nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The early Kamakura bakufu, established in 1180, appointed the jito who was responsible for the office work of tax collection and the control and police power in shoen and koryo from gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods).
Japanese: 1180年に発足した初期鎌倉幕府は、御家人の中から荘園・公領の徴税事務や管理・警察権を司る地頭を任命していった。
English: And thus, the status of gokenin as the local lord was secured not by honjo which was originally the lord of shoen, but by the bakufu.
Japanese: これにより、御家人の在地領主としての地位は、本来の荘園領主である本所ではなく幕府によって保全されることとなった。
English: Naturally the honjo side objected to this and as the result of negotiation between the central government and the bakufu, the set up of jito was limited only to Heishi mokkanryo (land rights confiscated by the Kamakura bakufu from the Taira family) and muhonninryo (land rights confiscated by the Kamakura bakufu from rebels).
Japanese: 当然、本所側は反発し、中央政府と幕府の調整の結果、地頭の設置は平氏没官領と謀反人領のみに限定された。
English: The bakufu however, got the right to appoint the jito in shoen and koryo of various provinces, when the rebellion of MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune happened in 1185.
Japanese: しかし、幕府は1185年の源義経謀叛を契機に、諸国の荘園・公領に地頭を任ずる権利を得ることとなった。
English: As the result of Jokyu War in 1221, the imperial court centering on the Retired Emperor Gotoba was defeated by the bakufu and all the lands of the aristocrats and samurais who were on the side of the Retired Emperor were confiscated.
Japanese: 1221年の承久の乱の結果、後鳥羽上皇を中心とする朝廷が幕府に敗れる事態となり、上皇方についた貴族・武士の所領はすべて没収された。
English: The number of these confiscated lands was up to 3000, centering on the Kinai and Saigoku (western part of Japan (esp. Kyushu, but ranging as far east as Kinki)) regions, and the gokenins were appointed to the jitos of the confiscated lands as onsho (reward grants) (Shinpo-Jito, new estate steward for territories confiscated from the imperial court).
Japanese: これらの没収領は畿内・西国を中心に3000箇所にのぼり、御家人たちは恩賞として没収領の地頭に任命された（新補地頭）。
English: This caused many of Togoku samurai (a group of samurai in the eastern part of Japan) to move to the Kinai and Saigoku regions and the influence of the bakufu widely spread across Japan.
Japanese: これにより東国武士が多数、畿内・西国へ移住し、幕府の勢力が広く全国に及ぶこととなった。
English: The jitos operated the kanno (encouragement of agriculture) in shoen and koryo and expanded their dominance and so many disputes with the lords of shoens happened.
Japanese: 地頭たちは荘園・公領において、勧農の実施などを通じて自らの支配を拡大していったため、荘園領主との紛争が多く発生した。
English: The lords of shoens filed a suit to the bakufu on these incidents (shomusata, trial dealing with land-related issues), but surprisingly there were many cases where the side of the lords of shoens won a lawsuit and the side of the jitos lost (which means that the fairness of the bakufu's litigation system was secured).
Japanese: 荘園領主はこうした事案（所務沙汰）について幕府へ訴訟を起こしたが、意外にも領主側が勝訴し、地頭側が敗訴する事案が多くあった（幕府の訴訟制度が公平性を確保していたことを表している）。
English: However, as the jitos tended to solve the disputes by force and many results of the lawsuits were not effective, the lords of shoens were compelled to do jitouke (the contract system that the manor's owner entrusts a jito to manage his manor and pay the customs), where the jitos did not undertake the payment for a certain amount of nengu (land tax) and instead controlled the shoens.
Japanese: しかし、地頭は紛争を武力で解決しようとする傾向が強く、訴訟結果が実効を伴わないことも多かったため、荘園領主はやむを得ず、一定額の年貢納入を請け負わせる代わりに荘園の管理を委ねる地頭請（じとううけ）を行うことがあった。
English: Jitokuke laid it down that a certain amount of nengu must be paid in spite of the success or failure of the crop yields and so the burden of the jito side was not small.
