nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Here is the article "The Goto troops in Japan's Invasion of Korea" about the activities of Goto Domain in Hizen Province (Fukue Domain, the present Goto Islands in Nagasaki Prefecture) in the Bunroku and Keicho War led by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI.
Japanese: 朝鮮出兵における五島勢（ちょうせんしゅっぺいにおけるごとうぜい）では、豊臣秀吉の文禄・慶長の役における、肥前国五島藩（福江藩、現長崎県五島列島）の動きについて述べる。
English: At that time, he acknowledged a 15,530 koku fief as belonging to Sumiharu UKU (the twentieth head of the Goto Domain).
Japanese: その際、宇久純玄（五島藩第20代）は、1万5530石の本領を安著された。
English: The next year, he destroyed Ujinao HOJO by besieging Odawara, transferred Ieyasu TOKUGAWA to Kanto, and completed unifying the country.
Japanese: 翌年北条氏直を小田原に囲み滅ぼし、徳川家康を関東に移封し天下統一をなした。
English: First, he ordered that Korea pay tribute to him, threatening that if it did not obey his order, he would attack the country, and sent Yoshishige SO of Tsushima Province to conduct negotiations.
Japanese: まず、朝鮮に入貢を命じ、開かなければ討つ、と脅し対馬国の宗義調に折衝させた。
English: In October and November, he ordered the castellan of Hirado-jo Castle, Shigenobu MATSUURA (hoin), to have a castle constructed in Kazamoto in Iki Province.
Japanese: 9月、平戸城城主松浦鎮信(法印)に命じて壱岐国の風本に城を築かせた。
English: Shigenobu MATSUURA (hoin), the castellan of Hirado-jo Castle, Harunobu ARIMA, the castellan of Hinoe-jo Castle, Yoshiaki OMURA, the castellan of Kushima-jo Castle and Sumiharu GOTO, the castellan of Goto-jo Castle were in charge of building the castle.
Japanese: その築城の担当は、平戸城主松浦鎮信(法印)、日野江城主有馬晴信、玖島城主大村喜前、五島城主五島純玄であった。
English: After their advice was approved, they went over to Korea to solve the problem by negotiation, but failed.
Japanese: 献策が許されると話し合いで解決しようと朝鮮に渡ったが成果が無かった。
English: On April 24, 1592, he had the first division including Yukinaga KONISHI, Yoshitoshi SO and 18,700 other soldiers cross the sea and land in the Korean Peninsula as scheduled.
Japanese: 文禄元年(1592年)3月13日、予定通り、一番隊小西行長、宗義智ら1万8700人を渡海させて朝鮮半島に上陸させた。
English: Then, he organized his army, over 158,000 men, in up to nine divisions, such as Kiyomasa KATO's second division and Nagamasa KURODA' s third division, with 9,200 soldiers making up the Funa-bugyo (Marshals of the Ships), such as Yoshitaka KUKI's (gradually becoming the formation of a navy).
Japanese: 続いて加藤清正の二番隊、黒田長政の三番隊というように九番隊まで総勢15万8000人と九鬼嘉隆らの船奉行9200人(後に水軍編成へ順次移行)を組織した。
English: A reserve army of more than 100,000 soldiers, including those of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, Toshiie MAEDA, Kagekatsu UESUGI and Masamune DATE, were on standby in Nagoya, in Hizen Province.
Japanese: 肥前の名護屋には徳川家康、前田利家、上杉景勝、伊達政宗ら兵十余万の予備軍団を待機させた。
English: Sumiharu sent 700 soldiers according to the military role allocated to him, and assigned Hachirobe Morinaga GOTO as Jodai (the keeper of castle) and rusuyaku (the proxy governor).
Japanese: 純玄は軍役担当に従って兵700を出陣させ,五島八郎兵衛盛長を城代留守役に命じた。
English: The Goto troops, which advanced on Korea on May 23, 1592, fought hard as the vanguard of the first division on May 25, and occupied Busan Metropolitan City castle on the same day.
