nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Also, it served as estimation standard to determine social status of daimyo and hatamoto, or military service to be borne such as tetsudai-fushin (construction service which the cost was borne by each domain) or sankinkotai.
Japanese: また、大名・旗本の格式や、参勤交代、手伝い普請などの形で負担すべき軍役の算出基準となる。
English: Against Omotedaka, kokudaka that was actually used to estimate nengu imposed to ryomin (people of the domain) was called uchidaka (real value of the yield).
Japanese: 表高に対し、実際に領民に課される年貢額の算定に用いられる石高を内高と言う。
English: Omotedaka was, most of the time, being used without change from the early Edo period when it had been fixed, so many domains actually held larger uchidaka than omotedaka due to development of new rice fields.
Japanese: 表高は江戸時代初期に確定したまま使われていたことが多いので、多くの藩では、新田開発などにより実際には表高より大きな内高を持っていた。
English: Uchi-daka (real value of the yield) means kokudaka (crop yield) that was used as the appraisal standard to impose nengu (land tax) to the people of shoryo (territory) of daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) and hatamoto (bannermen) in the Edo period.
Japanese: 内高（うちだか）は、江戸時代の大名や旗本の所領内において、領民に年貢を課す際の算定基準として用いられた石高のことである。
English: It is a term opposed to omote-daka, which is the face value of kokudaka assessed by seii taishogun (literally, "great general who subdues the barbarians"), and is also called jitsu-daka.
Japanese: 征夷大将軍に認められた額面上の石高である表高に対する語で、実高（じつだか）ともいう。
English: Omote-daka was calculated based on the land survey officially recognized by the Edo bakufu; however, in many domains the actual uchi-daka was higher than omote-daka and also increasing, thanks to the progress of development of new field in 17th century, the land survey within domains that was based on the increased productivity by innovation of agricultural technique (farming equipments, fertilizer), and tax reform by monopolization of indigenous products.
Japanese: 表高は江戸幕府公認の検地によって算定された石高だが、実際の藩内では17世紀に進んだ新田開発や、農業技術（農機具・肥料等）の革新による生産力の増大に基づいた藩内検地、専売制による特産品の税高改定などによって、多くの藩では内高は表高を上回って増大していた。
English: Generally, for many taihan (large scale domain) of tozama (outside feudal lord) that experienced few relocation throughout the Edo period and which shoryo was not distributed, omote-daka was still the same amount as calculated by Taiko kenchi (Hideyoshi Toyotomi's nationwide land survey) or land survey in the early Edo period, despite that large scale of development of new field had been conducted, and as a result, some areas like Ou, where originally was underdeveloped area, there was a big difference between omote-daka and uchi-daka, for example, the Sendai Domain's omote-daka was 620 thousands koku crop yield while its uchi-daka was one million koku.
Japanese: 一般に、江戸時代を通じて転封が少なく、所領も分散していない外様の大藩は、表高が太閤検地や江戸時代初期の検地で打ち出した表高そのままで大きな新田開発を行っている場合が多く、もともと後進地域だった奥羽などでは仙台藩62万石の内高約100万石のように表高と内高に大きな差がある。
English: In fact, although bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) investigated uchi-daka and they kept the track of it to some degree, omote-daka was still used as the standards for calculating kakaku (family status) and military service that would determine compulsory expenditure of daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) or hatamoto.
Japanese: 実際には幕府も内高を調査しある程度把握していたが、軍役などの大名・旗本の義務的支出に関わる家格や軍役の算出に用いられる基準はあくまで表高とした。
English: For this reason, the more uchi-daka becomes higher than omote-daka, the less daimyo or hatamoto will need to pay for military service, compared to their actual income, and therefore they will become more wealthy.
Japanese: このため、内高が表高を上回れば上回るほど、その大名・旗本は実収に対して軍役による出費が少なくて済み、経済的に豊かであるということができる。
English: However, if uchi-daka was increased as a result of land survey by the domain, it meant that nengu will be increased in accordance with the productivity - although it was previously collected at comparatively low rate for the actual productivity - and the load of the people of the domain will also be increased.
