diminished on local governance and a country started to have a greater role.
Japanese: 地方統治における郡の役割の低下と、国の役割の向上が背景にあるとも言われる。
English: However, in eastern Japan, which was a remote region, production areas tended to spread on the contrary and new kilns increased in Kanto region.
Japanese: しかし辺境域の東日本では逆に生産地拡散の傾向がみられ、関東地方では新規の窯が増えた。
English: Although Sueki was not produced very much in the middle and the south of Tohoku region in the Nara period, people started to produce it actively in the ninth century.
Japanese: 東北地方中部・南部でも奈良時代には少なかった須恵器が9世紀には盛んに製作された。
English: However, Sueki production declined at the end of the ninth century and ended in the tenth century replaced by earthenware that belongs to Haji ware group.
Japanese: それも9世紀末には衰退し、土師器系の土器にとってかわられる形で須恵器生産は10世紀に絶える。
English: The farthest place of the expansion of Sueki production can be seen at Goshogawara kiln in Tsugaru Plain which was in operation from the end of the ninth century to the tenth century.
Japanese: 拡散の最遠は、9世紀末から10世紀にかけて操業した五所川原窯で、津軽平野にある。
English: Since Goshogawara kiln was at the outer edge or the outside of the territory dominated by Japan, Sueki products were sent not only to local Tsugaru Peninsula but also to Hokkaido.
Japanese: 当時日本の支配領域の外か外縁にあった五所川原窯からは、地元の津軽半島だけでなく、北海道まで製品が送り出された。
English: Fujiwara Shike, also called four families of the Fujiwara clan, means the four family lines founded by four sons of FUJIWARA no Fuhito.
Japanese: 藤原四家（ふじわらしけ）は、藤原氏四家ともいい、藤原不比等の4人の息子が興した藤原氏の四つの家の総称。
English: Since FUJIWARA is a kabane (hereditary title), and not a family name nor a last name, there was no 'Fujiwara-ke' (Fujiwara family) among court nobles before the Meiji period.
Japanese: 藤原は姓であり、家名でも苗字でもないため、明治以前においては「藤原家」なる家は公家には存在しない。
English: Fujiwara Shike does not mean Fujiwara family, but a wholesome name of four family lines: 'Nanke,' 'Hokke,' 'Shikike,' and 'Kyoke' of the Fujiwara clan.
Japanese: 藤原四家とは、藤原家ではなく、藤原氏の「南家」、藤原氏の「北家」、藤原氏の「式家」、藤原氏の「京家」の総称である。
English: The Peking Protocol is a final protocol signed in Beijing City on September 7, 1901, concerning the follow-ups of battles between the powerful countries (Great Powers) and Qing/Boxers in the Boxers Uprising.
Japanese: 北京議定書（ぺきんぎていしょ）とは、1901年9月7日に北京市で調印された義和団の乱における列国と清・義和団との戦闘の事後処理に関する最終議定書。
English: The formal name in diplomatic documents of Japan is the final protocol concerning the North China Incident.
Japanese: 日本の外交文書における正式名称は、北清事変に関する最終議定書である。
English: In China it is called the Xinchou Treaty or the Xinchou Peace Agreement after the name of the year (Xinchu).
Japanese: また、中国ではその年をとって辛丑条約、辛丑和約（しんちゅうじょうやく、－わやく）ともいう。
English: Peace negotiations begun in October, 1900, and the Qing dynasty and each of the Great Powers concluded a treaty, respectively, according to the contents, part of which had already been implemented.
Japanese: なお、1900年10月から始まった和議交渉から、その内容ごとに逐次列国と清国間で協定を締結し、一部は既に施行されていた。
English: The protocol as the final confirmation of execution of terms was signed under the presence of plenipotentiaries from the both sides.
Japanese: 本議定書はその条件履行の最終確認として、双方全権出席の下、調印されたものである。
English: A visit of condolence to the late German envoy extraordinary and that to the late Secretary of Japan, both of whom were murdered by the Boxers, shall be made (Prince Aixin Jueluo Zaitan to Germany and Na'Tung, Vice-President of the Ministry of Revenue to Japan), sufficient reparations shall be paid and Guangxu Emperor himself shall express his regrets.
Japanese: 義和団に殺害されたドイツ特命全権公使と日本書記官に対する清朝要路者の弔問（ドイツ公使には皇弟愛新覚羅載澧、日本書記官には戸部待郎那桐）と十分な賠償、さらに光緒帝本人の哀悼の意の表明。
English: In these areas Chinese shall not allowed to reside so that the legation can be defended.
