nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The contents differed among drafts; some allowed the right of resistance and the right of revolution (Toyo Dai Nippon-koku Kokken-an [Draft of the National Constitution for Great Japan of the East]), some insisted that sovereignty should reside with the people or on a parliamentary system, and some included the right to dismiss an emperor from the throne by national referendum.
Japanese: 内容は案によって様々で、抵抗権や革命権（東洋大日本国国憲按）を容認したもの、人民主権、議院内閣制を主張するもの、国民投票で皇帝を廃立する権利を規定したものもあった。
English: Consideration and creation of Shigi Kenpo were banned by Hoan-jorei (regulations for the preservation of law and order) which had become effective on December 26, 1887, the same day of its establishment and issuance.
Japanese: 1887年12月26日に制定、発布され、即日施行された保安条例によって、私擬憲法の検討及び作成は禁じられた。
English: Because of this, Shigi Kenpo were no longer brought to the government for discussion and thus were not directly reflected in the Constitution of the Empire of Japan.
Japanese: これにより、私擬憲法が政府に持ち寄られて議論されることはなく、大日本帝国憲法に直接反映されることはなかった。
English: Normally stone tool was made of stone materials beaten and exfoliated by other stone or animal bones.
Japanese: 通常石器は、原料となる石材を他の石材や動物骨などで敲打したり剥離したりして製作する。
English: Ground stone tool was made of such stone tools which had seldom asperity by being polished with other stone material.
Japanese: 磨製石器はこのように製作した石器を他の石材で擦ることにより磨いて凹凸を極力無くした石器をさす。
English: A part of them appeared in the Paleolithic period and made often in the Neolithic period (Jomon period in Japan).
Japanese: 一部は旧石器時代から出現し、新石器時代（日本では縄文時代）にさかんにつくられた。
English: In Yayoi period, in northern part of Kyushu, flint arrowhead and stone sword of ground stone tools which originated in the Korean Peninsula were developed.
Japanese: 弥生時代の北部九州では、朝鮮半島起源の磨製石鏃と磨製石剣が発達した。
English: There were two types of the stone swords of ground stone tool such as ones with stone handle and ones in iron sword style.
Japanese: 磨製石剣には柄の部分まで石でつくった有柄式磨製石剣と鉄剣形磨製石剣がある。
English: Kinai style chipped points which imitated the stone sword of the ground stone tools in iron sword style was used as spear, sword and pike.
Japanese: 北九州の鉄剣形磨製石剣を真似た畿内式打製尖頭器は、槍・剣・戈として使われた。
English: The Chokyo-Entoku Wars were campaigns conducted by the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) twice in 1487 and in 1491 in the late Muromachi period against Omi no kuni shugo (the provincial constable of Omi Province) Takayori ROKKAKU, and it is also referred to as Rokkaku Seibatsu (suppression).
Japanese: 長享・延徳の乱（ちょうきょう・えんとくのらん）とは、室町時代後期の長享元年（1487年）と延徳3年（1491年）の2度に亘って室町幕府が行った近江国守護・六角高頼に対する親征で、六角征伐とも言われる。
English: In addition, the first campaign was also called Magari no Jin because a position was taken up in Magari, Kurita County, Omi Province (Ritto City, Shiga Prefecture).
Japanese: なお、1回目については近江国栗太郡鈎（まがり）（滋賀県栗東市）に陣が布かれたことから、鈎の陣とも。
English: After Onin-Bunmei Wars came to an end, Shugo (provincial constables) and Kokujin (local lords) have extended their power in various places by wresting territories of temples and shrines and so on.
Japanese: 応仁・文明の乱が収束したのち、各地では守護や国人らが寺社領などを押領して勢力を拡大していた。
English: Omi shugo (the Governor of Omi Province) the Rokkaku clan, who had belonged to the West squad led by Sozen (Mochitoyo) YAMANA in Onin-Bunmei Wars, also wrested shoen (private estates) in the province and territories of the trusted vassals of the Shogun Yoshihisa, thereby explicitly showing a rebellious attitude towards the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
Japanese: 乱において山名宗全（持豊）率いる西軍に属した近江守護六角氏もまた、国内の荘園や将軍義尚近臣の所領を押領し、幕府への反抗の態度を露骨に表していた。
English: In 1487, the ninth Shogun Yoshihisa ASHIKAGA decided to subjugate Takayori ROKKAKU, and headed an army mainly consisted of hokoshu (the shogunal military guard) directly under him to go into the battle in Sakamoto in Omi Province, and in September, the Shogun ordered the Shogunal Deputy Masamoto HOSOKAWA, Wakasa no kuni shugo (the provincial constable of Wakasa Province) Kuninobu TAKEDA and Kaga no kuni shugo (the provincial constable of Kaga Province) Masachika TOGASHI to Omi Province and attacked Takayori.
