nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: This was called Kanmotsu kacho and the rice collected by this system was called Kacho-mai.
Japanese: これを官物加徴（かんもつかちょう）と呼び、それによって徴収された米を加徴米（かちょうまい）と呼んだ。
English: However, conflicts between Kokushi and the local farmers over Kacho became serious, and in the middle of the eleventh century, Kanmotsu and Zatsumotsu were collected following a certain standard (Kanmotsu rippo) and other temporary taxation was called Rinjizatsumotsu.
Japanese: だが、加徴を巡って国司と現地の農民との対立が激化するようになり、11世紀中期には一定の基準（官物率法）に従って官物・雑物が徴収されるようになり、それ以外の臨時の賦課を臨時雑物と呼ぶようになった。
English: In the twelfth century, in place of the previous Kanmotsu rippo, public taxes called Ikkoku heikinyaku (taxes and labor uniformly imposed on shoen manors and provincial lands) and Gokeninnyaku (odd-jobs for vassals) were collected from not only Kokuga owned public fields but also Shoen, and the tithes from these taxes were also called Kanmotsu and this term was used until the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan).
Japanese: 12世紀に入ると既存の官物率法に代わって、国衙領の公田のみならず、荘園の年貢に対しても一国平均役・御家人役などの形で公租が賦課されるようになり、これらの賦課による貢納物に対しても官物という言葉が用いられるようになり、南北朝時代(日本)の頃までこの呼称が用いられた。
English: Nenryo zakki was earthenware from Owari Province and Nagato Province appointed by the central government as payments of tribute under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).
Japanese: 年料雑器（ねんりょうざっき）とは、律令制において尾張国・長門国両国より中央に貢納させた陶器。
English: Glaze techniques were considered so valuable in ancient Japan that they were put under the control of the government.
Japanese: 古代の日本では、釉薬は高度な技術であり、国家の管理下にあったと考えられている。
English: Influenced in particular by the Chinese continent, ryokuyu toki was so popular among nobles during the Heian period that production in the government craft centers established in the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto) were unable to keep up with demand.
Japanese: 特に中国大陸の影響を受けて緑釉陶器が平安貴族たちの間で愛されており、畿内に設置された官工房では生産が追いつかなかった。
English: As a result, both the Owari Province and Nagato Province as principal production areas of earthenware at the time in Japan, were ordered to make tributes of their products.
Japanese: そのため、当時日本国内を代表する陶器の産地であった両国にはその貢納が求められた。
English: The Engishiki (codes and procedures on national rites and prayers) stipulated size standards for earthenware, such as the diameter of owan (large soup bowls) as 289mm, nakawan (medium-sized soup bowls) as 212mm, showan (small soup bowls) as 182mm, kaban (plates with a floral pattern with legs) as 167mm and hanagataenbai as 91mm.
Japanese: 延喜式には、大椀（径9.5寸）・中椀（径7寸）・小椀（径6寸）・花盤（径5.5寸）・花形塩杯（径3寸）などの規格が定められていた。
English: Nenryo betsuno sokoku was rice kept as seed at the local level, separate from that of So collected in the Shoso (warehouse) of Ritsuryo provinces as Fudokoku (staples for an emergency), and was given to kyokan (an official of the Capital) as Iroku, Kiroku and Ifukuryo based on the Daijokanpu (official documents issued by Daijokan, Grand Council of State) when the central government did not have sufficient funds.
Japanese: 年料別納租穀（ねんりょうべつのうそこく）とは、平安時代に令制国の正倉に納められた租を不動穀とは別に稲穀の形態で現地で保管して、中央において財政が不足した折に太政官符に基づいて位禄・季禄・衣服料として京官に支給したもの。
English: This was collected mainly in provinces that were far away from the center and did not pay Nenryo soshomai (however, the fact that it is duplicated with Nenryo shomai is the same as provinces that pay Nenryo soshomai).
