nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: At first, the Meiji government intended to keep citizens away from the influence of Christianity and to educate them on the new systems made by the new government renewed after the Meiji Restoration with authority and foundations of the Japanese traditional religion; however, the separation of religion and politics and the freedom of religion were essential policies in order to establish a modernized nation, and the cancellation of a ban on Christianity was indispensable to maintain the diplomatic relationships with Western countries.
Japanese: 政府は当初、伝統宗教の権威と地盤を以ってキリスト教防御と維新後の新体制を国民に教導する考えであったが、近代国家の樹立の為には政教分離と信教の自由を国家の基本方針として盛り込むことは避けられず、また西洋諸国との外交関係に於いてキリスト教の禁制解除は不可欠となった。
English: In addition, the Meiji government considered that the establishment of the educational system throughout Japan could satisfy the purpose of national edification at the same time and thus became skeptical of Kyobusho, and these inconsistencies made the existing religious groups rush around in confusion.
Japanese: また、学制の整備によって宣教政策の目的が達成されるとの観点から、政府は教部省の存在自体を懐疑的に捉える結末となり、上記の混乱によって既存の宗教勢力は右往左往することとなった。
English: In such confusion, the Buddhist group that had been put in the inferior position under the movement of separation of Buddhism and Shintoism, especially the Jodo Shinshu sect that had supported the movement to overthrow the shogunate, promoted ingenious political maneuvers and successfully persuaded the government to establish Kyobusho.
Japanese: そのような混乱の中、神仏分離で劣勢に立たされていた仏教勢力、特に明治維新に際して倒幕運動を支援した浄土真宗は巧みな政治工作によって教部省を政府に樹立させた。
English: However, triggered by the dispute over naming of the Ikko sect (the issue that government attempted to enforce the name of 'Ikko' as an official name on the Jodo Shinshu sect even though the sect had officially rejected it), the repugnance against the government grew within the Jodo Shinshu sect, and the Jodo Shinshu sect withdrew from Kyobusho after the policy of Kyobusho reached a deadlock on the basis of the separation of religion and politics.
Japanese: 一向宗宗名論争（浄土真宗が公式に否認している「一向宗」を宗派名として強要しようとした問題）を機に浄土真宗内部からも政府への反発が高まってきたこともあり、教部省の施策が暗礁に乗り上げると政教分離の観点から脱退するといった動きを見せた。
English: Daikyoin, the national organization to supervise kyodoshoku (evangelists), was established in Zojo-ji Temple located in Shiba, Tokyo Prefecture.
Japanese: 教導職の全国統括機関であった大教院は東京芝にある増上寺内に設置された。
English: Since the establishment of Daikyoin was led by the leadership of the Buddhist power, Zojo-ji Temple voluntarily offered to provide its facilities for Daikyoin at first, but once Shinto power began to take control of the administration of Daikyoin, Zojo-ji Temple tried to retract its initial proposal.
Japanese: 大教院の設置は仏教主導で行われた事もあり、増上寺の施設献納も自発的なものだったが、神道勢力が主導権を握りはじめると、献納を拒否する動きをみせた。
English: However, the plan of the contribution of the facilities of Zojo-ji Temple was pursued according to schedule, and the main hall of the temple was almost forcefully taken away and used as the haiden (a worship hall at a Shinto shrine) of Daikyoin Shrine.
Japanese: しかし、増上寺の献納は予定通り進められ、なかば強引に増上寺本堂は大教院として召し上げられ、大教院神殿の拝殿として用いられた。
English: Furthermore, Kyobusho enforced attendance and religious services at rituals performed at the shrine on the Buddhist priests who were Kyodoshoku, which made part of Buddhist power furious (on the other hand, some Buddhist priests fervently celebrated them by setting up a flag).
Japanese: 更には神殿で行なわれる祭祀に教導職である僧侶の参列と拝礼を義務付けた為に仏教勢力の一部を激しく怒らせる結果となった（又、その反面に幟を掲げるなどして熱烈な祝福を示した僧侶もいた）。
English: On January 1, 1874, a former Satsuma clan member, who believed in the abolition of Buddhism, set fire to Zojo-ji Temple opposing a shrine set up in the temple, and thus the main hall of former Zojo-ji Temple was totally burned down while its shintai (a sacred object) was barely saved.
