nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: However, collecting Shozei needed excessively complicated clerical work such as forming the family register and allotting farmland to peasants (Handen).
Japanese: しかし正税徴収には戸籍の作成、百姓への班田など非常に煩雑な事務を必要としていた。
English: On the other hand, Ku-Suiko enabled local administrative organizations to secure a large sum of income without troublesome clerical work; therefore, many of those organizations implemented forcible Ku-Suiko, exploiting peasants for acquiring financial resources.
Japanese: しかし、公出挙であれば、繁雑な事務を行わなくとも多額の収入を確保することができたので、地方機関の多くは百姓に対する強制的な公出挙を行い財源としたのである。
English: Knowing that peasants gradually became impoverished due to Ku-Suiko, the ancient Japanese government of centralized governance decided in April 720 to reduce the annual interest rate of Ku-Suiko from 50% to 30%, and to forgive all debts born before 718, notifying various districts.
Japanese: 公出挙によって、百姓が疲弊し始めたことを知った律令政府は、720年（養老4）3月、公出挙の利子率の低減（年利50％→30％）、そして養老2年以前に生じた全ての債務の免除を決定し、諸国へ通知した。
English: In addition, regarded as financial resources for provincial governors' salary, Kugaito (local source of revenue) was separated from Shozei in 745 and used as the fund for managing Suiko, which created a direct relationship between the income through Suiko and the provincial governors' salary.
Japanese: 更に745年の国司の給与の財源として公廨稲が正税から分離されて、出挙の運用原資として用いられるようになった事で出挙と国司の収入が直接関係するようになった。
English: Afterwards, aiming at restructuring the nation under the Ritsuryo codes, the Emperor Kanmu carried out a large scale of administrative reform from the late Nara period to the early Heian period.
Japanese: その後、奈良末期～平安初頭にかけて桓武天皇が、律令国家の再構築を目指して大規模な行政改革を実行した。
English: As a part of the reform, the annual interest rate of Ku-Suiko was reduced to 30% again.
Japanese: その一環として公出挙の利子率が再び年利30％へ引き下げられることとなった。
English: Ku-Suiko became the main financial resources for local government along with Shozei in the Heian period.
Japanese: 平安期にはいると、正税と並んで公出挙が主要な地方財源となっていった。
English: Therefore, in the Konin-Jogan eras in the early Heian period (the ninth century), the taxes policy of the government was converted from taxation on people, which was the initial policy mapped out under the Ritsuryo codes, to the taxation on lands.
Japanese: これに伴い、平安前期の弘仁貞観期（9世紀）には、政府の租税方針も律令が当初想定していた人への課税から土地への課税へと転換した。
English: For example, there were cases that the payment duty of Ku-Suiko was imposed on lands.
Japanese: 例えば、土地に対して公出挙の納入義務が課せられるような事例も見られた。
English: It was provided that Shozei should be stored in the warehouse (Shoso) of local administrative organizations, and that they should manage the stored rice through Ku-Suiko.
Japanese: 地方機関の倉庫（正倉）には正税を備蓄し、地方機関が備蓄米を公出挙により運用することとされていた。
English: With the role of Ku-Suiko increasing, however, various troubles occurred in the management of Suiko controlled by local administrative organizations, which caused difficulties in securing Rito.
Japanese: しかし、公出挙のウェイトが大きくなってくると、地方機関の出挙運用に様々なトラブルが起こるようになり、利稲を確保できない状況も生じていた。
English: In addition to the Ku-Suiko managed by local administrative organizations, rich people and influential farmers such as Tato (cultivators) living in local areas implemented Shi-Suiko for petty farmers in those days.
Japanese: このころには地方機関による公出挙の他、地域の富豪・有力百姓ら（田堵など）も零細百姓らを対象に私出挙を行うようになった。
English: In the ninth century, many provinces had examined the land tax collecting system by combining the Ku-Suiko with the Shi-Suiko.
