nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: By this period, the right to cultivate by sakunin (local cultivators) was established as saku-shiki (the right of the cultivator), and the formation of soson (a community consisting of peasants' self-governing association) began to appear.
Japanese: この頃になると、直接の耕作者である作人の耕作権が作職として確立し、惣村の形成が見られ始めた。
English: Moreover, shiki itself became mere tokubunken (the right to share of profits of each shiki) from the one indicating the class difference, and the cases that honke (head family) and ryoke held the shiki containing the feature of local lords and vice versa came to be seen.
Japanese: 更に職そのものが、本来の身分的な性格から単なる得分権となり、在地領主的な職を本家や領家が直接保持する場合や、その逆の場合が見られてきた。
English: In addition, by Muromachi bakufu's structure to harmonize the interests of court noble and samurai, the reorganization of shoen was advanced by Shitaji chubun (physical division of the land) etc., and ichienryo (ichien territory) and bukeichienryo (ichien territory of samurai families) took hold.
Japanese: 更に公武の利害関係を包括的に調整できる室町幕府の体制により、下地中分などによる荘園の再編成がすすみ、寺社本所による一円領や武家一円領が定着した。
English: In the Sengoku period (period of warring states) daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) in the Sengoku period who took over Shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable) further advanced Ichien chigyo, and the manorism collapsed.
Japanese: 戦国時代になると、守護大名に代わった戦国大名は、土地の一円知行をより進めていき、荘園制は崩壊した。
English: Eventually, by taiko kenchi (the cadastral surveys conducted by Hideyoshi), only the right of direct cultivator was admitted to the land, and the previous stratified ruling structure disappeared both in name and reality.
Japanese: 最終的には太閤検地により、土地には直接の耕作者の権利しか認められなくなり、以前までの重層的支配構造は名実共に解消された。
English: Kyoto Gakuren Jiken (Kyoto Affair of the Student Federation) was a suppression incident occurring on and after December 1925 against the left wing student movement in the Kyoto Imperial University and so forth.
Japanese: 京都学連事件（きょうとがくれんじけん）は1925年（大正14年）12月以降、京都帝国大学などでの左翼学生運動に対して行われた弾圧事件。
English: From the first half of the 1910s, Shakai Kagaku Kenkyu-kai (Society for the Study of Social Science), or Shaken, has been organized in universities, high schools, vocational schools and so forth under the old system of education, and Gakusei Rengokai (Federation of Students), or Gakuren, in which Shaken from 49 schools participated, was inaugurated in September 1924.
Japanese: 1910年代前半より、各旧制大学・旧制高等学校・旧制専門学校などでは社会科学研究会（社研）が組織され、1924年9月には49校の社研が参加する学生連合会（学連）が発足した。
English: The Gakuren expanded rapidly to have 1600 members, advocated diffusion and studies of Marxism, as well as actively supported labor dispute and educational movement for laborers (Kyoto Rodo Gakko [Kyoto Labor School]) and so forth.
Japanese: 学連はまたたくまに会員1600名を擁する大組織に成長し、マルクス主義の普及・研究を標榜するとともに労働争議や労働者教育運動（京都労働学校など）への支援を積極的に行った。
English: In July, 1925, the 2nd national gathering was held at Kyoto Imperial University, in which 80 representatives were participated.
Japanese: 1925年7月には第2回全国大会を京都帝大で開催、代議員80名が参加した。
English: In December, 1925, the Special Higher Police Division of Kyoto Prefectural Police Department mobilized the Higher Police Division of all the city police to attack and conduct domiciliary searches on the houses and lodgings of all the members of Shaken of Kyoto Imperial University and Doshisha University, and arrested 33 students.
Japanese: 1925年12月、京都府警察部特別高等警察課は、全市の警察署高等係を動員して京都帝大・同志社大学などの社研会員の自宅・下宿などを急襲、家宅捜索および学生33名を検束した。
English: However, against this affair, the University authorities protested because the Police Division searched the dormitory of Kyoto University without witnesses.