Japanese: 文禄元年(1592年)4月12日、朝鮮に進撃した五島勢は4月14日一番隊の先鋒となって奮戦し、釜山広域市鎮城を即日攻略した。
English: The next day they took the Dongnae castle in Gyeongsang-do, and on 28th, they attacked Miryang and took it.
Japanese: 翌日には慶尚道東菜城を落とし、17日には密陽府を攻めてこれを落とした。
English: During the battle, Korean people who had been suffering under their tyrannical dynasty burned the Gyeongbokgung Palace and changnye won, which kept the register of slaves, and turned them into ashes.
Japanese: その間朝鮮王朝の圧政に苦しんでいた民衆は景福宮や奴婢の身分台帳を保管していた掌隷院などに放火し消失させた。
English: The Korean navy with Yi Sun-sin attacked the Japanese army that was in the process of deploying to the west of Busan, and thousands of troops in the Japanese army and navy had to remain there to deal with it.
Japanese: 朝鮮水軍の李舜臣が釜山西方に展開中の日本軍を攻撃し、数千の日本陸軍と水軍が対応の為に拘束された。
English: In addition, as the transportation route from Busan to Hansong was attacked using guerrilla tactics, inland bases became concerned about their emergency provisions.
Japanese: また、釜山から漢城までの輸送路がゲリラ攻撃されると内陸部では兵糧備蓄の不安が起きた。
English: In August and September, Zu Chengxun of Ming, the Vice Commander of Liaodong, who had answered Korea's request for help, dispatched reinforcements without waiting for orders from Beijing.
Japanese: 7月には朝鮮の救援要請に答えた明の遼東副総兵・祖承訓が北京市の命令を待たず援軍を発した。
English: Zu Chengxun advanced south from Uiju in Korea and attacked Pyongyang, but Yukinaga KONISHI fought hard and drove him back.
Japanese: 祖承訓は朝鮮の義州から南下をはかり平壌を攻めるが小西行長が奮戦し退けた。
English: In February and March 1593, the Ming army, under the general Li Ru-song and his 43,000 men, besieged Yukinaga KONISHI in Pyongyang.
Japanese: 文禄2年(1593年)正月、明は李如松を総兵官として4万3000の兵をもって、平壌の小西行長を包囲した。
English: Takakage KOBAYAKAWA's troops in the sixth division also withdrew to Hansong, causing a serious shortage of food supplies.
Japanese: 漢城では、六番隊の小早川隆景軍も撤退して来て食糧事情が紛糾を極めた。
English: Takakage, Hideie UKITA, Muneshige TACHIBANA and Hiroie KIKKAWA, engaged Li Ru-song at the Byeokjegwan and defeated him (the battle of Byeokjegwan).
Japanese: 隆景は宇喜多秀家、立花宗茂、吉川広家らとともに李如松を碧蹄館に迎え撃ち破った。(碧蹄館の戦い)
English: The time for both armies to make peace had come, and they engaged in peace negotiations with the arrival of an envoy from Ming.
Japanese: 両軍とも講和の機運が高まり、明から使者が来たのにともなって、和平交渉に入った。
English: But it was quite difficult to reach an accommodation with the conditions requested by each party.
Japanese: しかし、両者の求める条件ははとても折り合いがつきそうなものではなかった。
English: Because Sumiharu did not have any children with his wife, the successor of the Goto family had to be determined in camp.
Japanese: 純玄は夫人との間に子がなかったので、陣中で五島家承統を早速にも決せねばならなかった。
English: OHAMA Magoemon Harumasa held talks with Jinkichi HIRATA and Zensuke AOKATA, and visited Yukinaga KONISHI and told him about Sumiharu's will.
Japanese: 大浜孫右衛門玄雅は、平田甚吉、青方善助らと協議し小西行長を訪れ、純玄の遺言を伝えた。
English: Yukinaga immediately sent a messenger to the Nagoya-jo Castle, but all the vassals were still anxious.