Japanese: 長享元年（1487年）、9代将軍足利義尚は六角高頼征伐を決定し、将軍直属の奉公衆を中心とした軍を率いて近江坂本へ出陣、9月には管領細川政元・若狭国守護武田国信・加賀国守護富樫政親を近江に召集し、高頼を攻撃する。
English: The following year, Masachika TOGASHI, on whom the army of bakufu was depending returned to his hometown due to the Kaga Ikko ikki (an uprising of Ikko sect followers in Kaga Province) intensified, and in addition, an incident occurred in which he was killed in the ikki.
Japanese: 翌年、加賀一向一揆の激化によって幕府軍が頼みとしていた富樫政親は国許に帰還、しかも、その一揆に討たれるという事件が発生する。
English: Yoshihisa showed his determination to subjugate Hongan-ji Temple and the forces of uprising as well, but he was forced to abandon it because Masamoto HOSOKAWA also disagreed with him for the reason that the suppression of the Rokkaku clan was ongoing.
Japanese: 義尚は本願寺や一揆勢をも討伐する意を示すが、六角氏討伐中という事で細川政元からも反対され、断念に追い込まれる。
English: Sadakage ASAKURA (the ninth family head) who became Echizen no kuni shugo (the Governor of Echizen Province) and Mino no kuni shugo (the Governor of Mino Province) Shigeyori TOKI did not move for fear that they would become the next targets, although they had geographically better conditions than Kaga Province to join the camp.
Japanese: 越前国守護となった朝倉貞景(9代当主)と美濃国守護の土岐成頼は、地理的にも加賀よりも参陣しやすい条件にありながら、次の標的が自分たちに向けられる事を危惧して動かなかった。
English: Although Sadakage ASAKURA himself stayed in his province, he dispatched Kagefuyu ASAKURA of his family to Sakamoto in Omi Province, thereby showing his minimally cooperative attitude.
Japanese: 朝倉貞景は自らは本国に留まりながらも、一門の朝倉景冬を近江坂本に派兵し、最低限の協調姿勢は見せた。
English: However, Shigeyori TOKI raised an army in Mino Province, and in addition he stayed in the mountains to intimidate the army of bakufu.
Japanese: ところが、土岐成頼は美濃で挙兵し、しかもそのまま山中に籠って幕府軍を威圧した。
English: After all, in 1489, Yoshihisa who had changed his name to Yoshihiro died at the front at Magari in Omi Province, and therefore the suppression by bakufu was suspended and Takayori was temporarily discharged.
Japanese: 結局延徳元年（1489年）、義熙と改名していた義尚は近江鈎の陣中で死去したため、幕府による討伐は中断となり、高頼は一時赦免された。
English: Yoshitane ASHIKAGA who succeeded to Yoshihisa also started to suppress Takayori again in 1491.
Japanese: 義尚の後を継いだ足利義稙も、延徳3年（1491年）に再び高頼討伐を行った。
English: Due to the failure in two campaigns for the suppression, and the Meio Coup in 1493 where Masamoto HOSOKAWA forced the Shogun Yoshiki to abdicate, the authority of the bakufu significantly reduced.
Japanese: 2度の討伐失敗、翌明応2年（1493年）に細川政元が将軍・義材を廃した明応の政変により、幕府の権威は大きく失墜。
English: Afterwards, the Kinai region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara) came to be involved in wars (such as Funaokayama-gassen [battle of Mt. Funaoka]) originating from a struggle over the position of shogunate.
Japanese: 以後の畿内は、将軍職争いに端を発した戦乱（船岡山合戦など）に巻き込まれる。
English: Ishida Sanyaku was medical powder made and sold by the home of the parents of Toshizo HIJIKATA, a vice chief of the Shinsengumi (a paramilitary group of pro-shogunate ronin formed in Kyoto).
