nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Various countries outside the territory were roughly classified into those countries which obeyed the Chinese dynasty and other counties.
Japanese: そしてこの版図外にある諸国は、中国王朝になびく国家とそうでない国家に大別される。
English: To such countries, political and economical returns such as sakuho (emperor's approval) and choko (In exchange of tributes, premium was conferred and the countries were allowed to trade with China).
Japanese: これらには「冊封」（国王承認）や「朝貢」（貢ぎ物と引替えに賞賜が与えられ、さらに交易することができる）という政治的・経済的見返りを与えた。
English: Existence of envoys for sakuho or choko was recognized as the proof of emperor's virtue influencing "iteki."
Japanese: それを目的に中国を訪れた冊封あるいは朝貢使節の存在は、中国皇帝の徳が遠くの「夷狄」に及んだ証左とされた。
English: China and such countries were deemed to have formed international relation which was based on hierarchical relation between "soshukoku (suzerain state)" and "hanzokukoku" (or "zokkoku" or "fuzokukoku") (tributary state).
Japanese: 中国とこれらの諸国とは、「宗主国」(SuzerainState)と「藩属国（あるいは「属国」「付庸国」）」(TributaryState)という上下関係を基調とする国際関係を結んだことになる。
English: However, relation between "soshukoku" and "hanzokukoku" was considerably different from that between "soshukoku" and "zokkoku (subject state)" in modern era and control by China did not influence domestic politics and diplomatic affairs in general, and China was not involved in relation between "hanzokukoku" and other countries that did not serve Chinese dynasty.
Japanese: ただ「宗主国」と「藩属国」との関係は、近代における「宗主国」と「属国」(SubjectState)のような関係とは大きく異なり、内政外交全般に中国の支配が及んでいたわけではなく、たとえば中国は、「藩属国」どうし、あるいは「藩属国」と中国王朝に臣従しない諸国との関係について特に関知しない。
English: Therefore, exclusive relation between lord and vassal was not strong and example of "double choko" (One country also brought tributes to other country than China) can be seen.
Japanese: そのため排他的な主従関係は希薄であり、ある国が中国以外の国へも朝貢する「二重朝貢」といった例も見られた。
English: In the former dynasty, Ming, "sakuho" and "choko" had a large weight in the relation with various foreign countries, and such system itself remained without large change until the era of Qing.
Japanese: 前王朝の明代において、「冊封」や「朝貢」は諸外国との関係の中で大きな比重を占めていたが、こうした制度自体は、清代まで大きく変化することなく存続した。
English: However, it does not mean that the weight of "sakuho" and "choko" in the era of Qing was same as that in the era of Ming.
Japanese: しかし続く清朝においても「冊封」や「朝貢」が、明朝の対外関係で同じ比重を占めていたわけではなかった。
English: In Qing era, visits from European and American countries increased compared to Ming era and trade with less political meaning than "sakuho" and "choko" continued increasing.
Japanese: 清代では、明朝の時以上に欧米諸国が中国を訪れるようになり、「冊封」や「朝貢」よりも政治的意味合いが希薄化した交易が増加の一途を辿ったのである。
English: Countries which had relation through "sakuho," "choko," or "goshi" were called respectively "sakuho-koku (countries which were conferred peerage)," "chokokoku (countries which bring tribute)," or "goshikoku (countries which are trading partners).
Japanese: そしてこれまで述べてきたような「冊封」や「朝貢」、「互市」によって中国と関係を持つ国々をそれぞれ「冊封国」・「朝貢国」・「互市国」という。
English: The above description applies to kaichitsujo which Chinese dynasties had and neighboring states including Japan, Korea, Ryukyu and Viet Nam accepted or shared selectively such kaichitsujo and its basis, Sinocentrism, and involved in a part of kaichitsujo.
Japanese: 以上の説明は歴代中国王朝が構想した華夷秩序であるが、日本や朝鮮、琉球、ベトナム等の周辺諸国もその華夷秩序及びその根拠となった中華思想を選択的に受容、あるいは共有し、華夷秩序の一翼を担っていた。
English: With respect to the degree of acceptance, however, it was not unified and there were difference depending on power relationship with China (geopolitical influence) of each region.
