nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Moushitsugi and Soja are used in the same meaning ("Nippo jisho" [Japanese-Portuguese dictionary] defines Shoja, Moushitusgi and Toritsugite [a person in charge of informing a shogun or daimyo of the name of visitors to the residence before a meeting] as synonyms).
Japanese: 申次と奏者は混用が見られる（『日葡辞書』では「奏者」・「申次」・「取次手」を同義語としている）。
English: However, in the Imperial Court, bakufu and the Sekkan families, this position was often called 'Moushitsugi,' whereas it was often called 'Soja' in Shugo daimyo (shugo, which were Japanese provincial military governors, that became daimyo, which were Japanese feudal lords) and Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period).
Japanese: が、朝廷や幕府、摂関家などでは「申次」、守護大名や戦国大名では「奏者」と呼ばれる事例が多い。
English: 'Soja' was exclusively used in the Oda government, the Toyotomi government and Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), all of which rose to the central authority from the Sengoku Daimyo.
Japanese: 戦国大名から中央権力に上昇した織田政権や豊臣政権、江戸幕府では、もっぱら「奏者」が用いられた。
English: In the Edo bakufu, Fudai daimyo (a daimyo in hereditary vassal to the Tokugawa family) was mainly appointed to Sojaban (an official in charge of the ceremonies), and was simply called 'Soja,' and in charge of the duties of Moushitsugi.
Japanese: 江戸幕府では主に譜代大名が奏者番に任じられて単に「奏者」とも呼ばれ、申次の業務を扱った。
English: Yunonagashi was a government post established in Japan during the Asuka period and took charge of managing Tomokuyu (also known as Yu no mura) that was a territory of the Imperial family.
Japanese: 湯沐令（ゆのうながし）は、日本の飛鳥時代に置かれた官職で、皇族の領地である湯沐邑を管理した。
English: "Nihonshoki" Vol. 28, what is called 'Jinshinki' is the record of the whole year of 672, the first year of the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and the most of the description is about the Jinshin War.
Japanese: 『日本書紀』巻28、いわゆる「壬申紀」は、天武天皇元年（672年）の一年間を記し、そのほとんどを壬申の乱にあてる。
English: Oama no miko (later, Emperor Tenmu), who was to open the war, sent a messenger on June 22, before went into the action by himself, to OO no Honji, the Yunonagashi, in Ahachima no Kori (later, Anpachi Gun) to order him to raise the army and block the Fuwa no Michi.
Japanese: 乱を起こした大海人皇子（後の天武天皇）は、自ら行動を起こす前の6月22日に使者を出し、安八間郡（後の安八郡）の湯沐令の多品治に兵を挙げて不破道を塞ぐよう命じた。
English: On 24, Oama no miko, who was leading the army to Ise, ran into 50 horses from Ise Province, carrying rice harvested in Tomoku, near Gunke in Uda Gun (later Uda Gun.)
Japanese: 24日、皇子は自ら立って伊勢に向かう途中で、莬田郡（後の宇陀郡）の郡家のそばで湯沐の米を運ぶ伊勢国の駄50匹に会った。
English: On 25, Oama no miko was met by MIYYAKE no Iwatoko, who was Kuninotsukasa no kami, MIWA no Kobito who was Suke, and TANAKA no Tarimaro, who was Yunonagashi, and TAKATA no Niinomi at Gunke in Suzuka Kori in Ise Province.
Japanese: 25日、伊勢の鈴鹿郡の郡家で、国司守の三宅石床、介の三輪子首、湯沐令の田中足麻呂、高田新家が出迎えた。
English: Tomokuyu was a system that had long existed from the ancient China, and in the Han dysnasty, the lands were given to the members of the Imperial family, excluding the lords and kings, for their own income sources.
Japanese: 湯沐邑は、中国に古くからあった制度で、漢代には個人の収入源として諸侯や王以外の皇族に与えられる領地であった。
English: However, the system didn't exist in the Tang dynasty in 672; therefore, it is considered that Japan adopted the system from the Han dynasty system through book(s).
