nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: For this reason, they are often introduced as 'one of the great six educators in the Meiji period.'
Japanese: (そこ)から彼らを紹介する際には「明治の六大教育家の一人である」と付けることが多い。
English: Makoto KONDO: Founded an incorporated educational institution, Kogyokusha Gakuen, and played an active part mainly in mathematics, engineering and navigation.
Japanese: 近藤真琴学校法人攻玉社学園を創立、主に数学・工学・航海術の分野で活躍
English: Joseph Hardy Neesima (Joe NIIJIMA): Founded an incorporated educational institution, the Doshisha, to educate many talented persons in the fields of English and Christianity.
Japanese: 新島襄学校法人同志社を創立、英語・キリスト教の分野で多くの逸材を教育
English: Yukichi FUKUZAWA: Founded an incorporated educational institution, Gakko Hojin Keio Gijuku, and was a famous thinker in many fields, especially in law and economics.
Japanese: 福澤諭吉学校法人慶應義塾を創立、法学・経済学を中心に幅広い思想家として著名
English: Kogyokujuku (the original name of Kogyokusha Gakuen), Keio Gijuku and Dojinsha in Tokyo are collectively referred to as 'the three great private schools in the Meiji period' or 'the three great private schools' in some cases.
Japanese: なお、東京に所在する攻玉塾、慶應義塾、同人社を特にまとめて「明治の三大塾」「三大義塾」と称することもある。
English: These collective names are also based on the evaluation of private schools during the period of the Meiji restoration, which was summarized by the Imperial Educational Society from the Taisho period to the early Showa period.
Japanese: これも帝國教育会が大正から昭和初期に掛けてまとめた明治維新期の私塾に対する評価が基礎となっている。
English: These schools came to be referred to as 'the three great imperial private schools in the Meiji period,' etc. in the Taisho period.
Japanese: それが大正期に入ると「明治帝國三大義塾」などと表記されるようになったという経緯がある。
English: In some cases, Kogyokujuku and Dojinsha are excluded from the above-mentioned school group, to which other schools such as Tsuda College and the incorporated educational institution Nishogakusha are added, and the schools of the group are collectively referred to as 'the three great private schools.'
Japanese: なお、津田塾大学や学校法人二松学舎などを攻玉塾や同人社と交換して「三大塾」と称する事例が散見される。
English: Kaiganbogyo-goyogakari was a governmental post of the Edo bakufu.
Japanese: 海岸防禦御用掛（かいがんぼうぎょごようがかり）は、江戸幕府の職名の一つ。
English: In June 1853, as suggested by the Netherlands, the East-Indian fleet led by Matthew (Calbraith) PERRY, who brought a personal letter from President Millard Fillmore of the United States of America, landed on Uraga and requested the opening of Japan to the world and a conclusion of a treaty through Ujiyoshi TODA, Bugyo (a governmental officer) in Shimoda.
Japanese: 嘉永6年(1853年)6月、オランダから予告されていた通り、アメリカ合衆国のミラード・フィルモア大統領の親書を携えたマシュー・ペリー率いる東インド艦隊が浦賀沖に来航して下田奉行戸田氏栄らを通じて日本の開国と条約の締結を求めてきた。
English: Corresponding to this situation, the post of Kaiganbogyo-goyogakari was established, centered on Masahiro ABE, the head of Roju (the second-highest post in the bakufu government), to investigate how the bakufu should defense the nation on the sea.
Japanese: これに伴い、老中首座の阿部正弘らが中心となって幕府として海防のあり方を検討するために設けられた。
English: When Perry's fleet arrived, Ieyoshi TOKUGAWA, the shogun at that time, was dying, so it was impossible to expected of him to execute his political power at the national emergency.
Japanese: ペリー来航当時、時の将軍徳川家慶は死の床にあり、国家の一大事に際して執政をとるなど適わない状態であった。
English: Abe abandoned the custom of the dictatorship by Fudai daimyo (daimyo who had belonged to the Tokugawa group from before the Sekigawara war) and Hatamoto (direct retainers of the bakufu) centered on Shogun, recommended Nariaki TOKUGAWA, the lord of the Mito domain, to assume the coastal defense officer and made an inquiry about the matter to daimyo and Bakufu-yushi (officers of the bakufu), and informed the Imperial court of the arrival of Perry's fleet.