Japanese: 地頭請は、収穫量の出来・不出来に関わらず毎年一定量の年貢を納入することとされていたため、地頭側の負担も決して少なくなかった。
English: The shitaji (lands) were divided into halves and there was wayo chubun (territorial division agreed to by compromise) where the lands were divided into halves by the compromise between the both sides and in some cases the bakufu divided the lands following the claim of the lords of shoens.
Japanese: これは、土地（下地）を折半（中分）するもので、両者の交渉（和与）で中分する和与中分と荘園領主の申し立てにより幕府が裁定する中分とがあった。
English: Through these processes, jitos gradually strengthened their dominance over shoen and koryo.
Japanese: このような経緯を経て、次第に地頭が荘園・公領への支配を強めていくこととなった。
English: In shoen and koryo in those days the center of production activity on the spot was myoshu (owner of rice fields) of high-ranking farmers.
Japanese: 当時の荘園・公領で現地での生産活動の中心だったのが、上層農民の名主（みょうしゅ）である。
English: Myoshus built their houses, governed low-ranking farmers such as genin (servants who served to their masters as slaves) or shoju (retainers) and so on and owned good rice fields called tsukuda (directly-managed rice fields by a lord or an officer of shoen) near their houses, undertaking the cultivation of myoden from local lords and jitos.
Japanese: 名主は領主・地頭から名田の耕作を請け負いながら、屋敷を構え、下人や所従などの下層農民を支配し、屋敷近くに佃（つくだ）と呼ばれる良田を所有した。
English: The taxes which myoshus bore for the lords of shoen and jito were nengu, kuji, buyaku (labor service) and so on.
Japanese: 名主が荘園領主や地頭に対して負担した租税は、年貢、公事、夫役などであった。
English: At this time, the techniques of agriculture remarkably developed and with the spread of a two-crop system and iron farming equipments, the agricultural production also dramatically increased.
Japanese: この時代、農業技術が著しく発達し、二毛作や鉄製農具の普及により、農業生産が飛躍的に増加した。
English: For this reason, the class of farmers began to get economic power and the awareness of their rights against local lords and jitos heightened.
Japanese: このため、農民層にも経済力がつき始め、領主・地頭への権利意識が高まることとなった。
English: From the demise of the Kamakura bakufu in 1333 to the Kenmu Restoration or the early Muromachi period, the maelstrom of war continued and the ownership relationship of shoen were also fluidized.
Japanese: 1333年の鎌倉幕府滅亡から建武の新政、室町時代初期までの間は、全国的に戦乱が相次ぎ、荘園の所有関係も非常に流動化した。
English: For this reason, in the shoen before the Kamakura period, the dispersed rural settlements where the houses were sparsely scattered were normal, but in the Muromachi period the common people increasingly tended to consolidate as a village unit for self-defense.
Japanese: このため、鎌倉期以前の荘園では、住居がまばらに点在する散村が通常であったが、室町期に入ると、民衆が自己防衛のため村落単位で団結する傾向が強まっていった。
English: The newly inaugurated Muromachi bakufu strengthened the power and authority of shugo positioned in each province in order to prevent the maelstrom of war and organize the local samurais.
Japanese: 新たに発足した室町幕府は、戦乱を抑えることを目的として、在地武士を組織するため、国単位におかれる守護の権限を強化した。
English: In 1346, the bakufu gave to shugos the power and authority of control of karita-rozeki (to reap rice illegally) and of shisetsu jungyo (process for implementing bakufu's decision on conflicts regarding property ownership).
Japanese: 1346年、幕府は守護に対して、刈田狼藉の取締と使節遵行の権限を付与した。
English: Furthermore in 1352, the bakufu admitted that only three provinces of Omi, Mino and Owari had hanzei (the system in the Muromachi period where the Muromachi bakufu allowed Shugo to collect half of the taxes from manors and demesnes as military funds).
Japanese: さらに、1352年、守護が軍費調達の名目で荘園・公領からの年貢の半分を徴発する半済を、近江・美濃・尾張3国に限定して認めた。
English: Hanzei was admitted temporarily and in a limited way, but the admitted areas gradually increased and so constantly admitted.