Japanese: しかし京大寄宿舎で立会人なしの捜索を行うなどしたため大学当局の抗議にあった。
English: In the next year, on January 15, 1926, Isao HIRATA and others of the Tokyo prosecutor's office assumed command, suppressed news reports, and further mobilized the Higher Police Division of each prefectural police to arrest Shaken members all over the country over the following four months.
Japanese: 翌1926年1月15日には東京検事局の平田勲らが指揮をとり、記事報道を差し止めた上で各府県警察部特高課を動員して以後4ヶ月にわたって全国的な社研会員の検挙が行われた。
English: At the same time, the houses of Hajime KAWAKAMI of Kyoto Imperial University, Senji YAMAMOTO and Mitsu KONO of Doshisha University, as well as Jotaro KAWAKAMI, Masamichi SHINMEI, and other teachers of Kwansei Gakuin University, who had been considered to have some relationships with Shaken, were searched.
Japanese: 同時に社研に関係があると見なされた京大の河上肇、同大の山本宣治・河野密、関西学院大学の河上丈太郎・新明正道ら教員に対しても家宅捜索が行われた。
English: 38 of the students who had been arrested were prosecuted for violation of the Maintenance of Public Order Law and publishing law, as well as lese majesty.
Japanese: 検挙された学生のうち38名が治安維持法および出版法違反・不敬罪により起訴された。
English: At the first trial in May 1927, the Kyoto District Court sentenced amnesty for the violation of publishing law and lese majesty, while as for the violation of the Maintenance of Public Order Law, Kyoji KOREEDA who was in the Faculty of Letters at the University of Tokyo and three other people were sentenced to imprisonment for one year and 37 people were judged guilty.
Japanese: 京都地裁による1927年5月の第1審判決では出版法違反および不敬罪については特赦となったが、治安維持法違反については是枝恭二（東大文学部）ら4名の禁固1年を筆頭に37名が有罪となった。
English: Under the influence of the Affair on March 15, the public trial underwent a complicated processes, and in the decision by Osaka koso-in (Osaka court of appeal) of December 1929, 18 criminals were sentenced to severe assessment of a case of imprisonment with hard labor less than seven years.
Japanese: その後の三・一五事件の影響で公判は紆余曲折の経緯をたどり、1929年12月の大阪控訴院判決では18名に対し懲役7年以下とより厳しい量刑となった。
English: In June 29, 1926, in light of this affair, Ryohei OKADA who was the Minister of Education issued prohibition against the study of Social Science by students.
Japanese: 1926年6月29日、岡田良平文部大臣はこの事件を受けて学生・生徒による社会科学研究の禁止を通達。
English: Since April 17, 1928 when Tokyo Imperial University ordered Shinjin-kai (a student movement organization established at Tokyo Imperial University) to dismiss it, the Shaken of each Imperial University was ordered to be dismissed.
Japanese: 1928年4月17日には東京帝大が新人会に解散命令を出し、以降各帝国大学社研に解散命令が下された。
English: When this affair occurred, the Japanese Communist Party, which reconstituted as a result of the third meeting at Goshiki Onsen Hot Spring in December, 1926, had not yet been reconstituted.
Japanese: この事件が起こった時点では日本共産党は再建されていない（1926年12月の五色温泉での第3回大会により再建）。
English: Therefore, applying this Law to Shaken, which was only a students' ideological group, was deemed too strict.
Japanese: 社研という単なる学生の思想研究団体にこの法を適用するのは無理があったとされる。
English: However, according to the decision in writing of a preliminary examination, Kyogizai (a crime of having conference) in the article 2 of the Maintenance of Public Order Law was applied for 'demolition of private property.'
Japanese: しかし予審決定書では「私有財産制度の破壊」について同法第2条の協議罪が適用された。
English: He was a Baron at this time and sentenced to lese majesty because of a part of his impounded diary he had written when he was in junior high school under the old system of education.