Japanese: 行長はすぐに名護屋城に使いを走らせたが家臣一同の不安はとけなかった。
English: So Yukinaga summoned Harumasa and advised him to succeed the Goto family according to the Sumiharu's last words.
Japanese: そのため行長は玄雅を呼び寄せると、純玄の遺言に従って五島家を相続するように勧めた。
English: He summoned Harumasa again and advised him to succeed the Goto family after receiving the son of the proxy governor Hachirobe GOTO for adoption.
Japanese: 玄雅を再度召して、留守役五島八郎兵衛の息子を養子として受け入れた上で五島家を相続することを勧めた。
English: On October 22, 1596, Hideyoshi had an interview with an envoy from Ming in Osaka-jo Castle, and he became furious when seeing the line of a diplomatic message dispatched by the sovereign in Ming, which said that 'We hereby especially recognize you and bestow upon you the title of King of Japan.'
Japanese: 慶長元年9月1日、大坂城において明使を引見した秀吉は明の国書のなかの、「茲特封爾為日本国王賜之誥命(ここに特に爾を封じて日本国王に誥命賜う)」の部分を見て激怒した。
English: He understood that the peace negotiations by Yukinaga KONISHI were a deception, and tried to punish him by killing him on the spot.
Japanese: （秀吉は）小西行長の和平交渉が詐欺であったことがわかり、この場で誅殺しようとした。
English: The army of over 141,500 men, including the defensive force of 20,000 soldiers who had been guarding the fortresses in Korea built by the Japanese army, landed on the Korean Peninsula for the second time.
Japanese: 日本軍が築いた朝鮮の城塞を守っていた2万の守備軍を含め、総勢14万1500人が朝鮮半島に再上陸した。
English: The Japanese army made a clean sweep of the enemy between Jeolla-do and Chungcheong-do and threatened the capital, Hansong.
Japanese: 日本軍は全羅道から忠清道にかけての掃討を順調に行い、首都の漢城を脅かした。
English: However, because the Ming army did not leave Hansong and showed a willingness to fight back, the Japanese army did not stay inland in winter but took up their position on the southern coast of Korea and stayed there over the winter.
Japanese: が、明軍は漢城を捨てずに抗戦の構えを見せた為に、日本軍は冬季の内陸駐屯を避けて朝鮮南岸へ布陣して越冬した。
English: In January and February 1598, the Ulsan Waeseong (Ulsan Japanese Castle), in which Kiyomasa KATO and Yoshinaga ASANO had been holed up, was surrounded by thousands of Ming soldiers led by Military Commissioner Yang Hao.
Japanese: 慶長2年(1597年)12月には、加藤清正、浅野幸長らが篭城していた蔚山倭城が明の援将経理楊鎬の率いる数万の大軍に包囲された。
English: Harumasa GOTO, lead his navy to the rescue of his friends, attacking the Ming army from behind.
Japanese: 五島玄雅は、得意の水軍を率いてこれを救援、明軍の背後を突き突撃した。
English: On February 22, Hideyoshi sent Terasawa Shima-no-Kami to award Harumasa a letter bearing his seal, along with a kimoto with short sleeves and a set of formal clothes; the letter told Harumasa that 今度大明人蔚山取還之由注進付 而為後巻雖押出候敵引退之由 既に自此方も安芸中納言 増田右衛門 因幡但馬大和紀伊九鬼父子等可取立旨雖被仰付候右之分候間不及是非候 云々
Japanese: 秀吉は、1月17日、寺沢志摩守を通じて玄雅に、「今度大明人蔚山取還之由注進付　而為後巻雖押出候敵引退之由　既に自此方も安芸中納言　増田右衛門　因幡但馬大和紀伊九鬼父子等可取立旨雖被仰付候右之分候間不及是非候　云々」の朱印状とともに、小袖一服、道服一服を与えた。
English: In addition, after Harumasa returned to Japan and presented himself at Osaka-jo Castle to express his gratitude for taking over as the head of the family in September, Hideyoshi granted the 'Toyotomi' name in reward for his distinguished military service.
