nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Thanks to the rapid growth of the economy in the Genroku era, the monetary economy spread to agricultural communities too, and the commercial crops such as mulberry, lacquer, hinoki cypress, paper mulberry, safflower, indigo, hemp and cotton began to be cultivated more and more.
Japanese: 元禄時代の経済の急成長により、貨幣経済が農村にも浸透し、四木（桑・漆・檜・楮）・三草（紅花・藍・麻または木綿）など商品作物の栽培が進んだ。
English: In the field of fishery, the advanced fishing method which had developed along the shore of the Inland Sea and Kumano spread across Japan, and the cultivation of salt fields in which brine is brought through tidal action along the coast of the Inland Sea improved the mass production of salt, which developed the nationalwide distribution system of salt.
Japanese: 漁業では上方漁法が全国に広まり、瀬戸内海の沿岸では入浜式塩田が拓かれて塩の量産体制が整い各地に流通した。
English: In the handicraft industry, production of cotton fabrics was developed, while luxury Nishijin brocades were made in the traditional textile manufacture of silk products.
Japanese: 手工業では綿織物が発達し、伝統的な絹織物では高級品の西陣織が作られた。
English: Under circumstances where the flow of people and goods became active, cities of various characteristics such as castle towns, port towns, post-station towns, temple towns, shrine towns, mining towns and so on were born in various places.
Japanese: 人と物の流れが活発になる中で、城下町・港町・宿場町・門前町・鳥居前町・鉱山町など、さまざまな性格の都市が各地に生まれた。
English: Early in the 18th century, the cities of Kyoto and Osaka both had populations close to 400 thousand each.
Japanese: 18世紀の初めころの京都市と大坂はともに40万近い人口をかかえていた。
English: At the same time, Edo, whose population reached around one million, was not only the biggest consumer city in Japan, but also the biggest city in the world.
Japanese: 同期の江戸は、人口100万人前後に達しており、日本最大の消費都市であるばかりでなく、世界最大の都市でもあった。
English: It is said that during the 18th century, the Tokai-do Road connecting Edo and Osaka was the busiest in the world.
Japanese: 当時の江戸と大坂を結ぶ東海道が、18世紀には世界で一番人通りの激しい道だったといわれている。
English: Such economic development was resulted from production of gold, silver and copper in large amount due to mine development such as Innai Silver Mine, and a lot of foreign goods were imported to Japan in exchange for gold and so on.
Japanese: このような経済の発展は、院内銀山などの鉱山開発が進んで金・銀・銅が大量に生産され、それと引き替えに海外の物資が大量に日本に入り込んだためでもあった。
English: He concluded that from the opening of the shogunate government in Edo to the Genroku era, a quarter of domestic gold currency and three quarters of domestic silver currency were lost due to the settlement of foreign trades in Nagasaki, and issued this regulation using the proposal of the Nagasaki magistrate Kiyosuke OOKA.
Japanese: 彼は、幕府開設から元禄までの間、長崎貿易の決済のために、金貨国内通貨量のうちの4分の1、銀貨は4分の3が失われたとし、長崎奉行大岡清相からの意見書を参考にして、この法令を出した。
English: The main points were import restrictions and promotion of domestic production, while limiting the number of foreign ships coming to Nagasaki and the amount of trade.
Japanese: その骨子は輸入規制と商品の国産化推進であり、長崎に入る異国船の数と貿易額に制限を加えるものであった。
English: By limiting the annual number of ships from Qing to 30 and the value of trade to 6,000 kan (a unit) of silver, while from the Netherlands the anual number of ships, 2 and the value of trade to 3,000, these regulations encouraged domestic production of hitherto imported goods, such as cotton cloth, raw silk, sugar, buckskin, silk fabric and so on.
Japanese: 清国船は年間30艘、交易額は銀6000貫にまで、オランダ船は年間2隻、貿易額は3000貫に制限され、従来は輸入品であった綿布、生糸、砂糖、鹿皮、絹織物などの国産化を奨励した。
English: Yoshimune TOKUGAWA from the Kishu Tokugawa family assumed the position of the eighth shogun, and implemented dynamic political reforms with no regard for the feelings of the hereditary vassal daimyo who had taken the initiative in the shogunate government until then (Kyoho Reforms).
