nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: In the mid-Heian period, besides a full name used at the Imperial Court, the use of a pseudonym containing a domain name (myo) followed by a nickname (azana) became popular especially among early samurai warriors who were originally from the eastern provinces.
Japanese: 平安中期ごろ、特に東国の発祥当初の武士層の間で、朝廷との関係において名乗る姓名とは別に、自らの所領（名：みょう）に通称名（字：あざな）を並べる通称が広まっていった。
English: For instance, a man named TAIRA no Yoshifumi, who had a career as a chinjufu-shogun (general of the northern pacification command), called himself MURAOKA no Goro because he had his territory, or his myoden, in Muraoka, Sagami Province and he was the fifth eldest brother (Goro literally means a fifth boy).
Japanese: 例えば、鎮守府将軍を歴任した平良文（たいらのよしふみ）という人物は、相模の村岡に所領＝名田を経営しており、兄弟で5番目だったことから村岡五郎（むらおかのごろう）と自称した。
English: Samurai didn't have their settled territories where they could rule as a feudal load before the shoen-koryo system was established, and kokuga gave management rights of myoden to them as well as ordinary tato and fumyo (local tax managers) by contract.
Japanese: 荘園公領制成立以前の武士は封建領主としての確固たる領地を持たず、一般の田堵負名と同様に名田の経営権を国衙との契約で付与された。
English: Consequently they were given an economic base which allowed them to keep their military power strong enough to maintain the public order.
Japanese: そのことにより治安維持担当者としての武力を維持する経済的基盤を与えられていたのである。
English: Therefore their territories were formed on a myoden basis in those days, and their surnames were based on their myoden.
Japanese: そのため、この時期の武士の所領は名田を単位としており、名田を名字の地とした。
English: Once the shoen-koryo system was established in the 11th century, however, many samurai were appointed shoji (also known as shokan), gunji, goji, or hoji, and they began to own some manors or the Imperial demesnes such as gun, go, and ho as their settled territories and to have tato and fumyo under their control.
Japanese: しかし、11世紀に荘園公領制が成立すると、多くの武士は荘司、郡司、郷司、保司に任命され、荘園、または公領の郡、郷、保を確固たる所領とするようになっていき、田堵負名を自らの支配下に置いていった。
English: Thus manors, gun, go, and ho became a basis of an origin place of a samurai surname (called honganchi) during that period.
Japanese: そのため、この時期になると武士の名字の地（本貫地）は荘園、郡、郷、保を単位としたものに変化した。
English: For instance, HATAKEYAMA no Shojiheijiro-Shigetada, who was a shoji in Hatakeyamano-sho, Musashi Province, owned that place as his territory, and Watarigon no Taifu FUJIWARA no Tsunekiyo, who was a gunji in Watari District, Mutsu Province, owned this place as his territory.
Japanese: 例えば畠山重忠（はたけやまのしょうじへいじろうしげただ）は武蔵国畠山荘を荘司として所領とし、藤原経清（わたりごんのたいふふじわらのつねきよ）は陸奥国亘理郡を郡司として所領としたのである。
English: This pattern of forming surnames was taken over by high-ranking samurai warriors, that is, the gokenin (immediate vassals of the shogun) class samurai during the Kamakura period and the kokujin (local samurai) class or higher classes samurai during the Muromachi period.
Japanese: こうした名字のあり方は鎌倉時代の御家人級の、室町時代の国人級以上の上級武士の間で引き継がれていく。
English: However, in later periods, some ordinary farmers called tato and fumyo who managed myoden began to attempt to make inroads into the samurai class by offering military service for samurai who governed manors or Imperial demesnes containing the myoden managed by the tato or fumyo, so that they could consolidate their hold over their myoden to own it as their territories.
Japanese: ところが、時代が下ると、名田を経営する百姓身分に属する一般の田堵負名の中からも、自らが経営請負をする名田の属する荘園公領を所領とする武士に、軍役を申し出て武士身分の一角に食い込み、名田の支配権を確固としたものにして所領としていこうとする動きが生じた。
English: This made the surname forming based on myoden popular again among samurai warriors in the newly-rising middle and lower classes from the Muromachi period onwards.