Japanese: 半済はあくまで限定的かつ臨時に認められていたが、次第に適用地域が拡がっていき、かつ定常的に行われるようになった。
English: Shugouke, where shugos undertook the collection of nengu from lords of shoen, started to be done actively and shugos' governance of shoens was strengthened.
Japanese: 守護が荘園領主から年貢徴収を請け負う守護請も活発に行われ始め、守護による荘園支配が強まった。
English: On the other hand, the common people living in shoen and koryo formed villages and aimed for their independence.
Japanese: 一方、荘園・公領に在住する民衆は、村落を形成し、自立を指向していった。
English: In the Tohoku, Kanto, and Kyushu regions, the villages were loosely formed as a wider unit of shoen and koryo and they were sometimes called goson (autonomous village).
Japanese: 東北・関東・九州ではより広い荘園・公領単位でのゆるやかな村落が形成され、これを郷村と呼ぶこともある。
English: These sosons and gosons improved their self-governing capabilities and jigeuke was also done, where they undertook the collection of nengu directly from lords of shoen.
Japanese: これら惣村・郷村は高い自治能力を醸成していき、荘園領主から直接、年貢納入を請け負う地下請（じげうけ）が行われることもあった。
English: The shoens gradually collapsed with the aggrandizement of shugo-daimyo and the independence of sosons and gosons.
Japanese: 守護大名の権限強化と惣村・郷村の自立とによって、荘園は次第に解体への道を進んでいくこととなった。
English: Sengoku-daimyo during the Sengoku period strengthened the regional governance more than shugo-daimyo did.
Japanese: 戦国時代(日本)の戦国大名は、守護大名以上に、地域支配を強めていった。
English: As Sengoku-daimyos established their own regions of influence by force, they dissolved the previous rights and often gave their regions to the retainers, temples or shrines.
Japanese: 戦国大名は武力で自らの支配地域を確立していったため、従前の権利関係を解消して、支配地域を家臣や寺社へ分け与えることが多かった。
English: Even if the disputes over the ownership of shoens happened, there did not exist the authority which could settle them, and thus those who had the power came to govern the shoens.
Japanese: 荘園の所有を巡る紛争が発生しても、それを裁定しうる機関が存在しないため、実力を有する者が支配するようになったのである。
English: Among them, like the Tosa Ichijo clan, some central aristocrats who were the lords of shoen went to the shoen to maintain the governance of shoen and were indigenized there to become Sengoku-daimyo.
Japanese: 中には土佐の一条氏（土佐一条氏）のように、荘園領主である中央貴族が荘園支配を維持するため、荘園へ下向し、そのまま土着して戦国大名となってしまった例もある。
English: After 1580's, the land survey was conducted nationwide by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI (Taiko-kenchi).
Japanese: 1580年代以降、豊臣秀吉により全国的に検地が施行された（太閤検地）。
English: The other Sengoku-daimyos also conducted land surveys, but the characteristics of Taiko-kenchi by Hideyoshi was to admit only one cultivator in each land.
Japanese: 検地は他の戦国大名も行っていたが、秀吉の太閤検地の特徴は、1つの土地に1人の耕作者のみ認めた点にある。
English: Thus, the multilayered land ownership relationships as seen in the traditional shoens were all dissolved and the shoen, which had began during the Nara period, finally ended.
Japanese: これで、従来の荘園に見られた重層的な土地所有関係がすべて解消され、奈良時代に始まった荘園はここで終焉を迎えることとなった。
English: In Taiko-kenchi, the jigeuke, which had been a customary practice since the Muromachi period, was succeeded and the murauke system (village-wide, collective responsibility for tax payment), where one village was responsible for the collective tax payment, was applied and the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) also succeeded the murauke system.
Japanese: 太閤検地では室町期以来、慣行となっていた地下請を継承して、村が一括して年貢を納入する村請（むらうけ）が採用され、江戸幕府も村請を継続した。
English: Also after shoens disappeared, the job titles of shoya (village headman) or the names of places such as XXX sho (荘, 庄) and so on remained as their remnants.