Japanese: ただどの程度受容するかについては、中国と周辺諸国との力関係（地政学的な影響）から一元的ではなく、地域により濃淡がある。
English: For example, there were multiple states that had "petit Sinocentrism" and recognized not China but themselves as the center ("ka") and, therefore, it was not that kaichitsujo of China covered uniformly international order of East Asia.
Japanese: たとえば中国ではなく自国を中心（「華」）だと自認する「小中華思想」をもった国家が複数あり、中国の華夷秩序が一元的に東アジア国際秩序を貫いていたわけではなかった。
English: However, international order which such countries conceived of had similar structure with each other based on kaichitsujo and such petit kaichitsujo of each countries compromised and coexisted with kaichitsujo of Chinese dynasty.
Japanese: しかしそれらが思い描く国際秩序も構造そのものは華夷秩序に借りた相似構造をもっており、その各国の小華夷秩序が、中国王朝の華夷秩序と折り合いをつけながら併存している状態であった。
English: In other words, the state in which a batch of petit kaichitsujo of each countries existed overlapping with each other was the international order in the world of East Asia in premodern era, namely kaichitsujo as a whole.
Japanese: いうなれば諸国ごとの小華夷秩序の束が、互いに重なりながら存立する状態こそが、前近代の東アジア世界の国際秩序、すなわち総体として華夷秩序とよぶものであった。
English: Therefore, we have no other way but to say that it is very difficult to find uniform international order which apply to every country or district.
Japanese: したがって、どの国・どの地域にも貫通する一元的な国際秩序を見出すことは困難といわねばならない。
English: At last, treaty system originated in western countries replaced kaichitsujo (or a batch of such kaichitsujo) that was not homogeneous or uniform depending on country or district.
Japanese: 国や地域によって均質・一様でない華夷秩序（の束）に、最終的には取って代わったのが西欧起源の条約体制であった。
English: Under kaichitsujo, international relations had been controlled with "Li system" based on Sinocentrism.
Japanese: 華夷秩序では、国際関係を中華思想に基づく「礼制」によって律してきた。
English: European and American countries brought, instead of "Li system," international order in which international relations were controlled by treaties under modern international laws to East Asia.
Japanese: しかし欧米諸国は、「礼制」に変えて近代国際法に基づく条約によって国際関係を律する国際秩序を東アジアにもたらした。
English: As the treaties forced by Europe and America were unequal treaties, it is also called "unequal treaty system."
Japanese: また欧米によって強制された条約が不平等条約だったことから「不平等条約体制」と呼ぶこともある。
English: It is believed that the origin of modern international order is the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the modern international laws have been developed;as the principle of order that governs such international relations.
Japanese: 近代的国際秩序の起源はウェストファリア条約（1648年）に始まるとされ、その国際関係を律する秩序原理として近代的国際法は発達してきた。
English: It was defined that the subjects that should operate international laws were sovereign states (For more information on modern sovereign states, refer to "Diplomatic concept brought by "Bankoku Koho."
Japanese: そして国際法を担う主体は主権国家とされた（近代的な主権国家については後述「4.4.1『万国公法』がもたらした外交概念」を参照のこと）。
English: The biggest difference from above-described kaichitsujo is the existence of the principle of legal equality between sovereign states.
Japanese: 上記華夷秩序との最も大きな相違点は、主権国家間の法的平等原則の存在である。
English: In kaichitsujo, own country and neighboring countries were ordered and positioned from cultural point of view "ka" and "i," and, from political point of view, understood as the relations between lord and vassal (suzerain state - subject state).
Japanese: 華夷秩序では、自国と周辺諸国を文化面では「華／夷」という等級で順序付けし、政治面では君臣関係（宗主国―藩属国）として捉えている。
English: As a general rule, therefore, Chinese dynasty and neighboring countries could not be equal in mutual relation.
Japanese: したがって、中国王朝と周辺諸国が平等であることは原則的にありえない。
English: On the other hand, under treaty system, sovereign states are legally equal and even regardless of the size or scale of the countries or power.