Japanese: だが672年当時の唐にはなく、日本の湯沐邑は漢の制度を史書から取り入れたものであろう。
English: In the later Japanese ritsuryo legal code system, Tomokuyu was given to Chugu and Togu and the Tomoku system was the same as the Fuko system except for the name.
Japanese: 後の日本の律令制で湯沐邑は中宮と東宮に与えられるもので、封戸とは呼び方だけ異なる制度であった。
English: The only historical source that described about Yunonagashi was 'Jinshinki', and Yunonagashi appeared neither in the Chinese history nor in the Japanese history in the later ages.
Japanese: 湯沐令は、中国にも日本の後の時代にもなく、史料的には壬申紀にだけ現れる。
English: From that fact, it is inferred that Yunonagashi was established during the reign of Emperor Tenji, immediately before the Jinshin War, and abolished shortly after.
Japanese: そのため、直前の天智天皇の代に置かれ短期間で廃止になったと推測される。
English: That Oama no miko ordered Yunonagashi who was at a distance from his residence to first raise the army shows the close ties between Oama no miko and Yunonagashi.
Japanese: 湯沐令と皇子の関係が極めて密接であったことは、皇子が最初の挙兵を自分の居所から離れた湯沐令に命じたことからうかがえる。
English: It is considered that the two Yunonagashi OO no Honji and TANAKA no Tarimaro were the heads of Tomokuyu established for Oama no miko.
Japanese: 多品治と田中足麻呂という二人の湯沐令は、大海人皇子のために置かれた湯沐邑の長官だったとされる。
English: OO no Honji was Yunonagashi of Tomokuyu at Ahachima no Kori; but about TAKATA no Tarimaro, the opinion of the historians is divided between those who argued that he was the second Yunonagashi of the same Tomokuyu and those who consider that he was Yunonagashi of another Tomokuyu.
Japanese: 多品治は安八間郡の湯沐邑の令だが、田中足麻呂については同じ湯沐邑の二人めの湯沐令だったのか、それとも別の湯沐邑を治めたのか、歴史学者の意見が分かれている。
English: Besides, some scholars consider that Yunonagashi was a government post appointed by the Court, and some scholars consider that Yunonagashi was appointed by Oama no miko for his own territory.
Japanese: また、湯沐令は朝廷が任命した官職であったと考える学者と、大海人皇子が自分の領地に自分で任命したものだと考える学者とがいる。
English: Rusui officers of domains were also called Oshirozukai (literally, an officer at the castle) in Edo, established a Rusui association approved by the bakufu to exchange information, and therefore, they were so-called diplomats of domains.
Japanese: 江戸で諸藩の留守居役は御城使とも言われ、幕府公認の留守居組合をつくって情報交換をしており、いわば諸藩の外交官であった。
English: In a few domains, the Rusui officer, being responsible for guarding the lord residence in Edo while the lord was absent from there, and the Oshirozukai liaison officer were placed separately.
Japanese: なお少数ではあるが藩主不在中の江戸藩邸の警備責任者たる留守居と、連絡折衝役たる御城使を分けて設置する藩も存在した。
English: Rusui officers, being under control of Roju (the second-highest post in the bakufu government), controlled O-oku (inner halls of the Edo castle), managed the travel certificates, and played the role of guarding the Edo castle while Seii taishogun (literally, "the great general who was to subdue the barbarians") was out of the castle.
Japanese: 幕府における留守居は、老中の支配に属し、大奥の取り締まりや通行手形の管理、征夷大将軍不在時には江戸城の留守を守る役割を果たした。
English: Selected from Hatamoto (direct retainers of the bakufu), each of the officers earned a 5,000 koku of rice crop (approx. 180 liters/koku) for the post, being the highest level available for Hatamoto.
Japanese: 役高は5,000石で旗本から選任され、旗本で任じられる職では最高の職であった。
English: In the early Edo period, the "O-rusui" post for the leader of the Rusui officers was established, for which the highest social status available for Hatamoto was given.