Japanese: しかし、藩内の検地による打ち出しで内高が増加することは、これまで生産力に対して余裕をもって徴収されていた年貢が、生産力相応の高い額に引き上げられることを意味したので、領民にとっては一種の負担増でもあった。
English: Especially for tozama clans that experienced a large diminishing of the territory had been conducting strict land survey to calculate uchi-daka in order to increase their income and maintain the vassals.
Japanese: 特に大減封を経験した外様藩は、収入を増やして家臣団を維持するために内高を厳しく打ち出していた。
English: It is said that tozama clans tried to set the grade of their land as high as possible, and for example, the Choshu Domain of the Mori clan's uchi-daka was about 750 thousands koku compared to 360 thousands koku.
Japanese: つまり、農地の等級をなるべく高いものに認定していたと言われ、毛利氏の長州藩は36万石に対して内高約75万石であった。
English: Sometimes uchi-daka registered in the land survey list was higher than the actual productivity of the land, and nengu was calculated based on that uchi-daka, which resulted in harsh tax collection.
Japanese: 生産力以上の農地に検知帳上は登録されることもあり、それを基礎に年貢高を計算したため、実態は過酷な徴税となることもあった。
English: In the Satsuma Domain of the Shimazu clan, tax was collected based on the land survey list that even included the land not suitable for rice fields and vegetable fields.
Japanese: また島津氏の薩摩藩では、およそ田畑にすることは困難であると考えられる土地まで検知帳に載せて徴税を行った。
English: In the Edo period, daimyo (excluding taihan of tozama) often experienced transfers of the territories, and although omote-daka was supposed to be the same, transfer could be a promotion to the double amount of uchi-daka or a demotion to the half amount (for example, the Naito clan was demoted from the Iwakitaira Domain to the Nobeoka Domain of Hyuga Province).
Japanese: 江戸時代には、外様の大藩を除き大名の領地替えがしばしば行われたが、表高は同じとされる一方で、内高で2倍の栄転もあれば、半減の左遷もあった（例、磐城平藩から日向延岡藩に左遷された内藤氏）。
English: In addition, in some cases if the promotion/increase was made under the patronage of the shogun, the officially published omote-daka was intentionally kept low (for example, the Makino clan was promoted from the Yoita Domain of Echigo clan to the Komoro Domain in Shinano Province).
Japanese: また将軍などの贔屓による栄転・加増の場合は、意図的に表高を抑えて、公称した例もあった（例、越後与板藩から信濃小諸藩に栄転した牧野氏）。
English: Thus, it was impossible to estimate financial affairs of domains by omote-daka, and uchi-daka was the important factor.
Japanese: このように、諸藩の財政は表高では推し量ることは不可能であり、内高が重要な要素を持つ。
English: It can be said that in order to understand the actual power of domains, comprehensive judgment is required based on whether there are good ports or mines, the distance of Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords in the Edo period were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo), tax collection according to the development of commerce, and so on.
Japanese: 良港の有無・鉱山の有無・江戸までの参勤交代の距離、商業の発達に伴う税の徴収などを総合的に判断しないと、諸藩の実際の実力は、把握できないと云える。
English: Tondenhei refers to a soldier or a troop that undertook the guard and reclamation of Hokkaido in the Meiji period..
Japanese: 屯田兵（とんでんへい）は、明治時代に北海道の警備と開拓にあたった兵士とその部隊である。
English: This institution was established in 1874, executed the next year, and abolished in 1904.
Japanese: 明治7年（1874年）に制度が設けられ、翌年から実施、明治37年（1904年）に廃止された。
English: The idea of executing the Tondensei (Duntian system) in Hokkaido had arisen in various lines since the first year of the Meiji period.
Japanese: 屯田制を北海道に実施するという考えは、明治初年から様々な方面に生まれていた。
English: The idea might be first suggested by Takeaki ENOMOTO: He thought of moving surviving retainers of the Tokugawa Clan to Hokkaido and letting them undertake the guard and reclamation of the northern territory, and holding up this plan, fought the Battle of Hakodate against the new government.
Japanese: そのおそらく最初のものは、徳川氏の遺臣を移して北方警備と開墾に従事させようとする榎本武揚の考えで、彼はこの計画を掲げて新政府と箱館戦争を戦った。
English: The first proposal of the government was made by the Hokkaido Development Commissioner in November, 1870.
