nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: They further attacked Ukon TAKAYAMA, who had taken up his position on Mt. Iwasaki; he was also unable to withstand the attack and retreated to the camp of Hidenaga TOYOTOMI at Kinomoto.
Japanese: さらに岩崎山に陣取っていた高山右近を攻撃、右近も支えきれずに退却し、木ノ本の豊臣秀長の陣所に逃れた。
English: Having accomplished these feats, Katsuie now ordered Morimasa to retreat, but Morimasa refused and maintained his forces at places including Mt. Oiwa, defying repeated orders by Katsuie.
Japanese: この成果を得て勝家は盛政に撤退の命令を下したが、再三の命令にもかかわらず盛政はこれを拒否、大岩山などに軍勢を置き続けた。
English: On June 10, Shigeharu KUWAYAMA, the defending general of Shizugatake Fort, also judged the situation as disadvantageous and began to retreat.
Japanese: 4月20日(旧暦)（6月10日）、劣勢であると判断した賤ヶ岳砦の守将、桑山重晴も撤退を開始する。
English: However, Nagahide NIWA, who was then crossing Lake Biwa by boat, decided that now was the time; despite objections from his subordinates that he should return to Sakamoto for the present, Nagahide changed his course and ventured a landing on Kaizu, which decisively turned the tide of the battle.
Japanese: しかしその頃、時を同じくして船によって琵琶湖を渡っていた丹羽長秀が「一度坂本に戻るべし」という部下の反対にあうも機は今を置いて他に無いと判断し、進路を変更して海津への上陸を敢行した事で戦局は一変。
English: Encountering the army of Shigeharu KUWAYAMA, which had already started its retreat, 2,000 troops led by Nagahide joined with them to smash Morimasa's forces around Shizugatake, successfully securing Shizugatake Fort in the nick of time.
Japanese: 長秀率いる2000の軍勢は撤退を開始していた桑山重晴の軍勢とちょうど鉢合わせする形となるとそれと合流し、そのまま賤ヶ岳周辺の盛政の軍勢を撃破し間一髪の所で賤ヶ岳砦の確保に成功する。
English: Furthermore, that same day, Hideyoshi at Ogaki-jo Castle sent his forces back immediately after receiving the news of the fall of Oiwayama Fort and several of his other camps.
Japanese: 更に同日、大垣城にいた秀吉は大岩山砦等の陣所の落城を知り、直ちに軍を返した。
English: Departing from Ogaki at 2 PM, the Hideyoshi army traveled the 52 kilometers to Kinomoto, including foothills, in a mere 5 hours.
Japanese: 14時に大垣を出た秀吉軍は木ノ本までの丘陵地帯を含む52kmを僅か5時間で移動した。
English: While there have been several theories as to how Hideyoshi succeeded in achieving this incredible marching speed, it is generally said that he arranged in advance to have taimatsu torches lit along roads the army would travel, and even ordered some areas to supply their food on their way.
Japanese: この急激な行軍速度を成功させた理由については諸説あるが、あらかじめ沿道に松明を点け、さらに食事の補給個所も用意もさせていたという。
English: Amazed by the return of Hideyoshi's large force in such a short period of time, Morimasa SAKUMA started to retreat that midnight, but came under blistering attack from Hideyoshi's large force before dawn of the next day.
Japanese: 僅かな時間で帰還した秀吉の大軍に驚いた佐久間盛政は同深夜に撤退を開始するものの、翌日の未明に秀吉らの大軍に強襲された。
English: As Morimasa's forces had fought a good fight, Hideyoshi changed the focus of his attack to Katsumasa SHIBATA, who was heading to help Morimasa.
Japanese: 盛政の軍が善戦したために秀吉は盛政の救援に向かっていた柴田勝政に攻撃対象を変更。
English: However, in midst of this fighting, the army led by Toshiie MAEDA on the Shibata side, deployed on Mt. Shige, abruptly left the front lines.