Japanese: 初期はまとめ役である「大留守居」が設置され、旗本でも最高位の格式が与えられた。
English: However, as the occasions when a shogun became absent from the Edo castle diminished and power was transferred to lower-level posts due to the improvement of the bakufu system, the social status level of this post declined.
Japanese: だが、将軍が江戸城から外出する機会が減少した事と幕府機構の整備による権限委譲によってその地位は低下して、
English: The officers in this post, being under control of Roju as Rusui officers, guarded O-oku over night and did chores in the O-oku area.
Japanese: これは留守居と同様老中に属し、宿直により大奥の警備、奥向きの用務を取り扱った。
English: Many of the Rusui officers in domains were selected from competent retainers in the Monogashira (military commanders) class (the banto (head of a group) class in smaller domains)
Japanese: 諸藩の留守居は多くは物頭級（小藩にあっては番頭級）の有能な家臣から選ばれた。
English: In addition, the officers stayed in the sotetsu (cycad) room in the Edo castle as the Oshirozukai officers to grasp movements of the cabinet officials of the Shogunate, to obtain and interpret various laws and regulations presented by the bakufu and to compose documents to be submitted to the bakufu.
Japanese: そのほか、藩主が江戸在府中であっても御城使として江戸城中蘇鉄の間に詰め、幕閣の動静把握、幕府から示される様々な法令の入手や解釈、幕府に提出する上書の作成、を行っていた。
English: Furthermore, with so many behavioral styles, so called "three hundred etiquette styles and three thousand ritual styles," established in the Edo period, it was considered that the largest importance should be placed on following precedents correctly
Japanese: 更に江戸時代は「礼儀三百威儀三千」とも言われるほどで、前例に従って落ち度のない事が第一と考えられていた。
English: To search for the precedents supporting the practice, information was exchanged among these officers in the Rusui association.
Japanese: それに資する先例を捜査するために留守居組合にて他藩の留守居と情報交換を行った。
English: It was also a role of Rusui in domain to make communications and adjustment between the main domain and its branched domain
Japanese: また自藩の本家（本藩）・分家（支藩）との連絡・調整に当たるのも留守居の役目であった。
English: Hating secret maneuvers by Rusui officers of domains, the bakufu prohibited them from entering the Edo castle several times, but the prohibition was released each time soon because the measure caused inconvenience.
Japanese: 幕府が諸藩の留守居役による暗躍・工作活動を嫌い江戸城登城を禁止した時期も数次に及ぶが、不便であるためまたすぐに解禁されるなどしていた。
English: Rusui officers exchanged information frequently at yukaku (red-light districts) or restaurants, neglecting the financial situations of their domains.
Japanese: 留守居の情報交換は藩の財政を無視して遊郭や料亭などで頻繁に行われた。
English: Therefore, their behaviors were viewed indignantly by their domains suffering from financial difficulties or by the financial officers concerned.
Japanese: そのため、財政難に苦しむ各藩の国許や勘定方からは怨嗟の眼差しで見られた。
English: When a domain had its own residence in Kyoto, Osaka, or Nagasaki, Rusui officers were mostly placed in these residences as well.
Japanese: なお、京都・大坂・長崎に屋敷を持つ諸藩ではそれぞれに留守居が置かれることが多かった。
English: Mainly over the Muromachi period and the Sengoku period (period of warring states), they were granted as an unofficial name of government post to vassals who had made military exploits and achievements by shugo daimyo (shugo were Japanese provincial military governors, that became daimyo, which were Japanese feudal lords) and daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) in the Sengoku period.
Japanese: 主に室町時代から戦国時代(日本)にかけて守護大名、戦国大名が武功や功績ある家臣に対して授けた非公式な官名。
English: In Kyoto, only merchants, traders and performers, who had businesses with the Imperial Court, Gosho (Imperial Palace) and temples, were granted the Zuryomei such as Kami (Governor), Suke (Vice Governor) and Jo (Provincial Governor), and a privileged position to increase their prestige for the social standing and family business.