Japanese: 政府内の提案としては、明治3年（1870年）11月に開拓使が行なったものがはじめである。
English: Then, Takamori SAIGO advocated from 1871 to 1873 that the northern territory should be guarded and reclaimed by shizoku (family or persons with samurai ancestors).
Japanese: ついで西郷隆盛が明治4年（1871年）から明治6年（1873年）にかけて士族による北方警備と開拓を主唱した。
English: SAIGO resigned his public post before seeing his plan carried out, but Kiyotake KURODA, an undersecretary for reclamation projects, under SAIGO's influence, proposed a Duntian system to the Dajokan (Grand Council of State) in November, 1873.
Japanese: 西郷は計画の実現をみることなく下野したが、彼の影響で開拓次官の黒田清隆が1873年11月に太政官に屯田制を建議した。
English: His proposal was that Shakhalin and Hokkaido should need military forces and cost for them, therefore, "on the model of the Duntian system they should move people there for farming and defense to get the advantages of reclamation and defense of the border ".
Japanese: 樺太と北海道の兵備の必要と、そのための費用を憂え、「今略屯田の制に倣い、民を移して之に充て、且耕し且守るときは、開拓の業封疆の守り両ながら其便を得ん」というものであった。
English: KURODA's idea was also based on utilization of shizoku, but he considered shizoku in poverty in former Matsumae Domain and Tohoku Domains.
Japanese: 黒田が考えたのも士族の活用であったが、彼の場合旧松前藩と東北諸藩の貧窮士族を想定していた。
English: The Dajokan agreed to his proposal and set up Tondenhei Regulations in 1874.
Japanese: 太政官は黒田の提案に賛成し、明治7年（1874年）に屯田兵例則を定めた。
English: In May, 1875, the first tondenhei settlement was built in Kotoniheison in the suburbs of Sapporo.
Japanese: 明治8年（1875年）5月、札幌郊外の琴似兵村への入地で、屯田が開始された。
English: In order to fill the requirements of social status and age, adoptions were arranged: Those children were called Tonden Adopted Children.
Japanese: 身分や年齢の制限を満たすための便法として養子縁組を行なうものがあり、屯田養子といった。
English: In fact, these adoptions caused no problems because the recruitment authorities had no intention to reject commoners.
Japanese: 実のところ募集当局に平民を拒む意思はなかったので、ここから問題が起きることはなかった。
English: In later years with the repeal of the shizoku-only principle, the social status ratio of new soldiers became almost equal to that of the population.
Japanese: 後に士族原則が取り払われると、新兵の身分比はほぼ人口中の身分比に等しくなった。
English: Therefore, the history is sometimes divided into the first half period, Shizoku-tondenhei Settlements, and the latter half, Commoner- tondenhei Settlements.
Japanese: よって、前期を士族屯田、後期を平民屯田として時代区分することがある。
English: Tondenhei settlements first developed in Ishikari areas in the vicinity of Sapporo City, and gradually expanded to the inland and Doto areas (eastern part of Hokkaido).
Japanese: 屯田ははじめ札幌市近くの石狩地方に展開し、しだいに内陸や道東部などに範囲を広げた。
English: Several troops were combined into one battalion, but the organization of battalion levels was often changed.
Japanese: 中隊はいくつか集まって大隊を編成したが、大隊レベルの編成はしばしば変わった。
English: At first tondenhei were placed under the tonden jimu-kyoku (bureau) (later tonden jimu-gakari [bureau]) of the Hokkaido Development Commissioner.
Japanese: はじめ、屯田兵は開拓使の屯田事務局（後に屯田事務係）の下に置かれた。
English: Under the Ministry of Army the presiding organizations of tondenhei were renamed Tondenhei Headquarters, Tondenhei Command Center and became more similar to the formation of general military units.
Japanese: 陸軍省のもとで屯田兵の所管組織は屯田兵本部、屯田兵司令部と改称し、一般の部隊の編制に近づいた。
English: Takeshiro NAGAYAMA served as Tondenhei Director-general, Tondenhei Commander, and the later-established Dainana Shidan (Seventh Division) Chief.