Japanese: 一方で条約体制では、国家・国力の大小に関係なく、主権を持つ国家は法的には平等・対等であるとされる。
English: However, the principle, "all nations are equal," of the modern international law existed just as a principle, and, in reality, it was not generally applicable to all nations but should be called "International law of Christendom" originally applicable only among Christian nations.
Japanese: しかしこの近代国際法の「万国平等」という理念は単なる理念に留まり、現実には万国に普遍的に適用されるようなものではなく、それは本来キリスト教諸国間だけに通用する「キリスト教国国際法」（"InternationallawofChirstendom"）ともいうべきものであった。
English: Modern international law had sublime justice and generality as its idealistic principles, but, on the other hand, it was very cruel to non-European and American countries and it had a function to justify colonialism by western countries.
Japanese: 近代国際法は、崇高な正義と普遍性とを理念としているが、他方、非欧米諸国に対しては非常に過酷で、欧米の植民地政策を正当化する作用を持っていた。
English: Under such international law, applicability depended on whether or not the country in question was a "civilized nation," but this "civilized nation" was a self-representation of Europe and America.
Japanese: この国際法は適用するか否かについて「文明国」か否かを基準としているが、この「文明国」とは欧米の自己表象であった。
English: In other words, the criteria for "civilized nation" was how close to western culture and, with this criteria, countries in the world were classified into three categories.
Japanese: いうなれば欧米文明にどの程度近いのかということが「文明国」の目安となっており、この目安によって世界は3つにカテゴライズされる。
English: At first, Europe and America were defined as "civilized nations," and Ottoman Turks, China, Japan and so on were defined as "Semi-civilized nation" ("barbaric nation") and African countries and so on were defined as "undeveloped nation."
Japanese: まず欧米を「文明国」、オスマントルコや中国、日本等を「半文明国」（「野蛮国」）、アフリカ諸国等を「未開国」とした。
English: If any countries was classified to "semi-civilized nation," existence of sovereignty was approved but certain restrictions were applied to such national sovereignty.
Japanese: 「半文明国」に分類されると、主権の存在は認められるものの、その国家主権には制限が設けられる。
English: To be more precise, such countries were forced to accept unequal treaties through gunboat diplomacy (threatening diplomatic negotiation backed with military force such as battleships and cannons).
Japanese: 具体的には不平等条約を砲艦外交（軍艦や大砲といった軍事力を背景に行われる恫喝的な外交交渉）によって強制された。
English: If judged as "undeveloped country, "no national sovereignty was approved and the relevant region was judged as "terra nullius."
Japanese: さらに「未開国」と認定されると、その国家主権などは一切認められず、その地域は有力な支配統治が布かれていない「無主の地」と判定される。
English: As modern international law has "Rule of occupation" (rule under which the county that discovered a land first has sovereignty) as one of its features, "undeveloped country" was automatically deemed as "terra nullius," and, therefore, colonies could be established freely (Kobayashi 2002).
Japanese: 近代国際法は「先占の原則」（早期発見国が領有権を有する原理）を特徴の一つとして持っていたので、「未開国」は自動的に「無主の地」とされ、そこに植民地を自由に設定できるということになる（小林2002）。
English: As described above, modern international law had two faces to apply it differently to "civilized nation" and "non-civilized nation," and certain researcher call this as "double standard of modern international law." (Takamura 1998)
Japanese: 以上に見るように、近代国際法はその適用を「文明国」とそれ以外によって使い分ける二つの顔を持っており、これを「近代国際法の二重原理」と呼ぶ研究者もいる（高村1998）。
English: From the beginning of the nineteenth century, the range of application of this modern international law was expanded to whole world including, the Middle and Near East, Africa and East Asia through gunboat diplomacy that was contradictorily to the heralded idealistic principle.
Japanese: この近代国際法は、19世紀に入ると掲げられた理念とは裏腹な砲艦外交によって中近東、アフリカ、東アジア等世界全体に適用範囲を広げていった。
English: In East Asia, the first example of this treaty system was Treaty of Nanking concluded after the Opium War.