Japanese: この時点では男爵であり、押収された旧制中学時代の日記帳の一節により不敬罪とされた。
English: December 1, 1925: Early in the morning, the Special Higher Police Division of Kyoto Prefectural Police Department attacked and conducted domiciliary searches on dormitories of Kyoto Imperial University, Doshisha University, and so forth as well as the houses and lodgings of members of the Shakai Kagaku Kenkyu-kai to seize a lot of seditious documents and arrest 33 students.
Japanese: 1925年12月1日：この日早朝、京都府警特高課が京大・同大などの寄宿舎、両大学の社会科学研究会員の自宅・下宿を急襲、家宅捜索のうえ「不穏文書」多数を押収したほか学生33名を検束。
English: January 15, 1926: Special High Police Division of each prefecture was mobilized to arrest Shaken members nationwide.
Japanese: 1926年1月15日：各府県警察部特高課を動員し全国の社研会員を検挙。
English: Its duty was to play gagaku (ancient Japanese court dance and music which was introduced from China to Japan) at various public events and to train gagaku players.
Japanese: 様々な公的行事で雅楽を演奏すること、また演奏者を養成することが職務である。
English: The former three groups played yamatogaku (ancient Japanese music) (pre-existing music) and the latter group played gagaku (foreign music).
Japanese: このうち前三者は倭楽（在来音楽）を、後者は雅楽（海外音楽）を担当した。
English: Gakushis (musicians) were divided into groups of Tang, Silla, Goryeo (Goguryeo), Paekche and gigaku and kurezutsumi which were kuregaku, the music in Wo, and they played each music under the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 楽師は令制では唐・新羅・高麗（高句麗）・百済及び呉楽である伎楽・腰鼓に分かれてそれぞれの音楽を担当した。
English: After the Meiji Restoration, with some bumps and detours such as being integrated into the gakuso, Utaryo was reorganized into Shikibushoku Gakubu (Music Department of Imperial Household Agency) in 1908 and was taken over by the present Imperial Household Agency as it was.
Japanese: 明治維新後、雅楽寮は楽所と統合されるなどの紆余曲折を経て宮内省式部職楽部（がくぶ）に改組され（1908年）、現在の宮内庁にそのまま引き継がれる。
English: Hiromori HAYASHI, the composer of Kimigayo (Japan's national anthem) and Hideki TOGI, a gagaku performing musician, are from this Shikibushoku Gakubu.
Japanese: 今日の「君が代」の作曲者・林廣守や雅楽演奏家の東儀秀樹はここの出身である。
English: Togu gakushi were one of the educational officers who served the Crown Prince (Togu) under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).
Japanese: 東宮学士（とうぐうがくし）は、律令制に定められた皇太子（東宮）付きの教育官の一つである。
English: Confucian scholars were often appointed to these posts and they sometimes worked as close advisers after the Crown Prince ascended to the throne.
Japanese: 儒学者より任命されることが多く天皇即位後は側近として活躍する例もあった。
English: Togubo (Crown Prince's quarters) was sometimes also called Togu-shiki (the board of the Crown Prince's affairs) in conjunction with Togunofu (an official in charge of education of the Crown Prince) from the mid Heian period.
Japanese: 平安時代中期から春宮坊に対して東宮傅と併せて「東宮職」と呼ばれることがある。
English: Tsujigiri stands for the action of a samurai who indiscriminately kills a passers-by with his blade on the street and was observed most frequently during the Edo period.
Japanese: 辻斬（つじぎり）とは、主に江戸時代に武士が街中などで無差別に通行人を刀で斬ること。
English: Tsujigiri started in the Middle Ages, but it became quite frequent from the Sengoku period (period of Warring States) to the Edo period.
Japanese: 中世から見られるが、特に戦国時代(日本)から江戸時代前期にかけて頻発した。
English: In 1602, the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) prohibited tsujigiri and announced that those who committed tsujigiri would be punished severely.
Japanese: 1602年（慶長7年）江戸幕府も辻斬を禁止し、犯人を厳罰に処することにした。
English: Samurai committed tsujigiri to, for example, demonstrate the sharpness of their sword, vent their stress, get money or valuable objects, or to practice their skill with the martial arts.
