nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: There is no need to make incantation coin so finely which was not used in actual exchanges.
Japanese: 実際の取引で使われない厭勝銭であれば、ここまで精巧に作らなければならない必然性がないこと。
English: Therefore the theory insists that it was issued in a planned manner by the Emperor Tenmu for the establishment of a new state.
Japanese: これらから、天武天皇が新しい国家建設のために計画的に発行したものである、と主張している。
English: Considering the close relationship between politics and religion at the time, it is still possible that the description of "Nihonshoki" was written as regulation of incantation coin.
Japanese: 政治と宗教の関係が密接であった当時の事情から『日本書紀』の記述が、厭勝銭に関する規定として置かれた可能性も否定できないこと。
English: There is no record of an act that prohibits shichusen (counterfeit money) just after the issue of Fuhonsen coin, and such act was first established only after the issue of Wado-kaichin, which means shichusen was allowed if Fuhonsen coin was circulating money.
Japanese: 富本銭発行直後に贋金（私鋳銭）を禁じる法令が出されたとする記録がなく、その最初の例が和同開珎発行後であること（もし、富本銭が流通貨幣ならば、贋金の存在を放置していたことになる）。
English: No record has been found that the standard was set to exchange old coins (fuhonsen) after Wado-kaichin was issued.
Japanese: 和同開珎発行後に旧貨幣（富本銭）との交換基準が定められたという記録が発見されないこと。
English: Even literature from the mid Nara period described that the first currency that as issued was Wado-kaichin in 708.
Japanese: 奈良時代中期の文献でさえ初めての通貨発行を和同開珎が出された708年（和銅元年）と記述していること。
English: The Asukaikekobo ruins are located beside Asuka-dera Temple and it is appropriate to consider that the ruins were the affiliated facilities of either Asuka-dera Temple or a temporary authority (Zojishi [officials in charge of building temples]) called 'Zo Asuka-dera jishi.'
Japanese: 飛鳥池遺跡そのものが飛鳥寺の傍に存在しており、同寺または「造飛鳥寺司」と称される同寺造営のための臨時の官庁（造寺司）の関連施設と考えるのが適当であること。
English: Moreover, Mumon-ginsen coin is known as the older coin than Fuhonsen coin, and it is considered as Hyodo kahei (currency valued by weight) for barter exchange by the value of silver as raw metal.
Japanese: 更に富本銭よりもさらに前の貨幣として無文銀銭が知られているが、これは銀の地金的な価値が認められて物々交換的に使われた秤量貨幣と考えられている。
English: There are still many questions regarding the relationship between Fuhonsen coin and Wado-kaichin, the value as currency, region of distribution, the function, and so on, which merit further research.
Japanese: 富本銭と和同開珎との関係、貨幣としての価値、流通範囲、機能などはまだ不明な点が多く、今後の研究課題である。
English: The Tenmanya Incident was an incident in which members of Kaientai (an association of roshi (masterless samurai) organized by Ryoma SAKAMOTO) (Roshi association) and Rikuentai (an association of roshi organized by Shintaro NAKAOKA) assaulted a hatago (inn with meals) on Aburanokoji-dori Street, Kyoto called Tenmanya, attacking Yasushi MIURA, who was a feudal retainer of the Kishu Domain, and fought a battle against Shinsengumi (group that guarded Kyoto during the end of Tokugawa Shogunate).
Japanese: 天満屋事件（てんまやじけん）は、海援隊(浪士結社)士/陸援隊士らが京都油小路通の旅籠・天満屋を襲撃して、紀州藩士三浦安を襲い、新選組と戦った事件である。
English: Munemitsu MUTSU heard that Kyutaro MIURA, a feudal retainer of the Kishu Domain, who was an influential supporter of the bakufu, together with Itsuzo IDA of the Ogaki Domain and others were plotting something threatening in Kyoto and that the Kishu clan was the mastermind of the assassinations of Ryoma SAKAMOTO and Shintaro NAKAOKA (Omiya Incident), which occurred in retaliation for the Iroha Maru Incident from which they had a grudge against Ryoma.