Japanese: 阿部は将軍を中心とした譜代大名・旗本らによる独裁体制の慣例を破り、水戸藩主徳川斉昭を海防参与に推戴し、諸大名・幕府有司への諮問、ペリー来航の朝廷通達を行った。
English: Furthermore, he restored Kaibogakari, and appointed the following persons to Kaiganbogyo-goyogakari.
Japanese: さらに、かつてあった海防掛を再置し、幕臣から下記の者を海岸防禦御用掛に任じた。
English: In addition, to investigate coastal defense measures to be taken by the bakufu, he had Chudayu TODA and Toko FUJITA, both confidants of Nariakira, participated in Kaiganbogyo-goyogakari as well and appointed Tatewaki AJIMA, also at the Mito domain and a younger brother of Chudayu TODA, to the secretary of Kaiganbogyo-goyogakari.
Japanese: その他、水戸藩からは斉昭の腹心である戸田忠太夫・藤田東湖が同じく幕府の海岸防禦御用掛として迎え、戸田忠太夫の実弟で水戸藩の安島帯刀を海防参与秘書掛に任じて、幕府の海防政策のあり方を検討させた。
English: However, in the next year, Masayoshi HOTTA, who had become the head of Roju replacing Abe, concluded the Japan-U.S. Treaty of Peace and Amity with the United States.
Japanese: しかしながら、翌年、阿部に代わり老中首座となった堀田正睦が中心となってアメリカとの間で日米和親条約を締結してしまった。
English: Angered by the situation, Nariaki TOKUGAWA resigned from the coastal defense officer, ending the mission of Kaibogakari of the bakufu.
Japanese: これに怒った徳川斉昭の海防参与辞任をもって、幕府の海防掛もその任を終えた。
English: It is said that the political method in which many daimyo and many retainers of domains were allowed to participate in the governmental operations of the bakufu gave a foothold for daimyo and the Imperial court to get involved in the center of the politics, which led to the collapse of the shogun-based feudal system.
Japanese: このような諸大名・諸藩の藩士をもおおいに幕政に参画させた政治手法は、結果として諸大名や朝廷が中央政治に進出する足がかりをつくることとなったといわれ、幕藩体制の崩壊の呼び水になったといわれている。
English: Kanjoginmiyaku was a governmental post in charge of auditing all jobs in the Kanjo-sho office (the office for finance) in the Edo Bakufu.
Japanese: 勘定吟味役（かんじょうぎんみやく）は、江戸幕府において、勘定所の職務すべてを監査を担当した役職である。
English: Though being ranked next to the Kanjo-bugyo post in the Kanjo-sho office, this post was not under the Kanjo-bugyo post but under Roju's direct supervision (the second-highest post in the Bakufu government).
Japanese: 勘定所内では勘定奉行に次ぐ地位であったが、勘定奉行の次席ではなく老中直属の機関である。
English: The Kanjo-sho office dealt with all finance-related matters, including the balance of the bakufu's finance, the collection of tax in Tenryo (the areas controlled directly by the bakufu), trade at Nagasaki, the attendance of the Gundai officers and of the Daikan officers, and reminting coins.
Japanese: 勘定所は、幕府財政の収支、天領での年貢徴収、長崎貿易、郡代・代官の勤怠、貨幣改鋳など財政に関する事務一切を扱った。
English: Since it was directly under the control of Roju, the officers had the authority of informing Rouj immediately of the wrong acts done by officers in the Kanjo-sho office, including Kanjo-bugyo officers.
Japanese: 老中直属であるから、勘定奉行を含め勘定所下僚に不正があった場合、直ちに老中に報告する権限を有していた。
English: This post, initially established by Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA, was once abolished by Shigehide OGIWARA at his own discretion in the Genroku era (1688 - 17-4)), but was restored by Hakuseki ARAI.
Japanese: はじめ徳川綱吉が設置し、元禄期に荻原重秀が独断で廃止してしまったが、新井白石が再度設置。
English: Later, in the Horeki era (1751 - 1764), 13 subordinates were placed under each of these officers according to an order from Ieshige TOKUGAWA, establishing the system as an independent inspection and audit organization.