Japanese: ところがこの最中、茂山に布陣していた柴田側の前田利家の軍勢が突如戦線離脱した。
English: After the armies of Katsumitsu FUWA and Nagachika KANAMORI on the Shibata side began to retreat as well, Hideyoshi's forces, which had earlier destroyed the army of Morimasa SAKUMA, rushed at the main force of Katsuie SHIBATA.
Japanese: さらに柴田側の不破勝光・金森長近の軍勢も退却したため、佐久間盛政の軍を撃破した秀吉の軍勢は柴田勝家本隊に殺到した。
English: Vastly outnumbered by Hideyoshi's forces, Katsuie's forces could not hold out and were routed, eventually forcing Katsuie to retreat to Kitanosho-jo Castle in Echizen.
Japanese: 多勢に無勢の状況を支えきれず勝家の軍勢は総崩れし、ついに勝家は越前・北ノ庄城に向けて退却した。
English: Although Katsuie had managed to escape to Kitanosho-jo Castle, the castle was besieged by Hideyoshi's army led by Toshiie MAEDA on June 13, resulting in the suicides of Katsuie, his wife Lady Oichi, and others the next day.
Japanese: 勝家は北ノ庄城に逃れるものの、4月23日(旧暦)（6月13日）には前田利家を先鋒とする秀吉の軍勢に包囲され、翌日に夫人のお市の方らとともに自害した。
English: Without the backing of Katsuie SHIBATA, Nobutaka ODA and Kazumasu TAKIGAWA lost the power to fight, surrendering to the Hideyoshi side the following month.
Japanese: また、柴田勝家の後ろ盾を失った織田信孝や滝川一益には抵抗する力もなく、翌月に両者とも降伏した。
English: As a result of this battle, many old retainers of the Oda clan approached Hideyoshi and sought to serve as his vassals.
Japanese: この合戦の結果によって、多くの織田氏の旧臣が秀吉に接近、臣属するようになった。
English: Two days after the end of the battle, on June 15, Hideyoshi sent a letter to Takakage KOBAYAKAWA, a senior vassal of the warlord Terumoto MORI in the Chugoku Region, to inform him that the battle had resulted in his victory, implicitly prompting the Mori clan, which had kept a neutral stance, to submit itself to Hideyoshi.
Japanese: また、合戦終了の2日後の4月25日(旧暦)（6月15日）に秀吉は中国地方の戦国大名・毛利輝元の重臣・小早川隆景に書簡を送り、自軍の勝利に終わったことを報告するとともに、中立状態にあった毛利氏の自らへの服属を暗にうながした。
English: Completing the postwar process, Hideyoshi soon began to build Osaka-jo Castle in the Kinai Region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara), and in June of the same year, was appointed Jushiinoge (Junior Forth Rank, Lower Grade), Sangi (councilor) by the Imperial Court.
Japanese: 戦後処理終了後、秀吉はまもなく畿内に大阪城の築城を開始し、また同年5月には朝廷から従四位下参議に任命された。
English: In addition, warlords across the country, including Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, Kagekatsu UESUGI, Terumoto MORI and Yoshimune OTOMO, dispatched envoys to Hideyoshi one after another to celebrate his victory and to establish friendly relations with him, all of which also symbolized Hideyoshi's assumption of power in the Kinai Region.
Japanese: また、秀吉のもとに徳川家康・上杉景勝・毛利輝元・大友義統など各地の戦国大名が相次いで使者を派遣し、戦勝を慶賀し親交を求めたことも秀吉の畿内における権力掌握を象徴した。
English: Among those who had achieved the greatest feats on the Hideyoshi side, the following seven warriors came to be called the "Seven Spears of Shizugatake" by later generations.