Japanese: 石田散薬（いしださんやく）とは新選組の副長、土方歳三の生家が製造、販売していた薬。
English: Gyukakuso' (a plant of a buckwheat family, scientific name: Polygonum Thunbergii) that had been grown along the area of the Asakawa river, which was a tributary of the Tamagawa river, near Hijikata's house, was its raw material.
Japanese: 土方家のすぐ近くにある、多摩川の支流の淺川（浅川(東京都)）に生えている牛革草（ぎゅうかくそう、ミゾソバのこと）を原材料にしている。
English: In 1948, in response to its manufacturing license application with the enforcement of amendments to the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law, the Ministry of Health and Welfare concluded that all charred medicines, including the Ishida Sanyaku, did not meet government criteria for efficacy, saying 'any clinical, scientific researches into their components, qualities and efficacy have not been carried out.'
Japanese: 本当に薬効があったかは疑わしく、1948年（昭和23年）薬事法改正に伴う製造販売許可申請において、厚生省は「成分本質効能に関する客観性のある科学的調査研究がなされていない」として石田散薬に限らず、黒焼き全ての薬効を認めないという方針を示した。
English: The Tosizo HIJIKATA museum still has a little Ishida Sanyaku at the time of discontinuation of manufacturing.
Japanese: 今でも土方歳三資料館には製造中止した頃の石田散薬が僅かに残っている。
English: Gyukakuso itself is a herbal medicine that works for rheumatism, hemostatic, and pain relief.
Japanese: また、牛革草自体はリューマチ、止血、鎮痛に効果のあるれっきとした薬草である。
English: However, when it was charred for Ishida Sanyaku, such efficacy was considered to become ruined.
Japanese: しかし、石田散薬は黒焼きにしたため薬効が台無しになってしまったと考えられる。
English: Shinengo (literally means private nengo; nengo is a name of an era) was the name of an era which was not declared by a dynasty that had a stable administrating power in South East Asia, where the name of an era was used as the method of counting years.
Japanese: 私年号（しねんごう）は、紀年法として元号を用いた東アジアにおいて、安定した統治能力を確立した王朝が定めた元号以外の年号をさす。
English: Shinengo were mainly used by rebels and opponents against then existing dynasty, and their usage period were relatively short.
Japanese: 主として時の王朝に対する反乱勢力や批判勢力によって使用されたものが多く、使用期間は概して短い。
English: In Japan, the nengo written in some historical books as declared by the Emperor but not written in official history, or the nengo which was ancient and its use was seen in antique archaeological materials are called Itsunengo (era name which really existed but taken out of official history) - and they are sometimes classified as Shinengo.
Japanese: 日本では、正史には記載されていないが、天皇が定めたものとして一部の史書に記載があったり、考古資料に使用例が見られる古代の年号を逸年号と呼び、これに含める場合がある。
English: From the point of view that Shinengo had little intention to oppose the dynasty of the time, they are sometimes regarded as different from 'Itsunengo' and 'Sennengo or Setsunengo (stealing of nengo)' which had a clear rebellious intention.
Japanese: なお、「私年号」を時の王朝に対する対抗的性格の薄いものとし、明確な対抗的意志をもって建てられる「偽年号」「僭（窃）年号」と区別する場合もある。
English: In the Sengoku period (period of warring states), there were some Shinengo widely used in Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region)
Japanese: 戦国時代(日本)の東国においては、広範囲にわたって用いられた私年号もあった。
English: They are more often seen in Itahi (board monument), Kakocho (a family register of deaths), Junreifuda (pilgrimage tags), and Koshaji engi (writings about the history of old temples and shrines) than in official documents.
Japanese: 公文書などよりも、板碑や過去帳、巡礼札、古社寺縁起などに多く見られる。
English: There is an interpretation that the Kyushu nengo table of Kyushu dynasty theory (which was nengo historically investigated by Shigenobu TSURUMINE as the nengo of Kumaso [a tribe living in the ancient Kyushu district]) is a kind of Shinengo.
