nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: As the Muromachi period began and Eiraku-tsuho (bronze coins struck in the Ming dynasty) minted in China during the Ming Dynasty for trade with Japan were circulated in Japan, Shichusen minted in Konan (Jiangnan) China and Shichusen minted in Japan were gradually mingled together.
Japanese: 室町時代に入り、明が日本との貿易用に鋳造した永楽通宝などが日本国内で流通するようになると、明の江南で作られた私鋳銭や、日本国内で作られた私鋳銭も次第に混入していった。
English: Not only Shichusen, but wartime coins of the Chinese Southern Sung Dynasty and Minsen (bronze coins produced during Ming Dynasty) mingled with poor quality coins and were usually of poor quality, therefore they were collectively called akusen.
Japanese: そうした私鋳銭ばかりでなく南宋の戦時貨や明銭自体も不良銭が混じるなど品質劣悪なものが普通だったため、これらを総称して「悪銭」といった。
English: Also, the akusen was sometimes set to lower price compared to 'Seisen' (refined coins) of good quality, or often refused to be accepted.
Japanese: また、こうした悪銭は良質な「精銭」とくらべ低価値に設定されたり、支払時に受け取り拒否されることが多かった。
English: It was criticized that the coins contained mostly akusen, the coins which Yoshihide ASHIKAGA, the 14th seii taishogun (literally, "great general who subdues the barbarians") of the Muromachi bakufu presented to the Imperial court as a reward for the assumption of the Shogun, and coins which Nobunaga ODA presented at the ceremony of genpuku (celebration of one's coming of age) for Imperial Prince Sanehito, the chokun (crown prince) of Emperor Ogimachi.
Japanese: 後に室町幕府の14代征夷大将軍・足利義栄が将軍就任の御礼に朝廷に献上した銭貨や同じく織田信長が正親町天皇の儲君誠仁親王の元服の際に献上した銭貨が鐚銭ばかりであると非難された。
English: So many akusen circulated that even powerful persons could hardly obtain good quality coins, and Yoshihide was forced to disrespect the Imperial court.
Japanese: しかし、これは彼らが朝廷を軽視していたというよりも鐚銭ばかりが流通していて権力者でさえ良質な銭貨が入手困難であった事を示している。
English: Thus, in the sixteenth century the Muromachi bakufu, Shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable), and daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku Period tried to officially announce a ban on the Erizeni to achieve smoother money circulation.
Japanese: そのため、16世紀になると室町幕府や守護大名、戦国大名たちは撰銭を禁ずる撰銭令（えりぜにれい）を発令して、円滑な貨幣流通を実現しようとした。
English: As the Edo bakufu put Kanei Tsuho (coins) of stable quality into circulation and strongly prohibit Torai-sen and Shichusen, akusen disappeared and Erizeni was not carried out any more.
Japanese: 江戸時代に江戸幕府が安定した品質の寛永通宝を発行し、渡来銭や私鋳銭を厳しく禁ずるようになると、鐚銭は見られなくなり、撰銭も行われなくなっていった。
English: Erizeni (also called erisen or sensen) indicates the act of not accepting low-quality coins (called bitasen coins or akusen coins) in payments, carried out in the latter half of the medieval period in Japan.
Japanese: 撰銭（えりぜに、えりせん、せんせん）とは、日本の中世後期において、支払決済の際に、劣悪な銭貨（鐚銭・悪銭とも）を忌避・排除したことをいう。
English: In Japan, commodity economy progressed from around the latter half of the Kamakura period, and coins became circulated widely.
Japanese: 日本では、鎌倉時代後期ごろから商品経済が急速に進展していき、貨幣の流通が普及した。
English: These Chinese coins were brought to Japan through trade with China (Northern Sung Dynasty or Yuan).
Japanese: これらの中国銭は、中国（北宋・元(王朝)など）との貿易を通じて日本にもたらされた。
English: However, these coins included lots of those that were made privately in China or south-eastern Asia, and in Japan as well, counterfeiters who minted imitations of these coins appeared.