Japanese: 辻斬りをする理由としては刀の切れ味を実証するためや、単なる憂さ晴らし、金品目的、自分の武芸の腕を試す為などがある。
English: There was also a belief that killing 1,000 people (sennin giri (killing one thousand people with a sword)) would cure bad diseases.
Japanese: また、1000人の人を斬る（千人斬り）と悪病も治ると言われる事もあった。
English: According to the story titled "Hachijuo Mukashi Monogatari," the road between the residences of Chiyarikuro NAGASAKA and Kyuemon SUDA in Bancho (the name of a place in the west of Chiyoda ward, Tokyo) and the residences of Hanemon OGURI, Shichirobe MAMIYA, and Mataemon TSUZUKI in Ushigome (residential area in the east of Shinjuku, Toyko) was more than 100 ken (181 m) in distance.
Japanese: 『八十翁疇昔物語』によれば、番町方の長坂血鑓九郎、須田久右衛門の屋敷と、牛込方の小栗半右衛門、間宮七郎兵衛、都築又右衛門などの屋敷とのあいだは、道幅100余間もあった。
English: The 1st volume of "Kasshi Yawa" said, 'It has been said that, while Ieyasu TOKUGAWA was at the Shinpu-jo Castle, young individuals such as bakufu hatamoto (direct retainers of the bakufu) in Edo frequently committed tsujigiri and citizens were mourning the situation. (snip) Although rumors of tsujigiri occurring were occasionally heard, there was no one to capture them and it appeared that there were less and less individuals who were skilled in martial arts. (snip) Those who were at a high official rank announced that everyone should keep in mind that they must capture those who committed tsujigiri so that tsujigiri would stop in the end.'
Japanese: 『甲子夜話』第1巻には、「神祖駿府御在城の内、江戸にて御旗本等の若者、頻りに辻切して人民の歎きに及ぶよし聞ゆ。（省略）所々辻切の風聞専ら聞え候、それを召捕候ほどの者なきは、武辺薄く成り行き候事と思召候。いづれも心掛辻切の者召捕へと御諚のよし申伝へしかば、其のまま辻切止みけるとぞ」とある。
English: Honke is a nominal owner of the highest-graded patches of land under the stratified land ruling structure of Japanese Shoen (refer to the Shiki system in the shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) section).
Japanese: 本家（ほんけ）は、日本の荘園における重層的土地支配構造（荘園公領制、職の体系を参照）上、最上位に位置づけられる土地の名義上の所有権者である。
English: Honke were usually the Innomiya family, Sekkan-ke (families that produced regents and advisers), and major temples and shrines that received donations from ryoke (a lord of the manor) that had received donations from kaihatsu ryoshu (local notables who actually developed the land).
Japanese: 開発領主（かいほつりょうしゅ）から寄進を受けた領家から更に寄進を受けた院宮家、摂関家、大寺社が本家となっていた。
English: Starting from the late 10th century or the 11th century, which was the middle of the Heian period, local kaihatsu ryoshu started to donate their private lands (shoen) that they illegally owned to the zuryo (provincial officers such as dominant nobilities, temples, and shrines in the capital) in order to escape from confiscation by the kokuga (provincial government offices).
Japanese: 平安時代中葉の10世紀後期から11世紀以降、地方の開発領主らは法的根拠に欠けた自らの私有地（荘園）を、国衙の収公から逃れるため受領層（中央の有力貴族や有力寺社）に寄進した。
English: Then, these kaihatsu ryoshu paid a certain amount of tax to the zuryo while holding the right to control those donated lands as shokan, or officers governing shoen (donation while retaining authority).
Japanese: 自らは荘官として土地の実効支配権を持ちながら、一定の税を寄進先の受領層に納めた（職権留保付寄進）。
English: Ryoke appointed kaihatsu ryoshu to shokan to manage the lands, and through them, ryoke obtained income for themselves by collecting harvests from shoen as jishi (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) and required peasants (shomin) who worked within shoen to provide labor for kuji (public duties).