Japanese: その後、仏堂の中に神社が設けられた事に反発した廃仏主義者の旧薩摩藩士によって明治7年（1874年）1月1日に放火され、旧増上寺本堂は全焼したが神体はかろうじて助け出された。
English: This shintai was temporarily placed in Shiba Tosho-gu Shrine, and afterward moved in the shrine in the Secretariat of Shinto later set up by the Shinto group.
Japanese: この神体は芝東照宮に一時奉遷され、神道勢力が新たに設置した神道事務局の神殿に遷された。
English: Chosonsei, as well as Shisei (a municipal system), is the fundamental law governing local autonomy under the Constitution of the Empire of Japan.
Japanese: 町村制（ちょうそんせい）は、市制とともに大日本帝国憲法下における地方自治に関する基本法である。
English: On April, 1888, it was promulgated as the latter part (as opposed to the first part consisting of Shisei) of Legislative Decree No.1, Apr.17,1888 as a replacement for the previous law, Gun-ku-cho-son Heniseiho (an act for the organization of the administrative divisions).
Japanese: 1888年（明治21年）4月にそれまでの郡区町村編制法に代え明治21年4月17日法律第1号の後半（前半は市制）として公布された。
English: Starting from April in the next year, 1889, it was consecutively enforced in various places depending on individual circumstances, such as consolidation of towns and villages.
Japanese: 翌1889年（明治22年）4月以降、町村の合併などの状況を見て各地で順次施行された。
English: As it adopted the local self-government system of Kingdom of Prussia, it was advantageous to the propertied class, for example, the suffrage was given only to those who were paying more than two yen in land tax or direct national tax.
Japanese: プロイセン王国の地方自治制度が取り入れられ、参政権は地租もしくは直接国税を年2円以上納税している者のみに付与するなど資産家優位の制度であった。
English: Although the revisions of the law carried out in 1911, 1921, 1925 and 1929 had increased the autonomy and expanded the civil right, the basic character of this law remained unaltered.
Japanese: 1911年、1921年、1925年、1929年の改正で、自治権の強化と公民権の拡張が進むが、この制度の基本的な性格は変わらなかった。
English: After the war, in 1946, the law was revised to expand the autonomy, but in the next year, 1947, the law was repealed when The Constitution of Japan and Local Autonomy Law came into effect.
Japanese: 終戦後の1946年自治権拡大のための改正が行われたが、翌1947年日本国憲法・地方自治法の施行により廃止された。
English: At this time, however, such words as 'Chosei' or 'Sonsei' are still used as the vestiges of this Chosonsei.
Japanese: ただし、現在でも町村制があった頃の名残で、「町制」「村制」という表現は使われている。
English: Gunsei was a domestic law of Japan during the period of Meiji and Taisho era, which stipulated Gun, a district occupying an intermediate position between a prefecture and a municipality, as a local government.
Japanese: 郡制（ぐんせい）とは、明治期から大正期にかけて府県と町村との間に位置する郡を地方自治体として定めた日本国内における法律である。
English: Gun, which had existed before Edo period, was ignored in daiku-shoku system (a centralized district system that abolished all pre-existing towns, villages and their offices and institutions) introduced at the beginning of Meiji period, which aroused fierce opposition among the residents.
Japanese: 江戸時代までの郡は明治初年の大区小区制のもとでは無視され、住民の反発が大きかった。
English: Therefore, Gun-ku-cho-son Henseiho (Act for the alignment of local government system), which authorized the existing Gun as an administrative unit and placed Gunyakusho (a district office) and Guncho (a district headman chosen by the government), was established in 1878.
Japanese: このことから、1878年（明治11年）郡区町村編制法を制定し、旧来の郡を行政単位として認め、郡役所と郡長（官選）が置かれた。
English: The other one-thirds were chosen by an internal vote among large landowners owning land valued in more than ten thousand yen.
