nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: As the Imperial Government Railway employed the vast number of employees that it had succeeded from the private railways, it ended up holding redundant workers because of position overlapping etc.
Japanese: 帝国鉄道庁では、各私鉄から引き継いだ膨大な人員を糾合したため、ポストの重複などによって余剰人員を抱えることとなった。
English: On the other hand, in the Railway Agency of Ministry of Communication that was in charge of approval and license on private railways, the business reduced greatly.
Japanese: その一方で、私鉄の監督、許認可を行なっていた逓信省鉄道局においても、業務が激減する事態が生じた。
English: Because of this, in order to streamline both agencies by integration and reorganization, Tetsudoin was established on December 5, 1908.
Japanese: そのため、両者を統合再編して体制の簡素化を図ることとなり、1908年（明治41年）12月5日鉄道院が発足した。
English: From this moment, the bureau was put out of control of Communication Minister and put under the direct control of the Cabinet with new position of president set up.
Japanese: この際、鉄道院は逓信大臣の管轄から離れて、新たに総裁を置き、内閣の直轄となった。
English: The various kinds of train cars that were succeeded from the private railways were used in the same model number as they had been used in private railways.
Japanese: 各私鉄から引き継がれた雑多な車両は、国有化後もしばらくの間、私鉄時代の形式番号のまま使用された。
English: It was in 1909 well after three years since the acquisition had started that, including the model number of train cars that had been used in the former Imperial Government Railway of Japan, the new model numbers were set up.
Japanese: 旧鉄道作業局の車両を含めて、新たな形式番号体系が制定されるのは、買収開始から実に3年後の1909年のことである。
English: Looking at only steam locomotives, there were as many as 187 forms, combined with 103 forms of tank locomotive and 84 forms of tender locomotive.
Japanese: 蒸気機関車だけに限定しても、タンク機関車103形式、テンダー機関車84形式、あわせて187形式に及んだ。
English: The form of steam locomotive set up at this time existed together even after the new form was set up in 1928 and the form has been used until now.
Japanese: この時制定された蒸気機関車の形式番号体系は、1928年（昭和3年）に新たな体系が制定された後も併存し、現在に至るまで踏襲されている。
English: In 1910, right after the inauguration of the Tetsudoin, not a single locomotive was produced.
Japanese: 鉄道院発足直後の1910年（明治43年）は、1両の機関車も製造されていない。
English: It is imagined that this is because the bureau was so tied up with dealing with the existing locomotives in various forms that swelled in a short period that it was not able to create new locomotive.
Japanese: これは一気に膨れあがった雑多な形式を抱え、それらの今後の処遇や、輸送計画を練るのに手一杯で、機関車の新製にまで手が回らなかった結果ではないかと想像されている。
English: After that, standard train cars in each form of car were set up, and assorted small number of train cars began to be culled out.
Japanese: その後は、各車種にわたって標準型車両が制定され、雑多な少数形式の淘汰が推進されていくことになる。
English: And after the Railway Nationalization Act was issued, few new applications for new private railway were turned in.
Japanese: また、鉄道国有法公布後、今度は新たな私鉄の出願がほとんど無くなるという事態になった。
English: This is partly because the conditions of the Private Railway Law that supervised the private railways were strict, however, there were some problems in terms of local development.
Japanese: これは、私鉄を監督する法律である私設鉄道法の条件が厳しいという背景もあったが、地域開発の観点から見ると問題があった。
English: In order to solve this problem, the provisions concerning railway establishment were simplified, and Light Railway Law was issued in 1910.
Japanese: そのため、1910年（明治43年）に鉄道開業に関する条文を相当簡略化した軽便鉄道法を制定した。
English: After that, as no applications based on Private Railway Act were turned in, the Light Railway Act and Private Railway Act were abolished in 1919.
Japanese: その後、私設鉄道法に基づく私鉄の出願が全く無くなったため、1919年（大正8年）には軽便鉄道法と私設鉄道法を廃止した。
English: And the Local Railways Act was established, the supervision of private railways were conducted based on this law.
Japanese: 新たに地方鉄道法を制定、私鉄の監督はこの法に基づいて行われるようになった。
English: In addition to this movement, some business persons aimed at establishing suburban railway system based on the Tramways Act which was applied for streetcar system.