Japanese: さらに八月、玄雅がいったん帰朝して家督相続の御礼のために大阪城に伺候したさい、秀吉は抜群の戦功を愛でて「豊臣」の姓を名乗ることを許した。
English: In 1598, the Goto troops were guarding the Suncheon Waeseong (Suncheon Japanese Castle) on the coast of Kwangyang Bay, 10 kilometers southeast of Suncheon, with Yukinaga KONISHI, Shigenobu MATSUURA, Harunobu ARIMA and Yoshiaki OMURA.
Japanese: 慶長3年(1598年)五島勢は、小西行長、松浦鎮信、有馬晴信、大村喜前とともに順天の東南10kmの光陽湾岸に築かれた順天倭城を守っていた。
English: From October 31 to November 2, the Ming and Korean armies attacked the Suncheon Waeseong from both land and sea, but the Japanese army fought them off.
Japanese: 10月2日から4日にかけて明・朝鮮軍が水陸から順天倭城を攻撃したが、これを撃退する(順天の戦い)。
English: Although Hideyoshi had already died on September 18 before this battle started, this was concealed from the Japanese army in Korea.
Japanese: この戦いに先立つ事8月18日、既に秀吉は逝去していたが、このことは在朝鮮日本軍には秘匿されていた。
English: On November 13, an order for the Japanese army in Korea to withdraw was issued in the name of the Gotairo (Five Elders), and they were to withdraw from Korea.
Japanese: 10月15日、五大老の名において在朝鮮日本軍に撤退命令が出され、朝鮮より撤退する事となった。
English: However, the Ming and Korean navy's blockade impeded the withdrawal of Konishi's troops, including the Goto troops.
Japanese: が、小西軍に属していた五島勢は共に明水軍・朝鮮水軍の海上封鎖を受けて撤退を阻害された。
English: To save Konishi's army including the Goto troops, Yoshihiro SHIMAZU, Yoshitoshi SO, Muneshige TACHIBANA, Munemasu TAKAHASHI and Masanari TERASAWA organized a naval force and went to their rescue.
Japanese: 五島勢を含む小西軍を救うため、島津義弘、宗義智、立花宗茂、高橋統増、寺沢正成は水軍を編成し救援に赴く。
English: This enabled the vessels of Konishi's troops, including the Goto troops, to evacuate when the blockade was broken.
Japanese: これにより、封鎖が解けた隙をついて五島勢を含む小西軍の船団脱出が成功した。
English: The Goto troops and the Shimazu troops had been good friends through this war and it is said that Shimazu troops often stood by the Goto troops in battles.
Japanese: この戦役を通じて五島勢と島津勢は極めて親しく付き合い、島津勢がたびたび五島勢に加勢して戦ったという。
English: It was a small but historic domain inherited as part of the territory under Tango province, originally given to Takatomo KYOGOKU, a daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku period, because of distinguished war service during the Battle of Sekigahara.
Japanese: 小藩とはいえ、戦国大名の京極高知が関ヶ原の戦いの戦功により賜った丹後一国の領土の一部を受け継ぐ由緒正しい藩である。
English: The first lord Takamichi KYOGOKU (lord of the Mineyama domain of Tango province) was born as the second son of Nobutsuna KUTSUKI and was adopted by Takatomo KYOGOKU.
Japanese: 初代藩主・京極高通(丹後国峰山藩主)は朽木宣綱の次男として生まれたが、京極高知の養子となった。
English: Takatomo KYOGOKU, the lord of Tango province, divided Tango into three and each of his three children inherited one of them and Takamichi, 10,000 goku (approximately 1.8 million liters in crop yield) in the Mineyama region.
Japanese: 丹後国主であった京極高知は己れの遺領である丹後を三子に三分割し、高通には峰山地方の1万石を相続させた。
English: This made Takamichi lord of 13,000 goku together with 3,000 goku already given by Hidetada TOKUGAWA (the second shogun of the Edo bakufu, the Japanese feudal government), then he established a jin-ya (regional government office) in Kyotango City of Tango province and founded a new domain.