Japanese: 残りの3分の1が所有している土地の地価が1万円以上の大地主の互選とされた。
English: The Gunsanjikai consisted of council members (regarded as honorary position) who were appointed by Guncho and the prefectural governor.
Japanese: 郡参事会は郡長と府県知事が任命する郡参事会員（名誉職）により構成された。
English: Therefore, the function of Guncho was nothing but a regional office of the national or prefectural government, sending down an administrative order from the central government through the Kocho (an officer responsible for administrative affairs.) of towns and villages.
Japanese: よって郡長は国・府県の出先機関として町村の戸長を通じて中央の行政命令を下達する機関に過ぎなかった。
English: As there had been a strong opposition against separation, installation, abolition and amalgamation of Gun, it was not until 1899 when Gunsei was revised so that Gunsei became effective in all the prefectures.
Japanese: 郡の分置廃合への反対が強かったため、全府県に郡制が施行されたのは1899年（明治32年）に郡制が改正されてからである。
English: Fukensei (prefectural system/law) refers to a local administration system established in 1890 as well as the law that stipulates this system.
Japanese: 府県制（ふけんせい）は、1890年（明治23年）に制定された地方行政制度であるとともに、それを規定した法律でもある。
English: An administrative district, Fuken (prefecture) was started when Fu-han-ken sanchisei (fu-han-ken tripartite governance system) was established in 1868; and due to Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) established in 1871, the system with 3 fu and 302 ken were established, followed by the system with 3 fu and 72 ken; then it was unified into 3 fu and 43 ken in 1889.
Japanese: 行政区画としての府県は1868年（慶応4年：明治元年）の府藩県三治制に始まり、1871年（明治4年）の廃藩置県により3府302県が置かれ、3府72県を経て、1889年（明治22年）までに3府43県に統合された。
English: In the meantime, due to the three local new laws established in 1878, Gun-ku-cho-son Heniseiho (an act for the reorganization of counties, wards, towns and villages), Fukenkai Kisoku (the rules of prefectural assembly) as well as Chihozei Kisoku (the rules of local tax), Fuken started having two characters, its new character as an autonomous body and its original character as a government regional office in the local area.
Japanese: この間、1878年（明治11年）、郡区町村編制法とともに地方三新法を構成する府県会規則および地方税規則により自治体として性格を得、従来の国の地方出先機関としての性格との二面性を持つようになった。
English: Under the constitutional system of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan issued in 1889, 'Fukensei' was established following the state law of Prussia, which stipulates that Fuken are autonomous bodies.
Japanese: 1889年（明治22年）に発布された大日本帝国憲法（1890年11月9日施行）による立憲体制下において、自治体としての府県は1890年にプロイセンの州制度に範をとって制定された法律「府県制」によって規定された。
English: On the other hand, prefectural governors as well as other prefectural organizations of the local government were stipulated by an imperial edict, 'Chihokan Kansei' (Rules of local official and organization).
Japanese: 一方、地方長官である都道府県知事以下、地方官庁としての府県の機構は勅令である「地方官官制」によって規定された。
English: Fuken chiji (Prefectural governor) was categorized as being elected by voters; and during the time of the party cabinet or the cabinet strongly influenced by the political party, mostly government officials from the prewar Ministry of Home Affairs were assigned to be Fuken chiji and were supervised by the prewar Minister of Home Affairs.
Japanese: 府県知事は選挙投票者による分類とされ、政党内閣または政党の影響の強い内閣の時期も含めて多くは内務省(日本)の官僚が任命され、また内務大臣の監督に服するものとされた。
English: On the other hand, the Fukenkai (prefectural assembly) only had a voting right on finance and had limited authority, and thus it was more like an administrative district than an autonomous body.
Japanese: それに対して府県会は財政議決権を持つだけで与えられた権限の及ぶ範囲は狭く、自治体としてよりも国の行政区画としての意味合いが強かった。
English: During World War II, the regulation by the government was enforced, however, after the war, the first reform of the local system was implemented in 1946 to promote democratization, and the classification system where a prefectural governor is elected by voters was introduced, which was after all replaced by the current Todofuken sei (system of prefectural government) when the Local Autonomy Law was established in 1947.