Japanese: そのため、室町時代以降の新興の中・下級武士たちの間では、再び名田を単位とした名字の名乗りが一般的になっていった。
English: Ichien Chigyo was a term used during the Japanese Middle Ages to mean that a particular individual has integrated control over lands in complicated and multi-layered relationships of dominance and rights of the Shoen Koryo (public lands and private estates) system.
Japanese: 一円知行（いちえんちぎょう）とは、日本の中世で使用された用語で、荘園公領制の重層的に入り組んだ支配・権利関係の中で、ある者が一元的に土地を支配することを指す。
English: It is also called ichien shinshi, ichien kanrei, or ichien shihai.
Japanese: 一円進止（いちえんしんし）、一円管領（いちえんかんれい）、一円支配（いちえんしはい）ともいう。
English: The term 'ichien' at the time meant entirety or completeness, and lands that were under ichien control were called ichienchi (ichien land), ichienryo (ichien territory), or ichien no sho (ichien manor).
Japanese: 当時、「一円」の語は、一元的または完全を意味しており、一円的に支配されている土地を一円地（いちえんち）・一円領（いちえんりょう）・一円荘（いちえんのしょう）などと呼んだ。
English: As seen in relationships among honke (head family), ryoke (lord of the manor), kaihatsu-ryoshu (local notable who developed the land), shokan (officer governing shoen), and jito (manager and lord of manor), dominance relationships involving lands and farmers and also relationships involving rights such as land and profit were related to each other in multiple ways; therefore, the Shoen Koryo system of the Middle Ages was extremely complicated.
Japanese: 中世の荘園公領制では、本家-領家-開発領主-荘官-地頭らの関係に見られるように、土地や百姓に対する支配関係、また土地からの収益に関する権利関係が重層的に絡み合っており、著しく複雑な様相を呈していた。
English: One was called jobun, which was the profit (from nengu (land tax) and kuji (public duties)) generated from land or by farmers, and the other was called shitaji, which was the land under control.
Japanese: 1つは、土地や百姓らから産み出される収益（年貢・公事など）の上分（じょうぶん）であり、もう1つは、支配する土地そのものの下地（したじ）である。
English: During the Kamakura period, jito made an aggressive attempt to control soen and koryo, and in particular, they focused on acquisition of the right to control shitaji (shitaji-shinshi ken - the right to appropriate land).
Japanese: 鎌倉時代、地頭は、荘園公領支配への進出を積極的に展開したが、特に下地の支配権（下地進止権という）の獲得に力を注いだ。
English: Jito, then, through shitaji chubun (physical division of the land) and jitouke (the contract system wherein the manor's owner entrusts a jito to manage his manor and pay the customs), not only acquired the shitaji-shinshi ken but also gradually took the right to control jobun (jobun chigyo (right to control the profit)).
Japanese: そして地頭は、下地中分や地頭請などを通じて、下地進止権を手中に収めるのみならず、上分の支配権（上分知行という）も徐々に簒奪していった。
English: As described above, some jito acquired both shitaji and jobun to realize ichien control of shoryo (territories).
Japanese: このように、地頭の中には下地と上分の両方を獲得し、所領の一円支配を実現していく者が現れたのである。
English: During the Muromachi period, shugo (provincial constables) had many more rights than jito of the Kamakura period.
Japanese: 室町時代の守護には、鎌倉期の地頭よりも非常に大きな権限が与えられていた。
English: Through hanzei (the system in the Muromachi period where the Muromachi bakufu allowed shugo to collect half of the taxes from manors and demesnes as military funds), shugo in the Muromachi period realized wider and stronger ichien control of lands than jito of the Kamakura period, and as a result, the Shugo-Ryogoku system (the system wherein a shugo dominates a manor) was established and shugo became shugo daimyo (military governors).
Japanese: 室町期の守護は、半済などを通じて、鎌倉期の地頭以上に土地支配の一円化を実施していき、守護領国制の形成と守護の守護大名化が進んでいった。
English: As described above, ichien chigyo was exponentially developed from the end of the Middle Ages.