Japanese: またこれとは別に、路面電車と同じ軌道法に準拠した郊外鉄道の敷設を目論む者も現れた。
English: The railway system began to spread throughout Japan since the inauguration of Hanshin Electric Railway Co., Ltd. in 1905.
Japanese: 1905年（明治38年）の阪神電気鉄道開業以後、全国に広まっていく。
English: Some of such systems, like Mino-Arima Electric Tramline (later Hankyu Railway) established by the executives of Hankaku Railway, were invested by the capitalists that gave up their business by the Railway Nationalization Act.
Japanese: その中には、阪鶴鉄道の幹部が設立した箕面有馬電気軌道（後の阪急電鉄）のように、鉄道国有法によって会社を手放した資本家が出資を行ったものもあった。
English: After all, after about 80 years the management of the nationalized railway ended up returning to private sectors by the division and privatization of Japanese National Railways in 1987.
Japanese: 1987年の国鉄分割民営化により、国有化された鉄道は結局80年ほどして民営に戻ることとなった。
English: Mokuroku are documents that are made for the purpose of either clarifying the place where something is kept or showing the name, content and the number of articles that are to be assigned or donated.
Japanese: 目録（もくろく）とは、物の所在を明確にする目的あるいは物の譲渡や寄進が行われる際に作成される品名や内容、数量などを書き並べて見やすくした文書。
English: The term mokuroku often refers to a table, a list or a catalogue.
Japanese: 「目録」という言葉は一覧・リスト・カタログなどの意味で使われる場合が多い。
English: However, mokuroku can be categorized as follows based on historical examples.
Japanese: だが歴史上において「目録」の用例を細かく分類した場合、以下のように分けることが可能である。
English: Documents that contain the name of an article which are handed to the recipient instead of the real article when presenting tangible or intangible gifts.
Japanese: 有形・無形の進物などを贈る際に実物の代わりに品目などのみを記した文書。
English: A method of itemization is used so that a lot of information can be searched through at a glance.
Japanese: 大量の情報を分りやすい形で一覧可能となるように箇条書などの方法が取り入れられている。
English: In the world of historical science, bunsho mokuroku (lists of documents) are highly valued as tools to study the distribution of political and economical information at any one time, and tosho mokuroku (lists of books) are valued in understanding where books have been distributed.
Japanese: また歴史学の世界では、文書目録は当時の政治経済などの情報伝達のあり方を、図書目録は当時の学術水準や書籍流通の状況を知る上において貴重な史料となりえる。
English: Bibliography developed in ancient China, and it is thought that it was brought to Japan prior to the Nara Period.
Japanese: 中国では、早くより目録学の考え方が発達しており、日本にも奈良時代以前の段階に伝来したと考えられている。
English: Since ancient times many mokuroku were prepared at temples and administrative offices for the purpose of asset management and other business necessities.
Japanese: 古代から寺院や行政機関では、財産管理や業務上の必要から多くの目録が作成されていた。
English: According to the official ritsuryo code, government officials were obliged to keep official documents and drafts and prepare corresponding mokuroku every 15 days.
Japanese: 公式令(律令法)には官司は15日ごとに作成・伝達された公文書及び草案をまとめて保管するとともにその所蔵目録作成が義務付けられていた。
English: At temples, for example, books of materials were drawn up, in which Buddhist altar fittings, ritual implements and documents were listed as well as a list of paddy fields and farmland.
Japanese: 例えば、寺院では寺院の住持の交替の際に仏具・法具などの什器や文書などの一覧を記した資財帳や土地を記した水陸田目録が作成された。
English: At government offices, the replacement record were made in order to confirm the amount of rice tax held at the time of the change of a provincial governor (kokushi), and the book of allotted farmland (handen chobo mokuroku) were made when farmlands were allotted.
Japanese: 官司でも国司の交替の際に正税などの在庫を確認する交替実録帳や班田実施時に作成する班田帳簿目録などが作られた。
English: The eight Buddhist monks who went to Tang called "nitto hasso" (also called "nitto hakke"), namely Saicho, Kukai, Eun, Engyo, Jogyo, Soei, Ennin and Enchin, made a catalogue of imported items (shorai mokuroku) in which they recorded the list of books which they brought back from Tang.