Japanese: 京都においては、朝廷や御所や寺院の用をはたす商工業者や芸能者に限り、家格や家業に箔をつけさせるため、金品次第により守、介、掾などの受領名を授け、特権的立場を与えた。
English: Merchandise dealt by merchants and traders with the Zuryomei was more valuable as a brand and traded at the most extraordinary price among the merchandise made by craftsmen in the same industry.
Japanese: 受領名を有する商工業者が扱う商品は、ブランドとしての付加価値が認められ、同じ業種の職人がつくった商品の中でも、破格の値段で取引される。
English: Therefore, many merchants and traders sought the Zuryomei for their honor and prosperous trade.
Japanese: こうしたことから、多くの業者が自身の名誉と商売繁盛を期して受領名を求めた。
English: Especially for the Imperial Court and temples which were exhausted by maelstroms of war and grabs for Shoen (manor in medieval Japan) made by samurai families, to grant official rank and the Zuryomei was an essential source of income.
Japanese: 特に戦乱に疲弊し、武家に荘園を横領されてきた朝廷や寺院にとり、官位や受領名の授与は、貴重な収入源でもあった。
English: After the Muromachi period, shugo daimyo started the custom of granting unofficial names of government post without official Ikai (Court rank) and Jimoku (appointment ceremonies) from the Imperial Court, to vassals and hikan (low-level bureaucrats) who had made military exploits.
Japanese: 室町時代以降、守護大名の間において武功ある家臣や被官に対して、朝廷の正式な位階や除目の伴わない、非公式な官名を授ける風習が生まれる。
English: In many cases, the Zuryomei was given to Kokujin (local samurai) and Busho (Japanese military commanders) who were under the control of daimyo (Japanese feudal lords) and also had a castle, territory and military strength.
Japanese: 多くの場合、大名の傘下にあって城や領地、兵力を有する国人や武将がその対象であった。
English: The custom later changed into a state in which the naming such as jikan (official name which samurai called himself without the Imperial Court's involvement), hyakkan na (a name taken after his/her or family's official rank) and azuma hyakkan (titles conferred on daimyo and samurai) became popular among samurai.
Japanese: この風習が転化し、自官や百官名、東百官という人名呼称が武士の間において定着するようになる。
English: When the Zuryomei was given by a lord, written appointment to a government service called kanto no kakidashi, zuryo no kakidashi, kantojo or the like was issued, which was respected as an honor representing a social status and fame of samurai family.
Japanese: こうした主君から受領名を授かる際に交付されるのが官途書出、あるいは受領書出、官途状などといい、武家の格式と功名をあらわす栄誉として重んじられた。
English: Ikoku keigobanyaku was a military service imposed by the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) on Gokenin in Kyushu.
Japanese: 異国警固番役（いこくけいごばんやく）とは、鎌倉時代後期、鎌倉幕府が九州の御家人に課した軍役。
English: Ikoku keigobanyaku was a military service of guarding the coastlines, including the Hakatawan Bay, which was thought to be a potential target of the Yuan's invasion, and the service continued for a certain period of time, led by Shugo (formed in four groups, replaced in every March).
Japanese: 守護に従い、一定期間（4番編成・3月勤番）、博多湾など元の襲来が危惧される沿岸を警備する軍役である。
English: Ikoku keigobanyaku should have been served by Gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogun in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods), who had their territories in Kyushu, but this service was later imposed on non-Gokenin groups of people, such as administrators of Koryo lands (belonged to the imperial courts) and Jishahonshoryo (lands that belonged to temples and shrines), who were not in the master-and-servant relationship with the shogunate at all, whether or not they resided in East part or West part of Japan, anticipating the Koan Warm
Japanese: 本来であれば九州に所領を持つ御家人がその任務にあたる性質のものであったが、後に弘安の役などを踏まえて東国・西国を問わずかつ公領や寺社本所領の荘官など鎌倉幕府との主従関係を有さない非御家人に対しても課された。
English: As the service of Ikoku keigobanyaku was extended, some Gokenin from other areas, but had territories in Kyushu, started to settle down in Kyushu, some could not prevent their branch families from becoming independent in their home province or in Kyushu, and some had their retainers split into the home province faction and the Kyushu faction (e.g., the Chiba clan was divided into the Chiba clan and the Kyushu Chiba clan.)
