nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: For representing larger acreage than that by the cho, a unit 'hori' (a square ri; 1555.2 cho is nearly equal to 15.423 square kilometers) is used; 1 hori equals the area of a square with a side 1 ri (3,927 meters).
Japanese: 町よりも大きな面積については、一辺1里の正方形の面積を示す「方里」（1555.2町≒15.423平方キロメートル）を用いる。
English: The unit volume or capacity of the sho differs greatly according to the periods and the regions (refer to the article of sho for details), however correlation between the sho and other units has hardly changed from ancient times.
Japanese: 升の大きさは時代や地域によって大きく異なる（詳細は升を参照のこと）が、升と他の単位との関係はほとんど古代から変わっていない。
English: As for measuring the volume of earth and sand, a unit ryutsubo (or tsubo in abbreviation) is used; 1 ryutsubo is equal to 6 cubic shaku.
Japanese: 土砂などについては、6尺立方に相当する立坪（単に坪とも）が用いられる。
English: The Weights and Measures Act promulgated in 1891 provided that the unit mass of kan is equal to 15 over 4 of the international kilogram standard (namely, 15 over 4 kilograms or 3.75 kilograms).
Japanese: これは明治24年（1891年）公布の度量衡法において、貫は国際キログラム原器の4分の15の質量（すなわち15/4キログラム3.75キログラム）と定められたものである。
English: The money-exchange business used the ryo as the basic unit of the balance weights, with using the monme as a supplementary unit.
Japanese: 両替商で用いられた分銅は両が基本単位であり、匁は補助的な単位となっている。
English: The Shirobei GOTO family was exclusively permitted to produce the balance weights throughout the Edo period while other balance weights were prohibited to be produced or used.
Japanese: この分銅は江戸時代を通じて後藤四郎兵衛家のみ製作が許され、それ以外のものの製作および使用は禁止された。
English: However, the currency unit of Chogin (collective term of silver) and Mameitagin (name of an Edo-period coin) was the actual measurement value of weight.
Japanese: しかしながら、丁銀および豆板銀の通貨単位は量目（質量）の実測値である。
English: Therefore, 'monme' was used to distinguish 'ryo' for showing mass from 'ryo' as the currency unit of koban (former Japanese oval gold coin), which resulted in the wide spread of monme as a general unit for measuring mass.
Japanese: 小判の通貨としての単位である「両」と区別する意味で「匁」が用いられることになり、一般的に質量の単位としては匁が広く普及した。
English: Monme was used in China by its original name 'chen' (pronounced "sen" in Japanese), which was based on the mass of 1 coin (in Japan, a coin of 1 mon).
Japanese: 匁は、元々中国で用いられた名称は「銭」であり、銭貨（日本では一文銭）一枚の質量を単位としたものであった。
English: As the kan was also used as the currency unit (1 kan equals 1,000 mon; in the Edo period, 1 kan equaled 960 mon under the Shohaku method [currency exchange rate in Edo period]; in the Meiji period, 1 kan equaled 10 sen), the kan for representing mass was called kanme, while that for representing the currency was called kanmon, to make clear the difference between them.
Japanese: 貫は通貨の単位（1000文。江戸時代には一般的に省陌法と称して960文。明治時代には10銭）としても用いられたので、区別のために質量の方は貫目、通貨の方は貫文と呼んだ。
English: In short, the mass of 1200 grains of black mille is defined as 12 shu (later, the simplified spelling '朱' replaced '銖'), and two masses are defined as 1 ryo.
Japanese: これは黍1200粒を12銖（後に「朱」と略記された）とし、これが2つで1両とするものである。
English: There is a description in "Book of Han, Treatise on rhythm and the calendar" that the mass of Chia-ling standard measure was fixed at '4 kin' (鈞) in the weights and measures system in Han Dynasty.
Japanese: 漢の度量衡では嘉量の質量が『漢書律歴志』に「重二鈞」と記載されている。
English: The conversion of the units in the Chia-ling standard measure calculated by a Chinese scholar, and the units used in the Sui and the Tang Dynasties in "History of Chinese weight and measures" written by Wu Chengluo, into the gram are respectively described as follows.
Japanese: 中国の学者が算出した嘉量による単位と、呉承洛の『中国度量衡史』による隋代および唐代の単位をグラムに換算したものを以下に示す。
English: Namely, Kaigen-tsuho (copper coins in Tang Dynasty) was designed on the basis of the standard that 10 coins equals 24 shu or 1 ryo.