Japanese: しかし、その中には中国、東南アジアで私的に鋳造された銭貨も相当数混入しており、また日本でもこれらの貨幣を真似て私的に鋳造する者が現れた。
English: The quality of many of these shichusen coins was quite low: For examples, in some of them, a portion was lost, no hole was provided, or the characters on them were too worn to read them.
Japanese: 私鋳銭の中には、一部が欠落したもの、穴が開いていないもの、字がつぶれて判読できないものなど、非常に粗悪なものが多かった。
English: Therefore, shichusen coins were likely not welcome, for example, not accepted as formal coins in payments in the commodity economy.
Japanese: そのため、商品経済の現場では正式な貨幣と認められなかったりと、嫌われる傾向が強かった。
English: The following are considered as the reasons why such a situation was generated: One is that the literacy rate of the people at that time was low, and another is that, being made privately, they were made irresponsibly.
Japanese: これらの原因には、当時の人々の識字率が低かったことや、私的に鋳造されたためいい加減に作られていたことなどが挙げられる。
English: Therefore, these low-quality coins were called bitasen coins or akusen coins and were valued less than ordinary coins: For example, it was determined at the time that four bitasen coins constituted one mon ("mon" is a monetary unit at that time).
Japanese: そのため、これら粗悪な銭貨は「鐚銭」（びたせん）又は「悪銭」（あくせん）と呼ばれ、一時は撰銭四枚で一文とする取り決まりがなされるなど、一般の銭貨よりも低い価値とされるようになった。
English: Entering the Muromachi period, Eiraku-tsuho coins, which the Ming Dynasty minted for payments in trade with Japan, became used widely in Japan.
Japanese: 室町時代に入ると、明が日本との貿易決済のために鋳造した永楽通宝が日本国内に広く普及するようになった。
English: However, coins minted privately in Konan (Jiāngnán) of Ming and those minted privately in Japan became gradually mixed with the Eiraku-tsuho coins.
Japanese: しかし、明の江南で作られた私鋳銭や、日本国内で作られた私鋳銭も次第に混入していった。
English: These bitasen coins were evaluated less than ordinary ones in payments, and it sometimes happened that these coins were not accepted.
Japanese: 支払決済の現場では、鐚銭は一般の銭貨よりも低価値とされたり、受け取り拒否されることも少なくなかった。
English: Other low-quality coins, such as those minted during the war era of Southern Sung Dynasty and coins in Ming as well, were handled in the same way.
Japanese: これは品質が低く、鐚銭と区別しにくい南宋戦時貨や明銭そのものにも及んだ。
English: Erizeni acts often caused trouble, sometimes leading to homicide.
Japanese: 撰銭はトラブルの原因となることが多く、時には撰銭が原因で殺傷事件が発生することさえあったのである。
English: Therefore, entering the 16th century, the Muromachi bakufu, shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable) and daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku period restricted the erizeni act or issued erizenirei (a ban on the erizeni act) to achieve smooth circulation of the currencies.
Japanese: そのため、16世紀になると室町幕府や守護大名、戦国大名たちは撰銭を制限し、あるいは禁ずる撰銭令（えりぜにれい）を発令して、円滑な貨幣流通を実現しようとした。
English: This is because those persons who controlled the foreign trade and possessed lots of coins brought from China were afraid that the values of these coins were downgraded.
Japanese: 貿易を掌握し、みずからが多くの渡来銭を抱える有力者は、その価値の低下を恐れたのである。
English: However, consciousness of avoiding bitasen coins and of carrying out the erizeni act was rooted strongly amongst the general public.
Japanese: しかし、民衆の間では鐚銭を忌避して撰銭をしようとする意識が根強く残存した。
English: Furthermore, Kaikin Policy (the policy to forbid private people to trade with foreign countries) and the establishment of a currency system based on silver and coins (excluding copper coins) by the Ming Dynasty reduced the necessity of minting copper coins, naturally decreasing the amount of copper coins that were brought into Japan as well.