Japanese: その後宝暦期には徳川家重の下命により、直属の部下13名をつけられ、独立した検査監査機構としての体制が整った。
English: After the Ashidakanosei law was enacted in the Kyoho reforms, this post was the highest one that could be reached by lower-class officers of the bakufu, and it was rare that such an officer was promoted above this post.
Japanese: 享保の改革で足高の制ができて以降、下級幕吏が到達できるほぼ最高のポストとなり、これ以上の昇格は非常にまれとなる。
English: Usually, a minister or Dainagon (a major counselor) additionally held this post, therefore its rank was often equivalent to or higher than Jusanmi.
Japanese: 大臣や大納言が兼任するのが一般的で、従って正三位以上であることが多い。
English: FUJIWARA no Nobuyori initiated the Heiji War wanting to hold the position of both a minister and Daisho (a major captain), and MINAMOTO no Sanetomo wanted to be Sadaisho (Major Captain the Left Division of Inner Palace Guards) which was higher than Udaisho (Major Captain of the Right Division of Inner Palace Guards).
Japanese: 藤原信頼は大臣と大将の兼任を望んで平治の乱を起こし、源実朝は右大将よりも高位の左大将を望んでいる。
English: In the Edo period, Sekke (line of regents and advisers) monopolized the position of Sakonoe no daisho, and even in the case of Tokugawa Shoguns, only 4 of them were assigned to Sakonoe no daisho exceptionally (other Tokugawa Shoguns and the Seiga family [one of the highest court noble families in Japan at that time] or lower were only assigned to Ukonoe no daisho).
Japanese: 江戸時代には摂家が左近衛大将の地位を独占し、徳川将軍ですら例外的に4名が任じられたのみであった（例外を除いた徳川将軍及び清華家以下は右近衛大将にのみ任じられていた）。
English: Otsukegaro is a karo (chief retainer) in the early Edo bakufu period who, when kikoshi (a young nobleman) in the linage of the Tokugawa Shogun family became the lord of a domain (daimyo), was appointed directly by Seii taishogun (literally, "the great general who was to subdue the barbarians") for serving the lord.
Japanese: 御附家老（おつけがろう）とは、徳川幕府初期、徳川将軍家血統の貴公子が藩主（大名）になった際に、征夷大将軍より直接命を受けて附属された家老のことである。
English: In the Edo period, the character of "御" (indicating a honorific expression) was added to its head, because this karo was appointed by Shogun, but today the more simple term of Tsukegato is used more often instead.
Japanese: 江戸時代では、将軍から付けられたので「御」をつけて呼ばれたが、現在では単に附家老（つけがろう）ということが多い。
English: As many as more than ten persons were sometimes appointed to the post, but ordinarily this term was used for indicating the head of these karo.
Japanese: 多い場合は十数人付けられたらしいが、通常はそのうちの筆頭家老を指す。
English: Therefore, the feature of the status were more those of an inspector under the direct supervision of Shogun than those of a retainer of a lord.
Japanese: したがって身分としては、藩主の家来というよりも将軍直属のお目付け役という性格が強い。
English: Over time, the concept of Tsukegaro came to depend on each domain and each Tsukegaro family.
Japanese: 時代が下るにしたがって藩ごと、附家老家ごとに考え方に差ができてきた。
English: It appears that some Tsukegaro served faithfully to the lord and confronted the shogun family, and others confronted the lord unnecessarily or engaged in factional strife in the domain.
Japanese: 藩主に忠実に仕えて将軍家と対抗しようとしたり、逆にいたずらに藩主と対抗したり、藩内で派閥抗争を繰り広げる人物もあったようである。
English: Chikayoshi HIRAIWA was appointed to Tsukegaro to Yoshinao TOKUGAWA on 26th of April, 1607 (in the old calendar).
Japanese: 平岩親吉が慶長12年（1607年）閏4月26日より徳川義直の附家老となる。
English: Chikayoshi died on the last day of December of 1611, and because he had no heir, his properties were confiscated.
Japanese: 親吉は慶長16年（1611年）12月晦日没し、無嗣により除封された。
English: Masanobu TAKEKOSHI was appointed to Tsukegaro to Yoshinao TOKUGAWA in 1619.
Japanese: 竹腰正信が元和(日本)5年（1619年）より徳川義直の附家老となる。
English: On the January 24, 1868, Masatomo TAKETOSHI, the tenth Takekoshi clan head was recognized as a daimyo by the Meiji government.