Japanese: まず、唐に留学していた「入唐八僧」（「入唐八家」とも、最澄、空海、恵運、円行、常暁、宗叡、円仁、円珍）と呼ばれる僧侶達が帰国した際に持ち帰った書物などを記録した将来目録（請来目録）が作成された。
English: Well-known mokuroku of this type include "Nihonkoku Genzaisho Mokuroku" (The Catalogue of Chinese Texts Existent in Japan), which was made by FUJIWARA no Sukeyo on imperial order, "Michinorinyudo Zosho Mokuroku", in which Fujiwara no Michinori recorded his personal library, and "Honcho Shojaku Mokuroku" (The Catalogue of Books in Our Country), which is believed to have been made by Sanefuyu SHIGENOI.
Japanese: 藤原佐世が勅命を奉じて作成した『日本国見在書目録』や藤原通憲が個人蔵書を記した『通憲入道蔵書目録』、滋野井実冬説などがある『本朝書籍目録』などが知られている。
English: The other type recorded the contents of diaries and documents for the purpose of checking precedents at a later date.
Japanese: もう1つは日記や文書を内容ごとに目録を作成して後日に先例を調べる際の参考とするものである。
English: Mokuroku relating to assets were also made, and deeds of assignment (yuzurijo or shobunjo), which were made in order to transfer territory and assets before or after a death, were made in the form of mokuroku.
Japanese: 勿論、財産関係の目録も作成され、所領や財産の生前または死後に譲渡するために作成された譲状・処分状も目録の形式となっている。
English: As the existence of documents was crucial when disputes occurred concerning territory and belongings, lists of assets, official certificates (kugen) and drawings were kept together with a catalogue of documents (ex. a catalogue of documentary evidences for a judical decision or real estate deeds of transfer).
Japanese: 特に財産関係の目録は所領などの相論が発生した場合には、文書の存在の有無が判断の最大の決め手になったことから、こうした目録や公験、絵図その他の文書をまとめて保管し、かつ文書目録（具書目録・重書目録）を作成して万が一に備えた。
English: The record of the occasion when Kanshin of Todai-ji Temple made bunsho mokuroku (catalogue of documents) in the 12th century still exists today.
Japanese: 12世紀に東大寺寛信が文書目録を作成した際の記録が今日も残されている。
English: In medieval times, many mokuroku were drawn up by the lords of shoen (manors), court nobles, samurai and Buddhist monks.
Japanese: 中世に入ると荘園領主や公家・武士・僧侶達によって多くの目録が作られるようになる。
English: Various mokuroku were drawn up, including shoen mokuroku and shoryo mokuroku which were related to manors and landholding, kenchu mokuroku which recorded the results of kenchu (land surveys), sakuden mokuroku which showed the area under cultivation and the number of workers, and ketsuge mokuroku which showed the status of the payment of nengu (land tax).
Japanese: 荘園や所領に関する荘園目録、所領目録、検注の結果を示す検注目録、耕作面積と人員を示す作田目録、年貢の進納状況を示す結解目録などがあった。
English: The kanjocho (account book) and nengu kaisai mokuroku (catalogue of land tax collection) which were prepared by the Edo bakufu and domains in the Edo Period originated from the above.
Japanese: 江戸時代に江戸幕府や諸藩によって作成された勘定帳や年貢皆済目録もこの流れを汲んだものである。
English: The law of the domain (bunkokuho) which the Imagawa clan established during the Warring States period (Japan) was also called "Imagawa Kana Mokuroku."
Japanese: 更に戦国時代(日本)に今川氏が作成した分国法も「今川仮名目録」と呼ぶ。
English: Through this, laws which had been independent administrative documents until that point were brought together into a code and promulgated in the form of a mokuroku.
Japanese: これは個々の行政文書の形式で出されていた法令を1つの法典の形式に集積・分類した目録の形式によって公布されたものと考えられたことによる。
English: Mokuroku given with a donation were required to have a certain degree of formality since the recipients were senior persons (including Buddha and other deities enshrined at temples and shrines).
Japanese: さて、寄進の際に出される目録は相手が上位の身分者（寺社に鎮座する神仏を含む）であったため、相応の儀礼を伴うものとなった。
English: Later, these were transformed into the epistolary etiquette (shosatsurei) of mokuroku that were used when giving gifts.