Japanese: 更に明の海禁政策や銀と貨幣による通貨体系の確立（銅銭の除外）は銅銭鋳造の必要性を減らし、当然日本への流入も減少した。
English: Problems centered on the erizeni act were also generated partially because no strong centralized government existed in Japan during the sixteenth century.
Japanese: 撰銭を巡る問題は、16世紀の日本に強力な中央政権が存在しなかったことにも起因していた。
English: Therefore, such problems had been gradually eliminated as the centralized government, such as the Oda government, the Toyotomi government, and the Edo bakufu, were born.
Japanese: そのため、織田政権・豊臣政権・江戸幕府などの統一政権の誕生とともに解消に向かった。
English: Therefore, the problems concerned with the erizeni act did not dissolve for a long time until, in the Edo period, the Edo bakufu issued Kanei Tsuho coins with stable quality and severely prohibited minting coins privately.
Japanese: このため、撰銭の完全なる解決は、江戸時代に江戸幕府が安定した品質の寛永通宝を発行し、私鋳銭を厳しく禁ずるようになるまでの長い時間を要した。
English: However, although issuing high-quality copper coins could lead to a fundamental solution of the problem, he could not do it because he didn't have a large mine in his territory.
Japanese: しかし、領地内に大きな鉱山をもたなかったことから、根本的な解決方法である良質の銅銭発行が行われなかった。
English: As a result, people avoided using copper coins, causing the circulation of money in the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto) decline temporarily.
Japanese: その結果、銅銭使用を忌避させることとなり、一時的ながら畿内での貨幣流通そのものを衰退させた。
English: Later, Nobunaga set an exchange rate between low-quality coins and high-quality coins to prevent the circulation of money from becoming stagnant.
Japanese: その後、信長は悪銭と良銭の交換レートを設定し、流通を滞らせないように改めた。
English: It is also said that, with such an economic situation as a background, the system of Kokudaka (assessed yield; tax system based upon rice, measured by reference to the rated annual yield of the domain) was introduced by the succeeding Toyotomi and Edo bakufu governments.
Japanese: なお、その後の政権である豊臣政権や江戸幕府が石高制を導入した背景にはこうした経済情勢を背景にしたとも言われている。
English: For some time after Kocho-Junisen (copper coins of twelve different types minted in Japan) was abolished, fuka, or bleached clothes and rice, were used in place of coins.
Japanese: 皇朝十二銭の廃止以後、しばらくは通貨不足のために布貨、すなわち調布や米などの代替貨幣が用いられた。
English: The amount was so huge that Sung prohibited trade with Japan (starting in 1171).
Japanese: あまりにも大量だったために宋は対日禁輸令（1171年～）も出された。
English: However, entering the era of Southern Sung Dynasty, which was oppressed by Kittan (Khitan/Khitai), Chin Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, the Southern Sung Dynasty issued lots of low-quality coins under a state of war, causing rampant inflation, causing the downgraded values of the coins, and resulted in forcing more and more coins to be brought into Japan.
Japanese: しかしながら、契丹や金、元などに圧迫された南宋の時代になると質の悪い戦時通貨を大量に発行、インフレが横行し、銭のレートが下がってますます大量に流入した。
English: These coins from the Southern Sung Dynasty and low-quality coins from the Ming Dynasty were called 'Imazeni' (Kinsen, Nankinsen), 'Kobu, Eiraku,' or 'Imazeni, Seisen,' and merchants and others who were afraid that inflation could be generated differentiated good-quality coins from bad-quality ones and came to despise the latter coins.
Japanese: この南宋銭や明の粗悪な通貨を「今銭（京銭・南京銭）」「洪武・永楽」「新銭（いまぜに）・制銭」などと総称し、インフレを恐れる商人らは唐・宋（北宋）時代の良貨と区分し卑しむようになった。
English: Because each Chinese coin was of small-value, these coins were valued in a unit of 100 thousand kans (a unit of bundling coins; 1000 coins/kan) (or 100 million coins) in some instances, and most of them were circulated as kansen coins or in their original, bundled, state.