Japanese: 第二次世界大戦中は更に政府の統制が強化されたが、終戦後の1946年（昭和21年）の第1次地方制度改革で知事の選挙投票者による分類制が導入されるなどの民主化が行われ、最終的には1947年（昭和22年）の地方自治法の成立により現行の都道府県制に移行した。
English: The law, Fukensei (Act No. 35 in 1890) which forms the local administration system under the Meiji Constitution, along with 'Shisei Chosonsei' (City, town and village system law) (Act No. 1 in 1888), was supported by the Imperial Diet under the First Yamagata cabinet and was issued with 'Gunsei' (County system law) (Act No. 36 in 1890) on May 17, 1890.
Japanese: 「市制・町村制」（明治21年法律第1号）と併せて明治憲法下の地方自治制度を形づくる法律である「府県制」（明治23年法律第35号）は、「郡制」（明治23年法律第36号）とともに第1次山縣内閣の下で帝国議会の協賛を経て1890年5月17日に公布された。
English: This law stipulates 'Fuken as an autonomous body' which was mainly managed by Fuken kai (prefectural assembly) consisting of councilors elected by the citizens (the election was held by each class classified by the amount of tax payment) as well as Fuken sanjikai (prefectural council) consisting of honorary council members elected from prime ministers, prefectural senior officials and councilors of Fukenkai.
Japanese: この法律は「自治体としての府県」について規定したものであり、住民から選挙された議員（納税額によって区分された階級ごとに選挙される）によって構成される府県会と、知事と府県高等官および府県会議員の中から選出された名誉職参事会員による府県参事会が自治の主体となった。
English: The Supplementary Provision Article 94 stipulates that this law (Fukensei) should be sequentially implemented to the prefectures where 'Gunsei' and 'Shisei' have been implemented, however, the reorganization of Gun required for the implementation of Gunsei was delayed in many prefectures, causing the implementation of Fukensei to be delayed (it was only implemented in 9 prefectures in 1891).
Japanese: 附則第94条の規定によりこの法律は「郡制」および「市制」の施行された府県から順次施行するものとされたが、多くの県で郡制施行の前提である郡の再編が進まずに府県制の施行が遅れた（1891年（明治24年）中に施行されたのは9県のみ）。
English: As a result, 'Fukensei' was fully revised with 'Gunsei' in 1899, and was implemented in all prefectures except Hokkaido and Okinawa Prefectures (the prefectures where Fukensei was not implemented until this revision were three fu: Tokyo Prefecture, Osaka Prefecture and Kyoto Prefecture as well as four ken: Kanagawa Prefecture, Okayama Prefecture, Hiroshima Prefecture and Kagawa Prefecture.)
Japanese: そのため、1899年（明治32年）に「郡制」とともに「府県制」も全面改正されて、ようやく北海道と沖縄県を除く全府県に施行された（改正まで施行されなかったのは東京、大阪、京都の3府と神奈川、岡山、広島、香川の4県）。
English: This new 'Fukensei' (Act No. 64 in 1899) was effective until it was abolished by the Local Autonomy Law executed in 1947.
Japanese: 1947年の地方自治法施行により廃止されるまで有効であったのは、この新「府県制」（明治32年法律第64号）である。
English: This revision gave Fuken a legal personality to reinforce its position as an autonomous body, and it also organized and reinforced the regulations on the authority of the prefectural governor.
Japanese: この改正によって府県に法人格が与えられて自治体としての体勢が強化される一方で、府県知事の権限規定も整備・強化された。
English: In 1926, a revision (which abolished the limitation of suffrage and eligibility due to the amount of tax payment) was made to introduce the popular election system to the Fukenkai assembly elections like the election of the member of the House of Representatives, and the revision made in 1929 gave prefectures the constitutive power on its ordinance and regulation.
Japanese: 1926年（大正15年）、衆議院議員選挙と同様に府県会議員選挙に普通選挙制度を導入するための改正（納税額による選挙権・被選挙権制限の撤廃）が行われ、1929年（昭和4年）の改正では府県に条例および規則の制定権が与えられた。
English: The revision made after the war in September 1946 introduced the popular election system where a prefectural governor is directly elected by the citizens.