Japanese: すなわち開元通宝は10枚で24銖すなわち1両をいう基準でつくられた。
English: When gold coins and Chogin were first introduced before the Kamakura period, those values were evaluated by measuring the mass.
Japanese: 金貨・丁銀は鎌倉時代以前の発足時はその質量によって価値が定められた。
English: Initially, gold dust with the mass of 1 ryo was defined as 1 ryo of gold, but gradually the mass and the face value became separated from each other.
Japanese: 当初は一両の質量の砂金が金一両であったが、次第に質量と額面が乖離するようになった。
English: The value of Kyome (old Japanese unit of measure used around Kyoto) 1 ryo of gold had already declined to 4.5 monme in the Muromachi period, while Kyome to 4.4 monme and Inakame (unit of measure in old Japan) to around 4 monme in the Azuchi Momoyama period.
Japanese: 室町時代には既に京目金一両は4.5匁となり、安土桃山時代は京目金一両は4.4匁、田舎目金一両は4匁前後へと変化した。
English: However, Keicho koban with inferiority in the gold content and mass was frequently produced later, which resulted in the further separation of the mass and the face value.
Japanese: しかし後の貨幣改鋳により含有率や質量の劣る小判が発行されるようになり、質量単位と通貨単位との乖離はさらに拡大した。
English: Originally, 'bu' (分), one of Chinese numerals showing a decimal fraction, indicates a 10th, while 'rin' indicates a 100th.
Japanese: 元来、漢数字としての、小数を表す文字である「分(数)」（ぶ）は、数値としては10分の1、厘は100分の1を示す。
English: Then, in Japan, 'bu' (分) was widely used as a unit showing a 10th of 'wari,' while 'rin' as a unit showing a 100th of 'wari.'
Japanese: そこで「割」の10分の1を「分」、100分の1を「厘」とする用法が普及した。
English: Therefore, 'bu' (分) is generally used for showing the percentage of a 100th, and 'rin' is a 1000th in Japan.
Japanese: このため日本国内では歩合（割合）を表す場合、「分」は100分の1、「厘」は1000分の1とするのが一般的である。
English: For instance, a 100th of the shaku, a basic unit of length, is called 1 bu (分), while a 100th of the ryo, a basic unit of mass, is called 1 fun.
Japanese: 例えば、長さの単位としては基本単位である尺の100分の1が1分（ぶ）、質量の単位としては基本単位である両の100分の1が1分（ふん）となる。
English: However, when the Chinese numerals are interpreted literally, a 10th of the sun may indicate 1 bu (分) and a 10th of the monme may indicate 1 fun.
Japanese: ただし、漢数字通りに10分の1寸が1分、10分の1匁が1分と解釈できなくもない。
English: In the architectural fields and others, the size of sawn timber such as plywood is sometimes called by technical terms like 'saburokuban' (3 times 6 ban) and 'yonpachiban' or 'shihachiban' (4 times 8 ban), and so on.
Japanese: 建築関係などにおいて、ベニヤ板などの板材の大きさを表すのに「3×6版（さぶろくばん）」「4×8版（よんぱちばん、しはちばん）」などといった呼称が用いられることがある。
English: Therefore, the former usually indicates the sawn timber with the size of 3 shaku times 6 shaku (90.9 centimeters times 181.8 centimeters), while the latter indicates the sawn timber of 4 shaku times 8 shaku (121.2 centimeters times 242.4 centimeters).
Japanese: 前者は3尺×6尺（90.9cm×181.8cm）、後者は4尺×8尺（121.2cm×242.4cm）の大きさの板材を指すことが多い。
English: However, some composite panels use the same figures for products with different sizes.
Japanese: いわゆるコンパネと呼ばれるコンポジットパネルでは同一の呼称を用いても異なる。
English: It overlaps with the last part of the Kofun Period (the Tumulus Period).
Japanese: それは、6世紀の終わり頃から8世紀初頭にかけて飛鳥に宮・都が置かれていた時代を指す日本の歴史の時代区分の一つである。
English: In a narrow sense, the Asuka Period lasted for 102 years, from 592 to 694, the time at which the capital was moved to Fujiwara.
