nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Additionally, this 'Japan Accounts' included the almost correct information on Japan's geography; for example, gold was mined in the 'Oshu region' in the east, and silver in another island in the west of Japan, which appeared to be Tsushima Island although it referred to partly different descriptions from true fact, including the one that there were many rhinoceroses and elephants in Japan.
Japanese: また、この「日本伝」では、「「東の奥洲」で黄金を産出し、対馬のことと思われる「西の別島で白銀を産出する」など、日本の地理などの情報は全体的にほぼ正確に伝えているが、「犀、象が多い」など事実と異なった記述も一部ある。
English: Also, the 'History of the Mongols,' a subsection of the "Compendium Chronicle (Jami al-Tawarikh)," stated that there was a large island named Jimangu (جمنكو Jimangū?), which was surrounded by a great ocean, located to the southeast, 400 farsang (or about 2,000km; farsang is an Iranian or Persian unit of measurement for how far a man can walk in one day) off the coast of the Jurchen and Goryeo (جورجه و كولى Jūrja wa Kūlī) regions.
Japanese: また、『集史』「クビライ紀」によると、「東南方、環海中、女直と高麗（جورجهوكولىJūrjawaKūlī）地方沿岸近くに大島があり、それはジマングー（جمنكوJimangū?）という名前で（女直や高麗の地域から）400ファルサング（約2,000km）離れている。」とある。
English: It included the description that a large island located far away across the sea from Jurchen and Goryeo as an area against the Great Yuan Dynasty, transcribed as 'جمنكوj-m-n-k-w,' which appeared to be a 'country of Japan.'
Japanese: 女直、高麗などから東南海上の彼方に大元朝に敵対する地域として「日本国」の音写とおぼしき「جمنكوj-m-n-k-w」と呼ばれる大島についての記述がある。
English: As mentioned above, at the present day, it is generally believed that Zipangu told by Marco Polo referred to Japan, but there are some different opinions.
Japanese: 上記のごとく、マルコ・ポーロのジパングが日本のことを指すという見方が現在一般的であるが、異説もある。
English: The description of Zipangu given by Marco Polo and other legends apparently located it in the Torrid Zone (both its degrees of latitude and its climate), which was quite different from the actual location of Japan (it belongs the Temperate Zone).
Japanese: マルコ・ポーロの記述やその他の黄金島伝説ではツィパングの場所として（緯度的にも気候的にも）明らかに熱帯を想定しており、実際の日本（温帯に属する）の位置とはかなり異なる。
English: For these reasons, one theory holds that it was a misunderstanding of missionaries who reached Japan during the 16th century who connected Zipangu with Japan.
Japanese: などの理由から、ジパングと日本を結びつけたのは16世紀の宣教師の誤解であるとする説もある。
English: Additionally, another one explains that the origin of Zipangu was from a dialect of ツィァパングォ (foreign lands) which was indicated as small countries in Southeast Asia, where the Yuan Dynasty sent a military expedition.
Japanese: またジパングの語源としても、元が遠征した東南アジアの小国家群を示す「諸蕃国」（ツィァパングォ）の訛りであるとする。
English: During the Sengoku Period of Japan it was a frequent occurrence for samurai's to part from their masters, but from the Edo Period it became an unforgiveable crime for a vassal to abandon his lord and many times pursuers were sent after them.
Japanese: 戦国時代(日本)では、主君を違える行為は一般的に発生していたが、江戸時代に入ると「脱藩は臣下の身で主を見限るものとして」許されない風潮が高まり、討手が放たれることもあった。
English: This was because, through the Dappan samurai, the Domain's military secrecy and family troubles could be revealed in public and frequently caused fatal 'Kaieki' sanctions (sudden dismissal and deprivation of position, privileges and properties) for the domain (and/or the lord of the domain).
Japanese: これは、脱藩者を通じて軍事機密や御家騒動などが表沙汰になり、藩（藩主）にとっては致命的な改易が頻繁に生じたことも一因である。
English: From the mid-Edo Period to the Taihei Period, military secrecy was no longer needed and ongoing financial difficulty made it possible for vassals to leave, unless they served in key positions.