Japanese: 東アジアにおいて、この条約体制のはしりはアヘン戦争の後に締結された南京条約である。
English: The treaty concluded between the Qing dynasty, which was the last dynasty in China, and Great Britain was an unequal treaty based on modern international law.
Japanese: 中国最後の王朝であった清朝とイギリスの間に結ばれた条約は、近代国際法に基づいた不平等条約であった。
English: After conclusion of this treaty, the Qing dynasty concluded treaties modeled after it with various countries and, when "Bankoku Koho" was published, such treaties had been concluded with over twenty countries.
Japanese: この条約の締結後、これをモデルとした条約を清朝は各国と締結していき、『万国公法』が翻訳刊行された当時、すでに20数カ国と条約が交わされていた。
English: However, conclusion of such treaties was one thing and whether or not they had intention to abide by the idealistic principle of international law is another.
Japanese: ただ条約の締結と、意識レヴェルで国際法の理念に遵うつもりがあったかどうかは別である。
English: In Turkey and China, the unequal treaty was understood as a privilege given to western countries and disadvantage to own country was not recognized.
Japanese: トルコでも中国でも不平等条約は当初、西欧諸国に与えた特権というとらえ方をし、自国の不利益性を意識していなかった。
English: What helped to correct such understanding about international law and promote participation in treaty system voluntarily was a commentary of international law named "Bankoku Koho."
Japanese: こうした国際法への認識を改め、率先して条約体制に参加するよう促す一助となったのが、『万国公法』という一冊の国際法解説書であった。
English: The original article of "Bankoku Koho" is "Elements of International Law" by Henry Wheaton.
Japanese: 『万国公法』の原著は、ヘンリー・ホイートン(HenryWheaton)の『国際法原理』（原題：ElementsofInternationalLaw）である。
English: Wheaton was a jurist and diplomat who represents pioneer era of international jurisprudence in the United States of America.
Japanese: ホイートンはアメリカ合衆国国際法学草創期を代表する法律家・外交官である。
English: He started as a lawyer and experienced a judge in the New York Maritime Court and a reporter of the Supreme Court of the United States.
Japanese: 彼は弁護士からスタートし、ニューヨーク海事裁判所判事、連邦最高裁レポーターを歴任した。
English: While building his carrier in the legal world on one hand, he was appointed to U.S. charge d'affaires to Copenhagen and U.S. charge d'affaires to Prussia (later, a minister extraordinary and plenipotentiary) and played active roles as a diplomat on the other (Matsukuma 1992).
Japanese: また法律キャリアを重ねる一方で、アメリカの駐コペンハーゲン代理公使、駐プロシア代理公使（後に特命全権公使）に任命され、外交官としても活躍している（松隈1992）。
English: His experiences as a diplomat while belonging to the judicial circle evolved into the work, "Elements of International Law."
Japanese: 法曹界に身を置きながら、外交官でもあった経験が結実したのが、『国際法原理』であった。
English: In Japan in the Meiji Period and Chine, which did not have katakana, Wheaton was written as "恵頓" (Pīnyīn: Huìdùn).
Japanese: なお明治期の日本や片仮名のない中国ではホイートンを「恵頓」（拼音：Huìdùn）と表記した。
English: "Elements of International Law" was commentaries of international law which, at the time of its publication, had high authority and fame next to "De iure belli ac pacis" of Grotius.
Japanese: 『国際法原理』は、刊行当時グロチウスの『戦争と平和の法』に次ぐほどの権威と名声を博していた国際法解説書である。
English: The first edition of this book was published in 1836, it was very well accepted in English-speaking countries such as U.S.A and Great Britain but also in other countries in which Europe languages were spoken, it was translated into languages of various countries starting with French and German versions.
Japanese: この書の初版は1836年に刊行されたが、アメリカ・イギリスといった英語圏のみならず他のヨーロッパ言語圏でも非常な好評をもって迎えられ、フランス語版・ドイツ語版をはじめとして各国の言語に相次いで翻訳された。
English: One of characteristics of this book is that it was written based on both of natural law and positive law.