Japanese: 9世紀には広範囲の国で、公出挙と私出挙を組み合わせた租税徴収方法が模索されていた。
English: Under this system, local administrative organizations designated a small number of influential farmers as debtors, instead of small-scaled and extensive peasants with a tendency of stagnant interest payment, allowing those designated debtors to use the "Honto" (rice plant as capital), which they had received through Ku-Suiko, for the financial resources of Shi-Suiko.
Japanese: これは、公出挙の貸付先として利払いが滞りがちな小規模広範囲の百姓ではなく、大規模で少数の有力百姓等を指定し、彼らが公出挙により受け取った本稲（元本の稲）を私出挙の財源とすることを認めたものであった。
English: Borrowing the Honto through Ku-Suiko at 30% interest a year, they lent it at 50%, which brought them in 20% a year.
Japanese: 彼らは年利30％で公出挙の本稲を借り受け、年利50％で貸し付けることにより20％の利息を得ることとなった。
English: In addition, in the latter half of the ninth century, local administrative organizations attempted to secure income through Suiko by allowing rich people and influential farmers in local areas to undertake the management of Ku-Suiko after admitting the private warehouse possessed by those people to be Shoso (Riso).
Japanese: 更に9世紀後半には、地域の富豪・有力百姓らの私倉を正倉と認め（里倉）、彼らに公出挙運用を請け負わせることで、地方機関の出挙収入の確保が図られるようになった。
English: In the Riso-fumyo system, undertakers including rich people and influential farmers in local areas, who had come to be called Fumyo (a local tax manager), were appointed to the officials for collecting taxes.
Japanese: 里倉負名制では、負名と呼ばれるようになった地域の富豪・有力百姓ら請負人は徴税役人に任命された。
English: If Fumyo paid 30% of the total interest of 50% obtained through Shi-Suiko to local administrative organizations as interest for Ku-Suiko, they were allowed to keep the remaining 20% for themselves as a management fee for the Shoso and the cost for undertaking the operation, etc.
Japanese: 負名は、私出挙により得た50％の利子のうち30％分を公出挙の利子として地方機関に納入すれば残りの20％を正倉管理料、運用請負費用等として自分のものとすることが出来た。
English: Under this situation, Shi-Suiko, which had been inseparably linked to Ku-Suiko, were implemented half-forcibly.
Japanese: このような状況の下、公出挙と不可分の存在となった私出挙も半強制的に行われていた。
English: In Shi-Suiko, debtors gave the residential lands, cultivated lands, slaves and others as collateral, but many failed to repay the debts due to the high interest rate.
Japanese: 私出挙においては、借受側の百姓らの宅地・耕地・奴婢などが担保とされていたが、高利のため返済できない例も多かった。
English: Therefore, the collateral passed to the lenders, with the result that the concentration and accumulation of wealth advanced.
Japanese: 担保物件は貸与側の所有へと移転（質流れ）することとなり、富の集中・蓄積が進んでいった。
English: Thus, the regional rule by the rich stratum gradually extended in around the mid Heian period, which led to their prosperity in medieval Japan.
Japanese: このようにして、平安中期ごろには、富豪層による地域支配が徐々に拡がり始めていき、これが中世の萌芽へつながっていく。
English: After the Riso-fumyo system was switched to the Fumyo system (local tax manager system), the tax was comprehensively imposed on lands as Kanmotsu (tribute paid as taxes), instead of Shozei and Ku-Suiko, both of which were regarded as the official land taxes.
Japanese: 延喜年間に里倉負名体制は負名体制に移行し、公的租税としての正税及び公出挙に代わり官物として一括して土地に賦課する方式となった。
English: The Koden kanmotsu rippo (the law fixing the tax rate of Kanmotsu) fixed the tax rate of the Kanmotsu at 'Danbetsu santo' (54 lit. of rice per 10a) in the mid 11th century, by which Kanmotsu increasingly assumed the characteristics of land tax.
Japanese: 11世紀中期には官物の税率が公田官物率法により「段別三斗」に固定化され土地税としての性質が強まった。
English: Following the development of the shoen koryo sei (system of public lands and private estates), a part of the tribute paid to the lord of shoen (manor in medieval Japan), which was equivalent to the Kanmotsu for kokuga-ryo (territories governed by provincial government office), was called Nengu (land tax).