Japanese: 明治元年（1868年）1月24日明治政府により10代竹腰正旧が大名と認められる。
English: On the January 24, 1868, Masamitsu Naruse, the ninth Naruse clan head was recognized as a daimyo by the Meiji government.
Japanese: 明治元年（1868年）1月24日明治政府により9代成瀬正肥が大名と認められる。
English: Naotsugu ANDO was appointed to Tsukegaro to Yorinobu TOKUGAWA on July 19, 1619 (in the old calendar).
Japanese: 安藤直次が元和5年（1619年）7月19日より徳川頼宣の附家老となる。
English: On the January 24, 1868 (in the old calendar), Naohiro ANDO, the 16th Ando clan head was recognized as a daimyo by the Meiji government.
Japanese: 明治元年（1868年）1月24日明治政府により16代安藤直裕が大名と認められる。
English: Shigenaka MIZUNO was appointed to Tsukegaro to Yorinobu TOKUGAWA on July 19, 1619 (in the old calendar).
Japanese: 水野重仲が元和5年（1619年）7月19日より徳川頼宣の附家老となる。
English: On the January 24, 1868, Tadamoto MIZUNO (the lord of the Kii-Shingu domain), the tenth Mizuno clan head was recognized as a daimyo by the Meiji government.
Japanese: 明治元年（1868年）1月24日明治政府により10代水野忠幹(紀伊新宮藩主)が大名と認められる。
English: On the January 24, 1868, Nobuaki NAKAYAMA, the 14th Nakayama clan head was recognized as a daimyo by the Meiji government.
Japanese: 明治元年（1868年）1月24日明治政府により14代中山信徴が大名と認められる。
English: Tomimasa HONDA (a nephew of Shigetsugu HONDA) became the Tsukegaro of the 680,000-koku Echizen domain of Hideyasu YUKI, a son of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA.
Japanese: 本多富正（本多重次の甥）が慶長6年（1601年）に徳川家康の子、結城秀康の越前藩一国68万石に附家老として従う。
English: It is also said that initially, Onisakuza, or Shigetsugu HONDA, himself, or his son was desired for the post, but he recommended his nephew (whose father had died and was brought up by Shigetsugu) instead because he disliked for being handled as a baishin (a retainer of a shogun's direct retainer).
Japanese: 当初は鬼作左・本多重次自身、もしくはその子を望まれていたのだが、陪臣扱いを嫌って甥（実父は死別、重次が養育）を代わりに立てたとも言われている。
English: However, he firmly declined to become officially independent saying that he was under an obligation of the Mtsudaira family (Hideyasu, the first lord of the domain).
Japanese: しかしながら、越前松平家（藩初代の秀康）への恩義があると言って、正式な独立を固辞した。
English: For example, in the Daimyo-gyoretsu procession (feudal lord's costumed procession) in the Sankinkotai system (a system under which feudal lords in the Edo period were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo), he was allowed to pass sekisho (checking stations) with his long sword being held up or without getting off his palanquin, and he waited in the willow room (together with other daimyo ranked at Shii (the fourth rank) or lower).
Japanese: 大名行列を組んでの参勤交代、その際の長刀を掲げたままでの、または駕籠に乗ったままでの関所通過の許可、江戸城内では柳の間詰め（四位以下の大名並）だった。
English: When he worked in Edo, it was customary that he presented himself in front of the shogun and received a present from the shogun, showing that he was treated almost as an independent daimyo.
Japanese: 江戸在勤の折は将軍に必ず御目見え、拝領物を頂く慣例となっており、その待遇は独立大名並であった。
English: Being reluctant to accept this situation, people in his former territory and his former retainers caused the Takefu disturbance in 1870, and he was included in Kazoku (peerage) in 1879, being awarded the status of baron in 1884.
Japanese: が、旧領民および旧家臣らがこれを不服として1870年（明治3年）に武生騒動を起こし、明治12年に華族に列せられ、1884年（明治17年）に男爵となった。
English: Narishige HONDA (a son of Shigetsugu HONDA), who had earned a 5,000 koku of rice crop as a shogun's retainer, became Tsukegato to Tadanao MATSUDAIRA (the lord of the 750,000-koku Fukui domain) in 1613, supported young Tadanao together with Tomimasa HONDA, and played an important role, for example, in Osaka no Eki (The Siege of Osaka)
Japanese: 本多成重（本多重次の子）は幕臣として5000石を食んでいたが、慶長18年（1613年）松平忠直（福井藩75万石）付の附家老となり、若年の忠直を前述の本多富正と共に支え、大坂の役などに活躍。
English: According to a theory, it is also said that, seeing that his nephew whom he recommended for the post was successful, Shigetugu had his son occupy the post as well forcibly (therefore, his son earned slightly more amount of rice crop than Tomimasa, though having gotten the post later).