Japanese: しかし、江戸時代中期以降、太平の時代に入ると、軍事機密の意味は無くなり、慢性的な財政難のため、家臣が禄を離れることは、枢要な人物で無い限り事実上自由になっていた。
English: By then it was also a requirement to go through legal procedures in order to leave, and those who left without it were charged with desertion.
Japanese: もっともその場合にも法的な手続をとる事が要件となっており、これに反して無断で脱藩した場合には欠落の罪として扱われた。
English: Offenders had their family name declared extinct, their estates confiscated, and if they were caught, they faced the possibility of execution.
Japanese: 家名は断絶・闕所、本人が捕らえられれば場合によっては死刑にされたのである。
English: Towards the end of the Edo period, many samurai were dissatisfied with their lack of freedom within their domains and opted to leave their domain and back the Sonno Joi ideal (Imperialism and the expulsion of foreigners).
Japanese: 幕末には、藩にいると自由に行動できないので、脱藩し尊王攘夷の志を立てようとする武士が増えた。
English: Gisho are documents or books in which the origins of either the author or the time at which it was allegedly written is apocryphal.
Japanese: 偽書（ぎしょ）とは、製作者や製作時期などの由来が偽られている文書・書物のこと。
English: Gisho are words used mainly for historical learning (that is, in cases where historical aspects are called into question).
Japanese: 主として歴史学において（つまりはその文献の史的側面が問題とされる場合に）用いられる語である。
English: A gisaku is differentiated from a gisho, in that a gisaku refers to an imitation book which does not have falsified origin or opportunistic book.
Japanese: 贋作は来歴に関する虚偽を含まない模倣本、便乗本などを指す、と区別されることもある。
English: But it is not necessarily a precise distinction and sometimes they are confused with each other.
Japanese: しかし、必ずしも明確に区別されるとは限らず、時として混同されることもある。
English: In this article, we treat documents that have falsified origins for the sake of convenience, give an outline and illustrate by example, and also handle related topics at the same time as gisho.
Japanese: 本項目では、便宜上来歴に虚偽を含む文書を偽書とした上で概説と例示を行い、併せて関連するトピックについても扱う。
English: (note that this designation includes, in addition to the examples given in this article, works positively identified as gisho as well as any works "specialists suspect are gisho."
Japanese: （註なお、例示には偽書として評価の定まっているもののほか、「専門家によって偽書の疑いを提示されたことがあるもの」も含む。）
English: (For more information on the degree to which such works are suspected of being gisho, and the evidence for that belief, consult the linked articles on each individual item.)
Japanese: (偽書としての疑いの程度やその根拠については、リンクされている各記事を参照のこと）
English: Although gisho are apt to be misunderstood as being of no use, there are a few that are meaningless from an academic standpoint except for examples that involve the occult or are fraudulent.
Japanese: 字面から「偽り」すなわち無用と誤解されがちであるが、完全に学問にとって無意味とされる物は後述のオカルト的・詐欺的な例外を除けば少ない。
English: Considering the fact that many documents in history were lost due to burning and aging deterioration, it can be said that existing documents are better than nothing at all.
Japanese: 焚書や経年劣化などで歴史上に失われた文書が多いことを鑑みれば、資料が残っている分まだマシな面があるといえる。
English: Although they have historical value from a psychological standpoint, and influence from politicians and authors (or presumed authors), it is necessary to review them while strictly bearing the intent with which they were written, in mind.
Japanese: 当時の為政者や作者（と推定される人物）の心理面やその影響力を考察する点では歴史学上の価値もあるが、作為上の意図も踏まえ厳密に検証する必要がある。
English: Gisho within folklore and so forth can also provide clues as to how folk beliefs have changed through time.
Japanese: また民俗学などで民間信仰の変遷を辿る際には手がかりになることもある。
English: The difficulty with gisho is that they have many examples that include religious and political ideology.
Japanese: 偽書の難しい点は宗教・政治的なイデオロギー性を含む例が多々あることである.
English: However, it should be noted that with religious books, simply being a gisho does not necessarily strip a book of its significance, and as a result this sort of gisho should be considered a separate category.
Japanese: しかし宗教書の場合その意義を必ずしも否定するものではなく両者は別の範疇に入ることに留意する必要がある。
English: Moreover, in order to supplement the defects of written materials (historical science) which are apt to be reflected by artificial intent, gisho have also been verified with archeological materials.