Japanese: これにより元々徳川秀忠から拝領していた3,000石と合わせて1万3,000石の諸侯となって、丹後京丹後市に陣屋を構えて立藩した。
English: Soon kaieki (change of rank) was made to the Kyogoku clan, the head family in the Miyazu domain, and the Kyogoku family in the Tanabe (Maizuru) domain of the Tango province was also transferred to the Toyooka domain of Tajima province, and thereby only this 13,000 goku in the Mineyama domain remained in Tango among the territories of Takatomo KYOGOKU who possessed the entire Tango province.
Japanese: 宗家である宮津藩の京極氏はほどなく改易され、丹後田辺藩（舞鶴藩）の京極家も但馬国豊岡藩へ転封となったため丹後一国を領した京極高知の所領も、結果的にはこの峰山藩の1万3,000石だけが丹後に残るだけとなってしまった。
English: Takahisa is famous as a character that appeared in "Onihei Hankacho" (Onihei's crimes note), who understands Nobutame HASEGAWA quite well, known as Onihei.
Japanese: この高久は、鬼平犯科帳において、鬼平こと長谷川宣以の良き理解者として登場する人物としても有名である。
English: Sekke shogun designates two seii taishoguns (great generals) among the shoguns in the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government), that is, the fourth FUJIWARA no Yoritsune and his legitimate son, the fifth FUJIWARA no Yoritsugu.
Japanese: 摂家将軍（せっけしょうぐん）は、鎌倉将軍一覧のうち、第4代藤原頼経とその嫡男の第5代藤原頼嗣の2人の征夷大将軍のこと。
English: The third shogun MINAMOTO no Sanetomo was assassinated and the shogun family of the direct descendant of the Minamoto clan (MINAMOTO no Yoshitomo line with Kawachi-Genji) came to an end because Sanetomo had no child.
Japanese: 3代将軍源実朝が暗殺され、その源実朝に子がいなかったことにより源氏嫡流たる将軍家である（河内源氏源義朝流）が途絶えた。
English: The regent Hojo clan in the Kamakura bakufu without a shogun of the Minamoto clan origin, accepted two-year-old Yoritsune, a great-grandson of a younger sister of MINAMOTO no Yoritomo, as Kamakura-dono (lord of Kamakura).
Japanese: 源氏将軍なき後の鎌倉幕府は執権北条氏は、源頼朝の妹の曾孫にあたる頼経を2歳で鎌倉殿として迎えた。
English: FUJIWARA no Yoritsune is called this name because he was from the Kujo family, distinguished court nobles with the social status of Sekke (line of regents and advisers).
Japanese: 藤原頼経は、名門公家の九条家の出身で、摂家の家格を有していたことからこの名でよばれる。
English: FUJIWARA no Yoritsune assumed the role of shogun for eighteen years (1226-1244) and FUJIWARA no Yoritsugu for eight years (1244-1252), comparatively long periods, but from childhood until attaining manhood without any political power because the Hojo clan fully controlled the bakufu and the shoguns were just puppets, especially FUJIWARA no Yoritsune was an unfortunate shogun since he hated being a puppet and was a threat to the Hojo clan.
Japanese: 将軍在任期間は、それぞれ藤原頼経が18年間（1226年-1244年）、藤原頼嗣が8年間（1244年-1252年）と比較的長期間ではあったものの、幼いころから成人するまでの期間で政治的な力も全くなく、幕府の実権は、北条氏が完全に掌握していたため将軍とは名ばかりの傀儡将軍だったが、特に藤原頼経は、傀儡であることを嫌ったがため北条氏によって煙たがられた不遇の将軍であった。
English: Both regents, the fourth Tsunetoki HOJO and fifth Tokiyori HOJO, were granted use of a portion of the superior's real name by Shogun FUJIWARA no Yoritsune.