Japanese: 九州王朝説九州年号表（鶴峰戊申が、熊襲の年号として考証した年号）を私年号の一種とする解釈もある。
English: Reformation of the shogunate government refers to the reforms of the financial, political, and other systems implemented under the Edo "bakufu" (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
Japanese: 幕政改革（ばくせいかいかく）は、江戸幕府で行われた、財政および政治制度その他の諸改革を指す。
English: Commonly, Kyoho Reforms, Kansei Reforms, and Tenpo Reforms are called Three Big Reforms under the Edo bakufu, and besides, large-scale financial and institutional reforms were implemented many times.
Japanese: 俗に、享保の改革・寛政の改革・天保の改革をもって「江戸幕府の三大改革」と呼ばれるが、これ以外にも、大規模な財政・制度改革は幾度にも渡って行われている。
English: The reigns of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA (the first Shogun), Hidetada TOKUGAWA (the second Shogun), and Iemitsu TOKUGAWA (the third Shogun) fell under the period of establishment of the Edo bakufu, so various policies during this period were done for setting up the regime rather than implementing reforms, so these policies are not included in the reforms of the shogunate government.
Japanese: 初代将軍徳川家康、2代徳川秀忠、3代徳川家光の時代は、江戸幕府体制の確立期にあたり、この期間における諸改革は「改革」というよりもむしろ「体制固め」というべきであるため、幕政改革には含まれない。
English: The basic framework of the shogunate and domain system in the Edo period was created under the rule of Ieyasu and Hidetada - as a shogun or an "ogosho" (a title of honor given to the former shogun).
Japanese: 家康・秀忠の2代において（大御所時代も含む）、江戸時代幕藩体制の基本的骨格が創作されていく。
English: secondly, they took control of farmers and peasants with "shumon aratame" (originally, an inquisition for suppressing Christianity, but later, it became like a general research on residents), and took religious policies as well, such as a ban of Christianity and issuance of "Jiin Shohatto" (the regulations for Buddhist temples in the Edo period);
Japanese: 第二に農民統制（宗門改め）、及び宗教政策（切支丹禁令、寺院諸法度）がある。
English: besides, they issued "Kinchu Narabini Kuge Shohatto" (a set of regulations applied to the emperor and the Kyoto nobles) for controlling the Imperial Court, and established the policy that forbade private people to trade with foreign countries through a series of so-called the Decrees of Seclusion, and they also set the precedent that "fudai daimyo" (Japanese territorial lords in hereditary vassal to the Tokugawa family) monopolized the politics of the Edo bakufu.
Japanese: さらに朝廷政策（禁中並公家諸法度）、海禁政策（いわゆる一連の鎖国令）、譜代大名による幕政の独占などもある。
English: In this way, the basic political system was built and roughly completed during the reign of the third Shogun Iemitsu TOKUGAWA.
Japanese: こうして基本的な幕府の政治制度が整えられていき、一応の完成を見たのは3代徳川家光の時代である。
English: In the reign of the next fourth Shogun Ietsuna TOKUGAWA, the politics was stable thanks to the competent "roju" (member of shogun's council of elders), such as Nobutsuna MATSUDAIRA and Tadakatsu SAKAI (the feudal lord of the Obama Domain, Wakasa Province).
Japanese: 続く4代徳川家綱の時代は、松平信綱・酒井忠勝(若狭国小浜藩主)ら有能な老中らに恵まれ、安定した幕府政治が行われた。
English: In spite of being stable, the politics of the Edo bakufu was far from perfect, so various contradictions inherent in the regime became problematic year by year.
Japanese: しかし、安定した幕府政治も完璧という訳ではなく、様々な矛盾は当初から内包され、次第に問題化していくことになる。
English: Particularly, the financial crisis came early for various causes, such as depletion of gold and silver mines under direct control of the Edo bakufu, outflow of gold and silver from Nagasaki that resulted from a deficit in trade with foreign countries, and expense for reconstruction projects after disasters, including the Great Fire of Meireki, some big earthquakes, and eruption of Mt. Fuji.
Japanese: とりわけ幕府財政の危機は、諸国の幕府直轄金山・銀山の枯渇傾向、長崎における海外交易赤字による金銀の流出、明暦の大火・大地震・富士山の噴火などの災害復興事業による出費などから、いち早く訪れた。
English: This situation compelled the fifth Shogun Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA to implement a financial reform, so he tried to do it by selecting Shigehide OGIWARA as kanjo bugyo (commissioner of finance) - incidentally, Tsunayoshi waved the banner of ideological ideas by adopting Confucianism into his politics.