Japanese: 8代将軍となった徳川吉宗は、紀州徳川家の出身であり、それまで幕政を主導してきた譜代大名に対して遠慮することなく、大胆に政治改革をおこなった（享保の改革）。
English: This is due to the fact that along with the process of the monetary economy, the price of rice, which was used as a standard in pricing various commodities, kept falling (the general price rice in spite of the low price of rice), and it became obvious that shogunate direct retainers (hatamoto) and low-level vassal, whose salary was determined based on rice price, were hard up financially.
Japanese: 貨幣経済の進展にともない、諸物価の基準であった米価は下落を続け（米価安の諸色高）、それを俸禄の単位としていた旗本・御家人の困窮が顕著なものとなったからである。
English: Therefore, he dampened spending using laws that regulated expenditures, while taking action to increase the production of rice through development of new fields, stabilizing incomes by adopting a fixed tax rate, establishing a system of the specific tax rice paied to shorten the obligatory stay of one year in Edo to six months (agemai), and authorizing the Dojima Rice Exchange.
Japanese: そのため彼は倹約令で消費を抑える一方、新田開発による米の増産、定免法採用による収入の安定、上米令、堂島米会所の公認などをおこなった。
English: In addition to the above, he also carried out reforms that included the salary supplements system (tashidaka) for certain key jobs to appoint promising personnel while reining in government spending, deregulating the prohibition of Western books in Chinese version, encouraged the cultivation of sweet potatoes, and established a complaints box as well as other reforms.
Japanese: それ以外にも、財政支出を抑えながら有為な人材を登用する足高制、漢訳洋書禁輸の緩和や甘藷栽培の奨励、目安箱の設置その他の改革をおこなった。
English: The government finance got balanced partially, and in 1744 the tax revenues were the highest of the Edo period, but the fixation of rice tax rate and the forced frugality of everyday life negatively affected peasants and citizens, resulting in frequent peasant revolts and destructive urban riots, which were also results of the Great Famine of Kyoho.
Japanese: 幕府財政は一部で健全化し、には江戸時代を通じて最高の税収となったが、年貢税率の固定化やゆきすぎた倹約により百姓・町民からの不満を招き、折からの享保の大飢饉もあって、百姓一揆や打ちこわしが頻発した。
English: As noted above, while the economy was founded on land capital, samurai soldiers as the ruling class have no land ownership, and this peculiar situation made it almost impossible to secure a steady livelihood of samurai in harmony with the national stable growth polity, so that the tight monetary policy lying hard on the economy resulted in chronic recession.
Japanese: このように、土地資本を基盤とする反面、土地所有者ではない支配者層という独自な立場に立たされた武士の生活の安定と、安定成長政策とは必ずしも上手く融合できずに、金融引き締め的な経済圧迫政策がを打ち出されて不況が慢性化した。
English: In addition, around 1726 a political reform theory, 'Discourse on Government' (Seidan) was submitted to Yoshimune by Sorai OGYU, who criticized the doctrines of Zhu Xi, saying that 'the doctrines of Zhu Xi was only a delusional theory based on speculations,' and this book not only demonstrated Sorai's political philosophy concretely but stood out as an epoch-making work in Japanese history of thought which promote the separation of politics from religious morals.
Japanese: なお、「朱子学は憶測にもとづく虚妄の説にすぎない」と朱子学批判をおこなった荻生徂徠が頃に吉宗に提出した政治改革論『政談』には、徂徠の政治思想が具体的に示されており、これは日本思想史のなかで政治と宗教道徳の分離を推し進める画期的な著作でもあった。
English: On the other hand, a wealthy merchant in Osaka established Kaitokudo school, where Confucianism, mainly the doctrines of Zhu Xi, was taught, and later this school was officially licensed by the shogunate government as gakumonjo (a school) and existed until 1886.
Japanese: 一方、には大坂の豪商が朱子学を中心に儒学を学ぶ懐徳堂を設立して、後に幕府官許の学問所として明治初年まで続いている。
English: As stated above, the Kyoho era was also an era when new developments were achieved in the fields of study and thought.