Japanese: 秀吉方で功名をあげた兵のうち以下の7人は後世に賤ヶ岳の七本槍（しずがたけのしちほんやり）と呼ばれる。
English: In fact, there were others such as Sakichi SAKURAI and Heisukekazumitsu ISHIKAWA who also received citations and were awarded thousands of koku of stipends.
Japanese: 実際に感状を得、数千石の禄を得たのは桜井佐吉、石川兵助一光も同様である。
English: The number of "seven" was a mere play on words made up in later years (However, the feats that were said to be theirs were performed only during the running battle after Hideyoshi's victory had been secured. The honor of launching the attack fell to a group of samurai called sakigakesyu [the vanguard], which included Yoshitsugu OTANI and Mitsunari ISHIDA).
Japanese: 7人と言うのは後の語呂合わせである（ただし彼らが挙げたとされる手柄は勝利が確定した後の追撃戦によるもののみであり、一番手柄も大谷吉継、石田三成らの先駆衆と呼ばれる武士達に与えられている）。
English: These seven soldiers later gained great power in the Toyotomi government, which may have been a result of Hideyoshi's excessive trumpeting of his favorite men, who had been trained by him since their childhood, since Hideyoshi did not have his own powerful hereditary vassals.
Japanese: 後の豊臣政権において大きな勢力をもったが、譜代の有力な家臣をもたなかった秀吉が自分の子飼いを過大に喧伝した結果ともいえる。
English: However, Masanori FUKUSHIMA was quoted as saying 'I don't want to be lumped in with men like Wakisaka, it's quite annoying', and Kiyomasa KATO was also said to hate it when people talked about the 'seven spears.'
Japanese: 福島正則が「脇坂などと同列にされるのは迷惑だ」と言った、加藤清正も「七本槍」を話題にされるのをひどく嫌ったなどの逸話が伝えられている。
English: Judging from these anecdotes, presumably there was a growing recognition even at the time that the story of the 'seven spears' was close to fiction.
Japanese: 当時から「七本槍」が虚名に近いという認識が広まっていたと推定される。
English: When the Tokugawa took control of the government, most of the families derived from these 'seven spears', except for the Wakisaka clan, faced hardships, including dispossession of their territories by the government in an effort to destroy the families.
Japanese: 脇坂氏を除く大半が徳川政権になってからは御家取り潰しなど苦難に遭った。
English: TOKUGAWA Mitsukuni, head of the Mito Tokugawa family, one of the three branches of the Tokugawa clan, started to compile it during the Edo period as an enterprise of the Mito Domain and it was completed during the Meiji period.
Japanese: 江戸時代に御三家のひとつである水戸徳川家当主徳川光圀によって開始され、光圀死後にも水戸藩の事業として継続、明治時代に完成した。
English: It covers the reigns of one hundred emperors, from the Emperor Jinmu to Go-Komatsu (exactly to 1392 when the Nanboku-cho period finished).
Japanese: 神武天皇から後小松天皇まで（厳密には南北朝時代_(日本)が統一された1392年（元中9年/明徳3年）までを区切りとする）の百代の帝王の治世を扱う。
English: The history book is written about events and consists of the 397 volumes with 226 books, and the first seventy three volumes are honki (about the emperors), next 170 volumes are retsuden (retsuden describes empresses, prince and princesses and courts chronologically while it is sometimes classified as gyakushinden or koshiden) and the last 154 volumes are shi and hyo (five catalogues).
Japanese: 紀伝体の史書で、本紀（帝王）73巻、列伝（后妃・皇子・皇女を最初に置き、群臣はほぼ年代順に配列、時に逆臣伝・孝子伝といった分類も見られる）170巻、志・表154巻、全397巻226冊（目録5巻）。
English: Dai Nihonshi' was named by TOKUGAWA Tsunaeda, the domain head, in 1715 after the death of Mitsukuni and it was called 'Honcho shiki' or 'Kokushi (Washi)' by contemporary people.