Japanese: 5代将軍となった徳川綱吉は、儒教による理念的な政治思想を掲げつつも、財政改革の必要に迫られ、勘定奉行に荻原重秀を抜擢して解決を図った。
English: Ogiwara tentatively resolved the financial crisis by reminting an old coin into "Genroku koban" (the oval gold coin minted in the Genroku era) - he reduced the percentage of gold in the old coin, and increased the number of coins in circulation as a whole - but as a result, his policy caused inflation and a surge of commodity prices in the Genroku era.
Japanese: 荻原は元禄小判による貨幣改鋳（金含有率を減らして貨幣流通量を増やす）によって財政問題を一時的に解決するが、結果として元禄期のインフレーション状況を生じることとなり、物価の高騰を招いた。
English: The sixth Shogun Ienobu TOKUGAWA had been formerly the feudal lord of Kofu Domain, and so, in order to carry out his reforms, he promoted Akifusa MANABE and a scholar Hakuseki ARAI, both of whom had had achievements in political reforms in the Kofu Domain, to his grand chamberlain and personal staff respectively.
Japanese: 6代将軍となった徳川家宣は、もと甲府藩主から将軍職となったが、甲府時代から政治改革に実績のあった側用人間部詮房や学者の新井白石を起用し、改革を行った。
English: Tsunayoshi's policies were denied in the reforms, so, for example, Shorui-Awaremi-no-rei (ordinances of animal protection) was revoked, "kanjo ginmiyaku" (a post to support kanjo bugyo) was newly established, and the financial contradiction in the Tsunayoshi age was tried to resolve by issuing Shotoku gold and silver coins as a deflationary policy, but the reforms ended halfway on the road after Ienobu and his successor Ietsugu TOKUGAWA (the seventh Shogun) died young.
Japanese: 綱吉時代の政策は否定され、生類憐れみの令は撤回、勘定吟味役の創設、正徳金銀発行（デフレーション政策）による綱吉時代の財政矛盾の解決などを行ったが、将軍家宣・7代徳川家継があいついで早世したため、改革は中途半端に終わった。
English: The eighth Shogun Yoshimune TOKUGAWA came from the Kishu Tokugawa family (a branch of Tokugawa family), so he had the courage to lead the political reforms without hesitation toward "fudai daimyo," who had led politics of the Edo bakufu until then.
Japanese: 8代将軍となった徳川吉宗は、紀州徳川家の出身であり、それまでの幕政を主導してきた譜代大名に対して遠慮することなく、大胆に政治改革を主導することとなった。
English: The reforms led by Shogun Yoshimune himself is called Kyoho Reforms (from A.D. 1716 to 1745).
Japanese: 将軍吉宗自ら主導した改革を「享保の改革」と呼ぶ（1716年-1745年）。
English: As goods distribution and a monetary economy developed, the rice price, which served as a standard of other commodities' price, continued falling throughout the Edo period, so people then said that rice price was low while other commodities' was high.
Japanese: 商品流通・貨幣経済の発展に伴い、諸物価の基準であった米価は江戸時代を通じて下落を続け、「米価安の諸色高」と言われた状況にあった。
English: And this directly led to the poverty of "hatamoto" (direct retainers of the Edo bakufu) and lower-ranking samurai whose stipends were based on a rice harvest.
Japanese: これが米収入を俸禄の基本とする旗本・下級武士の困窮に直接つながっていた。
English: Therefore, while controlling people's consumption with sumptuary decrees, Yoshimune implemented many rice-related reforms, such as development of new rice fields for increasing the rice harvest, adoption of "Jomen ho" (the taxation system whose rate was determined by calculating the average rice harvest over the past 5, 10, or 20 years) for stabilizing the income of the Edo bakufu, issuance of "Agemai-rei" (the decree ordering 'daimyo' to pay 100 koku rice for every 10 thousand koku it had), and permission for Dojima Rice Exchange, so Yoshimune was given a nickname of "Rice Shogun."