Japanese: 荘園公領制の展開に伴って荘園領主への貢納のうち、国衙領でいう官物にあたるものが年貢と呼ばれるようになる。
English: With the development of a monetary economy since around the Kamakura period, Suiko came to be implemented by using money, instead of the conventional Suiko implemented by using rice.
Japanese: 鎌倉時代ごろから貨幣経済が発達していくと、それまでの稲の出挙ではなく、金銭の出挙が行われるようになった。
English: In the medieval Japan as well, Suiko had characteristics not only of loaning but also of land tax.
Japanese: 中世においても、出挙は、単なる利子付き貸借にとどまらず、租税という面も持っていた。
English: These characteristics namely suggested the fact that only the ruling class could implement Suiko, as well as the ruling class could implement Suiko within the regions that they ruled.
Japanese: これはすなわち、出挙を行えるのは支配層に限られていたこと、支配層も自らが支配する範囲内でのみ出挙を行えたこと、を表している。
English: The money-lending system gradually became the leading system from around the late Kamakura period, which led to the abolishment of Risen-Suiko in the Muromachi period.
Japanese: 鎌倉後期ごろから次第に貸付金融が主流となっていき、室町時代ごろに利銭出挙は消滅した。
English: However, after the several matters relating to land ownership were drastically controlled through Taiko-kenchi (the land surveys conducted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) and other systems in the Azuchi-Momoyama period, Suiko is believed to have been abolished by the beginning of the early-modern times.
Japanese: しかし、安土桃山時代になると、太閤検地などを通じて土地所有関係が大きく整理されたため、出挙は近世に入るまでに消滅したとされている。
English: Engi no chi is an idealized name of the reign of Emperor Daigo during the mid-Heian period (during the first half of the 10th century).
Japanese: 延喜の治（えんぎのち）は、平安時代中期（10世紀前期）の醍醐天皇の治世を理想視した呼称。
English: As Emperor Daigo had no Sekkan (regents and advisers) and compiled "Engi no kyakushiki" (regulations and laws of the Engi era), his reign was considered by succeeding generations as the reign when an ideal politics were carried out by direct rule of the Emperor and his reign was called as Engi and Tenryaku no chi (reign of Emperor Daigo and Murakami) together with the reign of Emperor Murakami (Tenryaku no chi - glorious Tenryaku rule) who also carried out direct rule in the middle of the 10th century.
Japanese: 醍醐天皇は摂関を置かず、また延喜格式が編纂されるなど、後世の人々から天皇親政による理想の政治が行われた治世と評価され、同じく10世紀中期に天皇親政が行われたとする村上天皇の治世（天暦の治）と併せて延喜・天暦の治と呼ばれた。
English: However, a person who actually played a leading role attending to government affairs in the Engi period was FUJIWARA no Tokihira, Sadaijin (Minister of the Left), Daijokan hitto (head council of state).
Japanese: しかし、実際に延喜期の政務をリードしたのは太政官筆頭の左大臣藤原時平であった。
English: Tokihira died young and could not take up the position of Sekkan as he had no maternal relatives to the Emperor, but he made his younger sister, FUJIWARA no Onshi a chugu (the second consort of an emperor) of Emperor Daigo.
Japanese: 時平は若くして亡くなり、天皇との外戚関係が無かったために摂関の地位に付かなかったものの、妹の藤原穏子を醍醐天皇の中宮とした。
English: Daigo had many princes, but there was only one who became a crown prince and that was the child of Onshi and it turned out that the foundation of the later Sekkan government was in fact made during that time.
Japanese: 醍醐には大勢の皇子がいたが皇太子になったのは、穏子所生の子のみであり後世の摂関政治の基礎が実はこの時期に形成されたことが分かる。
English: The politics by Emperor Uda (called Kanpyo no chi - Glorious rule in Kanpyo era) strongly aspired to return to the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) which controlled influential families (dominant nobilities, temples and shrines) and protected peasant folks, and Tokihira also followed this policy, for example, by promulgating a law to enforce handen (the allotted farmland) in 902 during his administration.