Japanese: 享保年間は、このように、学問・思想の上でも新しい展開のみられた時代でもあった。
English: Land income tax increased due to an additional tax collection policy in the Kyoho Reforms, but hit a ceiling in the Horeki era (1751 - 1763), after which, the financial affairs of bakufu started to hit an impasse yet again.
Japanese: 幕府財政は、享保の改革での年貢増徴策によって年貢収入は増加したが、宝暦年間（1751年-1763年）には頭打ちとなり、再び行き詰まりをみせた。
English: It is Okitsugu TANUMA who devised a strategy for breaking out of this situation by levying business taxes on production and distribution of commodities as a new source of revenue and furthermore carrying out the large-scale development of a new fields and development of the Ezo (present Hokkaido).
Japanese: これを打開するため、発展してきた商品生産・流通に新たな財源を見出し、さらに大規模な新田開発と蝦夷地開発を試みたのが田沼意次であった。
English: In order to control the processes of production and distribution of commodities and lower prices, he authorized guilds of handicraftsmen as a trade guild (kabunakama) and encouraged its organization, while imposing business taxes called unjo, myoga on them.
Japanese: 商品生産・流通を掌握し、物価を引き下げるため手工業者の仲間組織を株仲間として公認、奨励して、そこに運上・冥加などを課税した。
English: He proceeded land reclamation of Inbanuma Pond and Teganuma Pond by investing merchant capital, and encouraged foreign trade in Nagasaki, but at the same time promoted product development such as roasted sea cucumbers and dried abalones (tawaramono) for the purpose of reducing the export of gold and silver from Japan.
Japanese: 町人資本による印旛沼・手賀沼の干拓事業、さらに長崎貿易を推奨し、特に俵物など輸出商品の開発を通じて金銀の流出を抑えようとした。
English: He encouraged Western studies, and following the suggestion of Heisuke KUDO, dispatched Tokunai MOGAMI to Ezo to investigate the potential for development of new rice fields or mines and trade with the Russian Empire through the intermediation of the Ainu.
Japanese: また、蘭学を奨励し、工藤平助らの提案によって最上徳内を蝦夷地に派遣し、新田開発や鉱山開発さらにアイヌを通じた対ロシア帝国交易の可能性を調査させた。
English: Although these were realistic and rational policies including very advanced contents in those days, the criticism for prevalence of bribery and the frequent peasant revolts and destructive urban riots as well as the Tenmei Famine brought his downfall.
Japanese: これらは、当時としてはきわめて先進的な内容を含む現実的、合理的な政策であったが、賄賂政治を批判され、天明の大飢饉とも重なって百姓一揆や打ちこわしが激発して失脚した。
English: The 18th century was also the onset of a little ice age causing temperatures in the northern hemisphere to drop, which worsened the famine.
Japanese: 18世紀は北半球が寒冷化した小氷期の時代でもあったため、これが飢饉に拍車をかけたのである。
English: In order to subside inflation beginning in the Tanuma government, Sadanobu implemented the policy of simple and frugal life, controled public morals, and administered on an ultra-austerity budget.
Japanese: 田沼時代のインフレを収めるため、質素倹約と風紀取り締まりを進め、超緊縮財政で臨んだ。
English: He adopted the commerce suppression policy, the dissolution of trade guilds (kabunakama) and the compulsory reservation of rice in a domain (kakoimai), and enforced a law to make peasants coming to Edo return their agricultural communities with financial support.
Japanese: 抑商政策が採られて株仲間は解散を命じられ、大名に囲米を義務づけて、旧里帰農令によって江戸へ流入した百姓を出身地に帰還させた。
English: It had a strong conservative and idealistic orientation, such as debt cancellation orders to give relief to direct vassals of the shogunate (hatamoto) and low-level retainers.
Japanese: また棄捐令を発して旗本・御家人らの救済を図るなど、保守的、理想主義的な傾向が強かった。
English: He took strong foreign policies, for example, the punishment of Shihei HAYASHI for his opinion about measures toward Ezo by banning his book, and the flat refusal to Adam Laksman who requested commerce with Russia while brought back a castaway, Kodayu DAIKOKUYA.