Japanese: もともと中国銭は少額貨幣だったために多ければ10万貫（一億枚）単位で輸入され、多くは貫銭として束ねたまま流通した。
English: Therefore, to evaluate the quality of these coins, there were no other means except using external sizes and their thickness, cause bitasen coins to mix more easily and consequently downgrading their real values further.
Japanese: このため、外形の大きさや厚みなどの見た目で判断するしかなく、これにつけ込んだ「鐚銭」も混じりやすいためにますます実勢レートが下がった。
English: In recent years, the following theory has been proposed as well: Wide use of silver in Ming degraded the credibility of coins in Ming, affecting, in some way, situations in Japan at that time.
Japanese: 近年では、明国内における銀の使用盛行が同国内部での銭の信用を低下させて、それが日本国内に何らかの影響を与えたという説もある。
English: Silver was the currency of Mongolia, and in the Mongol period, coins of the Southern Sung Dynasty were already despised, compared with the currencies of the Chin Dynasty that had an external appearance of high-quality coins.
Japanese: 銀はモンゴルの通貨であり、蒙古時代には良貨の外形をもつ金国の通貨に対し南宋銭がすでに卑しまれていた。
English: In the Northern Sung Dynasty era before that, bills called koshi were issued, causing both copper coins and paper money to be used in the domestic economy of the dynasty.
Japanese: それ以前に北宋の段階で交子が発行されて国内経済は銅銭と紙幣の二本立て構造になっていた。
English: In addition, Japan bought lots of money that exceeded the amount of money issued, generating a situation whereby the amount of money available locally became insufficient.
Japanese: 更に日本による大量の銭の買い付けは発行を上回ったために現地で銭不足を生じた。
English: This situation made the money value fluctuate significantly, accelerating economic turmoil, and causing Kaikin Policy to be employed by Ming.
Japanese: そのような状況により、銭の相場が乱高下して経済混乱に拍車をかけ、明の海禁政策の一因となった。
English: In Ming, as the currency system based upon using both silver and paper money was established, the necessity of minting copper coins became lost.
Japanese: 明国内においても銀と紙幣を機軸とする通貨体系に移行して銅銭鋳造の必然性が失われていった。
English: For the bitasen coins that were made based upon the reasons described above, some tricks were used to make these coins mainly for the purpose of being mixed with kansen coins.
Japanese: 上記の理由により作成された鐚銭には、主に貫銭に混ぜるための工作が行われた。
English: To mix these with kansen coins, the surisen coins were generated by making larger coins diameters smaller by grinding them down, and the uchihirame coins by making smaller coins larger by smashing them.
Japanese: これは大きな銭を擦って小さくし、小さな銭を叩いて大きくしたもので、貫銭に混ぜるためのものである。
English: This fact indicates that no credibility was given to such facets, even if these facets were those belonging to genuine Chinese coins.
Japanese: 実際にはこうした刻面は本物の中国銭であっても全く信用されなかったことを示している。
English: It is difficult to appraise Chinese coins based upon existing ones, because, due to their low quality, they had been worn out or rusted.
Japanese: 中国銭は実物自体が粗悪銭のために磨耗や錆びが生じ現存品からの鑑定が難しい。
English: The situation is the same for coins made during the inflationary period of Ming, in addition to those in the war state, a huge number were issued and called 'Kinsen' (京銭) because they were concentrated in Nanjing, the capital of Ming Dynasty (南京) during its early period.
Japanese: 初期の都だった南京に集められたため「京銭」といわれた夥しい数の戦時通貨のほか、明のインフレ通貨も事情は同じである。
English: Compared with high-quality coins issued during the era of the Northern Sung Dynasty, such as Kaigen-tsuho during the Tang Dynasty, they were as small as the present five-yen coin, with some of them as thin as an eggshell, and were made unevenly.