Japanese: 遠国を中心として年料租舂米を負担しない国を中心に負担した（ただし、年料舂米と重複することでは、年料租舂米負担国と同様である）。
English: Originally, the salary of Kyokan were paid from Soyocho, but yocho was not collected and income gradually dwindled.
Japanese: 本来、京官の給与は租庸調から支出されたが、庸調の未進が相次いで財源に事欠くようになった。
English: Instead, they tried to find funds from So that was originally supposed to be stored as Fudokoku.
Japanese: 代わりに本来は不動穀として備蓄する筈であった租の中から捻出しようとしたものである。
English: "Engishiki" (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers) states that 25 provinces were the target of this system with a total of 133,729 koku.
Japanese: 延喜式において、25ヶ国が負担対象国であり、総計133,729石(単位)を負担したことが記されている。
English: In principle, even aristocrats and bureaucrats living in Heiankyo were expected to receive Nenryo betsuno sokoku at the local area, but Engishiki states that transport fees of Iroku from countries further than Chugoku (Ritsuryo province) were to be compensated by the government.
Japanese: 平安京に勤務する貴族・官人でも原則として年料別納租穀を受ける場合には現地で支給を受けることになっていたが、延喜式には中国_(令制国)以上の国家からの位禄の輸送費用は官で負担する規定が存在していた。
English: Nenryo bekko zomotsu was the system where a designated amount of Zomotsu such as paper, brushes, horse skin and herbal plants were directly tithed to the central government by Ritsuryo provinces.
Japanese: 年料別貢雑物（ねんりょうべっこうぞうもつ）とは、律令制において紙・筆・ウマ皮革・薬草などの雑物を現物の形で毎年規定量を令制国より中央に貢納させた制度。
English: Originally, specialty goods from each province were sent as Soyocho tithes to the central government and consumed there but it is considered that this system was established to make up a shortfall.
Japanese: 元は租庸調として各国より特産品が実物の形で貢納されて中央で消費されていたが、その不足分を補うために行われた制度であると考えられている。
English: There are various theories regarding collection method; collection at the local area using So, Shozei (rice tax) and Jishi trade (trade between tax [rice] and specialty goods), and labor for production with Zoyo are considered possibilities.
Japanese: その調達方法については諸説あるものの、租や正税・地子交易を用いた現地における調達や雑徭による製作によって入手したと考えられている。
English: "Engishiki" (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers) states that the target was 43 provinces within the entire nation, excluding Kinai and some small fringe provinces.
Japanese: 延喜式においては、畿内と一部辺境・小国を除いた43ヶ国が負担対象とされ、その範囲は全国的であった。
English: Nijugozanmaie was a Nenbutsu (Buddhist invocation) association established in the Heian Period.
Japanese: 二十五三昧会（にじゅうござんまいえ）とは、平安時代に結成された念仏結社である。
English: It was a Nenbutsu association established in 986 by 25 monks who gathered at Shuryogonin in Enryaku-ji Temple, Yokawa within Mt. Hie.
Japanese: 986年（寛和2年）に比叡山内延暦寺横川にあった首楞厳院で、25人の僧が結集して結成された念仏結社である。
English: The characteristic of this association was that it was a Nenbutsu association that wished for gokuraku ojo (peaceful death) and on the fifteenth of each month, 25 monks would gather to chant Nenbutsu and wish for gokuraku ojo.
Japanese: この結社の性格は、極楽往生を希求する念仏結社であり、月の15日ごとに僧衆25名が集結して念仏を誦し、極楽往生を願った。
English: The 'Hotsugan bun' (vow) states that they agree to a bond of friendship, promise to help each other upon death and chant Nenbutsu.