Japanese: 宇多天皇の政治（寛平の治と呼ばれる）は、権門（有力貴族・寺社）を抑制し、小農民を保護するという律令制への回帰を強く志向していたが、時平もこの方針を受け継ぎ、例えば時平執政期の902年（延喜2年）には班田を励行する法令が発布されている。
English: In a similar way, the compiling of "Engi no kyakushiki"conducted during this period was also intended to return the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 同様に、この時期に行われた延喜格式の編纂も律令制回帰を目的としたものであった。
English: However, in reality, Engi no chi was not necessarily successful as the rank differentiation of the farmer class was significantly accelerated so, the rule over people based on the Ritsuryo system had reached the stage no longer being possible.
Japanese: ただ、現実には百姓層の階層分化が著しく進んでおり律令制的な人別支配はもはや不可能な段階に至っていたため、延喜の治は必ずしも成功したとは言えなかった。
English: As the result, Engi no chi was the last trial conducted to bring back the Ritsuryo system, and this ruling system was completely abandoned during the reign of the next emperor, Emperor Suzaku, and FUJIWARA no Tadahira and the establishment and reinforcement of a new system, i.e. the Imperial Court, state was starting to develop.
Japanese: 結果的に延喜の治は律令制復活の最後の試みとなり、次代の朱雀天皇および藤原忠平の治世から、律令制支配は完全に放棄されることとなり、新たな支配体制王朝国家体制の構築・充実が進展していったのである。
English: There is a theory by Koji HIRATA and others that Kanpyo no chi was a transition and preparatory period for the dynasty state system led by SUGAWARA no Michizane and Engi no chi was intended to transit to the national system ruled by imperial families by Tokihira who took over the idea of Michizane, but the details were unknown because the political records of Michizane were destroyed by Tokihira.
Japanese: なお、寛平の治は菅原道真の主導による王朝国家体制への転換準備期であり、延喜の治は道真の着想を引き継いだ時平による王朝国家体制への移行を意図したものであったが、時平により道真の政治の記録が抹殺されたため詳細が不明となっていたにすぎないとする平田耿二等の説がある。
English: According this theory, the enforcement of handen was intended to determine the land tax amount and it was a system reform focused on the coming taxation of land.
Japanese: この説によると、延喜の班田励行は租税の額の確定を目的としたものであり、来るべき土地への課税を前提とした制度改革であったこととなる。
English: Tenryaku no Chi describes the idealized political reign of the Emperor Murakami in mid-Heian period (in the mid-10th century).
Japanese: 天暦の治（てんりゃくのち）とは、平安時代中期（10世紀中期）の村上天皇の治世を理想した呼称。
English: Although he had placed FUJIWARA no Tadahira as Kanpaku (chief adviser to the Emperor) for a while since his accession in 946, he did not appoint any Sekkan (regents and advisers) but took power by himself after Tadahira's death in 949.
Japanese: 村上天皇は、946年（天慶9年）に即位した後しばらくは藤原忠平を関白に置いていたが、949年（天暦3年）に忠平が没すると、以後、摂関は置かず天皇親政の形式をとった。
English: Later, Emperor Murakami's reign was highly regarded as the ideal of imperial governance and was called Engi, Tenryaku no Chi (glorious Engi and Tenryaku rules) together with another ideal imperial governance taken by the Emperor Daigo (called Engi no Chi) in the early 10th century.
Japanese: 後世、村上治世は天皇親政により理想の政治が行われた時代として聖代視され、同じく天皇親政が行われたとする10世紀前期の醍醐天皇の治世（延喜の治）と併せて、延喜・天暦の治と呼ばれた。
English: However, the person who led the governance after Tadahira was the head of Daijokan (Department of State) and also Sadaijin (Minister of the Left) FUJIWARA no Saneyori, and it is thought to have been conscious propaganda to admire Murakami's reign as the ideal of imperial governance by the middle- and lower-ranked literary nobility in and after 11th century.