Japanese: 戦後、1946年（昭和21年）9月の改正で府県知事が住民により直接選挙される公選制が導入された。
English: Since prefectural governors who used to be in charge of the election became the target of the election, this revision established the election management committee in each prefecture and segregated the election from the jurisdiction of prefectural governors.
Japanese: 従来府県における選挙事務を統括していた府県知事自身が選挙の対象となったこともあって、この改正により各道府県に選挙管理委員会が設置され知事の管轄から分離された。
English: At the same time, 'Hokkaido kaiho' (Law on the Hokkaido assembly system) and 'Hokkaido chihohiho' (Law on the Hokkaido autonomous body) which used to stipulate the autonomy system of Hokkaido were abolished and unified into 'Fukensei', and the name of this law was then changed to 'Dofukensei' (prefectural system).
Japanese: 同時に、北海道における自治制度を規定していた「北海道会法」と「北海道地方費法」が廃止されて「府県制」に統合され、この法律は「道府県制」と改称された。
English: The autonomous body in Hokkaido originally called as 'Hokkaido chihohi' was decided to be called as 'Do'.
Japanese: 従来「北海道地方費」と呼ばれていた北海道における自治体は「道」と呼ぶものとされた。
English: At the first nationwide local elections held in April 1947, prefectural governors and the governor of Hokkaido Prefecture were elected based on the law, Dofukensei.
Japanese: 1947年（昭和22年）4月に実施された第1回統一地方選挙における府県知事および北海道庁長官（北海道知事）の選挙は、この法律によるものである。
English: When the Constitution of Japan and the Local Autonomy Law became effective on May 3, 1947, Shisei, Chosei, Tokyoto Sei as well as Dofukensei were abolished.
Japanese: 1947年（昭和22年）5月3日、日本国憲法と地方自治法の施行によって市制、町村制、東京都制とともに道府県制も廃止された。
English: Shitokan, also known as Shitokan-sei system, is a term that refers to the fact that core officials of government offices were comprised of people of four ranks under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government under the Ritsuryo code).
Japanese: 四等官（しとうかん）または四等官制（-せい）は、律令制において各官司の中核職員が4等級で構成されていたことを表す用語。
English: It was originally introduced in the Chinese Ritsuryo system and functioned as the basis for the sophisticated bureaucracy of the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 元は中国律令に現れ、律令制を支える精緻な官僚システムの基礎制度として機能した。
English: Shitokan-sei system was based on Chokan (minister), Nitokan (second-rank official), Santokan (third-rank official) and Shitokan (fourth-rank official), and their respective responsibilities were determined by Ryo (administrative code).
Japanese: 四等官制は、長官・二等官・三等官・四等官の4等級から構成されており、令において、それぞれの分掌事務が定められている。
English: Under the organization based on the Ritsuryo system in Tang, officials were classified into four ranks, such as Chokan (minister), Tsuhangan (vice minister), Hangan (inspector) and Sakan (secretary).
Japanese: 唐律令官制では、長官・通判官・判官・主典の4等級による組織体系がとられた。
English: The above names of Shitokan and jian-gou-guan were not standardized at the central government and various names were used depending on the government bodies.
Japanese: この四等官と検勾官の名称は、特に中央官庁においては統一されておらず、官庁ごとに異なる名称が採用されていた。
English: Sakan, the lowest official (fourth-rank official), was engaged in clerical jobs, such as the preparation and sorting out of material and documents, and they never participated in political judgments.
Japanese: 最下級（第四等官）の主典は、資料作成・整理や文書作成などの雑務のみに従事し、政務判断に参与することはなかった。
English: Hangan, the third-rank official, held the authority to decide (it was called 'Han'), and more than one hangan made decisions for part of the case (called Bunhan) and passed it to Tsuhangan, the second-rank official.