Japanese: 領家は、開発領主を現地管理者として荘官に任命し、荘官を通じて、荘園からの収穫を地子として徴収したり、荘園内の百姓（荘民）に労役を課したり（公事）して、自らの収入とした。
English: These rights to profit from ryoke (sakuai or each shiki's share of collected taxes) such as the right to control, collect jishi, and impose labor services as shoen ryoshu (lord of the manor) were called ryoke shiki (economic rights as a lord of the manor).
Japanese: このような領家の持つ、荘園領主としての支配権や地子、公事等の収益権（作合（さくあい））を領家職といった。
English: Meanwhile, being granted a more powerful authority due to the contract system of kokushi (provincial governors), kokushi often executed confiscation on grounds of the Manor Regulation Act issued as a 'new policy' when the Emperor changed in order to increase kokugaryo (territories governed by the provincial government office) as their own territories; therefore, there were many cases that the authority of ryoke was insufficient to maintain Shoen ownership.
Japanese: しかし国司請負制により権限が強化された国司は、自領のように扱いはじめた国衙領を増やすため、天皇の代替わりに際して「新政」として発布された荘園整理令を根拠とし依然として収公を進めることが多く、領家の権威だけでは荘園の所有が維持できないケースが多く見られた。
English: For this reason, ryoke donated a part of ryoke shiki to more influential families such as the Innomiya family, Sekkan-ke, and major temples and shrines.
Japanese: よって、より権威のある院宮家、摂関家、大寺社等の権門層へ領家から領家職の一部を寄進することが行われた。
English: Note that, if kaihatsu ryoshu donated their shoen directly to influential families, these shoen would only have honke and no ryoke.
Japanese: また、開発領主が直接権門層に荘園を寄進した場合、領家が存在せず本家のみの荘園となった。
English: Among honke and ryoke, the families that had effective dominion over shoen were called honjo (proprietors or guarantors of a manor).
Japanese: 本家・領家のうち、荘園の実効支配権を持つ者を本所（ほんじょ）と呼んだ。
English: In some cases, honjo gave the shoen-related rights or profit partially to other aristocrats and called these aristocrats ryoke.
Japanese: 本所が、荘園に係る権利・利益の一部を他の貴族へ付与し、その貴族を領家ということもあった。
English: As time passed, shokan started to become samurai, and from the Kamakura period and on, the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) appointed shokan to jito (managers and lords of a manor).
Japanese: 時代が下ると荘官の武士化が始まり、鎌倉時代以降は、荘官が鎌倉幕府から地頭に任じられる例も見られた。
English: Jito abolished the traditional stratified land ruling relationships and preferred centralized land ruling.
Japanese: 地頭は、これまでの重層的な土地支配関係を解消し、一元的な土地支配を指向するようになっていった。
English: Such centralized ruling of lands refers to ichien chigyo (monistic ruling), and establishment of the jitouke system (the contract system where the manor's owner entrusts a jito to manage his manor and pay the customs) started in Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region).
Japanese: このような一元的支配を一円知行といい、東国を中心に地頭請が行われ始めた。
English: Meanwhile, in Saigoku (western part of Japan (esp. Kyushu, but ranging as far east as Kinki), peasants strengthened their territorial bonds, formed villages, and established the hyakushouke system (the contract system where the manor's owner entrusts a peasant to manage his manor and pay the customs) to operate shoen independent of jito's management.
Japanese: 一方で西国では百姓が地縁的な結合を強め、村落を形成し、地頭とは別個に荘園経営を請け負う百姓請が見られるようになった。
English: Also, shitaji chubun (physical division of land) started to take place as a solution to a conflict between jito and shoen ryoshu over sakuai.