Japanese: 陸奥宗光は、当時有力な佐幕論者であった紀州藩士三浦休太郎が大垣藩井田五蔵らと共謀して京都にて不穏な動きをしていること、また、坂本龍馬、中岡慎太郎の暗殺（近江屋事件）が、伊呂波丸事件にて龍馬に恨みを持つ紀州藩が黒幕であるとの話を聞いた。
English: He planned to kill Kyutaro MIURA, who was a koyonin of the Kishu clan, with members of Kaientai and Rikuentai.
Japanese: 紀州藩公用人であった三浦休太郎を討つことを海援隊士/陸援隊士らと計画する。
English: At Tenmanya, Kyutaro MIURA had as his bodyguard seven Shinsengumi members including Hajime SAITO and Kuwajiro OISHI.
Japanese: 天満屋で三浦休太郎の護衛に新選組の斎藤一、大石鍬次郎ら7名がついた。
English: On January 1, 1868, 16 members in total (or another theory has 15 members) of Kaientai and Rikuentai assaulted Kyutaro MIURA and Shinsengumi, who were having drinks on the second floor of Tenmanya, and Shogoro NAKAI, who was a samurai from the Totsugawa area in Nara, slashed Kyutaro MIURA, injuring him on his cheek and jaw, as he bumped into MIURA, asking 'Are you MIURA?'.
Japanese: 慶応3年12月7日(旧暦)（1868年1月1日）、海援隊/陸援隊士ら総勢16名(15名とも)が、三浦休太郎、新選組らが天満屋2階にて酒宴を行っていたところを襲い、出会い頭に、十津川郷士の中井庄五郎が「三浦氏は其許か」というなり斬りつけ、三浦休太郎は、頬頤を負傷する。
English: Saito was slashed from behind and was on the verge of losing his life: however, Katsunoshin UMEDO (Hira taishi (common soldier)) saved him.
Japanese: 斎藤は後から斬りかかられ命を落としそうになったが梅戸勝之進（平隊士）が斎藤を守った。
English: Shinsengumi and the Kishu clan, who heard about the attack, went to help them but when they arrived there Mutsu and the others had already left the scene.
Japanese: 変を聞きつけた新選組、紀州藩が援助に向かうが、着いた頃には、陸奥らは素早くその場を引き揚げていた。
English: Shinsengumi lost Nobukichi MIYAGAWA and Kamataro FUNAZU, and four others were injured, including one seriously.
Japanese: 新選組側は宮川信吉と舟津釜太郎が死亡、重傷1名、負傷者3名を出した。
English: Revision of treaties means diplomatic negotiations to revise the unequal treaties which were concluded between other foreign countries and Japan in Ansei era.
Japanese: 条約改正（じょうやくかいせい）とは、安政年間に日本と諸外国との間で結ばれた不平等条約を改正するための外交交渉をさす。
English: In the second half of Edo Period, the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) concluded a commercial treaty in 1859 with each of the countries which had frequently come to nationally isolated Japan by the sea to request commerce and diplomatic relations (that is, the United States of America, Russia, the Netherlands, England, and France), and those treaties were called the Treaty with the Five Countries in Ansei Era.
Japanese: 江戸時代後期に、たびたび日本へ来航して鎖国を行う日本に通商や国交を求める諸外国に対し、江戸幕府は1859年（安政6年）に安政五カ国条約（アメリカ合衆国、ロシア、オランダ、イギリス、フランスとの通商条約）を結ぶ。
English: Those Five-Countries Treaty did not grant Japan tariff autonomy but admitted consular jurisdiction of the other countries, and approved the one-sided most favored nation clause for the benefit of the other countries (which is said to have been requested by the bakufu, which had no intention to admit the Japanere general public to go abroad).
Japanese: 五カ国条約は関税自主権が無く、領事裁判権を認めたほか、片務的最恵国待遇条款を承認する（一説には一般の日本人の海外渡航を認める気がなかった幕府側からの要請とする説もある）内容であった。
English: The treaties triggered the activation of "Revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians" movement, and led to the movement to overthrow the bakufu.
Japanese: この条約が尊皇攘夷運動を活性化させることになり、これが討幕運動につながることになった。
English: When the Edo bakufu was overthrown in the Restoration of Imperial Rule (Japan), the Meiji government, mainly established by the domains of Satsuma and Choshu, took over the control over the diplomacy from the bakufu, and when the Meiji government was accepted by foreign countries as a legitimate government of Japan after the end of the Boshin War, it announced on February 4, 1869 that the it was necessary to revise the treaties in the future, pointing out that treaties concluded by the Edo bakufu without the admission of the Emperor had some problems.