Japanese: また、意図した人為の反映されがちな文献資料(歴史学)の欠点を補うため考古学的結果（考古資料）に照らし合わせることも行われる。
English: There are few gisho catalogues in Japan only with "gisho shu" (collection) by Kodo HAYAMI (1853, 3 volumes, in the possession of Waseda University) and "gisho sen" (selection) by Teijo ISE.
Japanese: 日本においては偽書目録は少なく、速見行道の『偽書叢』（嘉永6年　3巻　早稲田大学蔵）と伊勢貞丈撰の「偽撰の書目」が存在する程度である。
English: In history books, there are many cases in which the time of their completion is asserted to be earlier than it was, and thus verifying the time of their completion has become the starting point for criticicism of historical materials.
Japanese: 歴史書においては、成立時期を遡って主張されている場合が多く、その時期を検証することが史料批判の出発点となる。
English: In the case of "Kojiki" (The Records of Ancient Matters), the oldest history book in Japan, since there is no record on the time of its completion in "Shoku Nihongi" (Chronicle of Japan Continued), which is the official history book, and also based on the fact that it is a handwritten copy, it is suspected as gisho by Iwao YAMATO ("Consideration into the completion of Records of Ancient Matters" (1975), "Is the view that Records of Ancient Matters is gisho, not established?" (1988), and Hayato OOSHIMA ("Discussion about Records of Ancient Matters establishment" (1989), "Discovery of anthologizing method of Records of Ancient Matters of Japan" (1994).
Japanese: 現存する日本最古の史書『古事記』の場合、正史である『続日本紀』に記録がないことや写本の伝存状況などから偽書と疑う大和岩雄（『古事記成立考』（1975年）、『古事記偽書説は成り立たないか』（1988年））や大島隼人（『古事記成立論』（1989年）、『古事記撰録方法の発見』（1994年））らがいる。
English: Moreover, "Nihonshoki" (Chronicles of Japan) was added with many embellishments to justify the government by the Imperial Court.
Japanese: また最古の正史『日本書紀』は朝廷による支配の正当化という目的に沿った潤色が多く加えられている。
English: In the case of the Chronicles of Japan, it is not called gisho because falsehood were not added to the origin of its establishment.
Japanese: 書紀の場合は文書成立の来歴に虚偽が加えられているわけではないので、偽書と呼ばれることはない。
English: However, some scholars suspect that certain historical materials such as the Seventeen-Article Constitution and the Taika Reform go beyond mere embellishment, and consequently those materials themselves may well be gisho of later ages.
Japanese: ただし、その中に引用されている一部の史料、すなわち十七条憲法や改新の詔等は、潤色のレベルを越えて、史料そのものが後代の偽書ではないかと疑う研究者も存在する。
English: In addition, since there are many grammar mistakes in the descriptions about the age before and after the Taika Reform (there are entirely no grammar mistakes in other ages), it has been pointed out that there is a chance that the Chronicles of Japan was altered.
Japanese: また、大化の改新前後の記述は文法ミスが多いことから（他の個所では文法ミスは一切存在しない）改竄の可能性が指摘されている。
English: Turning our attention to the category of ancient history and legends, we have examples such as "Sendai kyuji honki" (Record for occurrences in previous age).
Japanese: いわゆる古史古伝のたぐいに目を移せば、『先代旧事本紀』などの例がある。
English: With regard to the preface, it is considered that the preface is gisho, assuming that it corresponds to the prefaces for "Tennoki" (a Record of the Emperors) and "Kokki" (a National Record), and that a person familiar to the Mononobe clan created the story in order to give authority to the Mononobe clan (Akira FUJIWARA, "Nihon no gisho" (a book of gisho, apocryphal book in Japan), Bungei shunju, 2004).
Japanese: 序文については『日本書紀』で触れられた『天皇記』・『国記』に相当するものを装った偽書であり、物部氏の権威付けのために、その筋に近い物が創作した可能性が高いと言われている（藤原明『日本の偽書』文藝春秋、2004年）。
English: Further, "Sendai kyuji honki daiseikyo," which is presumed to be written based on "Sendai kyuji honki," appeared in the 17th century.