Japanese: 特徴としては、この書が自然法及び実定法双方に立脚して書かれているという点がある。
English: Although details should be consulted with articles on natural law and positive law, natural law is a legal concept which does not look for the origin of law (basis on which law can exist, namely source of law) in artificial provisions but considers that source of law is derived from generality (or what thought to be) and justice.
Japanese: 詳しくは自然法と実定法の記事に譲るが、自然法とは法の淵源（法律の拠って立つ根拠、すなわち法源）を人為的に定められたものに求めず、人の理性によって発見される、時代や地域を超越した普遍性（と思われるもの）と正義に由来すると考える法概念である。
English: On the other hand, positive law is a legislation created by aritificial existence such as a legislative organ which does not adopt metaphysical generality as a source of law and has a nature to understand the law to be effective only in a certain region and era and, in other words, it means accumulated court cases, customary law and statutes.
Japanese: 他方実定法とは立法機関のような人為的な存在によって作り出されてきた法律で、形而上的な普遍性を法源として採用せず、法とは一定の地域・時代の中でのみ有効であることを自覚する性質を持つもので、具体的には蓄積されてきた判例や慣習法、制定法を指す。
English: In international jurisprudence after him, however, the tendency to attach more importance to positive law, and Emmerich de Vattel advanced a theory which was based both on natural law and positive law.
Japanese: その後の国際法学は実定法をより重視する傾向が増し、エムリッシュ・ヴァッテル(EmmerichdeVattel)は、自然法と実定法双方に軸足をおいた学説を唱えた。
English: With respect to the era in which Wheaton was active, however, it was a period in which the flow from natural law to positive law was accelerated, and in revising his work "Elements of International Law," he shifted his standpoint gradually toward positive law.
Japanese: しかしホイートンが活躍した時代は自然法から実定法へという流れがさらに加速しつつある時期にあたり、自著『国際法原理』を改訂するにあたって実定法的立場へと徐々に重心を移した。
English: This "Elements of International Law" consists of four chapters, "Source and subject of international law," "Basic rights of nation," "Rights of nation in times of peace," and "Rights of nation in wartime," and it covered almost all basic matters for the modern international law.
Japanese: この『国際法原理』は「国際法の法源と主体」、「国家の基本権」、「平時における国家の権利」、「戦時における国家の権利」という4章から成っており、近代国際法の基本的事項をほとんど全て押さえている。
English: For powerful countries which had acquired a lot of practical advantages by unequal treaties concluded after the Opium War and the Arrow War, it was needless to say desirable that the Qing dynasty would learn international law.
Japanese: アヘン戦争・アロー戦争後に締結された不平等条約によってすでに多くの実利を得た列強にとって、清朝が国際法を学ぶことは無論望ましいことであった。
English: This was because they thought that if the Qing dynasty would learn and abide by international law, it would be possible to make negotiation smooth and stabilized without using large-scale gunboat diplomacy again.
Japanese: 清朝が国際法を学び遵守するのであれば、再度大規模な砲艦外交に頼らずに交渉のスムーズ化と安定化を図れると考えたためである。
English: Therefore, movement to introduce "Bankoku Koho" was initiated from the European and American side.
Japanese: このため『万国公法』を紹介しようとする動きは、まず欧米側から起こった。
English: Robert Hart (his name in Chinese:羅伯特•赫徳), who stayed in Shanghai as an Inspector General of Customs translated a part of "Elements of International Law" and provided to the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: 当時の総税務司として上海にいたロバート・ハート（RobertHart、中国名：羅伯特•赫徳）はElementsofInternationalLawの一部を翻訳し清朝に提供している。
English: On the other hand, China had maintained until the Arrow War its solipsistic diplomatic attitude based on Sinocentrism and would not adopt vital notions indispensable for modern international relation such as international law and treaty.
Japanese: 一方でアロー戦争後まで中国は中華思想に基づいた唯我独尊的外交姿勢を守り続け、国際法や条約といった近代的国際関係に不可欠な概念を積極的に取り込もうとはしなかった。
English: Because of the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Beijing resulted from the Arrow War, the Qing dynastic was obliged at least from diplomatic point of view to recognize western countries as equal existence to own country.