Japanese: しかし、忠平の後に実際に政務をリードしたのは太政官筆頭である左大臣藤原実頼であり、村上治世を天皇親政の理想の時代とするのは、11世紀以降に摂関政治で不遇をかこった中下流の文人貴族による意識的な喧伝だったのだと考えられている。
English: The term 'myoden' (rice field lot manage by a nominal holder) refers to a basic unit of the governance and (tax) collection in the shoen-koryo system (the system of public lands and private estates), and this existed from the mid-Heian period, throughout the Middle Ages in Japan.
Japanese: 名田（みょうでん）は、日本の平安時代中期から中世を通じて見られる、荘園公領制における支配・収取（徴税）の基礎単位である。
English: In the ritsuryo system (system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo codes), which started around the end of the seventh century or the beginning of the eighth century, the basic unit for tax collection was every single person.
Japanese: 7世紀末から8世紀初頭に始まった律令制では、人民一人ひとりを租税収取の基礎単位としていた。
English: In the ninth and the tenth centuries, however, the citizen management system (including the ancient family registration system, the creation of the yearly tax registers, and the implementation of the law of periodic reallocations of rice fields) which supported the ritsuryo system began to collapse, so that the governance on a single-person basis became difficult to maintain.
Japanese: しかし、9世紀・10世紀ごろになると、律令制を支えていた人民把握システム（古代の戸籍制度・計帳の作成や班田収授法の実施など）が次第に弛緩していき、人別的な人民支配が存続できなくなっていた。
English: Therefore the government established a governance system with a tax collection basic unit according to land (or koden, a field administered directly by a ruler).
Japanese: そのため、政府は土地（公田）を収取の基礎単位とする支配体制を構築するようになった。
English: At first this reorganized koden administered by kokuga (a provincial government office) into a governance and tax collection unit called myoden or myo.
Japanese: これにより、まず国衙の支配する公田が、名田または名（みょう）と呼ばれる支配・収取単位へと再編成された。
English: Some peasants, handen (allotted farmland) farmers, old gunji (a district officer) families, and local kokushi (a provincial governor) scions of that time started to form a wealthy class called tato, and they gained riches by suiko (rice loans in ancient Japan that had to be repaid after the autumn harvest at a substantial rate of interest) and farming activities.
Japanese: 当時の百姓・班田農民や古来の郡司一族、土着国司子弟の中には、出挙や営田活動により富を蓄積する富豪層が現れており、田堵（たと）と呼ばれていた。
English: The fumyo caused debtor-creditor relations between tato farmers and other peasants, and this allowed the tato to become powerful enough for unofficial governance over other peasants and to increase their special skills of myoden management.
Japanese: 負名を通して、田堵と他の百姓との間に債務関係が発生するようになり、これによって田堵は他の百姓への私的支配を強めるようになるとともに、名田経営者として専門性を高めていった。
English: In addition, the kokuga side found it more efficient to collect the tax through a small number of tato farmers, who owned a great amount of movable assets as well as many subordinate people and managed a large-sized farm which was expected to bring stable management, than to collect the tax from many peasants who only had small-sized unstable farm management.
Japanese: また国衙の側も経営の不安定な小規模経営の多数の百姓から収取するより、多くの動産資本と隷属民を蓄積し、安定した経営が見込める大規模経営者たる少数の田堵から収取することに効率性を見出した。
English: They also found it very efficient to rule the people through the tato.
Japanese: また人民の支配も彼らを通じて行うことに高い効率性を見出していったのである。
English: In the 11th century, the myoden system was also imported and adopted to manors whose territory had been enhanced because of consolidation around that time.
Japanese: 名田の制度は、11世紀ごろから、当時一円化して領域性を高めた荘園にも採用・吸収されていく。
English: Farmland within a manor was reorganized into myoden fields, and the tato who became shomin (people living in a manor) managed the myoden.