Japanese: 荘園が消滅した後も、その名残として庄屋の職名や○○荘（庄）などの地名が存続した。
English: And in the modern era, the academic studies on shoens also progressed and "Shoenshiryo" (Dictionary of manors in Japan edited by Masatake SHIMIZU) was edited in 1933 and the study on Kuroda no sho of Iga Province by Tadashi ISHIMODA and so on is well-known.
Japanese: また、近代に入ると、荘園に関する学術的な研究の進展も見られ、1933年には『荘園志料』が編纂されたほか、石母田正らによる伊賀国黒田荘の研究は良く知られている。
English: Moreover, from the late twentieth century, the local areas increasingly form the identities by the historical fact that they were formerly shoens.
Japanese: 更に20世紀末期頃から、かつて荘園だった史実がその地方のアイデンティティを形成する事例が増え始めている。
English: For example, in Tashibu no sho in Bungo-Takada City, Oita Prefecture, the view of shoens of the early medieval times remains unusually even across Japan and they promote regional development through this.
Japanese: 例えば、大分県豊後高田市の田染荘（たしぶのしょう）では、中世前期の荘園景観が残存している全国でも珍しい地区であり、このことを核として地域振興に取り組んでいる。
English: Since the Han Dynasty in China, there had existed lands called 'sho' or 'en' that the Empress, the imperial families and the rich owned, which were the origin of shoen.
Japanese: 中国においては、漢の時代より后妃や皇族、富豪らが所有する「荘」もしくは「園」と呼ばれるものが存在し、これが荘園の元となった。
English: However, 'sho' or 'en' in those days were mainly villas for entertainment and they included attached gardens and furthermore the surrounding rural areas, mountains, and forests.
Japanese: ただし、当時の「荘」や「園」の主体は娯楽のための別荘であり、これに附属の庭園、更には周囲の田園や山林を含めたものであった。
English: In the Nan-Dynasty during the Rikucho period they were called bessho (villa) or betsugyo (villa), some of the Ciangnan aristocracy had hundreds of fields (of rice and other crops), but they were regarded as a part of the villa.
Japanese: 六朝時代の南朝(中国)では、別墅（べっしょ）・別業と呼ばれて江南貴族の中には数百頃の田畠を持つ者も存在したが、あくまでも別荘の一部として捉えられていた。
English: After the middle of Tang dynasty the equal-field system collapsed and the imperial court, aristocrats, warriors, local ruling families and so on increasingly tended to own the fields (of rice and other crops) as their asset and in various regions shoden (field within a manor) and shoen came to be formed.
Japanese: 中唐以後均田制が崩壊すると、宮廷や貴族、武人、地方の豪族などが個人で田畠を財産として私有する風潮が強まり、各地で荘田・荘園が形成されるようになる。
English: During the Five Dynasties period the class of aristocrats was impoverished and during the early Sung dynasty, while kakyo system (the Imperial Examination System) was streamlined, the strength of warriors was oppressed and so the bureaucracy was born from the local ruling families, who protected the bureaucrats to develop the shoens for them and their families.
Japanese: 五代には貴族層が没落し、宋(王朝)初には科挙制度が整備される一方で武人の勢力が抑圧されるようになったために、地方の豪族から官僚が生み出され、その庇護によって当人及び一族の荘園が発展するという構図が描かれるようになった。
English: The fields (of rice and other crops) which made up the shoens included the land from the Emperor, the new rice field, the land by purchase or by pawning or donation and also land acquired by robbery with violence and so on.
Japanese: 荘園を構成する田畠は主に皇帝よりの恩賜地や墾田、質入や買入による購入、寄進、更には暴力を伴う強奪などの手法によって獲得されたものも含まれていた。
English: For this reason there were various types of shoens, for example, they made shoen throughout the regions, drew lines between the shoens with natural objects such as mountains, rivers, and so on, and regarded the dispersed lands as one shoen and so on and some of them possessed many shoens across the roads.
Japanese: そのため、地域一円を荘園化して山や川などの自然物をもって境界とした荘園や分散した土地を合わせて1つの荘園として扱う場合など様々な形態が存在し、中には数路にわたって多数の荘園を有する者も存在した。
English: The shoens during the Tang and Sung dynasty did not have the right of tax exemption and the right to keep the tax agents from entering the property, but the lands from the Emperor were exempt from taxation and the shoens owned by bureaucrats had the right of tax exemptions and so some farmers donated their shoens to the bureaucrats so as to escape from heavy tax burden.