Japanese: 狭義には、崇峻5年（592年）から持統天皇8年（694年）の藤原京への移転までの、約102年間を飛鳥時代と称している。
English: Formerly the Asuka and Kofun Periods were together called the Yamato Period, but today it is common to separate the two.
Japanese: 以前は、古墳時代と合わせて大和時代とされていた時期があったが、今日では古墳時代と飛鳥時代に分けて捉えるのが一般的である。
English: It is said that the name of this period stems from the fact that the palace and capital were located in Asuka, near present-day Asuka Village, Takaichi County, Nara Prefecture.
Japanese: 現在の奈良県高市郡明日香村付近に相当する「飛鳥」の地に宮・都が置かれていたとされることに由来する。
English: The phrase 'the Asuka Period' originally began to be used in relation to the history of art and architecture.
Japanese: 「飛鳥時代」という時代区分は元々美術史や建築史で使われ始めた言葉である。
English: Okakura's proposal is usually adopted in relation to Japanese history, but in the art and architectural worlds, they follow the viewpoint of Sekino and distinguish the period after the Taika Reform from the Asuka Period, using the name of the Hakuho Period.
Japanese: 日本の歴史では通常岡倉案のものを採用しているが、現在でも美術史や建築史などでは関野案のものを使用し、大化の改新以降を白鳳時代として区別する事がある。
English: In 538, King Seong of Baekje presented the dynasty with a Shaka Buddhist image and the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries, and Buddhism was officially introduced to Japan.
Japanese: 538年（宣化3年）に百済の聖明王が釈迦仏像や経論などを朝廷に贈り仏教が公伝された。
English: In 587, Moriya MONONOBE and Umako SOGA confronted each other regarding the Empress' faith in Buddhism.
Japanese: 587年（用明2年）天皇の仏教帰依について物部守屋と蘇我馬子が対立した。
English: In 588, Umako SOGA began to erect Hoko-ji Temple (Asuka-ji Temple) in Asuka.
Japanese: 588年（崇峻元年）には蘇我馬子が飛鳥に法興寺（飛鳥寺）の建立を始める。
English: In 592, Umako SOGA used Koma TOKAN to assassinate Emperor Sushun and established Suiko as empress.
Japanese: 592年、蘇我馬子は東漢駒を遣い崇峻天皇を暗殺すると、女帝推古天皇を立てた。
English: In 604, Prince Shotoku established a system of twelve courtly ranks, promulgated the Seventeen-Article Constitution, strived to develop Buddhism and laid the foundation for an ideal national system with the emperor as the nation's center.
Japanese: 604年（推古12年）には、冠位十二階を制定し、聖徳太子が憲法十七条をつくり、仏教の興隆に力を注ぐなど、天皇中心の理想の国家体制づくりの礎を築いた。
English: In 607, Prince Shotoku sent Imoko ONO as an envoy to Sui (China) and sent a diplomatic message to the Sui emperor with the wording 'The Emperor in the Land of the Rising Sun sends a letter to the Emperor in the Land of Setting Sun.'
Japanese: 607年、小野妹子らを隋に遣隋使として遣わして、隋の皇帝に「日出る処の天子、書を日没する処の天子に致す。
English: Prince Shotoku sent students and priests to study in Sui, adopted Sui culture to a great degree and strived to improve the nation's politics and culture.
Japanese: 留学生・留学僧を隋に留学させて隋の文化を大いに取り入れて、国家の政治・文化の向上に努めた。
English: In 620, together with Umako SOGA, Prince Shotoku compiled 'Tennoki' (The Imperial Record), 'The National Record', and 'The Real Record of Omi (a title of the highest rank), Muraji (a title of the highest rank), Tomo no Miyatsuko (the chief of a professional clan), Kuni no Miyatsuko (a local chief), 180 professional groups and Emperor's People.'
Japanese: 620年（推古28年）には、聖徳太子は蘇我馬子と「天皇記・国記、臣連伴造国造百八十部併公民等本記」を記した。
English: Local chief was a kind of title which was given to powerful clans in various places who were subject to the emperor's authority; it was a form of provincial government in ancient times under the Yamato political system.
Japanese: 国造とは、王権に服属した各地の有力豪族に与えられた一種の称号で、ヤマト政権の日本古代の地方官制的な性格を持つものである。
English: Prince Shotoku died in 621, followed by Umako SOGA and Empress Suiko in 626 and 628 respectively, and with this the era of the first empress in Japanese history, lasting for 36 years, finished.