Japanese: 第三等官の判官から決裁権限（これを「判」という）を有することになるが、複数の判官が分担で決裁（分判）を行い、第二等官の通判官へ上げる。
English: Tsuhangan made a decision for whole of the case (called Tsuhan) and Chokan made a final decision (called Sohan)
Japanese: 通判官は上がってきた案件を通しで決裁（通判）し、最終的に長官が惣じて決裁（惣判）を行うこととされていた。
English: While Chokan, Tsuhangan and Hangan were formal officials called 'Ryunaikan,' most of Sakan were 'Ryugaikan' (miscellaneous posts to which ordinary people were appointed), who were not formal officials and were not included in Kuhonkan (nine official posts).
Japanese: また、長官・通判官・判官のいずれもが正式な官人である「流内官」だったのに対し、主典のほとんどは「流外官」（庶民が登用される雑吏）であり、九品官には含まれない正式な官人ではなかったのである。
English: As seen previously, there was a big gap in the status between Hangan or higher and Sakan.
Japanese: このように判官以上と主典との間には身分上の大きな断絶がもうけられていた。
English: Shitokan-sei system was introduced into Japan around the end of seventh century to the beginning of eighth century when the Ritsuryo system, which was based on the Ritsuryo of Tang, was established.
Japanese: 日本では、7世紀後半-8世紀初頭の時期に唐律令をもとにして律令制が始まると、四等官制も一緒に導入された。
English: According to the Kaninrei (code of officials) of Taiho Ritsuryo (called Shokuinrei in Yoro Ritsuryo [a code promulgated in the Yoro period]), Shitokan of Kami, Suke, Jo and Sakan were set as the basis for the government organization.
Japanese: 大宝律令官員令（養老律令では職員令）においては、長官（かみ）・次官（すけ）・判官（じょう）・主典（さかん）の四等官が定められ、官制の基礎となっている。
English: It is considered that official posts were put in order in the Shokuinrei of Yoro Ritsuryo starting with Shitokan followed by Honkan (professional officials).
Japanese: なお、養老令職員令における各官司ごとの官職の排列は、まず四等官を掲げた後に品官を記載していると考えられている。
English: According to Taiho Ritsuryo and Yoro Ritsuryo, Kami's responsibility was as the same of 'Sohan' of political cases as that of Tang.
Japanese: 大宝令・養老令において、長官の職掌が各政務案件の「惣判」とされた点は唐と同様であった。
English: However, while the responsibility of the second-rank official (Tsuhangan) was 'Tsuhan' of political cases in Tang, that of Suke, the second-rank official in Japan, was the same with that of Kami.
Japanese: しかし、唐の第二等官（通判官）の職掌が各政務案件の「通判」だったのに対し、日本の第二等官である次官の職掌は「同長官」、すなわち長官に同じとされていたのである。
English: As for the responsibility of the third-rank official Hangan, it was 'Bunhan' according to Yong Hui Code of Tang Dynasty while it was 'Kyuhan' (to accuse and judge lawbreaker) according to Japanese Ryo.
Japanese: 第三等官である判官の職掌についても、唐永徽令では各政務案件の「分判」とされていたが、日本の令では「糺判」となっていた。
English: The fourth-rank official Sakan was a clerical staff who was not given the authority to decide as with the case of Tang.
Japanese: 第四等官である主典は、唐と同様、決裁権限を持たない雑務吏員として規定されていた。
English: One point different from Tang was that Sakan was supposed to read the draft orally (dokushin kobun) when seeking the approval of Kami.
Japanese: ただ、長官の決裁を得るときは主典が口頭で文案を読み上げる（読申公文）こととされていた点に唐との違いがあった。
English: Actually, when the court rank of both Kami and Suke were Goi (the Fifth Rank) or higher, Suke made decisions on most of miscellaneous or ordinary matters without Kami, while Kami made decisions only on important matters.
Japanese: 実際の政務を観察すると、長官・次官ともに五位以上であるとき、軽微な案件や通常の案件はほとんど次官が決裁して長官の関与は見られず、重要な案件のときに長官が決裁していた。
English: In the case of more important matters, Suke directly reported to Daijokan (councilor of state) without Kami's involvement.
Japanese: さらにより重要な案件の場合は、長官が関与しないまま、次官から太政官へ政務案件が上程されていた。
English: Whether the court rank of final decision maker was above Goi or not was the index for decision-making procedure.