Japanese: 屯田兵本部長、屯田兵司令、そして後に設置される第7師団(日本軍)長は、永山武四郎が務めた。
English: Tondenhei were unique in that they were long-term volunteers in the then Japan under the draft system.
Japanese: 徴兵制だった当時の日本において、屯田兵は長期勤務の志願兵制という点でも特殊であった。
English: Legislatively, there were no regulations on the promotion from heisotsu (solidier) to shikan (officer), but actually some soldiers were promoted to top officials of the late Tondenhei settlements.
Japanese: 法制上は兵卒から士官への昇進の規定はなかったが、実際には昇進者もあり、後期屯田の幹部となった。
English: At that time, tondenhei reservists were formed for reinforcement, but because the war ended during their training, they did not experience actual battles.
Japanese: このとき、増援のために屯田予備兵が編成されたが、訓練中に戦争が終結に向かったため、こちらは実戦を経験しなかった。
English: After the war, tondenhei reservists remained as they were, as soldiers who usually did their jobs, but were called up for service only during wars and in the annual training.
Japanese: 戦後、屯田予備兵は普段は生業に就き、戦時と年1度の演習時にのみ召集される兵士として、そのまま常置された。
English: After the abolition of the Hokkaido Development Commissioner, Kentaro KANEKO, a Dajokan great secretary, performed research of actual conditions in Hokkaido under orders of Hirobumi ITO.
Japanese: 開拓使の廃止後、太政官大書記官の金子堅太郎は伊藤博文の指示で北海道の実情調査を実施した。
English: KANEKO proposed the expansion of tondenhei in the report of "Inspection Tour in Three Prefectures of Hokkaido".
Japanese: その報告である「北海道三県巡視復命書」の中で、金子は屯田兵の拡大を提案した。
English: Aritomo YAMAGATA and Kaoru INOUE also inspected Hokkaido and got an impression that they should give greater importance to todenhei.
Japanese: 山縣有朋や井上馨も北海道を視察して屯田兵を重視すべきとの印象を得た。
English: Takeshiro NAGAYAMA, the director-general, examined the Cossac soldier system in Russia, and set up concrete measures of the tondenhei expansion on this model.
Japanese: 永山武四郎本部長はロシアでコサック兵の制度を調べ、これを参考にして屯田兵拡大の具体策を立てた。
English: NAGAYAMA, who returned to Japan, assumed the post of governor of the Hokkaido government concurrently serving as Tondenhei Director-general on June 15, 1888, the reformation/expansion program of tondenhei was rapidly improved.
Japanese: 帰国した永山が、明治21年（1888年）6月15日に、屯田兵本部長を兼ねつつ北海道庁長官に就任すると、屯田兵の改革・増設計画が急速に進んだ。
English: The program of increasing 20 troops by 1893 was announced in February, 1889.
Japanese: 明治22年（1889年）2月に、明治26年（1893年）までに20中隊を増設する計画が発表された。
English: With the changed recruitment method, former shizoku were no longer preferentially employed.
Japanese: 募集方法が変えられ、もはや士族出身者を積極採用することはなくなった。
English: The land given to a tondenhei became 1.5 times larger than that in the past, and, besides, the public land for shared use was prepared.
Japanese: 屯田兵に与えられる土地は従来の1.5倍となり、ほかに共同利用の公有地が用意された。
English: Their service term was twenty years including three years for geneki (active service), four years for yobieki (reserve duty), thirteen years for kobieki (duty after reserve duty) with age limit of forty.
Japanese: 服役期間は現役3年、予備役4年、後備役13年の計20年、満40歳までに限られた。
English: Under favorable conditions such as accumulated past experiences, favorable land choices and a large number of former farmers, the management of the late-period tondenei settlements gained good results.
Japanese: 過去の経験の蓄積、良好な土地選定、農民出身者が多かったことなど、好条件が重なり、後期屯田の経営は好成績を収めた。
English: At the time of the late tondenhei settlements Hokkaido had been reclaimed to a great extent and the land suitable for large-scale immigration had been scarce.
Japanese: 後期屯田の実施時には、既に北海道の開拓が相当に進展しており、大規模な入植に適した土地が少なくなっていた。
English: And also about that time the population of Hokkaido was reaching a level at which it was possible to recruit soldiers under the conscription system, which led to the foundation of the Dainana Shidan (Seventh Division).