Japanese: 後世の礼法においては転じて相手に進物・贈物をする際の目録の書札礼へと発展していった。
English: A mokuroku for donations was written on toneriko paper, which was then folded in three, and wrapped with another same sheet as a courtesy.
Japanese: 寄進のための目録は鳥子紙の折紙を用いて端と中奥を折って三等分とし、更に同じ紙をもう一枚礼紙として添えて厚く包む厚礼を用いている。
English: Different paper was used depending on the purpose of the mokuroku, as seen from the fact that twice-folded paper was used in the case of shinmotsu mokuroku (list of gifts) and yuino mokuroku (list of engagement gifts).
Japanese: 進物目録や結納目録になると半折の折紙となり、出す対象によって用いる紙が異なっていた。
English: The word "mokuroku" wasn't written on the old shosatsurei, only becoming standard in the Meiji Period.
Japanese: 更に古い書札礼では「目録」と書かないことされていたが、明治以後は書かれる事が多くなった。
English: When giving gifts today, mokuroku in which gifts are listed are normally handed over at graduation ceremonies or weddings.
Japanese: 今日では卒業式や結婚など、記念に物を贈る場合も、何を贈ったかを一覧に記し、式典等ではその目録を手渡すこととされる。
English: Even when giving a gift of money the term "mokuroku" is used, despite the lack of a list of gifts.
Japanese: 進物として実際に金円を送る場合にも婉曲的言換えとして「目録」の語が用いられる。
English: Documents which compiled information on martial art techniques and techniques used in the arts were also called mokuroku.
Japanese: 更に武術・芸能など目には見えない技術を伝授する際にもその内容をまとめた文書を目録と呼んだ。
English: These were also used as menkyo mokuroku (normally positioned above kirigami [student level] but below menkyo [master level]) that certifies the instruction of the secrets of an art.
Japanese: これがそのまま奥義伝授を証明する免許目録（通常切紙以上免許以下に置かれる場合が多い）としても用いられるようになった。
English: When libraries were established in the Meiji Period, the principle of library material organization and the method of book classification were introduced as techniques of library science to make tosho mokuroku (library catalogue).
Japanese: 明治になると、図書館が設置されるようになり、図書館に置いてある資料のリストである図書目録を作成するための図書館学の技術として資料組織論や図書分類法などが導入されるようになった。
English: Daimyo-gyoretsu refers to procession that was formed when daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) went out along with attendants for public purpose.
Japanese: 大名行列（だいみょうぎょうれつ）は、大名が公用のために随員を引き連れて外出する際に取る行列のこと。
English: Daimyo-gyoretsu initially referred to a form of military traffic preparing for battles which was based on a march in war time (for example, longer swords than ordinary one were allowed to carry), but as peace in Edo lasted long, it gradually changed to a political thing to show off their authority and social status.
Japanese: 大名行列は本来、戦時の行軍に準じた臨戦的・軍事的な移動形態（帯刀する刀の長さも通常の長さより大きなものでもよいなど）であったが、江戸時代の太平が続くと次第に大名の権威と格式を誇示するための政治的なものに変容した。
English: Attendants were consisted of warriors, horse-riding or on foot, ashigaru (common foot soldier) carrying matchlock gun or bow (arm), chugen (a rank below common soldier) (or ninsoku 〔coolie〕) carrying tool box or spear, and people who took care of daimyo such as zoritori (sandal bearer, equivalent to a batman) and doctors.
Japanese: 随員には騎馬・徒歩の武士の他、火縄銃、弓(武器)などの足軽や道具箱や槍持ちなどの中間（人足）、草履取や医師などの大名身辺に仕える者たちが連なる。
English: Daimyo-gyoretsu which was carried on for public purpose of Edo bakufu such as Sankinkotai had a fixed number of attendants, so even small feudal lords with only ten thousands Goku crop yields were obligated to take fifty to one hundred attendants, and the number of Kaga domain with one million twenty thousands Goku crop yields reached four thousands attendants at its peak.