Japanese: 「大日本史」は光圀死後の正徳(日本)5年（1715年）に藩主徳川綱條による命名で、同時代には「本朝史記」や「国史（倭史）」と呼ばれている。
English: It is written in splendid kanbun form and has historical authenticity to some extent because the sources of articles are definite.
Japanese: 質の高い漢文体で書かれ、記事には出典を明らかにし、考証にも気を配っている。
English: According to various biographical materials such as "Giko kojitsu," Mitsukuni in his youth who was educated as an heir of the Mito Tokugawa family committed some acts of delinquency, but came to regret what he had done and study hard after he read the chapter Hakuiden of "Shiki" and was moved by Hakui and Syukusei, and then aspired to compile history.
Japanese: 『義公行実』など各種伝記史料によれば、水戸徳川家世子として教育を受けていた青年時代の光圀は非行も多かったが、正保2年（1645年）に『史記』「伯夷伝」を読んで伯夷・叔斉に感銘を受け、以来は反省して学問に精励し、史書編纂を志したという。
English: Mitsukuni moved to a villa in Komagome because a mansion in Koishikawa was burned down by Great fire of Meireki in 1657 and he set up a department to compile the history there.
Japanese: 世子時代の明暦3年（1657年）には明暦の大火で小石川藩邸が焼失して駒込別邸へ移り、ここで史局を開発し編纂事業を開始する。
English: The department was set up in a teahouse and he hired staff, and then placed a library in the temporary house.
Japanese: 史局ははじめ茶屋を利用して史局員を付け、後に火事小屋御殿に移して文庫も設置した。
English: History in Japan such as the six histories including "Nihon shoki" were commonly compiled chronologically and because there was no history like "Shiki" written along events, compiling staff had objections.
Japanese: 日本では『日本書紀』以下六国史など史書は編年体で編纂されるのが常で、『史記』のような紀伝体の史書が編纂された先例はなく、史館員からの反対意見もあったという。
English: The fact that the government was compiling history, but lost the materials because of the Great fire of Meireki and the death of HAYASHI Razan is considered to have motivated Mitsukuni to compile it.
Japanese: 修史事業の動機には、幕府の編纂が行われていたことや、明暦の大火でその資料が亡失したこと(江戸城本丸もこの時焼失した）、林羅山の死などが契機になったと考えられている。
English: Then, Mitsukuni succeeded to the family after his father, TOKUGAWA Yorifusa, died and became busy with official duties, so that he stayed away from the enterprise, but the government ordered HAYASHI Gaho to compile a chronicle of Japan, "Honchotsukan" and Mitsukuni asked HAYASHI Gaho about compiling policy and legitimacy, in person.
Japanese: その後、光圀は父徳川頼房の死去により家督を相続し、公務が多忙となったため事業からは遠ざかっていたが、幕府では寛文2年（1662年）に林鵞峰に命じて編年体の史書『本朝通鑑』の編纂を開始しており、光圀は林鵞峰を藩邸に招いて面談し、編纂方針や正統問題について質問している。
English: He began in earnest with the compiling enterprise in 1672 and moved the library from Komagome to a mansion in Koishikawa and named it 'Shokokan.'
Japanese: 寛文12年には編纂事業を本格化させ、駒込別邸の史館を小石川本邸へ移転し、「彰考館」と改めた。
English: He increased the number of staff and dispatched them to distant places to collect historical materials, especially materials about the Nancho court.
Japanese: 史館員も増員し、遠隔地へ派遣して史料収集を行い、特に南朝関係の史料を広く収集している。
English: Mitsukuni also invited SHU Shunsui, a surviving retainer from the Ming Dynasty, who had exiled himself in Japan, and Mitsukuni learned the meaning of historical orthodoxy from him.