Japanese: また、この区域内における清国人の居住を認めず、公使館を防御できる状況におく。
English: Gun batteries in Taku and all the gun batteries from the coast to Beijing which block free transportation shall be removed.
Japanese: 大沽砲台および、海岸から北京までの自由交通の妨げとなる砲台をすべて撤去する。
English: The Qing Dynasty shall recognize rights of the Powers to occupy various places along the route in order to maintain free transportation.
Japanese: 清国は、列国の海岸から北京までの自由交通を阻害しないために、列国が同間の各地点を占領する権利を認める。
English: These places shall be the following; Huang-tsun, Lang-fang, Yang-tsun, Tien-tsin, Chun-liang-Cheng, Tong-ku, Lu-tai, Tong- shan, Lan-chou, Chang-li, Chin-wang Tao, Shan-hai Kuan.
Japanese: その地点は、大興区・武清区・廊坊市・天津市・東麗区・塘沽区・寧河県・唐山・灤県・昌黎・秦皇島及び山海関とする。
English: Government officials who fail to suppress reoccurred anti-foreign troubles or violation of the treaty or punish criminals shall be discharged.
Japanese: もし排外的紛争の再発その他の条約違反が発生し、その鎮圧をしなかったり犯罪者を処罰しなかったら、その官吏を罷免する。
English: The Qing government shall hereafter review revisions of commerce and navigation treaties which the Powers consider useful and amendments of the contents of commerce clauses to improve commercial relationship.
Japanese: 清国政府は、列国が有用と認める通商及び航海条約の修正ならびに、通商上の関係を便利にするための通商条項の内容の変更について今後検討する。
English: This protocol was approved under the conferences between the Powers with no rejection of the Qing Dynasty accepted; the Dynasty (the Dowager Empress/Li Hongzhang) could not help but accept the protocol.
Japanese: この議定書は、列国協議のもとで清朝に拒否を一切認めない形で認められ、首都北京を占領された清朝（西太后・李鴻章）はこれを呑まざるを得なかった。
English: Among all, giving away police powers in areas nearby legations to the Powers and allowing the Powers to station their troops in various places from the coast to Beijing and so on meant no other than the denial of Qin rights in its territory and appearances of districts under the rule of the Powers.
Japanese: そのうちでも公使館周辺区域の警察権を列国に引き渡したり、海岸から北京までの諸拠点に列国の駐兵権を認めるといったものは、清朝領域内でその国権が否定され、列国が統治する地域が生ずるものに他ならなかった。
English: In the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which triggered the Sino-Japanese war, a question "why Japan stationed a troop for granted in such a deep place of China" is sometimes heard: That was only because Japan used its rights based on the Peking Protocol in the same way other seven Powers posted troops in various places.
Japanese: 日中戦争の端緒となった盧溝橋事件において「なぜ日本が中国の領域深くまで当然のように兵を置いていたのか」という疑問を聞くことがあるが、これは日本からすれば北京議定書に基づく権利の行使により、日本を含む8ヶ国の列強が各地に駐兵していた。
English: The protocol included not only the ban of police powers and stationing troops in the Qing dynasty but also the ban of organizing anti-foreign societies and strict orders of regulating anti-foreign societies to local officials, punishments for violating these rules and so on.
Japanese: 清朝国内での警察権・駐兵権の禁止にとどまらず、排外団体結成禁止、地方官吏への排外団体取締りの厳命、それに背いた場合の罰則なども盛り込まれている。
English: It may be said that the ban of kakyo examinations in cities where foreigners were murdered was a warning policy unique to China.
Japanese: また、外国人殺害のあった市府の科挙受験禁止などは中国ならではの厳しい見せしめ政策であったといえよう。
English: The amount of the reparations of 450 million taels specified in the Peking Protocol (850 million taels in total with the interest) was a really astronomical demand to the Qing Dynasty whose annual budget was less than 100 million taels.
Japanese: 北京議定書で清朝に定められた賠償金4億5000万両（利払いを含めると8億5000万両になる）という額は、年間予算1億両足らずであった当時の清朝にはまさに天文学的な要求であった。
English: In addition, it was provided that the sources of reparation payment were specified in the form of confiscating income-assuring items such as maritime customs.