Japanese: 荘園内の耕作地は、名田へと再編成され、荘民となった田堵が名田経営を行うようになった。
English: Most manors in the Kinai (the vicinal territories of the capital) and the Kyushu regions consisted of nearly equal-sized myoden fields, and each size was in the range of one to two cho (9,917 to 19,834 square meters).
Japanese: 畿内や九州の荘園では、面積1～2町程度のほぼ均等な名田から構成される例が非常に多かった。
English: Such manors are called kinto-myo-shoen (a manor consisting of equal-sized myo), and this type of manor existed mainly from the 12th century to the 14th century.
Japanese: このような荘園を均等名荘園（きんとうみょう-）といい、12世紀から14世紀にかけて多く見られた。
English: The lords of the manors were so powerful in the Kinai provinces and the Kyushu region that they could divide their myoden equally and allot each peasant a portion of myoden in order to manage their manors effectively.
Japanese: 畿内諸国や九州では荘園領主の権力が強く及んでおり、領主が荘園経営を効率的に行うため、名田を均等化して百姓へ割り振ったのである。
English: On the other hand, many manors out of the Kinai and Kyushu regions consisted of extensive myoden larger than several cho and/or unequal-sized myoden.
Japanese: 一方、畿内や九州以外の荘園の様子を見ると、数町以上の広い名田、面積が不均等な名田から構成されていることが多かった。
English: This was because the influence of a manor owner (called honjo, a proprietor of a manor) could not reach throughout his manor very much due to a long distance between his ordinary location and his manor in the regions other than the Kinai and the Kyushu regions.
Japanese: 畿内・九州以外では、荘園領主（本所）の所在地から距離的に遠かったこともあって、本所権力の作用があまり及ばなかったためである。
English: The consolidation of manors allowed equal privileges and status with an Imperial demesne (or kokugaryo, a territory governed by a provincial government office) in the 11th century, and the land regularity in and after that century was called the shoen-koryo system.
Japanese: 荘園が一円化して公領（国衙領）と対等な権利地位を獲得した11世紀以降の在地秩序を荘園公領制と呼ぶ。
English: In this system, the tato managed several industries such as agriculture, fishery, and handicraft manufacturing on a myoden basis, employing subordinate labors.
Japanese: この体制下では農業、漁業、手工業などの諸産業を田堵が隷属する人民を使役し、名田単位で経営を行った。
English: The tato farmers and the myoden fields were administered on a manor basis and supervised by a shokan (a manor officer) appointed as the lord of the manor, while the Imperial demesnes were administered on a gun (district), go (village), or ho (settlement) basis, and gunji (a district officer), goji (a village officer), and hoji (a public land officer) supervised respective lands.
Japanese: 田堵と名田は荘園単位、また公領では郡・郷・保単位で把握され、荘園領主に任命された荘官、国衙に任命された郡司、郷司、保司らの支配を受けた。
English: More samurai warriors were assigned to shokan, gunji, goji, and hoji officers as military tensions increased in local societies, especially between manors and the Imperial demesnes, and they eventually gained a stable position during the Kamakura period, when a position called jito (a lord of a manor) was given to the Kamakura-dono (the lord of the Kamakura shogunate).
Japanese: 荘官、郡司、郷司、保司らは在地社会での軍事的緊張、特に荘園と公領の対立が高まるにつれて武士が任命されることが多くなり、鎌倉時代に至って鎌倉殿に任命された地頭として安定した地位を獲得した。
English: Although the tato undertook myoden management, they were not allowed to have private ownership of the myoden fields.
Japanese: 田堵は、名田経営を請け負ってはいたものの、名田の私有権は認められていなかった。
English: Nevertheless they strengthened relationships with land and subordinate peasants through myoden management, and some tato even started to accumulate neighboring myoden fields managed by other tato.
Japanese: しかし、田堵は、名田経営を通じて、土地および他の隷属する百姓との関係を緊密なものとしていき、中には周辺の他の田堵の名田を集積する者も現れていた。
English: Under such circumstances, around the 12th and the 13th centuries, lords of manors, kokuga, and samurai warriors who were appointed as the local supervisors by lords or kokuga had to recognize the tato's influence, and they gave the tato permanent tenure of myoden in exchange for the firm land tax payment and the undertaking of public duties.