Japanese: また、光圀は日本へ亡命した明朝遺臣である朱舜水を招聘し、彼らより歴史の正統性の意味を諭された。
English: SHU Shunsui indicated the idea of loyalty of KUSUNOKI Masashige, a military commander of the Nancho court during the Nanbokucho period (it was 'an important matter of Japan' whether one should side with the Nancho or with the Hokucho as for a historiography in Japan).
Japanese: 特に、南北朝時代の南朝方武将楠木正成の忠誠心を朱舜水に示唆された（そもそも日本の正史にとって、北朝と南朝のどちらをとるのかは最大の選択「本朝の大事」だった）。
English: As Mitsukuni was influenced by "Jinnoshotoki" by KITABATAKE Chikafusa, he was furious that he found the description that the Yamato race (Japanese) 'are the descendants of Taihaku in Go (China)' in a draft of "Honchotsukan" HAYASHI Razan and his son were writing.
Japanese: さらに、北畠親房の『神皇正統記』の影響を受けており、林羅山父子が執筆していた歴史書『本朝通鑑』の草稿に、大和民族（日本人）を「呉_(春秋)の太伯の末裔である」という記述を発見して憤慨したという。
English: Honki from the Emperor Jinmu to Go-Daigo was written in June, 1676 and the book was completed as "Shinsenkiden," the 104 volumes, between 1681 and 1683 but Mitsukuni felt it was necessity to cover the reign of the Emperor Go-Kameyama and he was dissatisfied with its insufficient contents, so he reformed the compiling organization, created a post for president in Shokokan, built a new building, increased the number of staff and expanded its work to compiling collections of poems.
Japanese: 延宝4年（1676年）6月には神武天皇から後醍醐天皇までの本紀が清書され、天和(日本)年間には『新撰紀伝』104巻として完成するが、光圀は南北朝合一の後亀山天皇期まで扱う必要性と内容上の不備を感じ、同年には彰孝館に総裁を置いて機構を改革し、新館を新築して史館員も増員させ、国史以外にも詩文集など編纂事業が拡大していった。
English: Mitsukuni who secluded himself in Nishiyamaso in 1690 encouraged the staff to complete honki by stopping other enterprises than the Japanese history and 'Hyakuohonki' was completed in 1697.
Japanese: 光圀は元禄3年（1690年）に西山荘へ隠棲すると、国史以外の各種事業を停止して本紀の完成を促進させ、元禄10年には「百王本紀」として完成させる。
English: Tsunaeda, the family head, chose "Dai Nihonshi" by staff in Edo over "Kochoshinshi" by those in Mito as the title in 1715 and offered the book in front of the grave of Mitsukuni on the anniversary of Mitsukuni's death during the year.
Japanese: 正徳5年（1715年）には藩主綱條により書名が裁定され、水館の主張する『皇朝新史』と江館の『大日本史』の間で論争があり後者に決定し、同年の光圀忌日には清書本（正徳本）が光圀廟に供えられた。
English: The enterprise became inactive when ASAKA Tanpaku who had lead it since Mitsukuni, died in 1737
Japanese: 元文2年（1737年）に光圀死後の事業を主導してきた安積澹泊が死去すると事業は休止する。
English: During the late Edo period, TACHIHARA Suiken, the president of Shokokan, promoted revising the book to publish it on the one hundredth anniversary of the death of Mitsukuni in 1799.
Japanese: 江戸後期には彰孝館総裁の立原翠軒により、寛政11年（1799年）の光圀百年忌に備えた刊行のため、校訂作業が進められた。
English: A conflict took place between TACHIHARA and a staff, FUJITA Yukoku over whether the name of Japan should be added to the title or whether criticism of historical events, to the last, and the conflict developed to become rivalry between the Mito and the Edo groups (disturbed Shokokan).
Japanese: また、書名に国号を冠することや論賛の是非について、立原と史館員の藤田幽谷の間で対立が発生し、江館と水館の党派的対立に発展している（史館動揺）。
English: TOKUGAWA Kuniyuki, the grandson of the tenth family head, TOKUGAWA Yoshiatsu, completed it in 1906 and its completion took 250 years (Honki and retsuden were almost completed while Mitsukuni was alive and they published it several times since the end of the Edo period.).