Japanese: またこれをもとに作られたと推測される『先代旧事本紀大成経』が現れたのは17世紀である。
English: There are many examples where one gisho creates another gisho, that are not limited to the aforementioned example.
Japanese: この例に限らず、1つの偽書が、また別の偽書を生み出すという例は多くある。
English: In Japan, a gisho with the title "Mirai-ki" (Accounts of Future Events) by Prince Shotoku, who was said to be able to tell the future of Japan, has circulated since ancient times, and Masashige KUSUNOKI, a famous military commander in 14th century, was said to make use of this gisho to raise the morale of his army.
Japanese: 日本においては，国家の命運をはるか未来まで予言したという聖徳太子『未来記』なる偽書が古くから流布し，楠木正成も味方の士気を鼓舞するためにこれを用いたという。
English: During the Showa period, the " Takeuchi document" which was spread by Kiyomaro TAKEUCHI, also came up in conversation with the announcement that it was a historical book written in the age before "Records of Ancient Matters."
Japanese: 昭和期に入り竹内巨麿が世に広めた竹内文書もまた，『古事記』以前の歴史書というふれ込みで話題となった。
English: Among history books, "Tonichirugai-sangunshi" is suspected to be a work from an ancient era, and is said to be gisho written in the 20th century.
Japanese: 『東日流外三郡誌』のように20世紀の成立を疑われるものもあり、全てをひとくくりに捉えられるものではない。
English: "Tonichirugai-sangunshi" was once used as material for local city history and is an example of a historical document that once published, became unstoppable without appropriate criticism (another example is of "Hamamatsujo-ki" (Record of Hamamatsu-jo Castle)).
Japanese: 『東日流外三郡誌』は地元の市史に用いられたことがあり、一度世に出てしまった文書が適正な史料批判を受けることなく、独り歩きしてしまうことがある例にもなっている（類例には『浜松城記』がある）。
English: In Edo period, forgeries of war tale were common in order to honor ancestors of feudal lords and genealogies were distorted.
Japanese: 江戸時代には諸侯の先祖を飾るため軍記物の偽作が横行し、系図が乱れた。
English: Ujisato SASAKI (Gennai SAWADA) set the trend of gisho including "Kogen heraldry book," Big genealogies, Japanese Analects and others in block-printed books and written copies.
Japanese: 佐々木氏郷（沢田源内）は、『江源武鑑』、大系図、倭論語の版本その他、写本の偽書を流行させた。
English: Two books "Mikawa Go Fudoki" (The Topographical Records of Mikawa Province) and "Tokugawa rekidai" (chronicle of the successive generations of the Tokugawa house) are gisho that were in vogue with unknown authorship and they were written for the purpose of praising the achievements of successive Tokugawa shoguns.
Japanese: 『三河後風土記』、『徳川歴代』の2書は，著者不詳で流行している偽書で，徳川家歴代の功績賛美のために作ったものである。
English: Several works, namely the "Ansai essay" by Teijo ISE (1784), the "Gisho ko" (a book about gisho) and the "Fuken guki" by Masahide KOMIYAMA (Fuken), claim that gisho were quite widespread.
Japanese: その横行は伊勢貞丈の安斎随筆（1784年）、小宮山昌秀（楓軒）の『偽書考』・『楓軒偶記』に記載されている。
English: "Mikawa Go Fudoki" is said to have been written by Shinkichi HIRAIWA and "Tokugawa rekidai" to have been written by Yasutaka OOSUGA.
Japanese: 『三河後風土記』は著者を平岩親吉とし、『徳川歴代』は、著者を大須賀康高と伝える。
English: Furthermore, regarding "Mikawa Go Fudoki," in "Revised Mikawa Go Fudoki" (written by Tsukanao NARISHIMA) in which he calibrated "Mikawa Go Fudoki," Narishima asserted that Gennai SAWADA was its author.