Japanese: さらにその賠償金の支払い源も海関税など確実な収入を得られるものを差し押さえる形で規定されていた。
English: In later years the Qing Dynasty implemented the payment, however, the enormous outlay limited the measures of subsequent reforms (the Hundred Days of Reform) and, in addition, more investiment on arms buildup in order to prevent invasion, led to the increased power of Yuan ShiKai, the commander of the Beiyang army.
Japanese: その後清朝はこの支払いを履行したが、ばくだいな拠出はその後の改革（光緒新政）の施策を限定せざるを得ないこととなり、かつ侵略を防ぐためとして投資対象が軍備優先となったために、北洋軍閥の総帥である袁世凱の権勢をさらに増大させることとなった。
English: Moreover, China depended on the Powers and loans from foreign capital banks to perform reforms only to strengthen dependency on foreign countries.
Japanese: また、改革遂行のためにさらに列国や外国資本銀行の借款に頼り、外国への依存を更に強めることとなった。
English: Increased taxes were imposed on the people and made them suffer from more poverty, leading to their increased dissatisfaction with the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: 民衆へは税の増額という形で負担がのしかかり、さらに困窮にあえぐこととなり、清朝への不満が高まった。
English: Even after the Qing dynasty perished, the reparations were succeeded by the Republic of China because it was considered to be a nation that succeeded the Qing dynasty, and that was one of reasons that the central government had weak foundations.
Japanese: 賠償金は1912年に清朝が滅亡した後も、清朝を引き継いだ国家とみなされた中華民国にそのまま負わされ、中央政権が軟弱な基盤しか持ちえなかった理由の一つとなった。
English: The Powers, seeing the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China suffering from reparations and fearing criticisms from the international community and the reduction of their interests in China, often eased the reparations before and after World War I.
Japanese: 列国も清朝や中華民国が賠償によって苦しむ姿を見て、国際社会の批判や自国の中国権益減少を恐れ、第一次世界大戦前後から賠償金の緩和をたびたび行った。
English: In particular in the early twentieth century the United States, which was coming closer to China, diverted the reparations to the support of Chinese students in the U.S. and the establishment of universities.
Japanese: 特に20世紀初頭に中国接近の度を強めていたアメリカは賠償金を中国人留学生への援助や、大学の建設などに充当した。
English: After all 650 million taels were paid to the Powers by 1938, with which the compensation ended.
Japanese: 結局1938年までに6億5千万両が各列国に支払われ、ようやく賠償は終了した。
English: The Peking Protocol was really a symbol of the invasion of China by the Powers by depriving the state rights and financial power of the Qing Dynasty at that time.
Japanese: 北京議定書は列強諸国によって清朝の国権や財政力をもぎとる、まさに当時の中国に対する侵略を象徴する内容であった。
English: Because of the contents of the protocol the Qing dynasty and even the Republic of China that succeeded it had been suffered.
Japanese: そしてその内容のために清朝も、その後継政権である中華民国も苦しめられた。
English: On the other hand, the contents gave a sense of great disgrace to young people studying in Japan and elsewhere and trying to take in modern-time nationalism, which became one of reasons that triggered anti-Qing/revolution movements.
Japanese: しかし一方でこの内容は日本などに留学して近代ナショナリズムを取り入れつつある若者に取って大きな屈辱感を伴わせ、反清・革命運動に取り組む大きな理由の一つとなった。
English: It could be positioned in one of big currents from the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War, through failure in the Hundred Days of Reform to the overthrow of the Qing dynasty by the Chinese revolution.
Japanese: 日清戦争から始まって戊戌の変法の失敗、そして辛亥革命による清朝打倒に至る大きな流れの一つとしても位置づけることができる。
English: Yuhitsu is a civil officer who worked as a secretary of samurai family in the medieval and modern times.
Japanese: 右筆（ゆうひつ）とは、中世・近世に置かれた武家の秘書役を行う文官のこと。
English: Although the original duty of Yuhitsu was to write texts in someone's place, as the centuries roll by, they started handling official documents and records, taking a role of clerks.
Japanese: 文章の代筆が本来の職務であったが、時代が進むにつれて公文書や記録の作成などを行い、事務官僚としての役目を担うようになった。
English: They were also called Shuhitsu, and in modern times, a different Chinese character, 祐筆 (Yuhitsu), was also used to express the position.
Japanese: 執筆（しゅひつ）とも呼ばれ、近世以後には祐筆という表記も用いられた。
English: In the early period, not all Bushi (warriors) knew well enough about the correct way of writing texts, Shosatsurei (remarks on the concept of epistolary etiquette), and illiterate Bushi were not uncommon.