Japanese: また、地頭と荘園領主との間で作合を巡る争いの解決方策として下地中分が行われ始めた。
English: In the Muromachi period, shugo (provincial constables) became powerful and lowered official positions of jito and kokujin (local samurai) from the Kamakura period including zaichokanjin (local officials in the Heian and Kamakura periods) and started to control the lands owned by kokuga, jito, or kokujin with the goal to establish the shugo-ryogoku system (the system where a shugo dominates a manor).
Japanese: 室町時代になると、守護の権力が強大化し、守護領国制の成立を目指して、在庁官人を含む鎌倉期の地頭、国人を被官化し、国衙や彼らの所持していた領地を掌握し始めた。
English: During this period, the shugouke system was widely used in which honke or ryoke entrusted shugo to manage shoen in the shugo's own territories and paid nengu (jishi and kuji combined) to honke or ryoke.
Japanese: この時期には守護が自国の領内における荘園の年貢（地子と公事の一本化したもの）を本家、領家に対して請け負う守護請が広まった。
English: Meanwhile, shiki itself shifted from being an expression of an official position to being the right to tax profit, and there were cases where honke or ryoke directly held the shiki of a local lord, or the other way around meaning local lords holding the shiki of honke or ryoke.
Japanese: この頃になると、職そのものが、本来の身分的な性格から単なる得分権となり、在地領主的な職を本家や領家が直接保持する場合や、その逆の場合が見られてきた。
English: Furthermore, owing to the Muromachi bakufu system in which interests of court nobles and samurai could be comprehensively adjusted, shoen restructuring was implemented through, for example shitaji chubun, and as a result, management of ichienryo (ichien territories) or bukeichienryo (ichien territories of samurai families) by jisha honjo was established.
Japanese: 更に公武の利害関係を包括的に調整できる室町幕府の体制により、下地中分などによる荘園の再編成がすすみ、寺社本所による一円領や武家一円領が定着した。
English: In the Sengoku period (period of Warring States), shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lords as provincial constables) were replaced with sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) and the shoen system (manorialism) collapsed because sengoku daimyo further advanced ichien chigyo of lands.
Japanese: 戦国時代(日本)になると、守護大名に代わった戦国大名は、土地の一円知行をより進めていき、荘園制は崩壊した。
English: In the end, as a result of taiko kenchi (the cadastral surveys conducted by Hideyoshi), the right to a particular area of land was granted only to the cultivator of that land, and positions such as honke and ryoke disappeared.
Japanese: 最終的には太閤検地により、土地には直接の耕作者の権利しか認められなくなり、本家、領家という地位も消滅したことになる。
English: The zoyo tax system was one in which taxes were paid in the form of labor, under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) in China and Japan.
Japanese: 雑徭（ぞうよう、ざつよう）は、中国及び日本の律令制下での労役の形態を取る租税制度である。
English: The zoyo in Japan was based on the Chinese system, but it was introduced after being modified to meet the conditions of Japan.
Japanese: 日本の雑徭（ぞうよう）は、中国の制度を元としているが、日本の国情に合わせて導入されている。
English: The kokushi (provincial governors) in local areas impressed and organized people so as to compel them to develop an infrastructure (such as flood control work and irrigation construction) and to renovate buildings such as the kokuga (provincial government offices).
Japanese: 地方において国司が徴発・編成し、治水灌漑工事をはじめとする各種インフラ整備や国衙等の修築などをさせた。
English: The first zoyo is believed to have been established in the "Asuka-kiyomihara-ryo" code of 692.
Japanese: その初見が692年（持統天皇6年）のため『飛鳥浄御原令』で制定されたとされている。
English: Initially, the maximum number of days per annum for the zoyo was less than or equal to 60 for the seitei (a male between the ages of 21 and 60), 30 for the jitei (a seitei with disabilities) and the rotei (a male over age 60), and 15 days for the chunan (a male between the ages of 17 and 20), but the Kyakushiki code (a code to amend and supplement the Ritsuryo code) intended to reduce the zoyo by half was introduced in 757.