Japanese: 対外対策では、林子平の蝦夷地対策を発禁処分として処罰し、漂流者大黒屋光太夫を送り届けたロシアのアダム・ラクスマンの通商要求を完全に拒絶するなど、強硬な姿勢で臨んだ。
English: Although Sadanobu also implemented present social welfare policies such as the accumulation of relief fund for the poor (seventy-percent reserve fund) and the establishment of independence support facilities for minor offenders and the homeless (ninsokuyoseba), the support of the people was lost due to the strict control over thought, art and literature, in short townspeople and peasants as a whole, and the excessive protection of his retainers on the other hand.
Japanese: 七分積金や人足寄場の設置など、今日でいう社会福祉政策を行ってもいるが、思想や文芸を統制し、全体として町人・百姓に厳しく、旗本・御家人を過剰に保護する政策を採り、民衆の離反を招いた。
English: In addition, the abandonment of mercantile policy again deteriorated the economy which had been recovered during the Tanuma period.
Japanese: また、重商主義政策の放棄により、田沼時代に健全化した財政は再び悪化に転じた。
English: From one point of view, the ultra long-term stable government, especially for the first hundred and dozens of years, enjoyed economic growth, which brought about development of the merchant class, who played active roles in flourishing fields such as studies, culture, art, and business, and accomplished traditions unswerving even today.
Japanese: その一方で、超長期の政権安定、特に前半の百数十年は成長経済基調のもと、町人層が発展し、学問・文化・芸術・経済等様々な分野の活動が活発化し、現代にまで続く伝統を確立している。
English: The Edo period enjoyed a 'peaceful world,' although there was structural conflict between developing economic activities in a city and the land capital system in the domain economy which held an excessive number of samurai, executive officers of the land capital structure, but early in the 19th century the structual fatigue became apparent rapidly as organizational inflexibility.
Japanese: 発展する経済活動と土地資本体制の行政官である武士を過剰に抱える各政府（各藩）との構造的な軋轢を内包しつつも、「泰平の世」を謳歌していた江戸時代も19世紀を迎えると、急速に制度疲労による硬直化が目立ち始める。
English: In addition to the above, western countries modernized rapidly through industrial revolution in the latter half of the 18th century, and for their own political and economic reasons, started debouching into various places around the world to acquire their own colonies for the purpose of seeking resources and markets for their own industries, rather than for the simple purpose of 'adventure' during the Age of Geographical Discovery.
Japanese: それに加えて、18世紀後半の産業革命によって欧米諸国は急速に近代化しており、それぞれの政治経済的事情から大航海時代の単なる「冒険」ではなく、自らの産業のために資源と市場を求めて世界各地に植民地獲得のための進出を始めた。
English: In spite of the frequent visits of western vessels in the far east area, or the sea of Japan, the shogunate government continued the seclusion policy by strong measures such as the enforcement of the edict to repel foreign vessels in 1825 to prevent contacts with foreign envoys and vessels asking for a diplomatic channel with Japan.
Japanese: 極東地域、日本近海にも欧米の船が出没する回数が多くなったが、幕府は日本との外交ルートを模索する外国使節や外国船の接触に対し、には外国船打払令を実行するなど、鎖国政策の継続を行った。
English: After Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA resigned, Ienari TOKUGAWA, the 11th shogun, took the helm of state affairs for about 50 years from the Bunka Bunsei era to the Tenpo era.
Japanese: 松平定信の辞任後、文化(元号)・文政時代から天保年間にかけての約50年間、政治の実権は11代将軍徳川家斉が握った。
English: Since Ienari kept taking the helm even after assigning the shogunate to his son, Ieyoshi TOKUGAWA, this administration was called the government of the retired Shogun (ogosho).
Japanese: 家斉は将軍職を子の徳川家慶に譲った後も実権を握り続けたので、この政治は「大御所政治」と呼ばれている。
English: At the beginning of Ienari's government, the policy of simple and frugal life was succeeded, but when the finance of the shogunate government recovered temporarily by minting new currency with low content of gold and silver, which brought profit margin to the government, administration fell into a lax management at an extravagant expense of the harem (ooku).