Japanese: 唐の開元通宝など北宋までの良貨（精銭）に比べ5円玉程度と小さく、卵の殻のように極めて薄いものもあった。
English: To have more accurate knowledge about bitasen coins, it is necessary to know the facts about currencies in China and other nations concerned, in addition to having knowledge about false coins and modified coins.
Japanese: 鐚銭の理解には、単に贋金や加工銭などのほかに、中国などの通貨の実体を知る必要がある。
English: Proposed by Gresham, a financier in England in the sixteenth century, this theory is known from the expression; 'low-quality coins expel high-quality coins.'
Japanese: 「悪貨は良貨を駆逐する」という表現で知られる16世紀イギリスの財政家Greshamの説。
English: This indicates the following concept: When two coins have the same face value, but are made at different costs are circulated at the same time, people collect coins with a higher value (high-quality coins) and keep them, not using them, or melt them to mint many lower-quality coins, and therefore, high-quality coins disappear from the market and inflation ensues.
Japanese: 価値の異なる原価をもった同一額面の通貨が同時に流通しようとするとき、人々は原価の高い貨幣（良貨）を集めて死蔵し、あるいはそれを元手に融解して多くの悪貨を生み出し、良貨が市場から消滅してインフレを招くという考え方。
English: Once such a situation occurs, it is not a good policy to continue issuing high-quality coins.
Japanese: また、そうなった場合にはもはや良貨をそのまま発行するのは得策ではない。
English: Therefore, the circulation of low-quality coins must be restricted to have high-quality coins used more widely.
Japanese: そのため、良貨を普及するためには悪貨の流通を制限しなければならない。
English: According to a theory, these coins were stored underground to ward off evil spirits, as a charm or for avoiding the disturbance of war, but according to another theory, they were stored to prevent them from being exchanged with low-quality coins.
Japanese: これらは魔除けやまじない、戦乱を避けて蓄蔵したとの解釈もあるが、悪貨への交換を避けるため良貨を保管したとの見方もある。
English: In Japan, the remaining rate of coins issued during Northern Sung Dynasty and that of older ones issued during Tang Dynasty are extremely high, and in China, it is said that Kanei coins remain conspicuously in dead storage.
Japanese: 日本では北宋銭やさらに古い唐銭の残存率が非常に高いほか、中国では寛永銭の埋蔵が目立つという。
English: Jiden (also called terada) fields indicate, in Japan, rice fields whereby output was used for operating Buddhist temples.
Japanese: 寺田（じでん、てらだ）とは、日本において、仏教寺院の運営経費にあてる田をいう。
English: It is said that Buddhism was brought to Japan in the era of Emperor Kinmei, or in the middle era of the sixth century, and it is in the era of Empress Suiko, or the era from around the end of the sixth century to the first half of the seventh century, that temples were built in earnest and Buddhism started flourishing.
Japanese: 日本に仏教が伝来したのは、6世紀中期の欽明天皇のときとされているが、本格的に寺院が建立され、仏教が興隆し始めたのは、6世紀末～7世紀前期の推古天皇の頃であった。
English: Cost was naturally necessary for operating a temple, and jiden fields became set as a source of the incomes for the temples.
Japanese: 仏教寺院の運営には当然経費を要するため、寺院の収入源として寺田が設定されることとなった。
English: In the latter half of the seventh century when the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) was established, farmland became integrated into the system of Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of farmland), such as kubunden (farmland given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system).
Japanese: 7世紀後半に律令制が整備され、田地は口分田などの班田収授法の体系に組み込まれていった。
English: However, jinden fields (as well as shinden - also called kamita or kanda) fields where the output was used for operating shrines) alone were excluded from handen fields (allotted farmland).
Japanese: しかしながら、寺田（および神社の運営にあてる神田）のみは、班田の対象外とされた。
English: This was because it was recognized that jiden fields or shinden fields were not owned by temples or shrines but belonged to Buddha or gods.