Japanese: 江戸幕府が王政復古(日本)により倒れると、薩摩藩・長州藩を中心に成立した明治政府は幕府から外交権を引き継いだが、戊辰戦争の終結によって明治政府が日本の正統な政府であることが諸外国に認められると、1869年2月4日（明治元年12月23日_(旧暦)）に明治政府は江戸幕府が勅許を得ずに締結した条約には問題がある点を指摘し、将来的な条約改正の必要性を通知した。
English: As these treaties were scheduled to be negotiated for the revision from 1872, Iwakura Mission was dispatched to the United States and Europe in 1871.
Japanese: この条約は1872年（明治5年）から改正交渉に入ることとなっていたため、1871年（明治4年）岩倉使節団が欧米に派遣された。
English: The purpose of the dispatch of the mission was traditionally considered to be an approach for the treaty revision, but now it is commonly believed that in fact the mission intended to request the foreign countries to postpone the time of the revision due to the delay of improvement of the state law and the modern social system in Japan.
Japanese: 従来この使節派遣の目的は、条約改正の打診であったといわれてきたが、実情は国法や近代的社会制度の整備が遅れていることから、改正時期の延期を諸外国に求めるものであったという学説が一般的になってきている。
English: In 1878, Gaimukyo (chief of Foreign Ministry) Munenori TERASHIMA negotiated mainly for the recovery of tariff autonomy, backed by the financial difficulty after the Seinan War, and Minister-Counselor to the United States Kiyonari YOSHIDA and EVERTS Secretary of State of the United States signed a new treaty of the recovery of tariff rights (YOSHIDA-EVERTS Treaty), but it was failed because of the objection of England and Germany and the public opinions that required the recovery of jurisdiction to be prioritized (the treaty with the United States did not come into effect because it was conditional on conclusion of similar treaties with the other countries).
Japanese: 1878年（明治11年）には、外務卿寺島宗則が西南戦争後の財政難のため税権回復を中心に交渉し、駐米公使の吉田清成とアメリカのエバーツ国務長官との間で税権回復の新条約（吉田・エバーツ条約）を調印するが、イギリス及びドイツの反対と法権の優先を求める世論の反対で挫折する（アメリカとの条約は他国と同内容の条約を結ぶことが条件になっていたため、発効しなかった）。
English: The System of Great Council of State was abolished and the Cabinet system (Japan) was established in 1885.
Japanese: 1885年（明治18年）に太政官制度が廃止され内閣_(日本)制度が発足。
English: The revision of treaties was carried out in concurrence with the establishment of the Meiji Constitution, and the Foreign Minister Kaoru INOUE of the Hirobumi ITO Cabinet engaged in negotiation while promoting the policy of Europeanization such as the construction of Rokumeikan (Deer-cry Hall).
Japanese: 条約改正は明治憲法制定と同時並行で取り組まれ、伊藤博文内閣の外相井上馨は鹿鳴館に代表される欧化政策を行いつつ交渉を進めた。
English: In 1886, INOUE held the conference of revision with the delegation of the foreign countries in Tokyo, and proposed an appeasement plan such as to raise tariffs and to appoint foreign judges, so that he was opposed by the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce Tateki TANI and the government counsel Gustave Emile BOISSONADE.
Japanese: 1886年（明治19年）、井上は東京において諸外国の使節団と改正会議を行うが、井上案は関税の引き上げや外国人判事の任用など譲歩を示したため、政府内で農商務大臣谷干城や法律顧問ギュスターヴ・エミール・ボアソナードらからの反対意見を受けた。
English: In the next year, 1887, when people knew the proposal, they got furious (especially so because adverse effects of an unequal treaty were being discussed after the Normanton Incident [1886]) and attacked the proposal claiming that it was 'national disgrace,' and then the nation-wide democratic-rights movement was spread (the movement following sandaijiken-kenpaku [the petition for three major matters]).