Japanese: 唐や宋の荘園には不輸不入の権限は存在しなかったものの、皇帝からの恩賜地は租税を減免され、官僚所有の荘園には免役特権が存在したため、農民が重い税負担から逃れるために荘園を官僚に寄進する例も見られた。
English: Furthermore, considering this, some non-bureaucrats who owned shoens also tried to escape from tax payments, which was not normally allowed, through their personal connections with the government or bureaucrats.
Japanese: 更にこれを見た非官僚の荘園所有者も政府や官僚との個人的つながりを通じて本来は許されない租税の納付を回避しようとする者もいた。
English: As a result, the finance of the central government was influenced by this and during the Sung dynasty in 1022, the proposition that the manors owned by a bureaucrat be limited to 30 and shorigozenmaeshoen to 15 was issued but it failed and later the regulations of tax exemptions were promulgated to impose the restrictions on the range of tax exemptions and the donations.
Japanese: その結果、中央財政にも影響を与えるようになり、宋王朝では乾興(宋)元年（1022年）に官僚荘園を30頃、将吏衙前荘園を15頃に制限する提案が出されたものの失敗し、その後限田免役法を行って免役の範囲や寄進に制約を課そうとしている。
English: However, the imperial court or the authority themselves were big owners of shoens and there also existed the shoens belonging to the imperial court (the naishotakushi during the Tang dynasty and the gosho during the Sung dynasty), eidenkansho (the manor cultivated for the military purpose) or tondengunsho (the manor cultivated for the military purpose) which was made around military strategic spots in order to secure army provisions by the cultivation and settlement of ex-legionary, the manors such as botsukanden (confiscated fields) and so on.
Japanese: もっとも、宮廷や官庁自身も荘園の一大所有者であり、宮廷に属する荘園（唐の内荘宅使、宋の御荘）や軍事的要所の周囲にて兵糧確保のために開墾・屯田によって形成された営田官荘および屯田軍荘、その他民間から没収して没官田の官荘なども存在していた。
English: Shoin (manor) and Shotaku (manor) consisted of the owners of shoen, their families, the managers called kansho (the caretaker of the manor), kanjin (the caretaker of the manor) and the servants who did household chores.
Japanese: 荘院・荘宅には荘園の所有者とその家族、監荘・管荘・幹人と呼ばれる管理者層、その他家事労働などを行う使用人などから構成された。
English: Sometimes the owners were directly involved with the management of shoens, but the managers who were hired by the owners supervised denko (tenant farmers) or slaves, collected the land tax or farm rent in the form of products or money from them and at times gained the amount of difference by investment using the market price.
Japanese: 荘園は所有者が直接経営に携わる場合もあったが、所有者に雇われた管理者が直接耕作者である佃戸及び奴隷を監督して生産物や金銭などの形式で租税や小作料を徴収して管理し、時には相場を利用して運用を図り差額を儲ける者もいた。
English: After the bao-jia system (an administrative system organized on basis of households) was enacted, managers were hired from the denko and made the denko organize the ko and the head of ko, who helped the collection of taxes and farm rent, was set up.
Japanese: 保甲法制定以後、管理者から佃戸の中から雇用されて佃戸に甲を編成させるとともに租税・小作料徴収業務の補佐を行う甲頭が設置された。
English: The denko was also called shokyaku, jikyaku, tsukudaboku, kyakko and among them some independent farmers who had his own land played a role of denko for a living.
Japanese: 佃戸は荘客・地客・佃僕・客戸とも呼ばれ、中には自己の土地を持つ自作農が生活の資のために佃戸の役目を担う例もあった。
English: Dozens of or hundreds of the houses for denko were built in shoens and some lived there and others went there from outside.
Japanese: 荘園内に数十ないし数百の佃戸が建てられそこに住む者と外部から通う者がいる。
English: They received necessary farming implements and cattle for cultivation from the owners or the managers, cultivated the farmlands in shoens, paid taxes and farm rent and did labor services in the shoens.