Japanese: しかしアロー戦争の結果締結された天津条約や北京条約によって、清朝は少なくとも外交制度上は西欧諸国を自国と対等な存在として認めざるを得なくなる。
English: In more details, the Qing dynasty that had deemed foreign countries as "iteki" from its sense of value based on Sinocentrism, but it prohibited to denote western countries as "i (夷, a character means other ethnic groups)" in its official documents and, at the same time, established Zongli Yamen which was a diplomatic organization in charge of modern international relations.
Japanese: 具体的には、それまで清朝は諸外国を中華思想的価値観から「夷狄」とみなしていたが、清朝の公文書に西欧諸国を指して「夷」と表記することを禁じ、同時に総理衙門という近代的国際関係を担う外交機関を設けた。
English: Such big switch of diplomatic policies of the Qing dynasty was carried out by Grand Prince Yixin and Wenxiang who played leading role in political situations of the Qing dynasty after the Arrow War.
Japanese: こうした清朝の外交方針の大転換は、アロー戦争後の清朝の政局を主導した恭親王奕訢や文祥たちによって進められた。
English: They were high officials from Manchus who conducted peace talk and there occupied the nerve center of newly established Zongli Yamen and had a complete control of diplomacy and modernization policy.
Japanese: 彼らは講和交渉を担った満洲族系の大官であり、講和後新設された総理衙門の中枢に陣取り、外交および近代化政策を取り仕切った。
English: Grand Prince Yixin and others were originally moderates who had been against war with foreign countries and tried to carry out realistic diplomacy.
Japanese: 恭親王たちは元々対外戦争に反対し、現実路線の外交を展開しようとした穏健派である。
English: In the same period, local high officials including Guofan ZENG and Hung Chang LI, who quashed Taiping Rebellion, also understood importance of studying advanced technology of western countries and were promoting modernization of military system and industries.
Japanese: また同時期太平天国の乱を鎮圧した曾国藩や李鴻章ら地方の大官も西欧の先進技術を学ぶ重要性を認識し、軍事・産業方面の近代化を推し進めていた。
English: Namely, in the Qing dynasty since 1860's, movement to absorb knowledge and technologies of western countries had been gathering momentum and interest in international law was its extension.
Japanese: すなわち1860年代以降の清朝は、西欧の諸知識・技術を摂取しようという機運が高まっており、国際法への関心もその延長線上にあるものであった。
English: In order to follow the lead of the style of western counties in diplomatic negotiation, the Qing dynasty had to know their sense of value and principle of behavior.
Japanese: 清朝側が外交交渉を西欧列強のスタイルに合わせるのであれば、彼らの価値観・行動原理を知らねばならない。
English: However, such acceptance of international laws was not made because they sympathized the idealistic principle of the modern international law and positively to take part in it.
Japanese: ただこの国際法受容は、はじめは近代国際法の理念に共鳴して率先してそれに参加しようとしたものではなかった。
English: The reason for it was that in the negotiation with western countries, discussions did not mesh even if the Qing dynasty refer to "Fixed Rule of the Dynasty (precedents based on Sinocentrism)" and requirements of the western countries could not be refused.
Japanese: というのも西欧列強との交渉においては、清朝がいくら「天朝の定制」（中華思想的慣例）を持ち出しても議論が噛み合わず、列強側の要求を拒絶することはできなかったためである。
English: It was conducted with the aim to carry out diplomatic negotiations advantageously by using in underhanded way international law which was valid among western countries and it had a nuance of acceptance as a tool for maintaining kaichitsujo rather than idealistic principle.
Japanese: 列強間で通用している国際法を逆手に取ることで外交交渉を有利に運ぼうという意図からなされたもので、多分に理念よりも道具、華夷秩序を保持するためのツール、としての受容というニュアンスが強かった。
English: Therefore, such acceptance of international law has been commented as a diplomatic version of "Learn the strong points of iteki and use them to defeat them." (a part of "Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms" by Wei Yuan).