Japanese: これに見るとおり、一円知行は中世後期から加速度的に進行したのである。
English: Ikkoku heikinyaku refers to land taxes and assignments evenly imposed on shoen (manor) and kokugaryo (territories governed by a provincial government office) of a particular province during the Middle Ages in Japan.
Japanese: 一国平均役（いっこくへいきんやく）は、日本の中世において、ある令制国内の荘園・国衙領へ一律的に賦課された租税・課役である。
English: It is called ikkoku heikinyaku because taxes and assignments were imposed evenly (heikin) throughout a province.
Japanese: 一つの国で平均（一律的）に賦課されることから一国平均役と呼称される。
English: Around the 9th or 10th century, the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) and the Soyocho tax system collapsed and as a result, the taxes due changed into kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes) and zatsueki (odd-job tasks).
Japanese: 9世紀～10世紀ごろ、律令制の解体にともなって、律令上の租税体系である租庸調制も次第に崩壊し、官物・雑役へと変質していった。
English: Meanwhile, the Imperial Court urgently needed to secure financial resources for incidental projects (construction, rituals, and so on).
Japanese: その中で、朝廷は、臨時的な事業（造営や儀式など）に係る財源を確保する必要に迫られていた。
English: For this reason, in order to cover the expenses of such incidental events, from the late tenth century, a particular province was designated as a ryogoku and the kokushi (governor) of that ryogoku imposed temporary tasks mainly on the owners of koden (or kokugaryo - territories governed by a provincial government office).
Japanese: そこで、10世紀後期ごろから、臨時の事業の費用を賄うため、ある国が料国（りょうごく）として指定され、料国の国司は主に公田（国衙領）を対象として臨時雑役を課するようになった。
English: These temporary tasks included the provision of a service to build a palace, service daijoe (great thanksgiving), yakubukumai (rice tax levied by the grand shrine), building provincial monasteries, and building high-ranking shrines, and the provision of services or rice listed above was at the time called chokuji or inji kokuyaku (tasks or services imposed by the imperial court).
Japanese: こうした臨時雑役は、例えば、造内裏役、大嘗会役、役夫工米、造国分寺役、造一宮役などが代表的であり、当時は、勅事国役や院事国役などと呼ばれていた。
English: Temporary tasks and taxes were first collected from kokugaryo, but fuyu shoen that were exempt of tax submission expanded and as a result reduced kokugaryo, so the governor imposed taxes and tasks on fuyu shoen as well.
Japanese: 当初、こうした臨時雑役は国衙領を対象としていたが、租納入が免除された不輸荘園が拡大するにつれて国衙領を浸食していったため、国司側の対抗手段として不輸荘園にも雑役が課せられるようになった。
English: In order to avoid paying taxes, owners of fuyu shoen influenced powerful aristocrats to obtain kanpu (official documents from Dajokan, or Great Council of State) or senji (an imperial letter) to become task or tax exempt; however, provincial governors then requested reinforcement of ikkoku heikin task or tax imposition to a superior authority, had their request approved, and countered fuyu shoen owners.
Japanese: 不輸荘園はこれを回避すべく、有力貴族に働きかけて雑役免除の官符・宣旨を獲得していたが、国司側もさらに一国平均の雑役賦課を上級官庁へ申請し、認可を受けて不輸荘園へ対抗していった。
English: After these events, it is believed that the ikkoku heikinyaku system was officially established in the late 11th century, around the time of Emperor Gosanjo.
Japanese: こうした積み重ねにより、11世紀後期の後三条天皇の頃に一国平均役が制度として確立したものと考えられている。
English: Tax imposition in the ikkoku heikinyaku system was carried out based upon ota-bumi (cadastre created in the Kamakura period) created by kokuga (provincial government offices).
Japanese: 一国平均役の賦課は、国衙が作成した国内の土地台帳である大田文を基にして実施された。
English: During the Jisho-Juei War at the end of the Heian period, the Taira administration levied military provisions from many provinces, and this was also considered as ikkoku heikinyaku.
Japanese: 平安最末期の治承・寿永の乱において、平氏政権は諸国から兵粮米を賦課しているが、これも一国平均役として認識されていた。
English: Also, to prepare for the Battle of Sunomatagawa, the Taira clan imposed zatsueki on Ise Province so they would provide sailors and ships, and in this case, a request for sailors and ships was issued within 10 days after a senji was issued to the provincial governor.