Japanese: これは、寺田および神田が、寺院や神社の所有物ではなく、神仏に帰属するものと認識されていたことによる。
English: In Taiho Code and Yoro Code established in the eighth century, regulations concerning jiden fields that were specified in Soni ryo (regulations for monks and nuns) and Denryo (regulations for farmland).
Japanese: 8世紀に成立した大宝律令・養老律令では、僧尼令・田令などに寺田に関する規定が置かれた。
English: In these regulations, it was stipulated that jiden fields were excluded from farmland for which allocation was made every six years, or were specified for Fuyusoden (the farmland for which tax was exempted).
Japanese: 令文には、寺田を6年1班の班田収授の対象から除外する、すなわち不輸租田（租税を免除した田地）とすることが規定されていた。
English: On the other hand, it was prohibited to donate farmland to temples personally.
Japanese: その反面、個人から寺院へ田地を施入（寄付）することは禁止されていた。
English: However, during the middle era of the eighth century when Konden einen shizai Law (law allowing farmers who developed new arable land to own it permanently) was enforced, dominant temples and shrines actively developed arable land, acquiring shoen (manors) this way.
Japanese: しかし、8世紀中期に墾田永年私財法が施行されると、有力な大寺社は積極的に墾田を進めて、荘園を確保していった。
English: Such development of arable land was promoted by the Ritsuryo code-based government to make Buddhism more prosperous.
Japanese: この墾田開発は、半ば、仏教興隆を目的とする律令政府が主導したものであった。
English: For example, many historical documents indicating that local kokushi (provincial governors) developed manors for Todai-ji Temple have been found.
Japanese: 例えば地方国司による東大寺の荘園開発を示す史料などが多数発見されている。
English: Temples insisted that the manors developed in this way constituted jiden fields, acquiring Fuyu no ken (in Japan) (the right of tax exemption).
Japanese: こうして開発した荘園について、寺院は寺田であると主張し、政府から不輸の権(日本)（租税免除の権利）を獲得していった。
English: Even after the collapse of the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) in the ninth century to tenth century, Fuyu no ken continued being applied to jiden fields.
Japanese: 9世紀～10世紀に律令制が崩壊した後も、寺田には不輸の権が認められていた。
English: Therefore, Tato (powerful farmers), or the owners of newly developed arable land, who acquired large tracts arable land through development or buying land, donated their farmland to dominant temples (or dominant shrines) to obtain Fuyu no ken.
Japanese: そのため、墾田や買収などで付近の田地を集積していた田堵（有力農民）＝開発領主は、自分の経営する田地を有力寺院（または有力神社）へ寄進することで、不輸の権を獲得しようとした。
English: Around the eleventh to the thirteenth century when shoen koryo sei (the system of public land and private estates) was established, jiden fields were dealt with in the same way as that for joden fields (fields for which tax was exempted) of manors or Kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government offices).
Japanese: その後、11世紀～13世紀ごろに荘園公領制が成立すると、荘園や国衙領の除田（じょでん、免税田を意味する）の一つとして寺田が位置づけられた。
English: The nengu (land tax) and kuji (public duties) levied on jiden fields did not become incomes of the territorial lord, but were used for operating the temples concerned.
Japanese: 寺田にかかる年貢・公事は、領主の収入とはならず、寺院運営の経費にあてられた。
English: Because jiden fields existed throughout Japan, Jiden or Terada as geographical names remain throughout Japan as well.
Japanese: 寺田は日本各地に存在したため、地名としての寺田も日本全国に分布している。
English: If a person was provided with a myojitaito right, he was permitted to officially use a family name that originated in a territorial name, indicating that the family belonged to the territorial lord class (this means using an original name, not a privately given name), and was also permitted to wear two Japanese swords, a uchigatana (a sword worn inside the "obi " belt) (a long sword) and a wakizashi (a short sword).
Japanese: 家名の中でも特に知行の名前に由来し領主階級であることを示す名字を公称し（ということは苗字私称とは異なり本姓を有し）、打刀（大刀）と脇差（小刀）の2本の日本刀を腰に帯びること。
English: Furthermore, it was permitted for persons other than samurai to wear a short sword on the waist as fashion.