Japanese: 4代執権北条経時と、5代執権北条時頼は、いずれも将軍藤原頼経の偏諱を受けている。
English: Imperial Prince Munetaka, the prince of Emperor Gosaga, was accepted as shogun after Yoritsugu in 1252 and since then miyashoguns (shoguns from the Imperial court) assumed positions in the Kamakura bakufu.
Japanese: 頼嗣の後の将軍は後嵯峨天皇の皇子である宗尊親王が1252年に迎えられ、鎌倉幕府は宮将軍が就くことになる。
English: However, even this was without power as shogun, since they assumed the form in childhood and were forced to abdicate when they attained manhood.
Japanese: しかし、これにも将軍としての力は全くなく、幼少期に就任し、成人すれば退位させられるという形であった。
English: A group of small rice fields regularly assembled on a steep slope, all of which can be seen at a glance, are also called Senmai-da, or thousand rice fields.
Japanese: 傾斜がきつい土地で、耕作単位が狭い田が規則的に集積し、それらが一望の下にある場合は千枚田（せんまいだ）とも呼ばれる。
English: All land is inherently sloping, but lands where the slope is too gentle or where drainage is not good are not appropriate for rice cropping because they become moist.
Japanese: 土地には元々傾斜があるが、傾斜が少な過ぎる土地、および排水しづらい土地は湿地となるため水田不適地となる。
English: In addition, lands have to be sloping to some extent in order to be irrigable, so alluvial plains in the lower reach of rivers, where the slope is gentle, were not appropriate for rice cropping before the Edo period.
Japanese: また、灌漑をする場合はある程度の傾斜が必要であり、傾斜が少ない河川下流域の沖積平野は、江戸時代以前は稲作をするのに不適当であった。
English: That is, before the modern times the best places for rice cropping were sloping lands, such as ones on diluvial plateaus and stream terraces in terms of landform, or basins and midstream sites in terms of classification of plains, and generally a group of farmers established an irrigation facility and built Tanada there.
Japanese: すなわち、近世以前の稲作適地は、地形で言えば洪積台地や河岸段丘の上、平地の分類で言えば盆地や河岸中流域など傾斜がある土地となり、集団化した農民が灌漑設備をつくって棚田をつくるのが一般的である。
English: Irrigation technology has improved so much since the modern times that irrigation and drainage can be made possible by building a waterwheel along the channel even on alluvial plains where the slope is gentle, and as a result, rice cultivation has spread to downstream plains which are called breadbaskets today.
Japanese: 近世以降は灌漑技術が向上し、傾斜が少ない沖積平野でも、水路に水車を設けて灌漑や排水が出来るようになり、現在、穀倉地帯と呼ばれるような河川下流域の平野での稲作が広まった。
English: In the Edo period, as many domains in western Japan were small and had narrow alluvial plains, they developed rice fields even in the mountains in order to increase Kokudaka (assessed yield) which was the economic base of the domain, and a large number of rice terraces (on steep slopes), which are called Tanada today, were developed.
Japanese: 江戸時代の西日本は、藩の規模が小さく、沖積平野も狭いところが多かったため、藩経済の基盤の石高を増やすために山間地にまで田圃がつくられ、現在でいう（急傾斜）棚田が多くつくられた。
English: At that time, dikes and mounds of Tanada were made of stone walls which could bear steepness of the slope, for the purpose of increasing yield to the maximum.
Japanese: その際、少しでも収量を増やすため、棚田の畔（あぜ）や土手（どて）の部分（土坡、どは）は、極限まで収量を上げるために急な傾斜に耐えられる石垣でつくられた。
English: On the other hand, there was little economic incentive for making Tanada (on a steep slope) in eastern Japan where most domains were large, so they rarely made Tanada, and when they did, dikes and mounds were mild land elevations and the sights of Tanada were quite different from those in western Japan.