Japanese: 参勤交代などの江戸幕府の公用のために行う大名行列は幕府によって人数が定められており、1万石の小大名でも50人から100人を引き連れることを義務付けられ、102万石の加賀藩では最盛期に4,000人に及んだ。
English: This was because of political intention to restrain territorial lords' financial power by forcing them to make a lot of expense for daimyo-gyoretsu.
Japanese: これは、大名行列のために出費を強いることで諸大名が経済的実力を持つことを抑制しようとする政治的意図による。
English: However, toward the end of the Edo period, this obligation put a strain on the finances of many daimyo, increasing their dissatisfaction with the bakufu and becoming an underlying cause of the anti-shogunate movement.
Japanese: しかし幕末にはこの負担が多くの大名の財政を圧迫し、むしろ幕府への不満を増大させ、討幕運動の遠因となった。
English: In jidaigeki (historical play), there sometimes is a scene that a standard-bearer calls out "Shitani, Shitani (Down on your knees, down on your knees) " when daimyo-gyoretsu goes through a street, letting peasants and merchants prostrate at the side of the street, but actually this call-out could have been used by only Tokugawa gosanke (three privileged branches of Tokugawa family) (Mito domain was exceptionally having no Sankinkotai), and other daimyo families instead used "Yokero, Yokero (Step aside, step aside) ", just letting people step aside.
Japanese: 時代劇等では、大名行列が往来を通り過ぎるときには必ず先導の旗持ちの「下にー、下にー」との声にあわせ百姓、商人などは脇により平伏しているシーンが登場するが、実際にはこの掛け声を使えるのは徳川御三家（なお水戸藩は例外で参勤交代はなかった）だけで、ほかの大名家は「よけろ～、よけろ～」という掛け声を用い、脇に避けるだけでよかった。
English: Crossing in front of the daimyo-gyoretsu and thereby disrupting the procession was regarded as rude behavior; in fact, those who did so could be killed on the spot (as was the case in a prime example of which was the case in the Namamugi Incident) in accordance with kirisute gomen (the privilege granted to samurai warriors), but as a special exception, midwives heading to assist childbirth were allowed to cross in front of the procession.
Japanese: 大名行列の前を横切ったり、列を乱す様な行為は無礼な行いとされ、生麦事件の例を挙げるまでもなくその場で『切捨御免』にする事も許されていたが、特例として出産の取上げに向かっている産婆（現在の助産師）は、行列の前を横切る事を許されていた。
English: Sankin-kotai is one of the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun)'s system that obligated daimyo (Japanese feudal lords) to reside in Edo periodically.
Japanese: 参勤交代（さんきんこうたい）は、藩の大名を定期的に江戸に出仕させる江戸幕府の制度である。
English: Sankin means that daimyo served for the lord (Seii-Taishogun [literally, "great general who subdues the barbarians] in this case) for a certain period, while kotai means that they returned to their domains on leave to attend to government affairs there.
Japanese: 参勤は一定期間主君（この場合は征夷大将軍）のもとに出仕すること、交代は暇を与えられて領地に帰り政務を執ることを意味する。
English: Because daimyo serving in Edo were granted an audience with the shogun (覲), "参覲"can be used as well instead of "参勤".
Japanese: 江戸に出仕（勤）した時は将軍にまみえる（覲）のが通例であるため、参勤は「参覲」とも書かれる。
English: As the provision mentioning Sankin-kotai in the 1635 edition of Buke Shohatto (code for the warrior households) said, "大名小名在江戸交替所相定也毎歳夏四月中可致参勤従者之員数…"(we announce the establishment of daimyo's sankin-kotai. Daimyo are required to arrive at Edo in every April. Too many retainers are employed recently...), "参勤" and "交替"were used.
Japanese: 寛永12年（1635年）の「武家諸法度」の参勤交代を規定する条文には「大名小名在江戸交替所相定也毎歳夏四月中可致参勤従者之員数……」と書かれており、「参勤」と「交替」が用いられている。
English: During the Sengoku Period, some Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) allowed their subjects to reside in their castle towns and Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI set up the residences near Osaka Castle, Jurakudai, Fushimi Castle for his subjects and their families.
Japanese: 戦国時代には戦国大名の一部は自身の居城の城下町に服属した武士を集めるようになり、豊臣秀吉が大坂城・聚楽第・伏見城で支配下に服した大名に屋敷を与え、そこに妻子を住まわせた。
English: After Ieyasu TOKUGAWA won the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 and attained supremacy, various daimyo started to make their pilgrimage to Edo to gain the Tokugawa clan's favor.