Japanese: 更に異国警備番役の長期化に伴って、九州に所領を有していた他の地方御家人の中には現地に土着をしたり、本国もしくは九州における庶流の独立や本国側と九州側による家中分裂などを引き起こす例もあった（例千葉氏と九州千葉氏の分立）。
English: It is generally considered that the nanushi was on behalf of the entire village government, the kumigashira was an assistant to the nanushi and the hyakushodai was an auditor, however, they actually had different roles.
Japanese: 一般的には、名主が村政全体を代表し、組頭がその補佐役、百姓代が監査役と説明されるが、実際のあり方は多様である。
English: The roles often differed not only from region to region but also from village to village even in the same region.
Japanese: 地域差があるばかりではなく、同じ地域内でも村ごとに職務内容が異なることがほとんどである。
English: From the late Edo period, there appeared some nanushi who had fallen due to tough economic changes and were not able to fulfill their duties, so elections of nanushi by votes (called irefuda in Japanese) started to be held.
Japanese: また、江戸時代後期にはいると、経済情勢の変化に巻き込まれた既存の名主の中には没落して職務が行えなくなる者も現われるようになり、代わって投票（いれふだ）などによる選出も行われるようになった。
English: Family registration districts were established based on the Family Registration Law and an officer in charge of the family register was appointed.
Japanese: -に戸籍法に基づいて戸籍区が設けられ、戸籍取扱を職務とする戸長が置かれた。
English: The officers in this post were in charge of all road-related affairs, including the control of Shukuba-eki (inn-concentrated towns) along the five main roads and their branched roads, the supervision of Sukego (road-related laborers gathered from villages around such a town), and the states of roads and of bridges.
Japanese: 五街道とその付属街道における宿場駅の取締り、助郷の監督、道路・橋梁など道中関係全てを担当した。
English: The description in "Richobetsuroku" that four persons, including Morinobu MIZUNO, were appointed to the post in December of 1632 (in the old calendar) was the first historical record of the post.
Japanese: 初見は『吏徴別録』の寛永4年（1632年）12月にある水野守信ら4名の任命の記事である
English: However, Ometsuke (a governmental officer watching movements of the Imperial court, etc.) Morihisa TAKAGI was appointed to this post additionally in September 5, 1659, and it is generally said that this was the first appointment to this post.
Japanese: が、一般的には万治2年7月19日(旧暦)（1659年9月5日）に大目付高木守久が兼任で就任したのにはじまるとされる。
English: This post started with an officer who was also Ometsuke, but in 1698, was also assumed by Kanjo-bugyo (a governmental officer in charge of financial affairs) Shigeyoshi MATSUDAIRA additionally.
Japanese: 大目付兼帯1名として始まったが、元禄11年（1698年）に勘定奉行松平重良が道中奉行加役となっった。
English: A 3,000 koku of rice crop (approx. 180 liters/koku) was provided for the post yearly from 1723, and 250 ryo (a monetary unit at that time) in gold yearly in 1805 and later.
Japanese: その役料は享保8年（1723年）から年に3000石、文化(元号)2年（1805年）以後は年間金250両。
English: Jikata kosha was an Edo Period bureaucrat overseeing domain agriculture who had extensive knowledge of regional affairs.
Japanese: 地方巧者（じかたこうしゃ）は、江戸時代に地方支配（じかたしはい）に精通した農政官僚のことである。
English: After the Kyoho era when hatamoto (bakufu retainers) and gokenin (retainers of the Kamakura bakufu) were organized into the bakufu bureaucracy, jikata kosha posts were often granted to ordinary citizens, and due to the fact that these appointees authored guides to domain administration, they were commonly called jikata kosha.