Japanese: こうした状況の中で、12世紀～13世紀ごろになると、荘園領主や国衙、さらにこれらから在地支配を任された武士も田堵の力を認めざるを得なくなり、田堵に名田の永代保有権を付与する代わりに、年貢・公事の納付請負を確約させるようになっていった。
English: Thus the tato farmers developed into myoshu (an owner of rice fields), who owned the permanent tenure of myoden.
Japanese: こうして田堵は、名田の永代保有権を有する名主（みょうしゅ）へと成長したのである。
English: Some people in the myoshu class became jizamurai (local samurai) by doing military service as samurai, and this resulted in many myoshu people who made inroads into the samurai class.
Japanese: 名主層の中には武士に対して軍役を果たすことで地侍となり、武士身分の一角に食い込む者も多く出るようになっていった。
English: Also, the myoden whose myoshu had permanent tenure were called hyakusho-myo (myoden of peasants).
Japanese: また、名主が永代保有権を有する名田は百姓名（ひゃくしょうみょう）と呼ばれた。
English: From the 14th century onwards, the concept that a hyakusho-myo could be private land increased, and the hyakusho-myo lands started to be traded at will among the myoshu people.
Japanese: 14世紀ごろから、百姓名は私的所有の対象とする観念が強まっていき、名主間で自由売買されるようになる。
English: The myoden always functioned as a basic unit of governance and tax collection in the shoen-koryo system, which included various forms of ruling.
Japanese: 名田は、多様な支配形態を内包する荘園公領制において、基礎的な支配・収取単位として機能し続けた。
English: As the shugo-ryogoku system (the system of domination by a governor) grew in the Muromachi period, however, the myoden fields were gradually integrated into the government of shugo (a provincial governor).
Japanese: しかし、室町時代には守護領国制の進展にともなって、名田はゆるやかに守護の支配下へ組み込まれた。
English: In the Sengoku period (the period of warring states in Japan), the collapse of the myoden system rapidly proceeded accompanying the enhancement of the unified government by Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lords in the Sengoku period), and eventually, it completely disappeared due to the taiko-kenchi (cadastral surveys instituted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) in the Azuchi-Momoyama period.
Japanese: さらに戦国時代(日本)になると、戦国大名による一円支配の強化とともに名田の解体が急激に進み、最終的には安土桃山時代の太閤検地によって、名田は完全に消滅した。
English: There have been two major different opinions about the characteristics of myoden in the Japanese historical science world.
Japanese: 名田の性格をめぐって、日本史学界では大きく2つの見解が対立していた。
English: In this view, they think peasants, who had been unilaterally controlled by rulers, captured land ownership from the rulers as a result of a class struggle.
Japanese: これは被支配者である農民による階級闘争の結果、支配層から土地所有権を奪取したと評価するものである。
English: Historical materials clearly show, however, that the myoden fields were actually governed by lords, and tato and myoshu just functioned as a tax payment agency for lords.
Japanese: しかし、史料から見る実際の名田は、あくまで領主が支配しており、田堵や名主らは領主への租税納付機関として働いていたに過ぎないことが明らかとなっている。
English: This makes the other opinion more dominant, and many researchers support this idea that a myoden was a basic unit of governance and tax collection in the shoen-koryo system.
Japanese: そのため、2つ目の見解、すなわち荘園公領制における支配・収取（徴税）の基礎単位とする見方が広範な支持を得ており、支配的となっている。
English: The term myoden (literally means a named paddy field) comes from the fact that a tato or a myoshu gave a name to the land he operated in order to distinguish his land from other lands.
Japanese: 名田という用語は、田堵や名主が自らの経営する土地を明示するために、その土地へ名称をつけたことに由来する。
English: Most myoden were named after a tato's name, and there were many myoden whose name sounded like a person's name across the country.
Japanese: 名田の名称を、田堵本人の名前と同じとする場合が多く、人名のような名田の例は日本各地に見られる。