Japanese: 明治39年（1906年）に、10代藩主徳川慶篤の孫にあたる徳川圀順が完成させるまで、実に250年の歳月を要した（ただし、本紀・列伝は光圀存命中にはほぼ完成しており、幕末以後、何度か刊行されている）。
English: Over all, it was written based on the idea of Mitogaku based on Shushigaku which considered that retainers should revere the emperor, and the book greatly influenced thought during the end of the Edo period.
Japanese: 全体的に朱子学に基づいた水戸学＝大義名分論とする尊皇論で貫かれており、幕末の思想に大きな影響を与えた。
English: The present revised list of the emperors is considered to be based upon "Dai Nihonshi."
Japanese: 天皇の一覧が現在のものに改編されたのも『大日本史』の影響とされている。
English: A historian KUME Kunitake severely criticizes "Dai Nihonshi" as well as "Nihongaishi" as 'a kind of script.'
Japanese: 歴史学者の久米邦武は、『日本外史』と共に「劇本の類」と酷評している。
English: Bunkokuho is a law established by warlords during the Sengoku period to govern their domains.
Japanese: 分国法（ぶんこくほう）は、戦国時代(日本)に戦国大名が領国内を統治するために制定した法律規範である。
English: Bunkoku is a term for lordship (chigyo) over one county in the middle ages and was originated from chigyo-koku, which developed into the control of one county by shugo daimyo or kokujin.
Japanese: 分国とは中世における一国単位の知行を指す語であり、知行国に始まる概念であるが、室町時代中期以降に守護大名や国人一揆による一国単位の領国化が進み、分国支配が形成されていった。
English: As part of control over one county, Bunkokuho was established to control warriors and farmers within its county.
Japanese: そうした分国支配の一環として、領国内の武士・領民を規制するために分国法が定められた。
English: Bunkokuho was influenced by Goseibai Shikimoku and Kenmu Shikimoku while its contents reflected the actual conditions of control over one county.
Japanese: 分国法には、先行武家法である御成敗式目および建武式目の影響が見られるが、一方では、自らの分国支配の実情を反映した内容となっている。
English: Main items that Bunkokuho regulated were control over farmers, discipline for retainers, control over temples and shrines, lawsuits about land, military service, and so on.
Japanese: 分国法が規定する主な事項には、領民支配、家臣統制、寺社支配、所領相論、軍役、などがある。
English: The Hoken system is a political system modeled after the Shu Dynasty in China, which was advocated in the political thought of Kanji using nations, such as China.
Japanese: 封建制（ほうけんせい）とは、中国など漢字文化圏における政治思想において主張された、周王朝を規範とする政治制度。
English: In the modern and present-day era, it also came to be used as a Japanese equivalent for Feudalism, the socioeconomic system characterizing medieval European society.
Japanese: 転じて近現代になると西欧中世社会を特徴づける社会経済制度であるフューダリズム（Feudalism）の訳語にも援用された。
English: Feudalism is a historical term referring to the system of government unique to medieval European society, and is translated as 'Hoken System.'
Japanese: フューダリズム（Feudalism）とは歴史学において中世ヨーロッパ社会特有の支配形態を指した用語であり、「封建制」と訳出される。
English: It consisted of loose, land mediated relations of master to servant among king, feudal lord, and retainer, and disappeared under absolute monarchy in the early-modern times.
Japanese: 土地を媒介とした国王・領主・家臣の間の緩い主従関係により形成され、近世以降の絶対王政の中で消失した。
English: Marxist history (materialistic concept of history) tries to find out a universal rule of history based on the contradiction between the productive force and the relation of production, and the logical framework was applied to non-European regions as an explanation.