Japanese: 一説には重次が、送り込んだ甥の出世を見て、実子を福井藩にねじ込んだ（なので新参なのに石高が富正より少し高い）、とも。
English: When a kaieki punishment was administered to Tadanao and he was exiled, Narishishige (in the Maruoka domain) became an independent daimyo.
Japanese: 忠直が後に改易・流罪となった際、成重（丸岡藩）は独立、大名となった。
English: Kichiji Ogasawara became a Tsukegaro to Tadayoshi MATSUDAIRA (in the 520,000-koku Kiyosu domain) in November of 1600 (in the old calendar).
Japanese: 小笠原吉次が慶長5年（1600年）11月より松平忠吉（清洲藩52万石）の附家老となる。
English: Therefore, Kichiji's territory was changed to the Sakura domain on June 23, 1607, becoming a daimyo.
Japanese: そのため、吉次は慶長12年（1607年）閏4月29日佐倉藩へ転封され大名となった。
English: Shigekatsu MATSUDAIRA became a Tsukegaro to Tadateru MATSUDAIRA (in the 600,000-koku Takada domain) in 1614.
Japanese: 松平重勝が慶長19年（1614年）より松平忠輝（高田藩60万石）の附家老となる。
English: Therefore, Shigekatsu's territory was changed to the Sekiyado domain in December of 1617 (in the old calendar), becoming a daimyo.
Japanese: そのため、元和3年（1617年）12月関宿藩へ転封され大名となった。
English: Naritsugu Torii became a Tsukegaro to Tadanaga TOKUGAWA (in the 200,000-koku Kofu domain -> the 500,000-koku Sumpu domain) in 1616.
Japanese: 鳥居成次が元和2年（1616年）より徳川忠長（甲府藩20万石→駿府藩50万石）の附家老となる。
English: The properties of Tadafusa TORII, the second Torii clanhead, was confiscated on December 9, 1632 due to having been implicated in Tadanaga's misconduct.
Japanese: 2代鳥居忠房は寛永9年（1632年）10月28日忠長に連座し除封された。
English: Masanari INABA became a Tsukegaro to Tadamasa MATSUDAIRA (in the 250,000-koku Echigo-Takada domain) in February of 1618 (in the old calendar).
Japanese: 稲葉正成が元和4年（1618年）2月より松平忠昌（越後高田25万石）の附家老となる。
English: Because Masanari abandoned his post in1623, his properties were confiscated (later, becoming the daimyo of the 20,000-koku Maoka domain in February of 1627 (in the old calendar)).
Japanese: 正成は元和9年（1623年）退去したため除封された（のち寛永4年(1627年)2月に真岡藩2万石の大名となる）。
English: Gunji was a local government official who ruled a Gun/Kori (a county) under Kokushi (an officer of a province) who was appointed from the central aristocracy under the ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 郡司（ぐんじ）は、律令制下において、中央から派遣された国司の下で郡を治める地方官である。
English: Due to the Taika Reforms, the ritsuryo system was officially introduced in Japan, and the local system was also organized.
Japanese: 大化の改新により、日本でも本格的に律令制が導入され、地方制度も整えられるようになった。
English: Around 649, the 'Kuni' (an administrative unit) administrated by local Gozoku (powerful local clans), i.e., Kuninomiyatsuko (provincial governors), was abolished, and Kori/Hyo (local administrative organization) was implemented.
Japanese: 大化5年（649年）頃、地方豪族である国造（くにのみやつこ）の「国」が廃止され、評が置かれた。
English: Later, due to Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code) edited in 701, Kori/Ryo was abolished, and Gun (administrative district) was implemented and was administrated by Shitokan (four classifications of bureaucrats' ranks) as Gunji: Dairyo (first-ranked Gunji), Shoryo (second-ranked Gunji), Shusei (third-ranked Gunji) and Shucho (fourth-ranked Gunji in charge of drafting and accepting documents).