Japanese: 旗本・御家人の官僚化が進んだ享保年間以降は、民間からの登用が目立ち、しかも彼ら地方巧者は地方書の著者でもあったので、地方巧者という呼称が普及した。
English: Hakucho is a term referring to male ryomin (ordinary people) with no special rank or title and no public employment in the Chinese and Japanese ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).
Japanese: 白丁（はくちょう、はくてい）とは中国と日本の律令制において、公の職を持たない無位無冠の良民の男子のことを指す。
English: People with no special rank or title were called hakucho ('haku' means white in Kanji [Chinese character]) since they wore not colored clothes but white ones.
Japanese: 無位無冠のものは、色を付けた衣を身に着けず白い衣を着けたことからそう呼ばれていた。
English: However, in legislation of government official origin, hakutei took on a broader meaning including people except Onshi (a noble child who qualified for oni [the system which if his father or grandfather had more than Fifth rank, he was automatically granted above a certain rank when he became 21 years old in the Japanese ritsuryo system]) and Ishi (a legitimate child whose father had Eighth rank or more but below Sixth rank in the Japanese ritsuryo system), in other words, to add to original hakutei, a illegitimate child of government official whose rank was from Sixth to Eighth rank of Naii (court rank given to nobles or goverment official linving in the capital) except Ishi, Gei (Ikai, Court rank for Gozoku, local ruling family in the region and chihokan, a local officials) and Shoi (initial rank) (including Naii), a child of government official with no rank such as Zonin (lower-ranking government official) (Whether it was a legitimate or illegitimate child was not considered).
Japanese: なお、官人出身法制においてはもう少し広い意味を持ち、蔭子・位子以外の者、すなわち本来の白丁に加えて位子以外の内位六位から八位の官人の庶子、外位・初位（内位を含む）・雑任等無位の官人の子（嫡子・庶子は問わない）が含まれる。
English: Among them, an illegitimate child with Naii Eighth or higer rank and a son of Gunji (local magistrates) had a qualification to be a guard, however, others received the same treatment as hakutei who was a citizen with no rank and title.
Japanese: このうち内位八位以上の庶子及び郡司（大領・少領）の子については兵衛になる資格を有していたが、他については無位無官の公民である白丁と同様の扱いを受けた。
English: To be hired as government official, hakutei received Jonin (investiture) after they went to Kyoto and worked as toneri (a servant) of central government official or received a court rank after they worked as Zaichokanjin (the local officials in Heian period) of kokuga (provincial government office compounds).
Japanese: 官司に雇われる場合には都に出て中央官司の舎人に採用されて勤務した後に叙任を受けるか、国衙の在庁官人として勤務の後に叙位を受けた。
English: Or some of them received a court rank after they worked as servants such as chonai (a servant for Imperial Prince) or shijin (lower-rank officers provided to the Imperial or noble families and used as a guard or miscellaneous services) for Koshin (Emperor's family) and nobles.
Japanese: または帳内・資人などの皇親・貴族の従者を勤めた後に叙位を受ける例もあった。
English: Moreover, by doing deeds of arms in a war or passing an examination of monjosho (student of literary studies in the Imperial University), myobosho (student of law studies in the Imperial University) and others, some of them were promoted from no rank, however, even if so, the highest rank was Fourth and they could hardly be promoted higher than it (In most cases, it is believed that they stayed at initial rank, where their descentands were not given the qualification of Ishi.)
Japanese: 更に戦争での武勲や文章生・明法生などの学生に及第することによって、無位から昇進することもあったが四位がほぼ最高位であり、それ以上の昇進はほぼなかった（多くの場合は子孫に位子の資格が与えられない初位に留まったとされる。)
English: (Also, examples of a special conferment of a court rank were investiture by Chikusen-joirei (an ordinance to ordain a court rank to someone who saved a certain amount of money), contribution of property or reporting auspiciousness.)
Japanese: (また、特殊な叙位の例としては蓄銭叙位令による叙位や財物貢献・瑞祥報告による叙位もある）。
English: In addition, even if they worked as zatsumu (a person who did routine tasks) of government official, they were not exempt from taxes such as Soyocho (taxes in kind or seervice) as long as they were hakutei.