Japanese: 平氏はまた、墨俣川の戦いに備えて、伊勢国へ水夫と船の雑役を課しており、宣旨が国司へ発出されてから10数日の内に水夫と船の徴発が完了している。
English: This suggests that provinces had a system to immediately respond to the imposition of ikkoku heikinyaku taxes or tasks.
Japanese: このことから、一国平均役の賦課に即応できる体制が、諸国において構築されていたと見られている。
English: In the Kamakura period, there were many cases where shugo (provincial constable) seized power of kokuga instead of provincial governors, and as a result, the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) also started to impose ikkoku heikinyaku taxes and tasks.
Japanese: 鎌倉時代には、国司に代わって守護が国衙を掌握するケースが多くなり、鎌倉幕府による一国平均役の賦課も行われるようになった。
English: During the Muromachi period, ikkoku heikinyaku changed into tansen (a kind of provisional tax in medieval Japan).
Japanese: 室町時代になると、一国平均役は段銭（たんせん）という形に変質していった。
English: Kanno is a general term in the history of Japan for the overall acts by which the rulers typically promoted and encouraged agriculture.
Japanese: 勧農（かんのう）とは、主として支配者が農業を振興・奨励するために実施する行為全般を指す日本史の用語。
English: Originally, kanno was a shortened term for "kankanoso" written in the Chinese classics and in Japan that was first regarded as the duty of kokushi in the ritsuryo system of governance (a constitutional form of governance).
Japanese: 元は中国古典に見られる『勧課農桑』という句が略されたもので、日本では律令において国司の職務とされたのが初見である。
English: Kanno is a term covering very wide-ranging concepts, it included the maintenance of irrigation facilities, lend-lease and benefit of seeds and agriculture fees ("suikyo," land lease at interest was also included), the allocation of farm lands, the organization of the agricultural labor, the development of denuded lands, the up-down adjustment of the tax rate, and so on.
Japanese: 勧農は非常に広い概念を有する語であり、例えば、潅漑用水の整備・維持、種子・農料の貸与・給付（出挙もこれに含まれる）、耕地の配分、農業労働力の組織編成、荒廃地の開発、税率の上下調整などが含まれていた。
English: These were originally intended to promote and enhance production of farmers, and also ensued tax collection for the rulers.
Japanese: これらは、本来、農民による生産を促進・拡大を意図したものだったが、一方では、支配者にとって租税収入を確保するという側面もあった。
English: The cultivation plan for a million-cho rice field under the ritsuryo government in 722 is a kind of kanno and the government tried to increase and ensure financial revenues by promoting agricultural production.
Japanese: 律令政府が722年に企画した良田百万町歩開墾計画も、勧農の一形態であり、農業生産を振興することにより、財政収入を増加・確保しようとしたものである。
English: Under the ritsuryo system, kanno was defined as the duty of kokushi and the measures and policies of kanno were implemented by kokushi.
Japanese: 律令制では、勧農は国司の職務として規定されており、国司による各種の勧農施策が行われた。
English: Around the middle of the Heian period, the ritsuryo governmental system collapsed, a system whereby shoen and kokuga region were governing units was established and the contents of kanno gradually changed.
Japanese: 平安時代中期ごろに律令制が崩壊し、荘園・国衙領を支配単位とする体制が確立していくと、勧農の内容も次第に変質していった。
English: Shoen owners appointed the local leading farmers (such as tato who managed the rice fields in shoen or kokuga domain) as myoshu (the class entrusted to manage myoden, rice field as a basic unit for tax levying), sent the direct subordinate azukari dokoro (appointed local shoen manager) to the local region as well as stabilized the local management of shoen and they did their best to strengthen and maintain the governance of shoen.
Japanese: 荘園領主は、現地の有力農民（田堵など）を名主に任じ、荘園の現地経営を安定させると同時に、直属の預所を現地へ派遣するなどして、荘園支配の強化維持に努めた。
English: Meanwhile, the kanno by shoen owners was expected by farmers or myoshu, for example, the exemption of nengu or benefits for laborers and so on.