Japanese: 初期の武士においては、その全てが文章の正しい様式（書札礼）について知悉しているとは限らず、文盲の者も珍しくは無かった。
English: Those Bushi (warriors) ordered their own vassals or Buddhist monks who knew how to read and write to prepare Shojo (missives) and Monjo (written material) in their place.
Japanese: そこで武士の中には僧侶や家臣の中で、文字を知っている人間に書状や文書を代筆させることが行われた。
English: Later, when the rank of Bushi (warriors) got higher, they had a greater opportunity to write official and personal Monjo.
Japanese: やがて武士の地位が高まってくると、公私にわたって文書を出す機会が増大するようになった。
English: There, Yuhitsu became a specialist job, and it became common to order Yuhitsu to create and write Monjo and Samurai families only signed or wrote Kao (written seal mark) on them.
Japanese: そこで専門職としての右筆が誕生し、右筆に文書を作成・執筆を行わせ、武家はそれに署名・花押のみを行うのが一般的となった。
English: This was very different from Kuge (a court noble) in which autographed Monjo were common because the documentary forms were passed on from generation to generation.
Japanese: これは伝統的に書式のあり方が引き継がれてきたために、自筆文書が一般的であった公家とは大きく違うところである。
English: In the case of Monjo which were issued by Samurai families, they were leagally-effective if they contained the issures' signatures or Kao (written seal mark) even if the monjo themselves were written by Yuhitsu.
Japanese: 武家が発給した文書の場合、文書作成そのものが右筆によるものでも署名・花押が発給者当人のものであれば、自筆文書と同じ法的効力を持った。
English: This is called Yuhitsugaki (there were some special exceptions such as Takauji ASHIKAGA, who even let Yuhitsu write his own signature and Kao.)
Japanese: これを右筆書（ゆうひつがき）と呼ぶ（もっとも、足利尊氏のように署名・花押まで右筆に任せてしまう特殊な例外もあった）。
English: When office works got more complicated, Yuhitsu started to prepare Monjo regarding matters decided through formal procedures and signed them with a part of their authority, providing the Monjo the same effect as the documents issued by their lords.
Japanese: なお、事務が煩雑化すると、右筆が正式な手続を経て決定された事項について自らの職権の一環として文書を作成・署名を行い、これに主君発給文書と同一の効力を持たせる例も登場する。
English: The examples of Yuhitsugaki were seen on Inzen (a decree from the retired Emperor) or Rinji (the Emperor's command) from the early period, and later adopted on documents of Samurai families such as Hosho (a document for informing lower-rank people of the decision of upper people such as an emperor or shogun) and Migyosho (documents for informing of decisions made by third or upper ranked authorities).
Japanese: こうした例は院宣や綸旨などに早くから見られ、後に武家の奉書や御教書などにも採用された。
English: When MINAMOTO no Yoritomo established the Kamakura Government, the origin of the Kamakura bakufu, the lower-ranking government officials who were called on from Kyoto got its office job, and one of the Yuhitsu working there in the early period was OE no Hiromoto.
Japanese: 源頼朝が鎌倉幕府の原点である鎌倉政権を打ち立てた時に、京都から下級官人が招かれて事務的な業務を行ったが、初期において右筆を務めていたのが大江広元である。
English: Later, when Hiromoto started to concentrate on governmental works at Kumonjo (administration office) and Mandokoro (Administrative Board), people such as Moritoki TAIRA (Chikeji [an official working under mandokoro betto, or a director of the administrative board] of Mandokoro belongs to the Kamakura bakufu), Hirotsuna FUJIWARA, and FUJIWARA no Kunimichi started working as Yuhitsu.
Japanese: 後に、広元が公文所・政所において行政に専念するようになると、平盛時(鎌倉幕府政所知家事)（政所知家事）・藤原広綱・藤原邦通らが右筆を務めた。
English: Later, Yuhitsu were placed not only in the authorities of Seitaishogun (commander-in-chief of the expeditionary force against the barbarians, great, unifying leader) and the regent to the shogunate, but also in each authority of Bakufu such as Hikitsuke (Court of justice), and the descendants of the government officials, such as the Ota clan and the Miyoshi clan, took over the role of it.
Japanese: その後、征夷大将軍や執権のみならず、引付などの幕府の各機関にも右筆が置かれ、太田氏や三善氏などの官人の末裔がその任に当たるようになった。