Japanese: そのため吉宗は、倹約令で消費を抑える一方、新田開発による米増産、定免法採用による収入の安定、上米令、堂島米会所の公認など、米に関する改革を多く行ったため、「米将軍」の異名を取った。
English: Also, he set a complaints box for the public, and introduced meritocracy by adopting "Ashidaka system" (the system which took talented people into bakufu, who had been unable to assume the important posts until then owing to their low stipends).
Japanese: 吉宗は米価対策の他にも目安箱の設置、足高制による人材抜擢制度の整備を行った。
English: And moreover, he implemented various reforms, such as renewing Edo city through establishing local fire brigades and Koishikawa Hospital, mitigating prohibition of Western knowledge through various measures (lifting an embargo on the import of Western books translated into Chinese characters, permitting cultivation of sweet potatoes, and so on), and handling matters about merchants (issuing Mutual Settlement Decree on money matters, permitting "kabu nakama" [a kind of cartel formed by wholesalers and other merchants], and so on).
Japanese: 更には江戸の都市政策（町火消の創設、小石川養生所の設置）、西洋知識禁制の緩和（漢訳洋書禁輸の緩和、甘藷栽培など）、商人対策（相対済まし令、株仲間の公認など）などの諸改革も行われた。
English: Thanks to the reforms, the financial condition of the Edo bakufu turned for the better, and in 1744, the income of bakufu reached its peak throughout the Edo period, but Yoshimune's change of tax rate and thorough frugality policy caused frequent uprisings and destructive riots of discontented peasants and merchants.
Japanese: 幕府財政は一部で健全化し、1744年には江戸時代を通じて最高の税収となったが、税率変更や倹約の徹底により百姓・町民からの不満を招き百姓一揆・打ちこわしなどが頻発した。
English: This shows that the Edo bakufu then became unable to resolve its financial contradictions if it continued depending on rice harvest.
Japanese: もはや米作収入に依存する財政は矛盾を解消できない段階に到達しつつあった。
English: Despite Yoshimune's Kyoho Reforms, a budget deficit of the Edo bakufu was far from a thorough resolution, so it was carried over to the reign of the next ninth Shogun Ieshige TOKUGAWA.
Japanese: 吉宗が行った享保の改革によっても幕府の財政赤字の根本的解決には程遠く、続く9代徳川家重の時代に持ち越される。
English: And it was Okitsugu TANUMA who got promoted from the grand chamberlain to "roju," and who took the initiative in reconstructing the bakufu finance from the last days of Ieshige's reign to the next tenth Shogun Ieharu TOKUGAWA's one; incidentally, the reforms of politics after that were mostly led by "roju."
Japanese: 家重時代の末期から続く10代徳川家治時代にかけて幕政を主導し財政を立て直したのが、側用人から老中となった田沼意次である（なお、これ以後の幕政改革は、ほぼ老中が主導することになる）。
English: The period that Tanuma led the political reforms is called the Tanuma period (from 1760s to around 1786)
Japanese: 田沼が政治改革を主導した時期を「田沼時代」と呼ぶ（1760年代-1786年頃）。
English: Tanuma tried to reconstruct finance of the Edo bakufu by reducing its conventional dependence on agriculture and implementing mercantilistic reforms.
Japanese: 田沼は、それまでの農業依存の幕府経済を改め、重商主義的な改革を行うことによって財政の立て直しを図る。
English: He aggressively pushed forward his reforms, such as collecting business taxes and forced contribution in exchange for promoting "kabu nakama," doing reclamation works of Inba-numa Lake and Tega-numa Lake with merchants' funds, and promoting trade with foreign countries at Nagasaki - particularly through production increase of goods for export, including "tawara mono" (goods in straw bags), thereby succeeding in reconstruction of bakufu finance.
Japanese: 株仲間の奨励策による運上金・冥加金の徴収、町人資本による印旛沼・手賀沼の干拓事業を行ういっぽう、長崎貿易の推奨（特に俵物など輸出商品の増産）など、積極的に改革を推し進め、幕府財政を立て直すことに成功した。
English: He also implemented foreign policy reforms, such as promoting Western learning, surveying "Ezochi" (the Ainu-dwelling area in the Matsumae Domain) proposed by Heisuke KUDO and others, and seeking trade with the Russian Empire via the Ainu.