Japanese: その中で、荘園領主による勧農は、百姓や名主も期待するところであり、例として年貢の減免や雑役人夫への給付などが行われた。
English: Sometimes, shoen owners ordered myoshu or azukari dokoro to implement the kanno.
Japanese: 場合によっては、荘園領主が命じて名主や預所に勧農を行わせることもあった。
English: During the middle and late of the Heian period, the local landlords accumulated fortunes by the management of myoden, amassed neighboring or cultivated rice fields, and aimed to govern ordinary farmers in these rice fields.
Japanese: 在地領主は、平安中期～後期を通じて、名田経営により富を蓄積し、周辺田地や開発墾田を集積するとともに、それらの田地内の一般百姓を支配下に置こうと指向していた。
English: For this reason, they developed an irrigation plan and strengthened the governance over the local regions through the kanno acts which made ordinary farmers cultivate their own private rice fields and so on.
Japanese: そのため、潅漑用水を開発したり、自らの私営田を一般百姓に耕作させるなどの勧農行為をとおして、在地に対する支配力を強めていった。
English: Such a move became more prominent during the Kamakura period and lawsuits over the right of kanno between shoen owners and local landlords occurred frequently during the middle of the Kamakura period.
Japanese: こうした動きは、鎌倉時代になると一層顕著となり、鎌倉中期には荘園領主と在地領主との間で勧農権をめぐる相論（訴訟）が頻発するようになる。
English: That is, jito during the Kamakura period insisted on their effective authority by practicing the kanno as local landlords and in this way the jito's invasion of the shoens was completed.
Japanese: つまり、鎌倉期の地頭は、在地領主として勧農を実施することで、現地の実効支配権をも主張したのであり、このようにして地頭による荘園侵略が行われたのである。
English: During the Edo period the society was stabilized, bushis as a ruling class aimed to moderate governance according to the spirit of Confucius, that is, governance by humanity and justice.
Japanese: 江戸時代になると社会が安定し、支配層となった武士は儒教精神に基づく穏健な支配、すなわち仁政を指向するようになった。
English: Meanwhile, the ruling class not only exploited farmers by nengu, but also implemented several measures of kanno to cultivate farmers.
Japanese: その中で、支配層は農民を育成するため、年貢による収奪だけでなく、様々な勧農施策を実施した。
English: Especially around 1643, the mighty famine encouraged the landlord class such as daimyo (leading bushi who governed the local regions) or hatamoto (direct retainer of the shogun) to implement the kanno to develop new rice fields and so on to ensure production revenue.
Japanese: 特に1643年（寛永20）ごろに発生した大飢饉を契機として、大名や旗本らの領主層は、生産収入を確保するため、積極的に新田開発などの勧農を行った。
English: Cultivated areas dramatically increased with these measures, from about one million six hundred thousand choho in the early seventeenth century to about three million choho in the early eighteenth century.
Japanese: これにより、耕地が大幅に増加し、17世紀当初の約160万町歩が18世紀初めには約300万町歩にまで激増した。
English: During the middle of the Edo period life in farming villages was exhausting, but during the late eighteenth century to the early nineteenth century (from Kansei era to Bunkabunsei era) the Edo bakufu began to drastically revive the farming villages, maintained irrigation facilities and developed denuded lands as well as made loans for them, appointed competent men as daikan (managing post instead of the landlord) and made him perform the same duties for a long time.
Japanese: 江戸中期には、農村生活の疲弊が見られるようになったが、18世紀後期～19世紀前期（寛政期～文化文政期）ごろ、幕府は農村復興を大々的に進め、潅漑用水の整備や荒廃地の開発、そのための資金融資を実施するとともに、有能な者を代官に任命して長期間、同一職務にあたらせた。
English: These daikans actively performed several kannos and were honored as excellent daikans by the local people in various regions and the shrines which enshrine their honorable monuments or the daikans themselves have been carefully preserved until now.