Japanese: なお『三河後風土記』については、三河後風土記を校正した『改正三河後風土記』（成島司直著）にて実は沢田源内が著者だという説が出されている。
English: History books which are said to be gisho based on "Chinese gisho synthetic consideration" edited by To Tanzen, O Kanei and others (ou zan publishing company, 1998, ISDN 7805355568)
Japanese: 『中国偽書綜考』鄧瑞全・王冠英他編（黄山書社1998年ISBN7805355568）により偽書とされるもの。
English: "I Ching" (The Book of Changes), "Shosho" (Classic of History), Shi Jing (the oldest pieces of Chinese literature), "Shurei" (Rites of Zhou), "Raiki" (Book of Rites), "The Zuo Zhuan" (The Chronicle of Zuo) (Shunjukoyoden, Shunjukokuryoden), "Rongo" （Analects of Confucius), "Moshi" (Mencius), "Mozi" (a book of Chinese thought), "Hanfeizi" (a book of Chinese thought), "Shan Hai Jing" (Classic of mountains and seas）, "Sonshi" (Chinese books about tactics).
Japanese: 『易経』、『尚書』、『詩経』、『周礼』、『礼記』、『春秋左氏伝』（春秋公羊伝・春秋穀梁伝）、『論語』、『孟子』、『墨子』、『韓非子』、『山海経』、『孫子』
English: Historical documents suspected of being gisho, are not limited to historical books, various historical materials are also the target of criticism for being gisho.
Japanese: 偽書の可能性を疑われる歴史的文書は歴史書に限らず、様々な史料も俎上に載せられる。
English: Cases in Europe include, "Song of Bilitis" misrepresented by Pierre Louis,saying that he dug out in Phoenicia and translated, and "History of Phoenicia" forged by Friedrich Wagenfeld are famous.
Japanese: ヨーローッパでの偽作事件ではピエール・ルイスがフェニキアで発掘し翻訳したと偽った『ビリティスの歌』、フリードリヒ・ヴァーゲンフェルトにより偽作された『フェニキア史』などが有名である。
English: In ancient times there were examples such as "the Seventeen-Article Constitution," and in modern time there is the example such as "three banzais (cheers) decree" which appeared at the end of 20th century.
Japanese: 古くは『十七条憲法』のような例があり、現代の例では20世紀末葉に現れた『万歳三唱令』などがある。
English: The former is considered to be an embellishment, but as for the latter the intent of the fakery is not clear.
Japanese: 前者の場合は潤色の一環と捉えられるが、後者は偽作の意図が不明である。
English: However, gisho which often disturb the public are the ones that contain political intent (or at least are presumed to do so).
Japanese: しかし、しばしば世の中を騒がせることになるのは、政治的意図を動機に含む（少なくともそのように推測される）偽書である。
English: Among this type of gisho, "protocol (agreement) of the sage on Mount Zion (Jewish agreement)" is particularly notorious.
Japanese: この種の偽書として悪名高いのが『シオン賢者の議定書』（ユダヤ議定書）である。
English: This is obviously a gisho, but today it has helped to identify the document that is presumed to be original source.
Japanese: これは現在では元になったと推測される文献まで特定されている明白な偽書である。
English: It was used to justify anti-Semitism in the past and there are some persons who value this document among people insisting the existence of a Jewish plot.
Japanese: かつては反ユダヤ主義の正当化に用いられ、ユダヤ陰謀論者には現在でも評価する者がいる。
English: One example of a gisho dealing with a political conspiracy is the "Tanaka Josobun" (the Tanaka memorial).
Japanese: 陰謀論にまつわる偽書としては、『田中上奏文』（田中メモランダム）などもある。
English: Among gisho, "Hitler Diaries" was used in a case relating to fraud.
Japanese: また、偽史料のなかにはヒトラーの日記(Hitler_Diaries)のように詐欺事件の種になったものもある。
English: Additionally, in case there was no original book of historical material, the material quoted in other documents may be criticized to be a forged document.
Japanese: なお、偽書と疑われる史料の原本が残存しない場合には、他の文献に引用されたものが俎上に載せられることがある。
English: In the modern and present-day eras, the ckay tablet called " Narcal," which was quoted by James Churchward as a basic historical material in his book related to "Continent of MU," is suspected to be a gisho of fictitious origin (James Churchward insists).