Japanese: またこの頃、北海道の人口は徴兵制で兵士を集めることが可能な水準に達しつつあり、第7師団(日本軍)創設につながった。
English: New immigration ended in Kamikawa and Shibetsu in 1899, and the tondenhei institution was abolished in 1904 when they entered kobieki.
Japanese: 新たな入植は明治32年（1899年）の上川、士別で終わり、彼らが後備役に入った明治37年（1904年）に屯田兵制度が廃止された。
English: Tondenhei immigrated with their families and were given a heioku (soldier's house), which had been built and prepared before their immigration, and undeveloped land.
Japanese: 屯田兵は家族を連れて入地し、入地前に建てられ用意された「兵屋」なる家と、未開拓の土地とを割り当てられた。
English: Each house had two tatami-floored rooms, an itanoma (room with a wooden floor) equipped with a fire pit, a doma (dirt floor), a lavatory and a sink placed in the itanoma or doma.
Japanese: 広さは畳敷きの部屋が2部屋、炉を据えた板の間、土間、便所からなり、流し前は板の間あるいは土間におかれた。
English: Its room arrangement is said to have been far from luxurious, but better than that of the ordinary people at that time.
Japanese: 決して贅沢な間取りではないが、当時の一般庶民の住宅よりは良かったという。
English: However, in a heioku in Fukagawa-mura (now Fukagawa City) in about 1901, it was easy to catch 50 to 60 anopheles (mosquitoes that mediate malaria parasites) in July and August.
Japanese: もっとも、明治34年（1901年）頃の深川村（現在の深川市）の兵屋では、7,8月に、室内で、50～60匹のハマダラカ（マラリア原虫を媒介するカ）を容易に捕獲できた。
English: Heison in their form were different from villages in general, and functioned as an independent village in a village because people entered it as a group and followed one discipline.
Japanese: 兵村は形式においては一般の村と並ぶものではないが、集団で入って一つの規律に服したので、実際には村の中の独立した村として機能した。
English: A shubansho (later renamed a chutai-honbu or troop headquarters), a drill court and a rifle range were attached to each heison.
Japanese: 兵村には、週番所（明治18年（1886年）に中隊本部と改称）、練兵場、射的場が付属した。
English: They had to get up and start working at fixed times, and report to their upper officers when they went to places far from their villages.
Japanese: 起床と就業の時間が定められ、村を遠く離れる際には上官への申告を要した。
English: They engaged not only in military training and farming, but also in constructing roads and waterways, keeping watch on streets and particular buildings and helping victims of disaster.
Japanese: 軍事訓練と農事のほかに、道路や水路などの開発工事、街路や特定建物の警備、災害救援に携わった。
English: Tondenhei reservists were organized for reinforcement, but were dismissed during training in Tokyo because the war was expected to end.
Japanese: 増援のために屯田予備兵が編成されたが、こちらは東京で訓練中に終戦の見込みとなり、解散した。
English: In February, 1877 when the Seinan War broke out, the Tondenhei Bureau sent a tondenhei platoon to the Hakodate port by orders of KURODA Reclamation General.
Japanese: 西南戦争が勃発した明治10年（1877年）2月、屯田事務局は黒田開拓長官の命令で、屯田兵小隊を函館港に派遣した。
English: Lieutenant YASUDA in the First Troop with his 30 subordinates went there to assume the duty of watching ships for about a month.
Japanese: 第一中隊の安田安中尉が30名の部下とともに出動し、約1カ月間船舶を監視する任務に就いた。
English: On April 10, General KURODA gave orders to the Tondenhiei Daiichi Daitai (First Battalion) or all the Tondeihei troops to go to the war.
Japanese: 4月10日、黒田長官は屯田兵第一大隊、つまりは屯田兵全部隊に出征を命じた。
English: It was decided on April 27 that they would belong to Betsudo Daini Ryodan (Independent Second Brigade) and one troop for the Chindai (garrison) and several snipers were arranged.