Japanese: 家斉の治世は、はじめ質素倹約の政策が引き継がれたが、貨幣悪鋳による出目の収益で幕府財政が一旦潤うと、大奥での華美な生活に流れ、幕政は放漫経営に陥った。
English: Meanwhile, economic activities by merchants became active, and a popular culture (Kasei culture) flourished mainly within the cities.
Japanese: 一方では、商人の経済活動が活発化し、都市を中心に庶民文化（化政文化）が栄えた。
English: Nonetheless, as the disparity between rich and poor expanded in agricultural communities, peasant's revolts and agrarian conflicts occurred frequently and ended in deterioration of the public order.
Japanese: しかし、農村では貧富の差が拡大して各地で百姓一揆や村方騒動が頻発し、治安も悪化した。
English: Since the Tenpo Famine that ravaged in 1832 spread all over the country, many people became absolutely destitute in both cities and agricultural communities, and many died of hunger.
Japanese: から始まった天保の大飢饉は全国に広がり、都市でも農村でも困窮した人々があふれ、餓死者も多く現れた。
English: In 1837, Heihachiro OSHIO, a former police sergeant (yoriki) of the magistrate's office of Osaka, became indignant at the do-nothing government and conducted an armed uprising in Osaka.
Japanese: 、幕府の無策に憤って大坂町奉行所の元与力大塩平八郎が大坂で武装蜂起した。
English: Many farmers followed Oshio, and the uprising spread repercussions in other regions, which gave a great shock to the shogunate government and domains.
Japanese: 大塩に従った農民も多く、地方にも飛び火して幕府や諸藩に大きな衝撃を与えた。
English: After Ienari died, in order to cope with these crises, Senior councillor Tadakuni MIZUNO implemented various policies called the Tenpo Reforms to reconstruct financial affairs for the purpose of strengthening the power of the shogunate government.
Japanese: このような危機に対応すべく、家斉死後の、老中水野忠邦が幕府権力の強化のために天保の改革と呼ばれる財政再建のための諸政策を実施した。
English: However, none of these policies worked well, least of all Land Requisition Orders, which was an ambitious policy aimed at both the financial stabilization and the reinforcement of the national defense, but fierce opposition from every social class threw back them and Tadakuni was overthrown in only three years.
Japanese: しかし、いずれも効果は薄く、特に上知令は幕府財政の安定と国防の充実との両方を狙う意欲的な政策であったが、社会各層からの猛反対を浴びて頓挫し、忠邦もわずか3年で失脚した。
English: In response to the defeat of Qing Dynasty in the Opium Wars, Tadakuni shifted his foreign policy to more flexible one by amending the conventional edict to repel foreign vessels to the law to provide water and fuel for foreign ships, while he ordered Hidetatsu EGAWA and Shuhan TAKASHIMA to introduce the western style gunnery and the modern military buildup.
Japanese: 忠邦はまた、阿片戦争における清の敗北により、従来の外国船に対する異国船打払令を改めて薪水給与令を発令して柔軟路線に転換する一方、江川英龍や高島秋帆に西洋流砲術を導入させて、近代軍備を整えさせた。
English: The impact of the Opium Wars shook the whole country, and mumerous copies of 'Illustrated Treatise on the Marine Kingdoms' by Wei Yuan were published and influened greatly on the political situation during the end of Edo period.
Japanese: アヘン戦争の衝撃は、日本各地を駆け巡り、魏源の『海国図志』は多数印刷されて幕末の政局に強い影響を与えた。
English: Under such circumstances, powerful domains called 'Yuhan,' such as Satsuma Domain and Choshu Domain, succeeded in financial reform and began to influence more and more in the political situation during the end of Edo period.
Japanese: こうした中、薩摩藩や長州藩など「雄藩」と呼ばれる有力藩では財政改革に成功し、幕末期の政局で強い発言力を持つことになった。
English: In the Tenpo era, a new economic style, manufacture, emerged among landowners and wholesallers, who set up factories with the principle of division of labor or cooperation.
Japanese: 経済面では、地主や問屋商人の中には工場を設けて分業や協業によって工場制手工業生産をおこなうマニュファクチュアが天保期には現れている。
English: Manufacture developed in the cotton fabrics industry around Osaka and Owari Province as well as the silk fabrics industry in the north Kanto region such as Kiryu City, Ashikaga city, Yuki City and so on.