Japanese: 原則として、最終決裁者が五位以上かどうかが決裁に当たっての指標となっていたのである。
English: When the court rank of Kami was Rokui (the Sixth Rank), such Kami sometimes asked a person of Goi or higher to act for him in supervising important matters, although he had the authority to supervise miscellaneous matters.
Japanese: 長官が六位相当である司の場合、軽微な案件であれば長官の正に監督権限があったものの、一定以上の重みを持つ案件になると五位以上の者に監督権限を代行してもらう場合もあった。
English: Unlike the case of Tang, there was no distinction of Ryunaikan and Ryugaikan in Japan and the lowest official Sakan was also conferred the court rank.
Japanese: 日本には唐と異なり流内官・流外官の区分はなく、最下級の主典も官人として位階が付与されていた。
English: During the eighth century to the beginning of ninth century, however, most of ishi (legitimate children of persons from Goi to Hachii [the Eighth Rank]) and hakucho (people without court rank) were promoted only to Toneri (a servant), Shisho (a person doing miscellaneous clerical jobs) or Sakan and few were promoted to Hangan or higher.
Japanese: しかし、8世紀から9世紀初頭にかけての事例を見ると、位子（六位～八位の者の嫡子）と白丁（無位の者）のほとんどが舎人・史生・主典どまりで、判官以上に昇進する者はごくまれだった。
English: On the other hand, inshison (descendants of people of Sanmi [the Third Rank] or higher, children of persons of Shii [the fourth rank] and Goi) were promoted to Hangan without experiencing Sakan.
Japanese: これに対し、蔭子孫（三位以上の者の子孫、四位五位の者の子）は主典を経ずに判官以上へと昇っていた。
English: As previously mentioned, there was a strict gap by the birth such as the people came from the family of Goi or higher were able to become Hangan with the authority of 'han,' while the people came from the family of Rokui or lower were able to become only Sakan without the authority of 'han.'
Japanese: このように、五位以上の家に生まれれば「判」権限を持つ判官以上、六位以下なら「判」権限を持たない主典以下という、出自による格差が厳然と存在していた。
English: Each of Shitokan was called 'Kami,' 'Suke,' 'Jo' and 'Sakan' respectively regardless of the Chinese characters used.
Japanese: それぞれの四等官はその表記にかかわらず、長官に相当するものは「かみ」、次官は「すけ」、判官は「じょう」、主典は「さかん」と読んだ。
English: It is said that 'Kami' referred to the highest, 'Suke' to a deputy, 'Jo' derived from the pronunciation of 'Jo' (丞), the third-rank official of the government body in the Tang, and 'Sakan' derived from 'sakan' (左官), which means an assistant.
Japanese: 「かみ」は最上位を表し、「すけ」は補佐の意味、「じょう」は唐代に一部の官庁で三等官の呼称だった「丞」の借音、「さかん」は補佐官を意味する「左官」にそれぞれ由来するといわれる。
English: After the Meiji Restoration, Japanese bureacratic system was established under the tendency to revert to the old ways and the official posts whose names were same with those of the Ritsuryo System were set.
Japanese: 明治維新の当初、官制全体が復古的な志向のもとで編成され、律令制下と同名の官職が置かれた。
English: The organization of newly created ministries was also designed after the model of Shitokan, but their names and so on, were not necessarily same with the traditional ones.
Japanese: 新たに設けられた官庁の職制も四等官に倣ったものであったが、名称等は必ずしも旧来の原則に当てはまるものではなかった。
English: For example, the military ranks of 'sho, sa, i, so' (11 ranks from Rikukaigun taisho [general of Army and Navy]) to Rikukaigun gon no socho [Deputy Sergeant Major of Army and Navy]) which were established at Hyobusho (Ministry of Military) by Dajokan Futatsu (promulgate of Grand Council of State) No. 604 issued on October 12, 1870, were not seen in the military system of Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 一例をあげると、明治3年9月18日の太政官布達第604号で兵部省に設けられた「将・佐・尉・曹」（陸海軍大将から陸海軍權曹長の11等級）は律令制下の武官にはみられない序列である。