Japanese: 当初は正丁（21～60歳の男性）年間60日以下、次丁（正丁の障害者と老丁（61歳以上の男性））年間30日以下、中男（17～20歳の男性）年間15日以下を限度としたが、757年（天平宝字元年）に雑徭を半減する格式が出された。
English: The maximum number of days was restored to the original amount after the death of FUJIWARA no Nakamaro, but in 796 it was reduced by half.
Japanese: 藤原仲麻呂の死後いったんは元に戻ったが、796年（延暦14年）に再度半減された。
English: It was the kokushi's right to impose the zoyo, and among the kokushi there was some who imposed the zoyo for personal use; it is commonly accepted that the zoyo became a burden to the komin (the registered people, especially farmers, under the Ritsuryo system) and thus caused the handen farmers (farmers whom the government had given the handen, or the allotted land for farming) to decline, abandon the land and flee to other domains.
Japanese: 雑徭の賦課は国司の権限であり、なかには私用で雑徭を課す国司もおり、公民の負担となり班田農民の没落・逃散を促したとする見解が通説である。
English: Many details remain to be clarified, and there are two theories about the zatsuyo (zoyo): one is that the zatsuyo as well as the soyocho (a tax system under the kinden system, or the equal-field system) was a basic tax; the other maintains that the labor to the government was basically provided in the form of the saka (labor allocated by rank, 差科), a major example of which was the shokueki (職役), or the transport of goods), being a different tax system from the soyocho.
Japanese: 詳細については不明な点が多く、租庸調と並び基本的な税目とであったとする説と基本的な労役は租庸調とは別系統である差科（職役などが代表例）であるとする説がある。
English: However, in Japan the saka system, in which the ko (an administrative unit of a few families under the Ritsuryo system) was classified by rank and the labor was allocated according to rank, was not adopted and therefore the zoyo, free of rank, was mandated.
Japanese: しかしながら、雑徭はその補完でしかない（日本は戸を等級で分けて等級ごとに負担する労役を定める差科制を採らなかった為に等級に依らない雑徭が義務化された）としている。
English: Additionally, there is a controversy regarding the burden of labor, in which one theory indicates that the burden was always mandatory and the other claims that it was a provisional tax that wasn't uniformly imposed.
Japanese: またその負担についても義務であったとする説と、臨時的な税であり賦課されない場合もあったとする説に分かれている。
English: The yo was a part of the soyocho from which it was possible to be exempted; this annual mandatory 20 days of labor could be substituted with 40 days of the zatsuyo.
Japanese: 庸が年間20日の労役の義務であるのに対し40日の雑徭により庸が免除される。
English: The term kyujin was used to mean a samurai who owned territory but was not a kuramaidori (a rank of retainers) from the Muromach period to the early Edo period.
Japanese: 室町時代から江戸時代の初頭には、領地を持った武士で、蔵米取りでないという意味で使用された。
English: In the Sengoku period (period of warring states), a samurai who did not have their governing land but accepted horoku (salary) was considered as a lower-ranking samurai.
Japanese: 戦国時代には、己の知行する土地を持たずに、俸禄を受けている武士は、下級武士と考えられていた。
English: While, a lord of small manor could not get stable harvesting and were often bothered by insect damage such as locusts and maize weevils, as well as by natural disasters such as wind or storm damage, flood disaster, and cold weather damage.
Japanese: しかし、小領主の場合は、収穫が安定せずに、イナゴ・コクゾウムシなどの害虫・風害・水害・冷害などの天変地異で困窮することが珍しくなかった。
English: In the Edo period, the lord of each domain tried to change the fief system of their vassal from a local enforcement system in which the land was provided directly for the vassal and the vassal collected tax individually into kuramaichigyo in which the lord of the domain collected rice and farm products collectively and provided them for their vassal who, in turn, changed them into money through a dealer, in order to extend their ruling power.
Japanese: 江戸時代になると、諸藩の藩主は、強大な統治権を得るために、家臣の知行を、土地を直接給付して独自に徴税を行わせる地方知行制から、藩が一括して徴税した米を中心とした農産物を家臣に給付して、その一部を商人を通じて換金させる蔵米知行に転換することを目指した。