Japanese: これらの代官は諸々の勧農を積極的に遂行していき、各地で領民から名代官として顕彰され、現代まで顕彰碑や代官を祀る神社が大切に残されている。
English: The term Kajishi (加地子) means rice (sakutokumai) delivered as a tax to a resident land-owner like myoshu (owner of rice fields) in the Japanese medieval period on top of nengu (customs)/jishi (land tax) for the lord of shoen (manor)/kokuga (provincial government officials) (kokushi (provincial governor)).
Japanese: 加地子（かじし）は、日本の中世において、荘園領主・国衙（国司）へ納入する年貢・地子の他に、名主などの在地領主に対して納入した米（作得米）を指す租税の一形態。
English: It was called Kajishi because it was imposed as a surcharge on honnengu/honjishi (normal nengu/jishi).
Japanese: 本年貢・本地子の加徴分として賦課されたことから加地子と呼ばれるようになった。
English: After kokugaryo (rice fields governed by provincial government office) and shoen became myoden (land held by non-resident owners), wealthy farmers (Tato) were in charge of on site management as myoshu/shokan (officer governing shoen).
Japanese: 国衙領・荘園の名田化により、富豪百姓（田堵）が名主・荘官として現地経営にあたった。
English: Myoshu/shokan were obliged to collect kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes)/nengu imposed on myoden and deliver them to kokuga/lord of shoen (ryoke).
Japanese: 名主・荘官は名田に係る官物・年貢を徴収して、国衙・荘園領主（領家）へ納入する義務を負っていた。
English: Under such arrangement, myoshu/shokan were also entitled to their own share, which was imposed on top of nengu/jishi, and this was called Kajishi.
Japanese: これに伴って、名主・荘官にも加徴的な得分が認められるようになり、これが加地子と呼ばれるようになったのである。
English: Kajishi was the principal source of income for myoshu/shokan and it was not uncommon to see cases where the amount of Kajishi exceeded that of normal nengu/jishi by several times.
Japanese: 加地子は、名主・荘官層の主要な収入源となり、本来の年貢・地子を上回ることも珍しくなく、年貢・地子の数倍に及ぶことすらあった。
English: Originally, cultivators delivered the total Kajishi and honnengu to myoshu/shokan.
Japanese: 最初、加地子は、耕作者から名主・荘官へ本年貢と合算して納入されていた。
English: Myoshu/shokan deducted their share and delivered the balance to kokuga/ryoke.
Japanese: その中から、名主・荘官が自らの得分である加地子を差し引いて、残分を年貢として国衙・領家へ納入していたのである。
English: However, Kajishi for myoshu/shokan and honnengu for kokuga/ryoke had been delivered separately since the Kamakura period.
Japanese: しかし、鎌倉時代ごろから、名主・荘官への加地子と、国衙・領家への本年貢が別個に納入されるようになっていった。
English: The above indicates the fact that sakunin, cultivator, obtained the status as a direct bearer of the burden of nengu while the status of myoshu/shokan declined to the one only gaining Kajishi.
Japanese: このことは、耕作者である作人（さくにん）が直接の年貢負担者としての地位を獲得したこと、そして名主・荘官層が加地子を得るだけの地位に低下したことを意味する。
English: In the meantime, myoshu, who only gained Kajishi, was called Kajishi myoshushiki.
Japanese: なお、加地子のみを得る名主を加地子名主職（かじしみょうしゅしき）という。
English: Over time, the right to gain Kajishi was divided and became the object of sale or donation.
Japanese: こうして、加地子を得る権利は分化していき、売買や寄進の対象となった。
English: Tato means the wealthy farmer class that managed rice fields belonging to shoen (manor) or kokugaryo (rice fields governed by provincial government office) during Japan's Heian period.
Japanese: 田堵（たと）は、日本の平安時代に荘園・国衙領の田地経営をおこなった有力百姓層である。
English: The term '田刀' first appeared in kenden-cho (note of Cadastral Surveys) of Echinosho, Omi Province owned by Ganko-ji Temple, as of December 895.
Japanese: 貞観_(日本)元年（895年）12月付の元興寺領近江国愛智荘（えちのしょう）の検田帳に「田刀」とあるのが初見である。
English: When the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on ritsuryo code) began to dissolve around the ninth-tenth century, some farmers amassed wealth by cultivating rice fields which they rented from others.