Japanese: 一方、東日本は藩の規模が大きかったため、（急傾斜）棚田をつくる経済的インセンティブが働かず、棚田はあまりつくられないか、つくられた場合でも畔や土手は傾斜が緩やかな土盛りとなり、西日本とは対照的な棚田風景となった。
English: (In the Tohoku and Hokuriku regions, due to the availability of meltwater, cultivable lands were made even larger if the temperature in the summer was appropriate.)
Japanese: （東北地方・北陸地方などでは雪融け水が利用できるため、夏季の気温要件が充分なら可耕地が更に広く出来た。）
English: As the best place for building a fishing port was often a cove surrounded by coastal mountains, in some fishing villages which lost a contest for ownership of flatlands far from fishing ports, Tanada was made in the mountain near the port for the purpose of securing the fisherfolk's staple food, both in eastern and western Japan.
Japanese: なお、東日本・西日本に関わらず、漁港の適地が海沿いの山に囲まれた入り江であることも多かったため、漁港から離れた平地の所有権争いに敗れた漁村では、漁港近くの山に漁民の主食用の棚田がつくられる例がみられる。
English: (In the case of the Tsushima Domain, lands appropriate for cropping were so scarce that they had to import rice from Yi Dynasty Korea.)
Japanese: （対馬藩の場合は農業適地があまりにも少なかったため、李氏朝鮮から米を輸入していた。）
English: As rice cultivation has become more massive and mechanized since the end of the World War II, agricultural fields, each of which used to be shaped differently according to the slope, were improved and unified into large rectangles in which it is easier to introduce farm machines.
Japanese: 戦後は稲作の大規模化・機械化が推し進められ、傾斜に合わせて様々な形をしていた圃場は、農業機械が導入し易い大型の長方形に統一されて整備された。
English: Unification of agricultural fields and mechanization as stated above were difficult in Tanada (on a steep slope), but many rice terraces in the mountains were successfully enlarged thanks to the development of civil engineering technology.
Japanese: （急傾斜）棚田ではこのような圃場整備や機械化は難しかったが、土木技術の進歩で大規模化に成功した山間地の棚田も多い。
English: However, in the case of Tanada (on a steep slope) in western Japan, the slope would have to be cut away on a large scale if agricultural fields were to be enlarged, and ancillary works including prevention of mudslides on the slope would involve enormous cost, so many of the rice terraces were not enlarged, or were abandoned and degraded.
Japanese: ただし、西日本の（急傾斜）棚田では、大規模化をしようとすると斜面を大きく削らなくてはならず、のり面の土砂崩れ対策など付帯工事の費用が莫大となるため、大規模化されなかったり、営農放棄されたりして荒廃していくところも多く見られた。
English: Of course irrigation facilities were established on the remaining Tanada (on a steep slope) because irrigation is essential for rice cropping.
Japanese: なお、稲作には灌漑が必要であるため、現在残る（急傾斜）棚田でももちろん灌漑設備が整っている。
English: But Tanada were in the mountains, and were often located upstream of a river; as a result, in the case of a long spell of dry weather, the amount of water quickly decreased and the rice paddies dried up.
Japanese: ただし、山間地にあるため河川は上流であり、日照りが続くと水量が簡単に減ってしまって水田が干上がってしまう問題があった。
English: Thus rain-fed irrigation was conducted either by extending canals to rivers other than the nearest one or by building irrigation ponds.
Japanese: そのため、最寄の河川以外からも用水路を延々と引いたり、ため池を築造したりして天水灌漑を行ったりした。
English: In areas where such measures were not feasible, a horizontal tunnel was sometimes built under the rice field in order to utilize recharged groundwater such as sump and subsoil water.
Japanese: それらの方法が困難な場所は、田の地下に横穴を設け、湧き水や伏流水など地下に涵養された水を利用する場合もある。
English: As stated in the preceding paragraph, all the rice fields before the modern times were Tanada, so historically there was no distinction between 'Tanada' and 'rice paddies.'