Japanese: 推古29年（621年）に摂政であった厩戸皇子が、同34年（626年）には蘇我馬子が、さらに、推古天皇は36年（628年）に没し、36年間の長期に渡った日本歴史上初めての女帝の時代が終わる。
English: According to the Chronicles of Japan, after the deaths of Prince Shotoku and Empress Suiko, the high-handedness of Emishi SOGA and his son, Iruka SOGA, became apparent.
Japanese: 聖徳太子と推古天皇が没した後は、蘇我蝦夷と子の蘇我入鹿（いるか）の専横ぶりが目立ったと日本書紀には記されている。
English: After the death of Empress Suiko, Emperor Jomei (then Prince Tamura) and Yamashirooenoo (a son of Prince Shotoku) emerged as the leading candidates to succeed to the Imperial Throne.
Japanese: 推古天皇没後、皇位継承候補となったのは舒明天皇（田村皇子）と山背大兄王（聖徳太子の子）であった。
English: Emishi supported Jomei on the basis of Empress Suiko's last will, but as Marise SAKAIBE, a member of his family, supported Yamashirooenoo, Marise was killed by Emishi.
Japanese: 蝦夷は推古の遺言を元に舒明を擁立するが、同族境部摩理勢は山背大兄を推したため、蝦夷に滅ぼされる。
English: Emishi and Iruka became increasingly authoritarian, and the Soga clan usurped political power, using the 'purple crown' for their own purposes (the purple crown was used only for people of the highest rank such as emperors), and exterminating the Yamashirooenoo family (Uetsunomiya royal house) in 643.
Japanese: さらに蝦夷・入鹿の専横は激しくなり、蘇我蝦夷が自ら国政を執り、紫の冠を私用したことや643年聖徳太子の子山背大兄王一族（上宮王家）を滅ぼしたことなど、蘇我氏が政治をほしいままにした。
English: In 645, Prince Naka no Oe (later, Emperor Tenji) and Kamako NAKATOMI (later, Kamatari FUJIWARA) assassinated Iruka SOGA at the Imperial Court, drove Emishi SOGA to suicide and annihilated the Soga clan, in what is known as the The Isshi Incident, or Incident of 645.
Japanese: 645年（皇極4年）の乙巳の変で、天智天皇・中臣鎌子（藤原鎌足）らが宮中（板蓋宮）で蘇我入鹿を暗殺し、蘇我蝦夷を自殺に追いやり、半世紀も続いた蘇我氏の体制を滅ぼした。
English: According to the Chronicles of Japan, in January the following year Emperor Kotoku made an imperial proclamation to enact reform and began restructuring the political system.
Japanese: 日本書紀の記述によると、翌年（646年）正月には改新の詔を宣して、政治体制の改革を始めた。
English: The emperor reformed the central government system, increasing the number of ministers from one to three, namely the Minister of the Left, the Minister of the Right, and the Minister of the Inside (Uchitsuomi: senior adviser to the emperor).
Japanese: その後も、今までは蘇我氏の大臣1人だけの中央官制を左大臣・右大臣・内臣の3人に改めた。
English: For reasons unclear Prince Naka no Oe did not become emperor himself, but made his mother Empress Kogyoku take the throne again, as Empress Saimei.
Japanese: 中大兄皇子は何らかの理由により皇位にはつかず、母である皇極天皇を、再度即位（重祚）させた（斉明天皇）。
English: For several years after the death of Empress Saimei, while he did not succeed to the Imperial Throne he administered government affairs as Crown Prince.
Japanese: 斉明天皇没後も数年の間、皇位につかず皇太子の地位で政務に当たった（天皇の位につかず政務を執ることを称制という）。
English: In 663, Prince Naka no Oe dispatched troops to the Korean peninsula to help the Kingdom of Baekje (Kudara) rebuild the country, but the Japanese army was soundly defeated by the Silla -Tang allied forces in the battle of Hakusukinoe, at the mouth of Kum River.
Japanese: 663年、百済復興に助力するため朝鮮半島へ出兵したが、白村江の戦いで新羅・唐連合軍に大敗した。
English: The defeat in the Korean peninsula was a serious threat to the governing class in Japan and led to the building of defense facilities in various places in Japan.