Japanese: 4月27日に別働第二旅団に所属することが決まり、鎮台兵一中隊と狙撃兵若干が配属された。
English: There were many former shizoku from Tohoku Domains among noncommissioned officers, and therefore, they were spurred to fight against shizoku in Kagoshima Prefecture, who were enemies in the Boshin War.
Japanese: 屯田兵の下士兵卒には東北諸藩の士族出身が多かったので、戊辰戦争の敵だった鹿児島県士族を相手とするこの戦争に奮い立った。
English: However, some officers, natives of Kagoshima Prefecture had little will to fight: A certain army officer who watched the battle at the Ichisegawa river remarked that "it was not officers, but noncommissioned officers who were fighting".
Japanese: しかし、将校の地位を占めた鹿児島県出身者には戦意が乏しく、8月2日の一瀬川の戦いを観戦したある官軍将校は、屯田部隊で「戦争をしているのは下士兵卒で将校ではない」と評したという。
English: On the way back tondenhei and reservists were reviewed by the Meiji Emperor and given words of thanks from him.
Japanese: 途中、9月3日に屯田予備兵とともに明治天皇の観閲を受け、慰労の言葉を賜った。
English: The postwar grant of honors was greater to officers, native to Kagoshima Prefecture who were targets of criticism and smaller to those from other domains who fought bravely, which caused one officer to commit seppuku for protest.
Japanese: 戦後の論功行賞は、非難の的だった鹿児島出身将校に厚く、勇戦した他藩出身者に薄かったため、1人の将校が抗議の切腹をした。
English: On March 4, 1896, an order was given to organize a temporal Dainana Shidan (Seventh Division) centering on todenhei, and all soldiers were mobilized.
Japanese: 明治29年（1895年）3月4日、屯田兵を中心とした臨時第七師団の編制が命じられると、全兵力が出動した。
English: To begin with, they gathered in Otaru, traveled to Aomori by steamship, and reached Tokyo by train; after vacancies being filled up, they were organized into the First Army.
Japanese: まず小樽に集結し、4月に汽船で青森に渡り、そこから汽車で東京に行き、3月22日に充員を完了し、3月30日に第一軍に編入された。
English: However, they were given orders of demobilization without leaving for battle fronts because peace negotiations were started on May 15.
Japanese: しかし講和交渉がはじまったため戦地に赴くことなく、5月15日に復員命令を受けた。
English: In the Russo-Japanese War, tondenhei were assigned to the Seventh Division as kobihei soldiers and went through fierce battles in Lushun and Hoten.
Japanese: 日露戦争で、屯田兵は第七師団に後備兵として配属され、旅順と奉天で激戦を潜り抜けた。
English: Tondenhei were abolished during the war, but stayed in the army and got free of military service after the war.
Japanese: 戦争中に屯田兵は廃止されたが、そのまま従軍し、戦争終了によって免役となった。
English: When the Russo-Japanese War broke out in February, 1904, all tondenhei were out of active service, on the verge of becoming kobihei soldiers.
Japanese: 明治37年（1904年）2月に日露戦争がはじまったとき、屯田兵はすべて現役を退き、後備兵になる間際であった。
English: The Seventh Division whose headquarters was in Asahikawa, waiting and seeing what move Russia would make, did not mobilize tendenhei for the time being.
Japanese: 旭川に本部をおく第七師団は、ロシアの出方をうかがう意味もあって、当座は動員をかけなかった。
English: The Seventh Division, unlike other divisions, arranged in each regiment about one platoon of dragoons to act as messengers.
Japanese: 第七師団は、他の師団と異なり、各連隊に約1個小隊の乗馬歩兵を配属し、伝令などに当たらせる編成をとった。
English: When transportation began on October 21, the Seventh Division gathered in Tairen and belonged to the Third Army under the command of Maresuke NOGI.
Japanese: 10月21日から輸送が開始され、11月に大連に集結、乃木希典の指揮する第三軍に属した。
English: The damage of the whole Seventh Division reached 3142 deaths and 8222 injuries (damage not including tondenhei alone).
Japanese: 第七師団全体の損害は、死者3142人、負傷8222人に及んだ（屯田兵だけの損害ではない）。
English: "Tondenhei Villages and Heioku" were selected for Hokkaido inheritances on October 22, 2004.