Japanese: 9世紀～10世紀ごろに律令制の解体が進展していくと、百姓の中に他から田地を借りて耕作し、富を蓄積する富豪層が出現した。
English: Many Tato were local powerful clans, who were the descendants of Gunji (local magistrate) during ancient times, or ex-officials such as native provisional governors.
Japanese: 田堵には、古来の郡司一族に出自する在地豪族や、土着国司などの退官した律令官人を出自とする者が多かった。
English: With amassed wealth in hand, they further accumulated wealth by developing and managing additional land or subjected other petty farmers by lending rice seeds to them.
Japanese: 彼らは、蓄積した富をもって、墾田開発・田地経営などの営田活動を進めたり、他の百姓への出挙を行ったりして、より一層、富を集積し、一般の零細な百姓層を隷属化して成長していった。
English: Then, when koden (rice fields administered directly by a ruler) located in kokugaryo was reorganized into myoden (rice fields owned by a nominal holder), Tato became the persons who undertook the management of myoden.
Japanese: そして、まず国衙領において、公田から名田への再編成が行われると、田堵が名田経営を請け負う主体に位置づけられるようになる。
English: Further, when reorganization into myoden reached shoen, Tato undertook the management of myoden located inside shoen as well.
Japanese: さらに、荘園にも名田化が波及すると、荘園内の名田経営も田堵が請け負うようになった。
English: Thus, Tato were deeply engaged in the management of shoen/koryo (public land) and eventually gained the status of shokan (an officer governing shoen) or myoshu (owner of rice fields).
Japanese: こうして田堵は、荘園・公領経営に深く携わるようになっていき、荘官や名主の地位を得るのである。
English: Depending upon the scale of land under their management, they were called either Daimyo Tato or Shomyo Tato.
Japanese: 田堵は、その経営規模によって、大名田堵（だいみょうたと）や小名田堵（しょうみょうたと）などと呼ばれた。
English: We can learn the reality of Tato from the following descriptions included in the "Shinsarugakuki," a book written in the eleventh century reflecting the social conditions at the time.
Japanese: 11世紀に成立した『新猿楽記』という世相を映し出した書物には、以下の内容の記載があり、田堵の実情をよく知ることができる。
English: Dewa gon no suke (Deputy governor of Dewa Province) Toyomasu TANAKA is a specialist in agricultural management and at the same time, he is Daimyo Tato who manages several hectares of rice fields.'
Japanese: 「出羽権介の田中豊益は、農業経営を専門とし、数町の田地を経営する大名田堵である。」
English: He nurtures farmers while preparing for drought by maintaining farming tools and irrigation channels and leads farmers well when it's time to sow their seeds.'
Japanese: 「ひでりに備えて、農具や用水の整備にいそしんで農民の育成にあたり、種播期には農民の作業をうまく指揮する。」
English: Bitasen was a coin of very poor quality among those circulated during late Medieval Japan.
Japanese: 鐚銭（びたせん）とは、日本の中世後期に流通した銭貨の中で、品質が著しく劣悪なものをいう。
English: In Japan money circulation had become active around the late Kamakura period, and Chinese coins minted and used in China were predominantly circulated.
Japanese: 日本では、鎌倉時代後期ごろから貨幣の流通が活発化したが、主に中国で鋳造された中国銭が流通していた。
English: These Chinese coins were brought into Japan through trade with China (during the Baisong, Yuan Dynasty, for example) and such coins also came to be privately minted in Japan.
Japanese: これらの中国銭は、中国（北宋・元(王朝)など）との貿易を通じて日本にもたらされたが、日本でもこれらの貨幣を私的に鋳造する者が現れた。
English: The quality of Shichusen was often very poor, for example part of the detail was often missing, it had no hole, and the letters on it were impossible to read.
Japanese: 私鋳銭は、一部が欠落したもの、穴が開いていないもの、字が潰れて判読できないものなど、非常に粗悪なものが多かった。
English: Such poor quality coins were called bitasen and considered to have less value than common coins.
Japanese: そのため、これら粗悪な銭貨は鐚銭と呼ばれ、一般の銭貨よりも低い価値とされるようになった。