Japanese: マニュファクチュア生産は、大坂周辺や尾張国の綿織物業、桐生市・足利市・結城市など北関東地方の絹織物業などでおこなわれた。
English: In 1853 the shogunate government was forced to change the conventional foreign policy that foreign negotiation should be conducted only in Dejima island in Nagasaki and have talks with Matthew Perry of the United State who landed defiantly at Uraga, in the backyard of Edo, and next year concluded the Japan-U.S. Treaty of Peace and Amity, yielding to the pressure from the Perry squadron in readiness to enter the Edo Bay.
Japanese: 、長崎の出島への折衝のみを前提としてきた幕府のこれまでの方針に反して、江戸湾の目と鼻の先である浦賀に強行上陸したアメリカ合衆国のマシュー・ペリーとやむなく交渉した幕府は、翌年の来航時には江戸湾への強行突入の構えをみせたペリー艦隊の威力に屈し日米和親条約を締結した。
English: Thereafter, the shogunate government was forced to conclude similar treaties with other western countries following in the high-handed manner of the United States, and 'the opening Japan to the West' was carried out without intention.
Japanese: その後米国の例にならって高圧的に接触してきた西欧諸国ともなし崩し的に同様の条約を締結、事実上「開国日本の開国」してしまった。
English: The public opinion of foreign exclusionism among low-ranking samurai and intellectuals in particular overwhelmed all over Japan, insisting furiously that the national seclusion had been the fundamental law since the dawn of Japanese history and the opening up of the country was against it.
Japanese: 下級武士や知識人階級を中心に、「鎖国は日本開闢以来の祖法」であるという説に反したとされた、その外交政策に猛烈に反発する世論が沸き起こり、「攘夷」運動として朝野を圧した。
English: Public opinion itself had never been a concern when the shogunate system was stable, but with this 'public opinion' as an emotional prop, the existence of the Emperor in Kyoto came to the fore.
Japanese: 世論が沸き起こること自体、幕藩体制が堅牢なころには起こり得ないことであったが、この「世論」の精神的支柱として、京都の天皇帝（みかど）の存在がクローズアップされる。
English: This is why Kyoto, which had been a politically calm capital for a long time, was thrown into a commotion suddenly, in part due to the policy of the shogunate government, and became the main arena of 'disturbances at the end of Edo period.'
Japanese: このため永い間、幕府の方針もあり、政治的には静かな都として過ごしてきた京都がにわかに騒然となっていき、有名な「幕末の騒乱」が巻き起こる。
English: For a short time the oppressive policy of the chief minister (tairo) Naosuke II (the Ansei Purge) seemed to quieten down the public's dissatisfaction.
Japanese: 一時は大老井伊直弼の強行弾圧路線（安政の大獄）もあり不満「世論」も沈静化するかに思われた。
English: After the Sakuradamongai Incident, however, things changed rapidly while the shogunate government was at a standstill to deal with the shogunate successor problem.
Japanese: しかし、桜田門外の変後、将軍後継問題で幕府がゆれる間に事態は急速に変化する。
English: In Satsuma Domain after the death of Nariakira SHIMAZU, Hisamitsu SHIMAZU, a father of the feudal lord Tadayoshi SHIMAZU, advocated the union of the Imperial Court and the shogunate and purged the exclusionist party against foreigners (the Teradaya Incident), while requested the shogunate government to carry out reforms (Bunkyu Reforms).
Japanese: 薩摩藩では、島津斉彬が死んだ後、後を継いだ藩主島津忠義の父である島津久光が長州藩を牽制すべく公武合体運動を展開し、藩内の攘夷派を粛清（寺田屋事件）し、幕府に改革を要求した（文久の改革）。
English: Hisamitsu SHIMAZU provoked the Namamugi Incident on the way back to Satsuma from Edo, and realized the rashnesness of exclusionist policy from the defeat of the Anglo-Satsuma War the follwing year.