Japanese: 2004年10月22日に「屯田兵村と兵屋」として北海道遺産に選定されている。
English: The Normanton Incident refers to an event that occurred when the Normanton, a cargo ship of British registry, ran aground and sank off the coast of Kii Province(Cape Shiono-misaki, Kushimoto Town, Higashimuro County, Wakayama Prefecture) on October 24, 1886.
Japanese: ノルマントン号事件（NormantonIncident）とは、1886年（明治19年）10月24日にイギリス船籍の貨物船、ノルマントン号（Normanton、より英語に忠実な表記は「ノーマントン」）が、紀伊国沖（和歌山県東牟婁郡串本町潮岬沖）で座礁沈没した事から始まった事件である。
English: Those on board the sunken Normanton included Britishers, Germans, Chinese, Indians and Japanese, and almost all the Caucasian crew, such as Britishers and Germans, survived the accident, while all 25 Japanese passengers were killed (all of the Indian crew members were also killed.)
Japanese: 沈没したノルマントン号にはイギリス人、ドイツ人、中国人、インド人、日本人らが乗船していたが、事故の際、船員であったイギリス人、ドイツ人らコーカソイドはほぼ全員が生存した一方で、乗客であった日本人25名全員が死亡した（また、インド人の乗組員も全員死亡した）。
English: Furthermore, the surviving crew members had fled from the ship on lifeboats, which then created a sensation triggering speculation that the captain might have left the Japanese passengers without giving them proper evacuation guidance.
Japanese: さらに、助かった船員らは救命ボートで避難していたため、船長が適切な避難誘導をせずに、乗客である日本人を取り残したのではないかとの疑念から当時の世論が沸騰した。
English: The racism that was spreading in Western countries (the white community) at that time seems to have underlain it.
Japanese: これは当時の欧米（白人社会）に広まっていた人種差別の考えがあったと思われる。
English: In fact, the inspection was blocked by the unequal treaty, which made it impossible to reach an acceptable solution, and Captain John William Drake and all the other British crew members who testified at the trial as follows were acquitted.
Japanese: 事実検証についても不平等条約の壁に阻まれ満足な解決が得られず、裁判では、下記のように証言したジョン・ウイリアム・ドレーク船長らイギリス人全員が無罪となった。
English: `Although the crew told the Japanese passengers to board the lifeboats, they stayed inboard and refused to leave the ship, which left the crew no choice but to give up on them (There were no attendants who could speak Japanese because the Normanton was a cargo ship.)'
Japanese: 「船員は救命ボートに移るように説明したが、日本人乗客は船内に籠もって出ようとしなかった（ノルマントン号は貨物船なので、日本語が話せる乗客向けのスタッフはいない）ので、やむなくそのままにした。」
English: After that, the Japanese government under pressure from a public backlash protested against it, and the case was retried and only the captain was sentenced to three months in prison.
Japanese: その後、国民の反発に押された日本政府の抗議により、再審理がなされ、船長のみに禁錮3ヶ月の刑が言い渡された。
English: Japan itself could not bring them to court for trial at that time because certain foreigners were enjoying extraterritorial rights in Japan (what is formally known as consular jurisdiction).
Japanese: 当時の日本では、外国人に対する治外法権があり、日本側で裁判を行うことができなかった（領事裁判権）。
English: It went down in history as the incident which made the Japanese keenly realize the unjustness of consular jurisdiction.
Japanese: 領事裁判の不当さを日本人に痛感させた事件として歴史に残るものになった。
English: The book principally consists of seventeen different themes, and originally the seventeen volumes were serially published from the first to the seventeenth.
Japanese: 原則的にそれぞれ独立した17つのテーマからなる、初編から十七編の17の分冊であった。
English: The later volumes were serially published and the series was completed in 1976 when the seventeenth was published.
Japanese: 以降、1876年（明治9年11月25日）十七編出版を以って一応の完成をみた。
English: Then, all volumes were combined to one volume by adding a preamble in 1880.
Japanese: その後1880年（明治13年）に「」という前書きを加え、一冊の本に合本された。
English: According to the preamble, 700,000 copies were sold during the eight years since the first was published.
Japanese: その前書きによると初出版以来8年間で合計約70万冊が売れたとの事である。