Japanese: 前項の記述の通り、近世以前の田圃は全て棚田だったため、歴史的には「棚田」と「田んぼ」の違いはない。
English: The word "Tanada" was mentioned in Koyasan Bunsho written in 1338, which recorded the yield and marking off of Tanada in units of "tan" in Shibutasho, Ito County, Kii Province (today's Katsuragi-cho, Wakayama Prefecture), in a sentence "棚田一反御得分四十歩ハ."
Japanese: 紀伊国伊都郡志富田荘（和歌山県かつらぎ町）の棚田の反別、収穫量を記した建武(年号)5年（1338年）の高野山文書では、「棚田一反御得分四十歩ハ・・・」と棚田の文字がみえる。
English: Ancient structural remnants of Tanada in the latter part of the Kofun period (the middle of the 6th century) were discovered in Numata City, Gunma Prefecture.
Japanese: 群馬県沼田市で、古墳時代後期（6世紀中頃）の棚田遺構が見つかっている。
English: Thus the MAFF defines Tanada on the basis of steepness of the slope, and there are no provisions on the degree of mechanization or on agricultural culture.
Japanese: そのため、農林水産省は傾斜の度合いで棚田を定義しており、機械化の度合いや農業文化についての規定はない。
English: Rice fields with a gradient of more than 1/20 (a slope which is elevated more than one meter per horizontal length of 20 meters) are recognized as 'Tanada.'
Japanese: 傾斜度が20分の1（水平距離を20メートル進んで1メートル高くなる傾斜）以上の水田を「棚田」として認定する。
English: According to the field survey conducted by the MAFF and Japan Soil Association in 1993, the total area of 'Tanada,' as defined by the MAFF, was 221,067 hectares.
Japanese: 農水省と日本土壌協会が、1993年に行った現地調査では、農水省の定義による「棚田」は22万1067ヘクタールとされている。
English: This hectarage accounted for about 8% of the total area of rice paddies at that time, which means Tanada was quite a common form of rice paddies.
Japanese: この棚田の面積は当時の全水田面積の約8%を占めており、かなり一般的な水田形態であることが分かる。
English: In many cases, high-value added commercial crops such as wasabi (Japanese horseradish) are grown in Tanada, due to its high drainage capacity.
Japanese: 棚田では、その排水能力の高さから、ワサビなどの付加価値の高い商品作物を栽培している例も多い。
English: Some rices are turned into a brand by publicity activities which focus on the fact that the rices are produced in Tanada.
Japanese: また、棚田でとれた米であることを前面に出してアピールしブランド商品化している例もある。
English: In many regions, an owner system has been introduced for the purpose of conserving the landscape or fostering repeaters from the standpoint of tourist spots.
Japanese: 棚田の景観を維持、または、観光地としてのリピーター醸成のためにオーナー制度を導入している地域が多数存在する。
English: It is against the Agricultural Land Act that persons other than farmers should acquire any agricultural lands, so being an 'owner' is merely nominal and does not involve real-estate transactions.
Japanese: 農民以外が農地を取得するのは、農地法上問題であるため、「オーナー」とは名ばかりであり、不動産取引でもない。
English: That is, an 'owner system' is an option transaction in which, for farm families, secondary income is increased and risk hedge is achieved.
Japanese: すなわち、「オーナー制度」はオプション取引にあたり、農村の副収入増加とリスクヘッジを達成できる。
English: Ownership of each agricultural area was organized at the time of enlargement and improvement of agricultural areas in plains, but there was no such organization in the case of Tanada, so the ownership relationships of Tanada, which look uninterrupted to outsiders, are quite complex and the area cultivated by each household is small.
Japanese: 平野の圃場大型化整備の際に行われた田圃の所有権の整理が棚田ではされていないため、外部の者が一体的な風景に見える棚田の所有権はかなり複雑に入り組んでおり、1世帯あたりの耕作面積も少ない。
English: As a result, it costs farmers too much to introduce agricultural machines and they are often forced into having another job in order to continue farming.
Japanese: そのため、農業機械の導入には経済的負担が大きく、兼業化しないと農業を続けられないことも多い。