Japanese: 島津久光は江戸から薩摩への帰路、生麦事件を引き起こし､翌年薩英戦争で攘夷の無謀さを悟ることになる。
English: Choshu Domain, where reformists and conservatives were in a power struggle, carried out the exclusionist policy, bombarding a foreign vessel sailing through the Bakan Straits with home-manufactured cannons in May 1863.
Japanese: 藩内改革派と保守派が藩政の主導権を争っていた長州藩では、5月、馬関海峡を航行中の外国船を自藩製の大砲で攻撃して「攘夷」を決行した。
English: Leadership struggle in Kyoto developed into conflicts with Satsuma Domain and others, and caused the seven court nobles to escape from Kyoto in August1863 as well as the Ikedaya Incident the next year, which led to armed conflicts with Satsuma Domain, Aizu Domain and Kuwana Domain (the Kinmon Incident).
Japanese: また、京都における主導権争いから薩摩藩らと衝突、8月、三条実美らの七卿落ち、翌の池田屋事件を契機に薩摩藩・会津藩・桑名藩と武力衝突した（禁門の変）。
English: On the pretext of the Kinmon Incident, the shogunate government carried out the First Choshu Expeditions, but at the same the combined fleet of Great Britain, United States, France and the Netherlands made a counterattack and got to land to occupy the gun battery (the Shimonoseki Bombardment).
Japanese: 禁門の変を理由に幕府は、第一次長州征伐を決行、同時期に、英米仏蘭4ヶ国艦隊の反撃に遭い、上陸され砲台を占拠された（四国艦隊下関砲撃事件）。
English: Under these circumstances, powerful domains in the western Japan such as Satsuma Domain, Choshu Domain, who repeated political strifes, concluded an alliance (the Satsuma-Chochu Alliance) through the intermediation of Ryoma SAKAMOTO and Shintaro NAKAOKA.
Japanese: このような情勢下、薩摩、長州ら政争を繰り返していた西国雄藩は坂本龍馬、中岡慎太郎の周旋により、同盟を締結（薩長同盟）した。
English: Thereafter the shogunate government executed the Second Choshu Expeditions, but failed due to successful interruption by the army of non-regular soldiers organized by Shinsaku TAKASUGI, the 'Irregular Militia,' and the death from disease of Shogun Iemochi TOKUGAWA, the general supervisor, at the Osaka Castle.
Japanese: その後、幕府は第二次長州征伐を決行するが、高杉晋作の組織した奇兵隊などの庶民軍の活躍に阻まれ、また、総指揮者である将軍徳川家茂が大坂城で病没するなどもあり、失敗した。
English: When the shogunate government could neither stop feudal lords setting up their residenes in Kyoto against the shogunate order, nor maintain the public order in Kyoto by its own efforts, the reliance on the shogunate government and its authority as well as the trust in the military power of samurai, which was the backbone of the shogunate and domain system, fell rapidly after this defeat.
Japanese: 折から幕法に反して京都に藩邸を置く諸大名を制御できず、京都の治安維持さえ独力でおぼつかない幕府と、幕藩体制の根幹である「武士」の武力に対する信頼とその権威は、この敗北によって急速になくなっていった。
English: Satsuma and Choshu domains, together with Tosa and Saga domains, advocated the 'anti-shogunate movement' based on the 'antiforeign imperialism' insisting that the treaties with the Western powers, which were concluded against the imperial order, should not be accepted in the first place and that foreigners should be expelled out of Japan, and placating those who were about to resort to force for the cause of exclusionism, these domains tried to unite exclusionism with the imperialism on the supremacy of the emperor.
Japanese: 薩長は、土佐藩、佐賀藩をも巻き込み、開国以来の違勅条約に対する反対論と外国人排撃を主張、実行に移そうとする「攘夷」を、国学の進展などにより江戸時代後期から広がっていた国家元首問題としての尊王論とを結びつけ、「尊皇攘夷」を旗頭に「倒幕」の世論を形成していった。
English: Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA, the 15th shogun, shogun, returned political power back to the Emperor (Taisei Hokan) as a last-ditch measure to save the political career of the Tokugawa clan.
Japanese: 15代将軍徳川慶喜は起死回生の策として大政奉還を実行し、徳川の政治的生き残りを図る。