Japanese: 翌1887年（明治20年）、国民がこの案を知るところとなると、折からノルマントン号事件（1886年）で不平等条約の弊害が問題になっていたため、世論は激昂してこれを「国辱的な内容」と攻撃、全国的な民権運動が盛り上がった（三大事件建白運動）。
English: The Foreign Minister Shigenobu OKUMA in the Kiyotaka KURODA Cabinet restarted the negotiation in 1888, but once the package of concessions including appointment of foreigners in the Supreme Court of Law was reported in London Times in England and communicated to Japan, the Japanese general public criticized it severely.
Japanese: 黒田清隆内閣の外相大隈重信は1888年（明治21年）に交渉を再開するが、外国人を大審院に任用するなどの譲歩案がイギリスのロンドンタイムズに掲載されて日本へも伝わると、世論からは激しい批判がわき上がった。
English: OKUMA was attacked with an explosive bomb by a member of the right-wing group who opposed to the revision plan and was seriously injured, losing his right leg, which led to the collapse of the KURODA Cabinet and ended the revision negotiation again.
Japanese: 大隈は改正案に反対する右翼団体の団員から爆裂弾を投げつけられ右脚切断の重傷を負い、これが原因で黒田内閣は崩壊、改正交渉はまたしも挫折した。
English: However, on November 30, 1888, the Minister-Counselor to the United States as well as to Mexico Munemitsu MUTSU succeeded in the conclusion of the Mexican-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce, which was the first equal treaty apart from those with the Asian countries.
Japanese: しかし1888年11月30日には駐米公使兼駐メキシコ公使だった陸奥宗光が、メキシコ日本との関係との間にアジア以外の国とは初めての平等条約である日墨修好通商条約を締結することに成功する。
English: The Foreign Minister Shuzo AOKI in the Aritomo YAMAGATA Cabinet restarted the negotiation aiming at the perfect recovery of the legislative rights.
Japanese: 山縣有朋内閣で外相青木周蔵は法権の完全回復を目指して交渉を再開する。
English: This time the diplomatic attitude of England was softened under the international circumstances such as the advance of Russia, but AOKI was forced to resign due to the Otsu Incident in 1891 and the negotiation was interrupted.
Japanese: この頃にはロシアの進出などの国際的状況においてイギリスの外交姿勢は軟化を示していたが、1891年（明治24年）の大津事件で青木が辞任に追い込まれた結果、中断を余儀なくされた。
English: Becoming a Foreign Minister in the second ITO Cabinet, Munemitsu MUTSU, who had succeeded in the conclusion of the equal treaty with Mexico, requested the Minister-Counselor to England Shuzo AOKI to negotiate with the country, and in 1894 just before the Sino-Japanese War, he succeeded to conclude the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation with England, which heightened the sense of danger against the advance southward of the Russian Empire, and thus abolished the extraterritoriality.
Japanese: 第二次伊藤内閣で、メキシコとの間に平等条約締結を成功させた陸奥宗光が外相となり、駐英公使の青木周蔵を交渉に当たらせ、1894年（明治27年）の日清戦争直前、ロシア帝国の南下に危機感を募らせていた英国と日英通商航海条約の調印に成功し、治外法権制度を撤廃させた。
English: It is after Japan's international status was elavated due to the Russo-Japanese War that the revision of the treaties was accomplished.
Japanese: 条約改正が達成されるのは日露戦争において日本の国際的地位が高まった後のことである。
English: In 1911, the Foreign Minister of the second Taro KATSURA Cabinet, Jutaro KOMURA signed the modification provisions which included tariff autonomy in the American-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation, a revised version of the American-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce, and thus the revision of the treaty was completed.
Japanese: 1911年（明治44年）、第二次桂太郎内閣の外相小村寿太郎は日米修好通商条約を改訂した日米通商航海条約に関税自主権を盛り込んだ修正条項に調印、ここに条約改正が達成された。
English: Ninja hachimon is considered the eight kinds of compulsory subjects which are essential to become a Ninjya in the all sects of Ninjutsu (ninja art).
Japanese: 忍者八門（にんじゃはちもん）とは、忍術の全ての流派において、忍者になる為に基本となる8種類の必修科目の事とされる。
English: However, this is an insistence only by the lineage of Masaaki HATSUMI, and it is not certain about whether this term really existed in the all sects of Ninjutsu.