Japanese: 近現代では、ジェームズ・チャーチワードが一連のムー大陸関連書で基礎史料として引用した「ナーカル」という粘土板が架空の来歴に基づく偽書だったのではないかと疑われている例（ジェームズ・チャーチワード主張）などを挙げることができる。
English: The original of the Keian official notice which is said to have been issued to control farmers in the age of Shogun Iemitsu, was not confirmed, gave rise to doubt for its being the law of shogunate and was asserted by some persons as gisho.
Japanese: 将軍家光期に幕府が農民統制のために発布したものであるとされていた慶安御触書は原本が確認されず幕法とするのには疑義がもたれており偽書とする説もあった。
English: However, in recent years, the examination of old documents has revealed that the hanpo (domainal law) in the land of the Kofu domain of Kai Province, codified during the Genroku era, spread to cover various provinces through the publishing of books, while the belief that the hanpo had been regarded as "Bakuho (Shogunate law) during the Keian era" was a Kansei era addition.
Japanese: しかし、近年では古写本の検討により元禄年間に成文化された甲斐国甲府藩領の藩法が刊本により諸国へ流布し、寛政年間に慶安年間の幕法であるとする伝承が付加されたことが指摘されている。
English: However, in a religious book, they always assert that religion stems from its god and the originator of the religion.
Japanese: しかし、宗教書においては、その宗教が信奉する神や宗派の創始者に由来すると主張するのが常である。
English: To take the case of Christianity as an example, the question of whether Mark (the evangelist) wrote the Gospel of Mark himself or was simply a translator for Peter is the subject of historical study.
Japanese: キリスト教の例で言えば、「マルコ_(福音記者)がペトロの通訳であったかどうか、そのマルコが福音書を書いたかどうか」は歴史学の対象となる。
English: It is the object of theology to discuss whether "the Gospel according to Marco" was written by a person near Petro and who reported Petro's comment.
Japanese: 「『マルコによる福音書』がペトロに近い人物によって書かれたペトロの論説を伝えているものかどうか」は神学である。
English: Therefore, it is true that there is an aspect that is not suited to the discussion of whether "the Gospel according to Marco" reported Petro's discourse.
Japanese: ゆえに偽書であるか否かという議論に馴染まない側面があることも事実である。
English: Except for sacred books for religions born after recent times (the Book of Mormon, the Book of the Unification Church), there is no reason for them to be categorized as gisho regardless of whether or not they included falsehoods.
Japanese: 近世以降に派生した宗教の教典（モルモン書、世界基督教統一神霊協会）などを除けば、来歴に虚偽を含んでいようと、殊更に偽書呼ばわりされることはない。
English: In addition, from the above reasons, "whether it is a gisho or not" or "whether it is a sacred book or not" are different problems.
Japanese: なお、上記のような理由により、「偽書か否か」と「正典か否か」は当然別問題である。
English: Concerning the New Testament, classification between canonical books, which are said to stem from the Twelve Apostles, immediate pupils of Christ, and other secular books were conducted at least till the 4th century.
Japanese: 新約聖書はイエス・キリストの直接の弟子である使徒に由来するとされる正典と、それ以外の外典との仕分けが4世紀には行われている。
English: However, among 14 documents with the name of Paulo in canonical books, it is agreed that only 8 books were written by Paulo.
Japanese: しかし、正典中のパウロの名による14の文書中で、実際パウロの著作と現在同意されているものは8つほどである。
English: Among the 5 documents of the canonical books of John, 4 are said to be the works of unknown authors and the remaining one is a work of John.
Japanese: 正典中の5つのヨハネ文書のうち、4つは匿名著者の文書がヨハネに帰せられており、残りの1つはヨハネによると記されている。
English: Concerning Buddhist scriptures, it is the rule to take the style of writing by pupils what they heard from Buddha and it is said that the content of scriptures are Buddha's teachings.
Japanese: 仏教の経典について言えば、冒頭で「このように私は聞いた」（如是我聞）と述べ、釈迦の説法を聞き写したという体裁をとるのがしきたりで、その内容は仏説であるという。
English: If the definition of 'Buddha's teachings' was limited to his own words that his pupils wrote down, it must be acknowledged that no such writings exist.