Japanese: マルクス主義歴史学（唯物史観）においては、生産力と生産関係の矛盾を基盤として普遍的な歴史法則を見いだそうとするため、この理論的枠組みを非ヨーロッパ地域にも適用して説明が試みた。
English: In this case, it means the socio-political system considered to have been established after the overturn of ancient slavery with the improvement of productivity, under which feudal lords ruled productive peasants as serfs.
Japanese: この場合、おおよそ古代の奴隷制が生産力の進歩によって覆され、領主が生産者である農民を農奴として支配するようになったと解釈される社会経済制度のことを示す。
English: The retainer system (military duties) in the ancient German society and the land loan system (land protection) in the later Roman Empire are often seen as the origin, and it is often explained that the two systems were combined to form feudalism.
Japanese: 古ゲルマン人社会の従士制度（軍事的奉仕）と、ローマ帝国末期の恩貸地制度（土地の保護）に起源を見いだし、これらが結びつき成立したと説明されることが多い。
English: Under the system, a king makes feudal lords pledge loyalty in return for the protection of their domains, and the feudal lords make the same promise with retainers and make them pledge loyalty.
Japanese: 国王が諸侯に領地の保護（防衛）をする代償に忠誠を誓わせ、諸侯も同様の事を臣下たる騎士に約束し、忠誠を誓わせるという制度である。
English: This relationship of master and servant is often connected with the image of chivalric tales and seen as faithful and self-sacrificing, but it is in fact, a realistic relationship based on a mutual agreement, and the relationship was reciprocal and sometimes dissolved in shortly when the lord failed to protect his retainer.
Japanese: この主従関係は騎士道物語などのイメージから誠実で奉仕的な物と考えられがちだが、実際にはお互いの契約を前提とした現実的なもので、また両者の関係が双務的であった事もあり、主君が臣下の保護を怠ったりした場合は短期間で両者の関係が解消されるケースも珍しくなかった。
English: Furthermore, as indicated by the saying "a retainer's retainer is not a retainer," "a retainer's retainer" did not have the master to servant relationship with "a master's master," therefore, a complicated power structure was formed.
Japanese: 更に「臣下の臣下は臣下でない」という語に示されるように、直接に主従関係を結んでいなければ「臣下の臣下」は「主君の主君」に対して主従関係を形成しなかった為、複雑な権力構造が形成された。
English: This made medieval society extremely decentralized (from today's point of view).
Japanese: これは中世社会が（今日的な視点で見れば）極めて非中央集権的な社会となる要因となった。
English: In medieval Europe, particularly in its early days, people suffered from repeated invasion by foreigners such as the Normans, Muslims and Magyars.
Japanese: 西欧中世においては、特にその初期においてノルマン人、イスラーム教徒、マジャール人などの外民族のあいつぐ侵入に苦しめられた。
English: Consequently, the master-and-servant relationship, which is originally an agreement for just one generation, gradually became hereditary and fixed.
Japanese: そのため、本来なら一代限りの契約であった主従関係が、次第に世襲・固定化されていくようになった。
English: Thus, the Western European Hoken society based on serfdom and Feudalism matured (but the situation was quite different from village to village and most villages had a large number of free peasants as well as serfs).
Japanese: こうして、農奴制とフューダリズムを土台とした西欧封建社会が成熟していった（ただし、実際には各農村ごとにかなり相違があったと考えられている上、多くの農村では農奴だけでなく自由農民も相当数存在していた）。
English: In Europe, the formation of Feudalism (Hoken system) was closely related to foreigners' migration and invasion, the Hoken system in Japan, on the other hand, was mainly triggered by domestic factors including samurai ruling (nobility, including the Emperor, authorized the power of samurai).