Japanese: 彼らは必要な農具や耕牛の提供を所有者や管理者から受けながら荘園内の耕地を耕作して租税や小作料を納めた他、荘園内の労働にも従事した。
English: As for slaves, some were characteristically domestic slaves and others had an independent house and were characteristically similar to denkos.
Japanese: 奴隷は家内奴隷的な性質を有する者と独立した住居を構えて佃戸に近い性質を有する者があった。
English: Slaves were in the tradition of shinuhi (privately-owned slave) and buqu (a serf) and until the Tang dynasty they had played an important role in the labor service in shoens, but in the Sung dynasty the cultivation by denko cost less for the owners and the managers and gradually the labor was charged to denko and slaves progressively became employees.
Japanese: 奴隷は前時代の私奴婢・部曲の流れを汲み、唐代までは荘園内の労働において重要な役目を担っていたが、宋代になると佃戸による耕作の方が所有者・管理者の負担が軽く、次第に佃戸に切り替えられたり、奴隷の雇傭者化が進むことになっていった。
English: In spite of this, slaves were not completely omitted as the members who cultivated the directly-managed lands.
Japanese: それでも直営地を耕す要員として奴隷が完全に排除されることは無かった。
English: Also during the Ming and Ching dynasty, the government-owned land of the previous dynasty, the confiscated fields (the confiscated shoens of the previous dynasty affiliates) and the denuded lands during war-torn eras and so on were given to the imperial court, the shoo (princes who didn't receive any proclamation to be an Imperial Prince), the relatives who did a distinguished military service, the bureaucrats and so on as shoden (field within a manor) and shoen and so on.
Japanese: 明清期においても、前王朝の官有地や没官地（前王朝関係者の荘園を接収したもの）、戦乱のおりの荒廃地などを宮廷や諸王、勲戚、官僚などに荘田・荘園などとして与えられた。
English: These shoens were managed by a government official of the central government or a koi (a military officer), but sometimes the powerful men on the spots were appointed to the head of shoens and charged with the office work.
Japanese: こうした荘園は中央の内官や校尉によって管理されたが、現地の有力者を荘頭に任じて実務を行わせる場合もあった。
English: During the Ching dynasty, instead of the imperial manor, the Imperial Household manor or Shengjing Ministry of Revenue and Ministry of Rites are set up in Hokuchokurei or Manchuria which were the bases.
Japanese: 清では皇荘に替わって拠点となる北直隷及び満洲に内務府官荘や盛京戸部・礼部官荘が設けられた。
English: The head of shoen who was descendant of the Han race and had the right of tenant farming was put in the manors and he collected the tax from the manor and paid products (in later times, money) to the imperial court.
Japanese: 官荘には永小作権を有する漢人世襲の荘頭が置かれ、官荘内より租税を集めて生産物（後世にはその代銀）を宮廷に納めた。
English: Concerning the understanding on Chinese shoens in Japanese academia (mainly the contrast between 'the basic principle of world history' and European shoens in medieval times), opinions have been divided roughly into two theories and disputed.
Japanese: 日本の学界では中国の荘園に対する理解（主に「世界史の基本原則」及び中世ヨーロッパの荘園との対比）について大きく分けると2説に分かれて論争が行われてきた。
English: One theory by Yoshiyuki SUDO, Toshikazu HORI and so on is that with the demise of the Equal-field system, the land ownership principle by peasant folks collapsed, the large landholding began, the owner and the denko were born and in the Sung dynasty the class of owners became the bureaucrats who came to manage shoens using the denkos.
Japanese: 1つは周藤吉之・堀敏一らの説で均田制の崩壊で小農民による土地所有原則が崩壊して大土地所有が発生して地主と佃戸が形成され、宋代に入ると地主層が官僚となり佃戸を駆使して荘園を経営するようになった。
English: Denkos were put in the situation where they could not earn a living without economical support by the owner, did not have the freedom of transfer and were locked in the land, which, they think, was a kind of serf system.