Japanese: 慶長5年（1600年）に関ヶ原の戦いで徳川家康が勝利して覇権を確立すると、諸大名は徳川氏の歓心を買うため江戸に参勤するようになった。
English: Following Hideyoshi's footstep, Ieyasu prepared the samurai residences near Edo-jo Castle so that daimyo's families would live in Edo.
Japanese: 家康は秀吉の例に倣って江戸城下に武家屋敷を与え、妻子を江戸に住まわせる制度を立てた。
English: In the beginning, daimyo's sankin-kotai was voluntary, but it gradually became established as a system, and the 1635 edition of Buke Shohatto, issued in the era of Iemitsu TOKUGAWA, the third Shogun, made it obligatory.
Japanese: 当初は自発的な参勤であったが、次第に制度として定着していき、3代徳川将軍家・徳川家光の時代の寛永12年（1635年）に武家諸法度の改定によって義務付けした。
English: In 1642, fudai daimyo (hereditary vassals to the Tokugawa family) were required to live in Edo and their own feudal domains each for one year, which meant that all daimyo excluding the cabinet officials of the Shogunate were subject to sankin-kotai, in principle.
Japanese: 寛永19年（1642年）には譜代大名にも参勤交代が義務付けられ、原則として幕府の役職者を除く全ての大名が参勤交代を行うようになった。
English: The sankin-kotai system was firmly maintained throughout the Edo period except during the era of Yoshimune TOKUGAWA, the eighth Shogun, when the regulations were partially relaxed because of financial difficulty.
Japanese: 参勤交代制度は、8代将軍・徳川吉宗のときに財政窮乏を理由に部分的緩和が行われた時期を除き、江戸時代を通じて堅持された。
English: In leap August 1862, daimyo were permitted to serve in Edo for one hundred days once every three years as part of the Bunkyu Reform.
Japanese: 幕末の文久2年（1862年）閏8月には、文久の改革の一環として、3年に1回（100日）の出府に緩和された。
English: In September 1864, the Edo bakufu, misinterpreting the post Kinmon Incident situations, brought the system back to the original form, but many domains did not follow the bakufu's policy.
Japanese: その後、元治元年（1864年）9月、禁門の変後の情勢を幕府が過信し制度を元に戻したが、従わない藩も多かった。
English: Under the sankin-kotai system established in 1635, daimyo, in addition to residing in Edo and their own feudal domains each for one year, leaving their own families in Edo permanently as hostages, had to pay their own travel costs and living costs in Edo.
Japanese: 寛永12年（1635年）の参勤交代制度のもとでは、諸大名は1年毎に江戸と自領を行き来し、妻子は人質として江戸に常住しなければならないと同時に、その旅費や江戸の滞在費を全て大名に負担させていた。
English: But some Shinpan (Tokugawa's relatives) and fudai daimyo like the Mito Tokugawa family, exempted from sankin-kotai, resided in Edo permanently because their demesnes were located near Edo or small.
Japanese: ただし、水戸徳川家などの一部の親藩・譜代大名は、領地が江戸に近かったり領地が小さいことから、例外として交代を行わずに江戸に常駐した。
English: Edo hatamoto (direct retainers of the Edo bakufu) of high social status called kotaiyoriai were subject to sankin-kotai like daimyo.
Japanese: また、交代寄合と呼ばれる格式の高い旗本は大名に準じて参勤交代を行った。
English: The sankin-kotai system reportedly aimed to curb daimyo's power for uprisings or rebellious acts by putting financial burdens on them.
Japanese: 参勤交代制度の目的は、諸大名に出費を強いることでその勢力を削ぎ、謀反などを起こすことを抑止するためだったとされる。
English: But because the bakufu introduced the system for military service, clans' failure to do military service owing to their financial difficulty was detrimental to the foundation of the system, which led the bakufu to take measures such as restricting daimyo-gyoretsu (daimyo's procession).