Japanese: そのためこうした国際法受容を「夷の長技を師とし以て夷を制す」（夷狄の得意技を学び、それにより逆に夷狄を制覇する。魏源著『海国図志』の一節）の外交バージョンと評されることもある。
English: An American missionary, William Martin (William Alexander Parsons Martin; Chinese name "丁韙良") set his hands to translation.
Japanese: 翻訳に着手したのは、アメリカ人宣教師ウィリアム・マーティン（WilliamAlexanderParsonsMartin、中国名：丁韙良）であった。
English: After Martin came to China in 1850, he stayed in China and played important roles in various areas such as drafting of Treaty of Tianjin, teaching of western scholarship in Tongwen Guan in Beijing (literally, School of Combined Learning) and Imperial Capital University (former Peking University) and mission of Christianity.
Japanese: マーティンは1850年に来華して以来中国に留まり、天津条約の起草や北京同文館や京師大学堂での西欧学問教授、キリスト教伝道など多方面にわたり活動した人物である。
English: He is known with his significant influence to modern Chine in the field of education and translation and translation of "Bankoku Koho" can be said to be his representative achievement.
Japanese: 特に教育及び翻訳によって近代中国に多大な影響を与えたことで知られ、『万国公法』の訳出はその代表的な事績といえる。
English: The reason why Martin commenced Chinese translation of "Bankoku Koho" was through insistence of John E. Wade (Chinese name: 華若翰), who was U.S. minister in Qing and Anson Burlingame (Chinese name: 蒲安臣) and Robert Hart.
Japanese: マーティンが『万国公法』の漢語訳を始めたのは、在清アメリカ公使ジョン.E.ウォード（John.E.Wade、中国名：華若翰）やアンソン・バーリンゲーム（AnsonBurlingame、中国名：）、ロバート・ハートの強い薦めがあったためである。
English: As Martin had lived in China for many years, he had no difficulty in reading and writing Chinese language.
Japanese: マーティン自身は長年中国に留まっていたため、漢語の読み書きにも不自由はなかった。
English: Next, when a certain portion had been translated, he went to Tianjin and submitted translation to Chonghou, who was an influential official of the Qing dynasty.
Japanese: 翌年、ある程度訳出できた時点で、天津に赴いて清朝の有力官僚の一人崇厚に提出した。
English: One is November 1864 (熊 1994, Sato 1996, and 田 2001) and January 1865, next year (Banno 1973).
Japanese: 1864年11月とする説（熊1994、佐藤1996、田2001）と翌年1月とする説（坂野1973）がある。
English: Translation of "Bankoku Koho" was possible only with cooperation by several Chinese persons.
Japanese: 『万国公法』の翻訳は、幾人かの中国人の協力があってはじめて可能であった。
English: Based on uncompleted manuscript submitted to Chongshi, text of translation was elaborated by four persons, Shimeng HE, Dawen LI, Wei ZHANG, and Jingrong GAO, but the result was such that was commented as "Meanings of sentences are ambiguous" and it had too many problems to published as it was.
Japanese: まず崇厚に提出した未完稿には何師孟・李大文・張煒・曹景栄ら4人が参加して訳文を練り上げたが、それは「文義が非常に不明瞭である」と評される代物でそのまま刊行するには難があった。
English: After obtaining official permission by Zongli Yamen, it was revised with cooperation by Qin CHEN, Changhua LI, Junshi FANG, and Hongtu MAO, who were officials of Zongli Yamen, and translation was completed after a half year.
Japanese: 総理衙門の公認を得てからは総理衙門章京の地位にあった陳欽・李常華・方濬師・毛鴻図らが協力して校訂に臨み半年がかりで翻訳を完成させている。
English: The work involved large difficulties because concept of law was completely different between China and western countries, and there was a big difference in the way of thinking about international relations.
Japanese: 元々中国と西欧とでは法に対する観念が全く異なる上に、国際関係についての考え方も大きく違っているため、その作業には大きな困難を伴った。
English: The reason why Martin did not give up translating work although there was difficulties was not only simple honor but he had s strong belief of his own.
Japanese: 困難にぶつかりながらもマーティンが訳業を放棄しなかったのは、単なる名誉欲だけではない、彼なりの強い信念があったためである。