Japanese: ただし、これは初見良昭の系統のみの主張であり、本当に全忍術流派でこのような用語があったかどうかは不明である。
English: Karo was the highest post available for the retainers of a samurai family, and more than one person occupied the post to consult with and assist the master with political and economical affairs.
Japanese: 家老（かろう）とは、武家の家臣団のうち最高の地位にあった役職で、複数人おり合議によって政治・経済を補佐した。
English: Such a post already existed in the Kamakura period, the start of samurai-based society, and was called Toshiyori (or Otona), Shukuro or Shitsuji.
Japanese: 武家社会の勃興した鎌倉時代よりみられるが、室町時代までは年寄（としより、おとな）・宿老（しゅくろう）・執事（しつじ）などと呼ばれた。
English: It was customary that people whose family had been retainers of the master's family for generations were appointed to the post, and people who belonged to a branch family of the master's family were not appointed in principle.
Japanese: また主家の譜代家臣が任ぜられるのが通常で、主家の分家などの一門の者が、家老職に就くことは原則的にはなかった。
English: However, over time this rule came to be broken and for financial or other reasons, it was not rare for an illegitimate child of a lord not adopted by a family to be appointed as a Karo or forced to leave the master's family, generating a branch family with territory.
Japanese: しかし次第にこの原則は崩れ、財政難などから、藩主の庶子は、養子縁組先がないと、家老はおろか給人級の家臣として分家させられることも珍しくなくなった。
English: When a person from a branch family assumed the role of Karo or other retainer post, it meant that the person changed from a relative to a retainer of the master's family, and when there were succession disputes they were not considered to have any claim to heirship.
Japanese: 分家筋で家老職をはじめ家臣の役職に就くことは、主家の親戚から家臣になったことを意味し、主家断絶時の相続権が無くなったと見なされることが通例であった。
English: After the Edo period began, residences of domains and of Hatamoto (retainers) of the shogun family were placed in Edo where the Edo bakufu was located, and the Karo officers who worked in these residences were called Edo-garo or Edozume-garo.
Japanese: 江戸時代になると、江戸幕府の置かれた江戸には、各藩・将軍家の旗本屋敷（江戸屋敷）が置かれ、ここに在勤した家老を江戸家老・江戸詰家老などと呼んだ。
English: When a lord had a castle but did not reside there, a Jodai-garo (Karo in charge of the castle) was installed, but when a lord resided in a castle or jinya (his regional government office), naturally jodai-garo were not installed.
Japanese: 主君が城主以上のときは城代家老も置かれたが、主君が城主大名や、陣屋のときは、城代家老は、当然に設置されなかった。
English: When both Kuni-garo and Jodai-garo were appointed, it was customary for the Jodai-garo to be placed in a higher rank than Kuni-garo.
Japanese: 城代家老と、国家老の両方が設置されているときは、城代家老のほうが格上なのが通例である。
English: The head of the Karo officers was called Hitto-garo, Karo-shuza, or Ichiban-garo.
Japanese: 複数人いた家老のうち最も地位の高いものは筆頭家老・家老首座・一番家老など呼ばれた。
English: Karo officers who were mainly in charge of political and economical affairs were called Shioki-garo in some domains.
Japanese: 政治・経済の中心となって差配する家老を藩によっては、仕置家老と呼んだ。
English: When both Jodai-garo and Shioki-garo were appointed at the same time in a domain, there was no conclusive definition of which held higher rank.
Japanese: 城代家老と仕置家老が併置された藩にあっては、どちらが格上かは、一義的に断定できない。
English: Except for the Otsuke-garo (the Karo assigned directly by the shogun) and the Karo for gosankyo (three privileged branch families of the Tokugawa family), there was a fundamental rule that ordinary Karo officers were not entitled to have an audience with the shogun as they were not direct retainers of the Tokugawa shogun family.
Japanese: 家老は、徳川御三家の御附家老や、御三卿付きの家老を除き、徳川将軍家の陪臣であるから、将軍に謁見の資格がないのが大原則である。
English: However, there were also exceptions: Karo officers of Shinpan (whose lords were in the male lineage of the Tokugawa shogun family) and Karo officers whose families were Karo to Fudai daimyo (daimyo who were retainers of the Tokugawa family from before the Battle of Sekigahara) were given the status of Hatamoto of the shogun family for generations, being entitled to have an audience with the shogun and to not alight from their horse at checking stations.