Japanese: 佃戸は地主によって経済的な依存なくして生計が立てられない状況に置かれ、移転の自由を持たず土地に呪縛された一種の農奴制であったというものである。
English: The other theory by Ichisada MIYAZAKI and so on is from the viewpoint which does not acknowledge the operation of the Equal-field system, the development of shoens by the large-landholders and the cultivation by poor folks were done and led to the shoen in later times from the Han dynasty.
Japanese: もう1つは宮崎市定らの説で均田制の実施を認めない立場から漢代から大土地所有者による荘園開発と貧民を招いた耕作が行われ後世の荘園をその延長とする。
English: The buqus during the Tang dynasty corresponded to the serfs in Europe, but during the chaos after the late Tang dynasty buqus became independent and the large landholding widely collapsed.
Japanese: 唐代の部曲がヨーロッパの農奴に相当していたが、晩唐以後の混乱によって部曲が自立して一円的な大土地所有も分解した。
English: As a result, shoens during the Sung dynasty, in fact, just regarded the collection of small lands as shoens for convenience and the owners and the denkos established contractual relationships as free men and based on it, shoens were managed by the tenancy system.
Japanese: その結果、宋代の荘園の内実は零細な土地片の集積を便宜上荘園としているに過ぎず、地主と佃戸は自由人間の契約関係に基づく小作制度によって経営されていたとするものである。
English: These two theories are closely related with the periodization theory in Chinese history and Sudo's standpoint is that the Tang dynasty and the Five Dynasties period were 'ancient' and the Sung dynasty 'medieval' and Miyazaki's standpoint is that the age of the Han dynasty was 'ancient' and the Three Kingdoms period (China), the Tang dynasty to the Five Dynasties period 'medieval' and the Sung dynasty 'early modern,' and in both of their 'medieval,' there existed the shoens managed by the serf system which should be compared with the manors in medieval Europe.
Japanese: この両者の説は中国史における時代区分論と密接に関係しており、周藤は唐及び五代を「古代」・宋を「中世」とする立場から、宮崎は漢代を「古代」・三国時代(中国)から唐及び五代を「中世」・宋を「近世」とする立場に立っており、ヨーロッパ中世の荘園と対比すべき農奴制による経営に基づく荘園がそれぞれが主張する「中世」に存在したというものである。
English: For this reason, the positioning of the shoens in Chinese history from both of the two sides are very different and in later life of Sudo and Miyazaki, with the demise of the Cold War structure, the concept 'the basic principle of world history' itself came to be criticized and thus the dispute itself stood still in the way.
Japanese: そのため、双方の中国史上における荘園の位置づけも大きく異なっている上、周藤や宮崎の晩年には冷戦構造の崩壊とともに「世界史の基本原則」という概念のそのものに対する批判が出現したことで、議論自体が中途で停滞することとなった。
English: Later, the viewpoint eclectically mixing both of the two theories and the viewpoint seeking the possibility of the compatibility between them linking with the regional differences, ethnic problems and so on was proposed, but it is far from establishment as a commonly accepted theory.
Japanese: その後、両説を折衷する見解や地域差・民族問題などと関連付けて両説の並立の可能性を探る見解も出されているが、通説の確立には程遠い状況にあるとされている。
English: Manorialism or Seigneurialism in Europe is the word which refers to the economical and social structure as seen in the villages in west European villages or some villages in central Europe in medieval times.
Japanese: ヨーロッパにおける荘園制(ManorialismorSeigneurialism)は、中世の西ヨーロッパ農村及び中央ヨーロッパの一部農村に見られた経済・社会構造を指す用語である。
English: Characteristically in shoens in Europe, the legal and economical power was concentrated on the lord.
Japanese: ヨーロッパ荘園制の特徴は、法的・経済的な権力が領主に集中していた点にある。
English: The economical life of the lord consisted of the revenue from the directly managed land of his possession and the obligatory tributes from the subject serfs.
Japanese: 領主の経済生活は、自らが保有する直営地からの収入と、支配下におく農奴からの義務的な貢納によって支えられていた。
English: The tributes from the serfs were in the form of labor services, products (actual spots) and rarely money (cash).
Japanese: 農奴からの貢納は、労役、生産物（現物）、又はまれに金銭（現金）という形態をとっていた。