Japanese: また、官司の雑務に就いていても、白丁である限りは租庸調などの租税は免除されなかった。
English: In Joseon Dynasty, hakucho was called Pekuchon or Petchon and the term for victim of discrimination placed in the lowest rank of the following people of the lower classes (unfree people): Shichihankosen (the following seven kinds of government-owned humble or lowly people: kannuhi [government-owned slave], kisaeng [female entertainers], court lady, Rizoku [lower ranked local government official], ekisotsu [guards], Gokusotsu ogre, criminal fugitive) and Hachihanshisen (the following eight kinds of privately-owned humble or lowly people: miko [a shrine maiden], a craftsman of leather footwear, shirei [musicians of court music], Buddhist monk, saijin [an entertainer], syado [a group which earned a living by singing or dancing, traveling around], kyoshi [people singing, dancing or performing with girls], hakucho).
Japanese: 李氏朝鮮においては「」（ペクチョン/ペッチョン）と呼び、七般公賤（官奴婢、妓生、官女、吏族、駅卒、獄卒、犯罪逃亡者）八般私賤（巫女、革履物の職人、使令：宮中音楽の演奏家、僧侶、才人：芸人、社堂：旅をしながら歌や踊りで生計をたてるグループ、挙史：女連れで歌・踊り・芸をする人、白丁）と言われた賤民（非自由民）のなかで最下位に位置する被差別民を指す言葉である。
English: There are three main theories, which are mythology, different ethnic groups and political prisoners, about the origin, however, the theory of the different ethnic groups is the best guess of the three.
Japanese: 起源については大別して神話説と異民族説と政治犯説が唱えられているが、有力視されているのは異民族説である。
English: It is believed that hakucho was originated from Tatar of Central Asia who naturalized in Goryeo and faced discrimination since they repeatedly pillaged in the political confusion.
Japanese: 高麗に帰化した中央アジア系民族のタタール人が政治の混乱に乗じて略奪を繰り返し、差別を受けるようになったのが白丁の起源であるとされている。
English: Hakucho generally lived in a group in a remote area outside cities or villages and mainly took jobs such as slaughter, leather products industry and willow craft.
Japanese: 白丁は大抵、都市や村落の外の辺鄙な場所に集団で暮らし、食肉処理、製革業、柳器製作などを本業にしていた。
English: They had been prohibited from being engaged in agriculture and trade, however, this regulation was relaxed in the middle of Joseon Dynasty, so it seems some of them were engaged in the agriculture.
Japanese: 農業や商業に従事することは禁止されていたが、李氏朝鮮中期になるとこの規制は緩み、農業などに従事していた者もいたようである。
English: Meanwhile, hakucho was not included in the family register and exempt from paying a tax or gunpu (a tax to be paid instead of conscription) since they were social outcasts who were not put under national control.
Japanese: 一方、国の管理に属さない化外の民であったため、戸籍を持たず税金や軍布（徴兵の変わりに収める布税）なども免除されていた。
English: Although hakucho's expenditure and behavior were heavily restricted, they could earn commissions from their jobs, and escaped the terrible property collection, which was performed for the common people repeatedly, since yangban (traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty) detested even to seize hakucho's property, therefore it is believed that hakucho was the only rank which could accumulate the capital in Joseon Dynasty.
Japanese: 支出や行動が厳しく規制される反面、本業による手数料などを得ることができたことや、両班階級が財産を没収することすら忌み嫌ったために、李氏朝鮮時代に繰り返し行われていた庶民に対する過酷な財産徴収なども受けず、李氏朝鮮の中では唯一資本蓄積が可能な階級だったとも言われている。
English: Naturally, some people insisted that 'hakucho is also human' and waged the freedom movement, however, as a result, they also suffered from discrimination as 'new hakucho'.
Japanese: 当然、中には「白丁だって人間だ」と主張して、解放運動を行う者もいたが、その運動家までもが「新白丁」として差別を被る事となってしまった。