Japanese: ヨーロッパでのフューダリズム（封建制）が、外民族の移動・侵入などと強く結び付いて形成されたのに比し、日本の封建制はむしろ武士による統治などの国内的要因が主となって形成された（天皇を始めとする貴族は武士の権威を根拠付ける存在である）。
English: Similar to the Western feudalism, under which multiple contractual relationships and dissolution/alteration of contracts were seen, in Japan, the master-and-servant relationship was fluid and unshaken loyalty as shown in the saying ' A faithful retainer will never serve two masters' was not required until the Edo period.
Japanese: 西欧のフューダリズムで複数の契約関係や、短期間での契約破棄・変更がみられたのと同様、日本でも実際のところ戦国時代(日本)まで主従関係は流動的なものであり、「二君にまみえず」という語に示されるような主君への強い忠誠が求められたのは、江戸時代に入ってからである。
English: One view is that the Go-on (obligation) and Hoko (duty) -based Hoken system was completed with the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), and this view has been adopted in most introductory books since prewar periods.
Japanese: 鎌倉幕府の成立によって御恩と奉公からなる封建制が成立したとする説で、戦前以来、ほとんどの概説書で採用されていた。
English: In this view, the Kamakura bakufu was formed as an independent state power of feudal lords driven by the development of local feudal lords in various places after the breakup of ancient society based on the ancient Ritsuryo codes.
Japanese: この考え方では、古代律令社会の解体から各地に形成された在地領主の発展を原動力として、領主層の独自の国家権力として鎌倉幕府が形成されたとみなす。
English: Therefore, the Johei and Tenkyo War (in 935) is regarded as an early sign of it.
Japanese: 従って承平天慶の乱（承平5年、935年）がその初期の現われとみなされる。
English: There was a controversy between medieval history and early-modern history on the establishment of the Hoken system in Japan from 1953 through the 1960's (it is also called the controversy of Taiko-kenchi (cadastral survey instituted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI)).
Japanese: 日本中世史と日本近世史の間で、1953年から1960年代にかけて日本封建制成立論争が展開した（太閤検地論争とも呼ばれる）。
English: Moriaki ARAKI, who sparked the controversy, considered the manorial system-based society to be a patriarchal slavery society (=the ancient times), and defined the shogunate system established with Taiko-kenchi as the Hoken system in Japan.
Japanese: その口火を切った安良城盛昭は、太閤検地実施前後の時期の分析から荘園制社会を家父長的奴隷制社会（＝古代）とし、太閤検地を画期として成立する幕藩体制を日本の封建制と規定した。
English: However, his idea invited pointed objections and Yoshimi TODA and his group proposed the theory that the system was established after the period of the government ruled by the retired Emperor, and Keiji NAGAHARA and his group proposed another theory that the system was established in the Northern and Southern Dynasties period (in Japan), the civil war period.
Japanese: しかし、激しい反論を生み、院政期以降を成立期とする説（戸田芳実など）、南北朝時代(日本)内乱期を成立期とする説（永原慶二など）が提起された。
English: There is a view that the Hoken system in its true sense did not exist in Japan, because the Hoken system of feudal lords was just 'the right to collect taxes' (see Shiki system), and there was no private ownership of land and rights of control over the people as serfs in the domain, which were commonly seen in the West.
Japanese: 日本の領主の封建制は「税の徴収権」に過ぎず（参照→職の体系）、つまり西欧に見られるような領地の私有と領民への農奴としての隷属的支配権は存在しなかったので、本当の意味の封建制は存在しなかったとする説もある。
English: Apart from the Hoken system in Zhou (which will be described later), the Hoken system will be described in view of the development stage theory based on materialistic conception of history.
Japanese: 周の封建制（後述）とは別に、中国史において唯物史観的発展段階論を適用した場合の封建制について述べる。
English: After the modern era, scholars specializing in Chinese history have been trying to clear the label, 'Asian stagnation' put forth by Karl Marx.
Japanese: 近代以降、中国史を専攻する学者たちは、カール・マルクスにより押された、「アジア的停滞」の烙印を何とかして剥がそうと試みた。