Japanese: ただし、幕府としても本来の趣旨は軍役奉仕であったため、藩財政が破綻して軍役が不可能となることは、参勤交代の趣旨を根底的に否定する事になるため、大名行列の制限を行うなどの措置を採っている。
English: Because sankin-kotai was a military service, daimyo had to move with a great number of their subordinate warriors, which traveling took the form of a large-scale march called daimyo-gyoretsu.
Japanese: 参勤交代は軍役であるから、大名は保有兵力である配下の武士を随員として大量に引き連れて江戸に出仕し、領地に引き上げねばならないため、移動の際に大名行列という大掛かりな行進を行う必要があった。
English: Sankin-kotai was so costly that it placed an enormous financial burden on daimyo accordingly.
Japanese: このために費用がかさみ、参勤交代は大名の財政を圧迫することとなった。
English: At the same time, because a great number of daimyo's attendants traveled back and forth between Edo and the provinces, Edo culture spread nationwide via them.
Japanese: 同時に、大量の大名の随員が地方と江戸を往来したために、彼らを媒介して江戸の文化が全国に広まる効果を果たした。
English: For example, the sankin-kotai carried out by Nariyuki TOKUGAWA, the eleventh lord of the Kishu Tokugawa Family in 1841 consisted of 1639 warriors, 2337 laborers, 103 horses.
Japanese: 例えば、天保12年（1841年）の紀州徳川家11代藩主徳川斉順の参勤交代では、武士1639人、人足2337人、馬103頭を擁した。
English: Shichiri-bikyaku (express messengers) and feudal retainers of the Kishu clan reportedly arrived at Hirakata-juku Station, one station along the trip, for preparation several months earlier than the lord would do.
Japanese: 道中の枚方宿では、準備のために七里飛脚や紀州藩士が藩主が到着する数ヶ月前から来宿したという。
English: The procession consisting of several thousand people indicates that a large amount of expenses were consumed for the trip including the prior arrangements.
Japanese: 数千人規模の行列であり、その準備まで含めれば多額の出費であったことが窺われる。
English: The daimyo gyoretsu carried out by the Kishu Tokugawa family, one of three privileged branches of the Tokugawa family, were so gorgeous and prestigious that many peasants spared the time to see the scene.
Japanese: 徳川御三家紀州侯の大名行列は格式と威光を感じさせる大行列だったため、多くの農民が見物に訪れるほどであった。
English: The Kishu Tokugawa family's daimyo gyoretsu were exceptional, but other daimyo gyoretsu also had huge economic (money expended and so on) and cultural effects (social status and so on) on the areas along which the procession occurred.
Japanese: 紀州侯の場合でなくとも、行列の周辺への経済効果（出費等）や文化的効果（格式等）は大きかった。
English: The clans that were not so rich, while cutting costs, reportedly employed 'additional' retainers on a temporary basis to maintain the dignity of the procession only when it passed by major shukuba-machi (post stations).
Japanese: それほどの財力の無い藩では、大きな宿場町を通過する際のみ、臨時雇いで家来の「水増し」を行い、行列の威厳を保ちつつ、経費を節約したといわれる。
English: When a clan was exempted from sankin-kotai for certain reasons, this was called "yosha"(literary means forgiveness).
Japanese: なんらかの事情で参勤交代が免除される事があり、これを"用捨"と言った。
English: Yosha applied when the castle of a daimyo was destroyed by fire, famine occurred, the lord of domain was sick, or a new lord took over the domain and so on.
Japanese: 用捨が許される理由としては、居城の火災、飢饉、藩主の病気、代替りなどがある。
English: Because a large number of vassals of each clan went to Edo leaving their families in their domains owing to sankin-kotai, warriors accounted for about half the population in Edo.
Japanese: 参勤交代で江戸に単身赴任する各藩の家臣はかなりの数に上り、この結果、江戸の人口の約半数が武士となっていた。
English: The Edo bakufu was founded on March 24, 1603 when Ieyasu TOKUGAWA was appointed as Seii Taishogun (hereinafter shogun).
Japanese: 江戸幕府は、1603年3月24日（慶長8年2月12日(旧暦)）に徳川家康が征夷大将軍（以下、将軍）に任官されて始まった。
English: On November 9, 1867, the 15th shogun Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA transferred power back to the Emperor).
Japanese: 1867年11月9日（慶応3年10月14日(旧暦)）に15代将軍徳川慶喜が大政奉還を行なった。