Japanese: そのことは当時の支配層にとっては大変な脅威であり、日本列島の各地に防衛施設を造り始めるきっかけとなった。
English: In 664, they built a castle in the province of Chikushi in Kyushu to defend Dazaifu (the political center in northern Kyushu at the time) and forts in Tsushima, Oki and Chikushi with sakimori (coastguards) stationed there.
Japanese: 664年（天智2年）筑紫に大宰府を守る水城を造り、対馬・隠岐・筑紫に防人や烽を置いた。
English: In 666, they moved more than 2000 of the people of Baekje from Korea to the eastern provinces of Japan and promoted the construction of defense facilities.
Japanese: 666年（天智5年）には、百済人二千余人を東国へ移すなど、防衛施設の整備が進んだ。
English: In 670, Emperor Tenji created the nationwide family register system and promoted a national policy of surveying the condition of the people.
Japanese: 670年（天智9年）全国的な戸籍（古代の戸籍制度）を作り、人民を把握する国内政策も推進した。
English: After the death of Emperor Tenji in 672, a war was fought between Prince Oama, the brother of Emperor Tenji, and Emperor Kobun, the son of Emperor Tenji.
Japanese: 天智天皇が没すると、天智の弟である大海人皇子（後の天武天皇）と、息子である弘文天皇（明治時代に弘文天皇と諡号され、歴代に加えられる）との間で、争いが起こった。
English: Prince Oama won the war with the help of powerful regional clans and acceded to the throne as Emperor Tenmu.
Japanese: この戦いは、地方豪族の力も得て、最終的には大海人が勝利、即位し、天武天皇となった。
English: Emperor Tenmu enforced a range of measures, such as a law relating to the appointment of government officials, the reversal of the Koshi pronouncement, and the ordering of the return to the court of mountains, islands, beaches, woods, ponds and other assets owned by aristocrats or shrines and temples; he also opened the way to government positions for members of powerful remote regional clans as well as those near the capital and talented farmers, and established a new court rank and promotion system.
Japanese: 官人登用の法、甲子の宣の廃止、貴族・社寺の山・島・浦・林・池などの返還、畿外の豪族と才能のある百姓の任官への道を開き、官人の位階昇進の制度などを新設したりといった諸政を行った。
English: In 689, the administrative law of the Asuka Kiyomihara, composed of 22 volumes, was established and promulgated.
Japanese: 8年後の689年（持統3年）には諸氏に令1部全22巻で構成される飛鳥浄御原令が制定され、頒布される。
English: In 690, the Kanoetora year family register was established and this was the beginning of a family register survey 'once every 6 years.'
Japanese: 690年（持統4年）には、庚寅年籍が造られ、「六年一造」の造籍の出発点となった。
English: In 692, the government sent a handentayu (lord steward for farmland allotment) to people in the provinces near the capital and executed the law for tax payment according to the allotted farmland, based on the ownership of the farmland.
Japanese: 692年（持統6年）には、畿内に班田大夫を派遣し、公地公民制を基礎とした班田収授法を実施した。
English: In 702, the first family register was created on the basis of the Taiho Code and each member of the nation had been surveyed by the government.
Japanese: 702年には、大宝令にもとづいた最初の造籍が行われ、国民1人1人が政府に把握されるようになった。
English: In 694, Empress Jito transferred the capital to Fujiwarakyo, Japan's first full-scale castle town.
Japanese: 694年（持統8年）には日本初の本格的都城となる藤原京に都を遷した。
English: Empress Jito intended to hand over the throne to her son, Prince Kusakabe, but as he died young she ensured her grandson, Emperor Monmu, acceded to the throne after her abdication.
Japanese: 持統天皇は子の草壁皇子に位を譲るつもりであったが、早世したため、孫である文武天皇を即位させる。
English: In 700, Empress Jito made administrators learn Tang statutes in order to create a political system based on the ritsu (penal law) and ryou (administrative law) codes, following the model of the Tang (China) legal system, and in 701, the following year, the Taiho Code was completed.
Japanese: この間、唐の律令制を基本に、律と令にもとづいた政治を実施するために、700年（文武4年）に王臣に令文を読習させ、律条を撰定する作業に取りかかり、翌年の701年（文武5年）に大宝律令が制定された。
English: As a result of the completion of the Taiho Code the centralization of the government system by aristocrats and bureaucrats with the Japanese emperor as the top was accomplished.