Japanese: しかし、例外もあり親藩や、譜代大名の家老連綿の家系の多くには、幕府から、将軍家の旗本の格式を与えられ、将軍に謁見の資格を持ち、関所で下馬することを免除された。
English: Some of the Karo officers of the families of Tokugawa-shitenno (four generals who served Tokugawa Ieyasu) were also given Karoku (hereditary stipend) by the bakufu in addition to Hatamoto status.
Japanese: 徳川四天王の家老の中には、旗本の格式だけでなく幕府からも併せて家禄を受ける場合もあった。
English: On the other hand, in the case of families who had been Karo to a Tozama-daimyo (the daimyo who became to belong the Tokugawa side after the Battle of Sekigawara) for generations, only those with a 10,000 koku (approx. 180 litres/koku) or more of rice crop or those of special lineage (of whom there were very few) were entitled to have an audience with shogun.
Japanese: 一方、外様大名の家老連綿の家系の場合は、将軍に謁見の資格を与えられるのは、万石以上や特別な由緒を持つ者に限られた極めて稀な例であった。
English: However, over time, the upper class officers in Toshiyori posts came to be distinguished as Karo officers, and generally, most Toshiyori did not become Karo itself but the next post down.
Japanese: しかしながら、次第に年寄の上層部が家老として、分化するようになり、年寄と呼称される役職は、家老そのものではなく、家老に次ぐ役職である場合が一般化していった。
English: Some Karo officers in large domains were provided with 10,000 koku or more of rice crop and possessed a castle or jinya in their own territories.
Japanese: 大藩の家老は大名並みに1万石以上の石高を有し、自身の知行地に城や陣屋を持つものもあった。
English: The family that earned the highest hereditary stipend as Karo officers in the Edo Period was the 50,000-koku Honda family in the 1million-koku Kaga domain.
Japanese: 江戸時代の家老として最も高禄であった家系は、加賀藩100万石の本多家5万石である。
English: Masashige HONDA (with a 5,000 koku rice crop), who became an adopted son of Kanetsugu NAOE with 300,000 koku, a Karo officer of Kagekatsu UESUGI with 1.2 million koku, left the Uesugi family when his salary was drastically cut after the Battle of Sekigahara, and began to work for the Maeda family in the Kaga domain, restoring his original family name.
Japanese: 上杉景勝（120万石）の家老、直江兼続（直轄6万石　寄騎領24万石　計30万石）の養子となった本多政重（5,000石）が、関ヶ原の戦い後に大減封を受けた上杉家を退去して、加賀藩前田氏に仕官して、本多姓に復した。
English: After forcing a retraction of the order: "Part of the Kaga domain territory (Echizen Province) should be returned to the bakufu," he had his stipend raised considerably for this distinguished contribution to the domain,
Japanese: 「加賀藩の領地の一部（越前国）を幕府に返還せよ」との命令を撤回させた交渉の勲功で、大加増を受けた。
English: In small (10,000-koku) domains, most of the Karo officers whose families had occupied the Karo post for generations earned around 300 koku of kuramai (rice crop given as salary).
Japanese: 小藩（1万石）の家老は、家老連綿の家格の出身者の場合で、おおむね300石前後の蔵米取りの者が多かった。
English: In some domains where more farm land was given as Kyujin-chi (see below), the hereditary stipend was less than that.
Japanese: もっとも田畑を給人地として与える割合の大きい藩では、家禄はさらに低く抑える例もあった。
English: Here, Kyujin-chi differs from that of the Chiho-chigyo system (in which the right to land control was given to Hatamoto or others), in that farm land was supplied depending the social status of the family.
Japanese: ここでいう給人地とは、地方知行制で云う給人地（＝領地）を指すのではなく、家格に応じて支給される田畑のことである。
English: In the small domains involved in this system, most of the upper class, including even the Karo officers, earned only a humble stipend.
Japanese: この制度を導入していた小藩では、家老などの上級層は、家老であっても小身な者が多かった。
English: Therefore, when the commodity economy continued to expand and prices of goods became higher in the latter half of the Edo period, they engaged their retainers (called Baishin) in farming.