Japanese: さらに装束としては脇差1本のみを腰に帯びることは武士でなくとも認められていた。
English: Therefore, the fact that the myojitaito right was given to samurai alone did not mean that people like farmers or merchants were completely prohibited from possessing any arms.
Japanese: したがって、武士以外の苗字帯刀禁止によって百姓や町人などが完全に武装解除されたわけではない。
English: Although persons like merchants or farmers were not allowed officially to possess their family names, there were many examples where family names handed down from the era before the Edo period were used privately.
Japanese: また、百姓､町人などは表向きは苗字を持たないことになっていたが、実際には江戸時代以前から伝えられた名字を私称していたケースも多々見受けられる。
English: The reality was more likely that these family names were not permitted to be written in public documents, such as Shumon Ninbetsu Cho (religious and population investigation registers), and in some cases, these names remain as epitaphs on tombstones or family registers of deaths, both of which were provided strongly with characteristics of private documents.
Japanese: 宗門人別帳などの公文書への記載が許されなかったというのが実態に近く、私的な文書の色彩が強い墓碑銘や過去帳に遺されているケースもある。
English: There were some instances in which an ordinary person brought a suit to the domain concerning his or her family name and the domain passed a verdict.
Japanese: また、苗字帯刀を許されていない庶民が藩に苗字を巡る訴訟を起こして藩が裁決を下している例もある。
English: Daimyo or hatamoto (direct retainers of the bakufu, which is a form of Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) gave the myojitaito right to dominant merchants or farmers, depending on their lineages or distinguished services to them, and dealt with these persons in a way similar to that for samurai.
Japanese: また、大名・旗本などは、しばしば家柄や功労により領内の有力百姓や町人などにこれを許して、武士に準ずる者として扱った。
English: Therefore, Tadataka INO, who was a nanushi (village headman) in present Sawara City, was permitted to use the family name of 'INO' in Sawara, but was prohibited from using the name outside the territory.
Japanese: 従って、佐原市の名主であった伊能忠敬は領内においては代々「伊能」姓を許されていたが、領外でこれを名乗ることが出来なかった。
English: At the age of fifty-seven, he was provided with the myojitaito right by the Edo bakufu due to his accomplishments of geographical measuring of the Ezo area, and it was after this that he became able to use the family name of 'INO' outside Sawara as well.
Japanese: 57歳の時に蝦夷地測量の功績によって江戸幕府から改めて苗字帯刀の許可を得て佐原以外でも「伊能」姓を名乗ることが許されている。
English: In one example, it was permitted to possess a family name, but not to wear a sword, and in another example, it was permitted to hand down a family name for later generations, but not have the right to wear a sword.
Japanese: 苗字は認められても帯刀は認められない例や苗字は子孫への伝承を許すが帯刀は授与された当人一代に限った例もある。
English: Actually, though belonging to the farmer class, some village officers were provided with the myojitaito right, and some were even treated as goshi (local samurai).
Japanese: 実際、村役人層などは百姓身分ながらも苗字帯刀を許される場合があり、なかには郷士（在郷武士）として遇される者もいた。
English: In this section, people who were discriminated against in the medieval Japan are described.
Japanese: 本項では中世日本の被差別民（ちゅうせいにほんのひさべつみん）について叙述する。
English: Research about the state of discriminated people who existed during medieval Japan (in the era from the latter half of the Heian period to the Muromachi period and the Sengoku Period - period of warring states in Japan) has rapidly progressed since the 1980s through efforts by Yoshihiko AMINO and others, but an evaluation has not been established yet.
Japanese: 中世日本（平安時代後期から室町時代・戦国時代(日本)）において存在していた被差別民が、中世社会の中でいかなる存在であったかについては、1980年代以降、網野善彦らによって急速に研究が進展しており、いまだその評価は確定していない。