Japanese: これにより、天皇を頂点とした、貴族・官僚による中央集権支配体制が完成した。
English: A system with two kinds of officials (in charge of politics, and in charge of the Shinto religion) and eight ministries was adopted for central government; and a province, county and village system was adopted for local government.
Japanese: 日本の官制は太政官と神祇官による二官八省制がとられ、日本古代の地方官制は、国・郡・里制がとられるようになった。
English: Consequently, the Keiun Reform was conducted in order to adjust for problems which had occurred with the enforcement of the ritsu and ryou codes.
Japanese: また律令制度の施行に伴って生じた不備などを調整する目的から、慶雲の改革が行われた。
English: Bakumatsu, one of the Japanese periodization, refers to the final years of the Edo period when the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) ruling a county came to an end.
Japanese: 幕末（ばくまつ）とは、日本の時代区分であり、江戸幕府による国内統治の末期、つまり、江戸時代末期。
English: Though the duration of the Bakumatsu is not strictly defined, it generally refers to the period from 1853, when the squadron, called the Black Ships, led by Commodore Matthew Perry, consisting of the four US Naval ships Susquehanna, Saratoga, Mississippi, and Plymouth, arrived off the shore of Uraga near Edo (current Tokyo), to 1867, when Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA returned power to the Emperor, ending the central governance under the Tokugawa shogunate, allowing the start of the Meiji period in 1868.
Japanese: 幕末の期間に関する厳密な定義はないが、嘉永6年（1853年）の黒船つまりアメリカ合衆国のマシュー・ペリー率いるアメリカ海軍のサスケハナ、サラトガ号、ポーハタン号、ミシシッピ号による艦隊の来航から、慶応3年（1867年）に徳川慶喜が大政奉還をおこなって幕府が日本の全国政権としての地位を失い、翌1868年に明治天皇が即位して元号が「明治」と改元されたときまでとするのが、一般的である。
English: Other major events, including the return of political power to the Emperor by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the end of Hakodate War in 1869, and Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) in 1871, could also be counted as ground-breaking events.
Japanese: 幕府という名目が失われた大政奉還（1867年）、旧幕府軍による抵抗が終了した箱館戦争の終戦（1869年）、幕藩体制が完全に終結した廃藩置県（1871年）なども画期となりうる。
English: The bakumatsu can be described as the period in which the feudal system characteristic of the shogunage by the head of the Tokugawa family collapsed, or the period in which the social structure dramatically changed as the country abolished the long-held closed-door policy and started trading with foreign countries, eventually becoming a member of the global capitalist market economy.
Japanese: 幕末は、徳川宗家の当主が征夷大将軍職に就き、幕府の主宰者として君臨する幕藩体制が変質し、崩壊していく過程であり、また、鎖国すなわち海禁政策を抛棄して開港し、外国との通商貿易の開始によって日本が世界的な資本主義市場経済に組み込まれ、社会そのもののあり方が劇的に変化していく過程でもある。
English: The process of the change was described in many works of literature, such as "Yoakemae" (Before the Dawn), a long novel written by Toson SHIMAZAKI.
Japanese: 幕末の過程は、多くの文学作品に描かれており、たとえば島崎藤村の長編小説『夜明け前』などが挙げられる。
English: In the field of political history, there are two different views on the bakumatsu period, one of which sees it as a normal transitional period, and another which views the period as a unique state of governance, separate from the previous system.
Japanese: 政治史の分野においては、幕末の把握に関して、単なる過渡期とするか、あるいはそれ以前以後とは異なった独自の国家状態もしくは国家体制とするかの2つの見方に分かれる。
English: The thoughts of this period are characterized by explanation and criticizm of the long-held rational of the feudal system, and the search for a new vision of the country to replace the old system.
Japanese: 幕末の思想の特徴は、幕藩体制の根拠を説明しあるいは批判するもの、またその体制に代わり得るあたらしい国家像を模索することである。
English: In addition, there was a significant trend to seek a new interpretation of the source of authority or power, such as the Emperor and Shogun.
Japanese: さらに、天皇や将軍といった権威と権力の源泉についてのあらたな意味づけを模索していることも、大きな特徴のひとつである。
English: Among them, the philosophical movement called 'Sonno Joi' (slogan advocating reverence for the Emperor and the expulsion of foreigners) is said to be the most influential.