Japanese: やがて、701年（大宝(日本)元年）に編纂された大宝律令により、評が廃止されて郡が置かれ、郡司として大領・少領・主政・主帳の四等官に整備される。
English: Unlike Kokushi who was appointed from the central government officials with a fixed term, Gunji was appointed from local Gozoku including old Kuninomiyatsuko by heredity and was a lifelong official without a fixed term.
Japanese: 中央の官人が任期制で派遣されていた国司と異なり、郡司は、旧国造などの地方豪族が世襲的に任命され、任期のない終身官であった。
English: Moreover, according to the court ranking law of the Yoro ritsuryo code (code promulgated in the Yoro period), Gunji is not included in Kanisoto (the ranks of the bureaucracy of the ritsuryo system), and also it is clearly mentioned in Kushiki-ryo (the Ritsuryo law) (Article 52) that Gunji is not Shikijikan (a person with an official rank).
Japanese: 更に養老律令の官位令には郡司が官位相当の対象とされておらず、更に公式令(律令法)（52条）では郡司が職事官ではないことが明記されていた。
English: Gunji was a special position which was based on the Ritsuryo law but was not included in the government organization of the ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 律令法に基づく制度でありながら実際には律令官制の体系には属さないという特殊な身分であった。
English: Gunji not only had the right to collect taxes, but also had great authority to be in charge of: saving the taxes, paying taxes as tribute and using them, as well as controlling Handen Shuju (a regulation of land ownership).
Japanese: 郡司は徴税権のみならず、保管、貢進、運用、班田の収受も任されるなど絶大な権限を有していた。
English: The local administration at the beginning of the ritsuryo system was a two-tiered administration by Kokushi sent by the Imperial Court and by Gunji having authorities as a local chief.
Japanese: 律令制初期の地方行政は朝廷から派遣されていた国司と在地首長としての権威を保持していた郡司との二重構造による統治が行われていた。
English: However, the Imperial Court started restructuring Gun by dividing them and introducing Go (village) in order to create Gun as administrative units detached from the influence of Gozoku.
Japanese: しかし、朝廷は郡の分割や郷の編入などで郡の再編を進め、豪族の勢力圏と切り離した行政単位としての郡の整備を進める。
English: Moreover, when there were multiple Gozoku in a Gun, each Gozoku was assigned to be Gunji in turn so that one specific Gozoku would not monopolize the position of Gunji.
Japanese: また、郡内に複数の豪族が拠点を置く場合は、持ち回りで郡司に任命するなど、特定の豪族が郡司を独占しないように配慮した。
English: A Gunji candidate recommended by Kokushi had to visit Shikibu-sho to have an interview before being appointed.
Japanese: 国司が推薦する郡司候補者は式部省に直接赴き、試問を受けて任命された。
English: Not everyone recommended by Kokushi was assigned to be Gunji, and this decision was made depending on the situation of the area.
Japanese: 国司が推薦する者が必ずしも郡司に任命されるとは限らず、その地方の情勢で判断されることが多かった。
English: Although the most important factor in assigning Gunji, according to the ritsuryo system, was personal ability, it was the record and line of clan and family of the candidate, called Fudai (hereditary) that was actually prioritized.
Japanese: 郡司任命に最も重要視されるのは令制上は個人の能力であったが、実際には譜第と呼ばれる候補者の氏・家の系譜経歴であった。
English: Kokushi was able to assign a temporary Gunji (called Ginin Gunji [literally, a quasi-appointed district manager]) until an official Gunji was assigned.
Japanese: また、正員の郡司が任命されるまでの間、臨時の郡司（擬任郡司）を国司は任命することができた。
English: When an official Gunji was appointed, Ginin Gunji naturally lost their position, but Kokushi in some provinces were later given authority to increase the number of Gunji temporarily, and those temporary Gunji were also called Ginin Gunji.
Japanese: 正員の郡司が決まると、擬任郡司は自然に失職したが、後に国によっては国司が郡司を臨時に増員する権限を与えられ、臨時増員の郡司も擬任郡司と呼ぶ。
English: Socially, Gunji had traditional authority as well as enormous financial power, and maintained the order of local societies by relieving poor peasants as "influential local Gozoku."