Japanese: そのため、江戸時代後期となり、商品経済が浸透して物価高となると、その家臣（つまり陪臣）に農作業をさせた。
English: Consequently, the middle or lower class feudal domain retainers were engaged in farming together with their family members, making them virtually farmers.
Japanese: 中級層以下の藩士は、自ら家族と共にこれに当たり、半ば農民化していたのである。
English: For the Hatamoto of the bakufu, it was custom for no Karo to be appointed, except for large Hatamoto with 3,000 or more koku of rice crop, special cases such as lineage to the Matsudaira family, masters of the Tokugawa shogun family, who although only possessing roughly 400 koku of rice crop, had kotaiyoriai status,
Japanese: 幕府旗本の場合は、3,000石以上の大身旗本、及び家禄が約400石ながら、交代寄合であった徳川将軍家の本家筋に当たる松平郷松平家の家系など特別な場合を除き、家老は置かれないのが通例である。
English: For Hatamoto with a rice crop of between 500 and 3,000 koku, the highest post available for their retainers was called Yonin.
Japanese: おおむね500石以上、3,000石未満の旗本の場合は、家臣の最高位の職名は、用人であった。
English: The number of Hatamoto families who appointed Karo was roughly 250 (less than 2%), and the earnings of these Karo officers was from 80 to 100 koku.
Japanese: 家老を設置した将軍家の旗本は、およそ250家（2％未満）であり、その家老は80石から、多くても100石強程度であった。
English: Karo officers sent from a main family to its branched family to inspect and supervise was called a Tsuke-garo officer.
Japanese: また、分家した家に本家より監視・監督する役割を担って配された家老を御附家老と呼ぶ。
English: Some Tsuke-garo officers earned their stipend from both the main domain (honke=main family) and the branch domain (bunke=branch family), whilst others earned theirs only from the branch family where they were sent, being gradually taken into the branch domain side.
Japanese: 付家老は、本藩（本家）と支藩（分家）の両方から、家禄を受けている場合と、出仕先の支藩からのみ家禄を受けて、支藩に次第に取り込まれていく場合とがある。
English: The Tsuke-garo officers who were sent to the Tokugawa gosanke families earned their hereditary stipend from both the bakufu and the domain.
Japanese: 将軍家から、徳川御三家に遣わされていた付家老は、幕府と藩の双方から家禄を受けていた。
English: Some Tsuke-garo officers, for example, the Naruse family in the Owari domain and the Mizuno and Ando families in the Kii domain, became castle lords with a governmental rank and post.
Japanese: 尾張藩成瀬氏や、紀伊藩水野氏及び、安藤氏のように城主となり、官位、官職を受けていた付家老もいた。
English: It is said that these Karo officers were given a status equivalent to that of daimyo: for example, even in when travelling with the family they served for Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo) they were granterd the status and prestige equivalent a daimyo.
Japanese: これらは、家老と言えど大名と同等の格式を与えられ、主家の参勤交代随伴時においても、大名並みの格式と威光を放ったとされる。
English: The Karo for the gosankyo, together with Edo-jo-rusui (the officer in charge of the Edo castle while shogun was absent), were said to be the highest posts available for Hatamoto of the shogun family, because gosankyo were treated as members of the shogun family.
Japanese: 御三卿付きの家老は、御三卿が将軍家の家族という扱いであったため、江戸城留守居と並ぶ、将軍家旗本の最高の役職とされた。
English: However, it was not rare that competent Hatamoto with an earning of 3,000 koku or less were appointed to the post.
Japanese: しかしながら、3,000石級以下の旗本で、有能な者が任じられることも珍しくなかった。
English: In the Edo period, the Karo post was inherited by the families of prominent Fudai retainers, or was occupied alternately by powerful Fudai retainers themselves (who had the status to appoint Karo officers).
Japanese: 江戸時代において家老職は譜代重鎮の家臣による世襲、もしくは有力な譜代の家臣（家老職を出せる家格の家臣）による交代制となった。
English: However, even people who were not Fudai retainers were sometimes appointed to a post equivalent to Karo due to their abilities, and were called Karo-kaku, Karo-nami, or Karo-retsu.
Japanese: しかし、譜代の家臣ではなくとも家中（かちゅう）で実力を認められて家老に準ずる地位に登用されるものもおり、彼らを家老格・家老並・家老列などと呼ぶこともあった。