Japanese: また、蘭学の奨励、工藤平助らの提案による蝦夷地調査、アイヌを通じた対ロシア帝国交易の模索など、海外政策の改革も行っている。
English: Meanwhile, his mercantilism is said to have caused prevalence of mammonism and graft, and this began to meet a resentment of "fudai daimyo," including Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA, who put a high value on physiocracy that the Edo bakufu conventionally had taken.
Japanese: その一方で、重商主義から来る金銭崇拝的傾向が瀰漫し、賄賂政治が横行したとされ、また幕府伝統の重農主義を重んずる松平定信ら譜代大名から反撥されるようになる。
English: And Okitsugu repeatedly met with misfortunes, such as the assassination of his son Okitomo TANUMA, failure of the reclamation work of Inba-numa Lake, eruption of Mt. Asama, the Tenmei Famine, and the death of the Shogun Ieharu who supported Okitsugu, so he lost his position and his politics came to an end.
Japanese: 子の田沼意知暗殺や印旛沼干拓事業の失敗、浅間山の噴火・天明の大飢饉発生および後ろ盾であった将軍家治の死などの不運が重なったことにより、田沼が失脚したことで田沼政治は終局する。
English: However, a series of reforms implemented by Okitsugu can be said to have been no less important than so-called Three Big Reforms.
Japanese: しかし、この一連の田沼による改革は、いわゆる三大改革に勝るとも劣らぬ重要な意義をもった改革であったといえよう。
English: He implemented Kansei Reforms (from 1787 to 1793) to tighten the loose atmosphere in the Tanuma period, and his policies were continued by his Kansei senior vassals until 1817.
Japanese: 彼は田沼時代の弛緩した雰囲気を粛正すべく寛政の改革をスタートすることとなった（1787年-1793年、さらに1817年まで寛政の遺老によって政策は継続）。
English: Sadanobu, the grandson of the eighth Shogun Yoshimune, regarded Yoshimune's reforms as ideal ones, so he encouraged frugality, watched over public morals, and drew up an extremely reduced budget in order to put an end to inflation from the Tanuma period.
Japanese: 定信は将軍吉宗の孫にあたり、吉宗の改革を理想としたため、田沼時代のインフレを収めるため、質素倹約・風紀取り締まりを進め、超緊縮財政で臨んだ。
English: On the other hand, he implemented various conservative policies, such as compelling "daimyo" to take "kakoimai" (rice storage system in case of emergency), issuing "Kyurikino-rei" (the decree that forced peasants flowing into Edo to return to their hometowns) and "Kien-rei" (the decree to relieve 'hatamoto' and 'gokenin' [an immediate vassal of the shogunate] from their economic difficulties).
Japanese: 他方大名に囲米を義務づけ、江戸へ流入した百姓を出身地へ強制的に帰還させ（旧里帰農令）、また棄捐令を発して旗本・御家人らの救済を図るなど、保守的な傾向が強かった。
English: In the academic field, he issued "Kansei Igaku no Kin" (Prohibition of heterodoxies in the Kansei era) and authorized "Shushigaku" (Neo-Confucianism) as the official study, nationalized "Shoheizaka Gakumonsho" (or called 'Shoheiko,' which had been the private school of the Hayashi family), and took other measures to encourage literary and military arts.
Japanese: また学問分野では寛政異学の禁で朱子学を公式の学問とし、林家の私塾であった昌平坂学問所（昌平黌）を官立とするなど文武の奨励を行った。
English: In the field of foreign policy, he was a hawk, for he prohibited the sale of books written by Shihei HAYASHI about the need to protect "Ezochi" from the Russian Empire and punished Shihei, and bluntly rejected the request for trade of Adam Kirillovich Laksman, the Russian who saw Kodayu DAIKOKUYA - Kodayu had been drifted away to Russia by accident - back to Japan.
Japanese: 対外対策では、林子平の蝦夷地対策を発禁処分として処罰し、漂流者大黒屋光太夫を届けたロシアのアダム・ラクスマンに対し交易を完全に拒絶するなど、強硬姿勢で臨んだ。
English: But people could not catch up with the Sadanobu's high ideal, partly because his reforms as a whole favored samurai while being strict on merchants and peasants.
Japanese: 全体として町人・百姓に厳しく、武士を優遇する改革でもあり、人心は定信の理想についていけないままであった。