Japanese: 幕末においてもっとも力と意味を持った思想潮流は、「尊王攘夷」の思想であると言われている。
English: New images of the nation and the emperor were built up in relation to the trend.
Japanese: あらたな国家像や天皇像もまた、この思想とのかかわりで構築されていった。
English: In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry's four-ship squadron, which was sent by the United States, arrived off the shore of Uraga, with an official letter from the President of the United States to urge Japan to open the country.
Japanese: 嘉永6年（1853年）、アメリカ合衆国が派遣したペリー提督率いる4隻の黒船が浦賀沖に来航し、江戸幕府に開国を迫る大統領国書をもたらした。
English: Masahiro ABE, the head of roju (member of shogun's council of elders) (the lord of Bingofukuyama domain), asked a broad range of people, including a coastal defense officer Nariakira TOKUGAWA (the lord of Mito domain), Yoshinaga MATSUDAIRA (the lord of Echizen domain), Nariakira SHIMIZU (the lord of Satsuma domain), and other various kinds of lords across the country, as well as ordinary people, about how they should respond to the situation.
Japanese: 老中首座の阿部正弘（備後福山藩主）は、海防参与徳川斉昭（水戸藩主）らや、松平慶永（越前藩主、のち春嶽）・島津斉彬（薩摩藩主）ら親藩・外様大名をはじめ、庶民にいたるまで対応意見を求めた。
English: At the New Year of 1854, Perry and his squadron visited again to urge Japan to open the country.
Japanese: 翌安政元年（1854年）正月に再来したペリー艦隊は、重ねて開国を要求。
English: After the negotiation with senior officials of the Shogunate, including the plenipotentiary official Fukusai HAYASHI, a treaty (the convention of Kanagawa, or the America-Japan Treaty of Amity and Friendship) was concluded, ending Japan's closed-door policy, the so-called "Sakoku" system.
Japanese: 全権の林復斎らとの交渉により、日米和親条約が締結され、いわゆる「鎖国」体制は終焉した。
English: In the same year, the treaty was concluded between Toshiakira KAWAJI and Evfimiy Vasil'evich Putyatin of the Russian Empire.
Japanese: 同年、ロシア帝国のエフィム・プチャーチン艦隊との間でも川路聖謨らの交渉により日露和親条約が締結された。
English: Under the treaty between Japan and the US, consulates could be placed if needed, as well as opening Shimoda and Hakodate ports to supply fuel and water for ships; the United States then sent Townsend HARRIS to Shimoda.
Japanese: 日米和親条約では、薪水の給与のための下田・函館開港と並んで、両国の必要に応じて総領事が置かれることとなり、米国はタウンゼント・ハリスを下田に派遣する。
English: After the death of Abe, Masayoshi HOTTA, who assumed the position of the head of roju, thought the conclusion of the treaty would be inevitable due to pressure from Harris and the surrounding situation in which the Qing dynasty was defeated in the second Opium war, and started work in Kyoto, through Naohisa KUJO, Kanpaku (chief adviser to the Emperor), to get imperial permission from the Emperor Komei.
Japanese: 阿部死後、老中首座となった堀田正睦は、ハリスの圧力や第二次アヘン戦争における清の敗北などの情勢から通商条約締結は不可避と考え、孝明天皇の勅許を求めるべく、京都において関白九条尚忠を通じて工作をおこなわせた。
English: However, Hotta could not get permission primarily because the Emperor Komei strongly objected to the ideas of allowing foreigners to come into Japan and concluding a commercial treaty, though he did give permission for supplying fuel and water in mercy, and also because many aristocrats including Tomomi IWAKURA criticized Kujo for his attitude towards the shogunate (see the incident that 88 high-ranking aristocrats went on a sit-in protest).
Japanese: しかし、孝明天皇は撫恤のための薪水給与は認めていたが、通商条約や異国人の入国には強く反対しており、また岩倉具視ら多くの公家が関白の幕府寄りの姿勢を批判したため（廷臣八十八卿列参事件参照）、堀田の工作にもかかわらず勅許は得られなかった。
English: Meanwhile, public opinion was divided in two about the next shogun because Shogun Iesada was in poor health and had no children.
Japanese: 一方、病弱であった将軍家定に子がなかったため、将軍の継嗣を誰にするかについても国内世論が二分した。