Japanese: 社会的側面としては、郡司は任地における伝統的権威とともに豊富な財力を有しており、貧農の救済など地方社会の秩序維持に”地方の有力豪族”として努めた。
English: Politically, they were more like "local officials under Kokushi" and their position was lower than Kokushi, however, since they were practically in charge of local administration including the tax collection and the execution of the punishment of minor criminals, it is recognized that the central government maintained the local ruling through Gunji who kept track of the local societies.
Japanese: 政治的側面としては、”国司の下の地方官”としての意味合いが強く、立場上は国司よりも下であったが、徴税や軽い刑罰の執行など地方行政の実務を執り行っていたために、律令制の地方支配は、中央政府が郡司による地方社会の把握を媒介として成立していたと評価されている。
English: Gunji conducted government affairs at a public office called Gunga (provincial office), but sometimes a private residence of Gozoku who were assigned to be Gunji was used as Gunga.
Japanese: 郡司は郡衙と呼ばれる役所で政務を執ったが、しばしば郡司に任命された豪族の私的居館が郡衙として用いられた。
English: Such Gunga was sometimes called Guke/Gunge/Kooge.
Japanese: このような場合を特に郡家（ぐうけ・ぐんげ・こおげ）と呼ぶこともある。
English: Gunji had a lot of privileges such as receiving Shikiden (office-rice fields), sending their children to Kokugaku (provincial schools) and allowing them to be Kondei (regular soldiers guarding Kokubu [ancient provincial offices] or Sekisho [checking station]).
Japanese: 郡司は、職田（しきでん）を支給され、子弟を国学に進め、健児（こんでい）にするなど多くの特権を有した。
English: Gunji received more Shikiden than Kokushi: Dairyo received 6-cho, Shoryo received 4-cho, Shusei and Shucho each received 2-cho ("cho" means measure in length of approximately 109 meters.), but they did not receive any stipend nor Jikifu (a vassal household allotted to courtier, shrines and temples).
Japanese: 職田は大領が6町、少領が4町、主政、主張が2町と国司より多かったが、禄や食封は無かった。
English: Due to the stalemate of the ritsuryo system, a practical administrative reform was implemented around the middle of the 9th century.
Japanese: 律令制の行き詰まりから、9世紀中頃より、現実に即した行政改革が行われた。
English: Kokushi became in charge of Shoso (warehouse) in each Gun, and deprived Gunji of the right to collect taxes as well as the authority over the suiko (government loans, often seed rice, made to peasants in Japan from the 7th through 12th centuries) which had been the Gunji's major source of income.
Japanese: 各郡にあった正倉の管理も国司が行うようになり、徴税権のみならず、郡司の主要な収入源であった出挙の権限も奪われる。
English: On the other hand, Zaichokanjin (the local officials in the Heian and Kamakura periods) or executive local government officials, who had the authority of Kokushi, became influential rapidly.
Japanese: これに対し、国司の権限を分掌する幹部地方公務員とも言える在庁官人が急速に成長する。
English: Some local Gozoku avoided the position of Gunji, and chose to survive as Zaichokanjin instead.
Japanese: 地方豪族の中には、郡司就任を忌避し、在庁官人として生き残る道を選ぶ者も少なくなかった。
English: Moreover, the ancient-style Gun, Go and Shoen (manor in medieval Japan) were dissolved or reformed, and the medieval-style Gun, Go and Shoen were established.
Japanese: さらに、全国規模で古代的郡・郷・荘園が解体・再編され、中世的な郡・郷・保・荘園が成立していく。
English: Gunji as local officials became in name only, however, there appeared some cases that samurai inherited from Gozoku who had produced Gunji took 'Gunji' as their name, and also in some area, Gunji survived meagerly as one of the Shiki system (stratified land ruling structure).
Japanese: こうして地方官としての郡司は有名無実化していくが、中世に於いても、郡司を輩出した地方豪族の系統を引く武士が「郡司」を名乗っている例も散見できる他、一部の地区では職の体系の一つとして細々と生き残っていった。
English: It was one of the posts that daimyo in the Sengoku period (period of warring states) established for checking the human heads, brought by their subordinates after a battle, for granting appropriate rewards.
Japanese: 戦国大名が合戦後に、論功行賞を行うため獲得した首を検分する役職として設けた職名の一つ。