Japanese: 「仏説」を紀元前5世紀ごろの釈迦が話したことを直接の弟子が書き取ったものと定義するならば、そのようなものは現存しない。
English: The oldest transcription such as "Agonkyo" is from the 4th century BC, at the earliest, and it is thought that the transcription was edited to match the style of collection over a long period of time.
Japanese: 『阿含経』などもっとも古いと思われるものでも早くて紀元前4世紀、それから長い時間をかけて、徐々に結集として編集されたものと考えられている。
English: The scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism such as "the Wisdom Sutras" were established in the period between about the first year of the Christian era and 3rd century, and are far removed from the age of Buddha.
Japanese: 『般若経』など大乗仏典は紀元前後から3世紀ごろの成立であり、釈迦の時代から大きく離れている。
English: But this difference is not due to a difference in the establishment of teachings, but is thought to be due to a difference of doctrine between upper seat Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism (cf. doctrine that Mahayana is not Buddhism).
Japanese: しかしそれは成立時期の問題よりも、上座部仏教と大乗仏教の間での教義の違いを反映していると言えよう（→大乗非仏説を参照）。
English: Further, original scriptures such "Muryo gikyo" (Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings), 「仏説孟蘭盆経」, "Juo-shinko" (Ten Kings (Ten Judges of Hell) belief), "Jikku Kannongyo" that were not written in Indian languages such as Sanskrit and were established in Chinese characters in China and Korea are sometimes considered to be forged scriptures.
Japanese: 『無量義経』『仏説盂蘭盆経』『十王信仰』『十句観音経』など、原典がサンスクリット語などのインドの言葉ではなく、中国や朝鮮半島において漢文で成立したものが偽経（疑経）と呼ばれることもある。
English: Of the Confucius scriptures among shishogokyo (the Four Books and Five Classics of Confucianism, the Nine Chinese Classics), all the scriptures except for "Mencius" are considered to have been edited or selected by Confucius or Shukotan.
Japanese: 儒教の経書について言えば、四書五経に挙げられる書物の中で『孟子』を除いた他の書物は、すべて孔子ないしは周公旦が編したあるいは撰したものとされている。
English: But many of them were revised or written by later hands.
Japanese: しかし、その多くが後人の手によって改編されたり、あるいは全く一から創作されたものである。
English: Besides, in the age of Han, when theories of natural calamity, the Way of Yin & Yang and Shini theory prospered, and "Isho" (book of omens appended to Confucian Chinese classics) came to appear to be opposed to the Chinese classics of Confucianism.
Japanese: また、漢代に災異説や陰陽五行説、讖緯説が盛行すると、その影響下において、経書に対する緯書と称する書物が出現することとなる。
English: In the "Isho," which was written in the form of notes to each Chinese classics of Confucianism, the author/compiler was asserted to be Confucius, and the Isho was accepted in those days as the medium through which Confucius supposedly predicted the Ekisei revolution (an ancient Chinese political concept), various natural disasters and more.
Japanese: そして、この場合もやはり、撰者は孔子に擬せられ、各経書に対する注釈という形式をとって、易姓革命や自然災害などを孔子が予言していたものとして、当時、受容された。
English: However, these books were strictly prohibited, as persons of power during each dynasty considered them (I book) to be used by dissident groups.
Japanese: ただ、各王朝の実権者の側から見れば、容易に反体制集団に利用されることが予想される緯書は、厳しく禁圧される禁書の対象とされた。
English: In Sui dynasty, they were not passed down in whole books and provided in fragments or citation forms.
Japanese: 隋代には殆ど完本では伝わらなくなり、断片や他書への引用の形式でしか伝わっていない。
English: In early-modern times in Europe, when typographical printing was in practical use, forged writings of books by popular authors such as Francois Rabelais and Miguel de Cervantes were already being published.
Japanese: ヨーロッパでは活版印刷が行われるようになった近世には既に、フランソワ・ラブレーやミゲル・デ・セルバンテスなどの人気作家に肖って、彼らの作品に便乗した偽物が出されていた。
English: Since these forged writings were published in the same period as the original and their origins were little known, they are generally called "forged writings" rather than "gisho."
Japanese: こうした偽物は同時代に出されたために来歴の主張に乏しいこともあってか、「偽書」よりも「贋作」と呼ばれるのが一般的である。