Japanese: 彼等の「発願文」に、善友の契りを結び、臨終の際には相互に扶助して念仏することを記していた。
English: YOSHISHIGE no Yasutane, who was also the editor of "Nihon ojo gokurakuki" (Japanese records of birth into the Pure Land), drafted the 'Nijugozanmai kisho' which stated:
Japanese: 『日本往生極楽記』の撰者でもある慶滋保胤が起草した「二十五三昧起請」には、
English: When a sick member is transferred to the Ojo-in Temple, a pair will stay with the sick member day and night, with one caring for the sick, while the other chants Nenbutsu.
Japanese: 病んだ結衆を往生院に移した時は、二人一組となって昼夜の別なく従い、一人が看病、一人が念仏を担当する。
English: The members' tomb will be called Kadaibyo and members will gather for a Nenbutsu meeting twice a year in spring and autumn.
Japanese: 花台廟と名づけた結衆の墓地を定め、春秋2回、集まって念仏会を修する。
English: Even if there are absent members, the members that are left must keep ties with deceased members by Shuzen (restoration).
Japanese: 結衆に欠員が出ても、残った結衆が修善によって、先に往生した結衆との縁を保たなければならない。
English: The influence of "Kangaku-e" (assembly to encourage learning), an association established by Daigakuryo students and monks from Mt. Hie in 964, are seen in the establishment of Nijugozanmaie.
Japanese: 二十五三昧会の成立には、964年（応和4年）に大学寮の学生らが比叡山の僧らと結集した結社である勧学会の影響が見られる。
English: However, although Kangaku-e resembled a Nenbutsu association, the group also had an aspect of a salon where "Hoke-kyo Sutra" (the Lotus Sutra) was chanted and poems were written.
Japanese: 但し、勧学会の場合は、念仏結社的な性格も有してはいたが、『法華経』を読誦し、作詩も行なうサロン的傾向の強い集団であった。
English: Kyuden, Kyuhaku and Kyudenpaku were rice paddies and fields that were granted to shokan (an officer governing shoen manor), jito (estate steward), nengu (land tax) couriers and handicraftsmen by shoen holders and the Kokuga (provincial government offices) during the middle ages in Japan.
Japanese: 給田（きゅうでん）・給畠（きゅうはく）・給田畠（きゅうでんぱく）は、日本の中世において、荘園領主や国衙が、荘官、地頭、年貢運輸者・手工業者などに対して給与した田地または田畠地をいう。
English: This was the time when the Shoen koryo (public lands) system was developed and the management system for shoen, kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office) was being established.
Japanese: 当時はちょうど荘園公領制の発展過程の時期にあたり、荘園・国衙領（公領）の運営体制が確立しようとしていた。
English: The management of shoen and koryo required the existence of shokan, who did the daily management, couriers such as Kajitori who transported the nengu to the shoen landholder (Honjo) in Kyoto and various craftsmen who made handicrafts to be given to the Honjo and payment for the services of shokan and craftsmen were Kyuden.
Japanese: 荘園・公領の運営には、運営実務に当たる荘官や、京都の荘園領主（本所）へ年貢などを運送する梶取などの運輸者、本所へ貢納する手工芸品を作る各種職人などの存在が不可欠であり、これら荘官・職人の職務の代償として与えられたのが給田である。
English: From the late Heian period (eleventh to twelfth century), Gunji (district magistrates), Goji (local government official) and local kannin (officers) developed abandoned fields and became development landholders who were recognized as having a certain income by the Kokuga.
Japanese: 平安時代後期（11世紀-12世紀）から、郡司・郷司・在庁官人の中に、荒地などを開発して国衙から一定の収取が認められた開発領主へ成長する者が多く現れた。
English: However the income rights of the development landholders (kaihatsu shoryo) were unstable and always in danger of being taken away by the Kokuga.
Japanese: しかし、開発領主らの持つ収取権（開発所領）は不安定なものであり、常に国衙から剥奪される危険を伴っていた。
English: Therefore the development landholders donated their kaihatsu shoryo to prominent temples, shrines or aristocrats and the rice fields became part of a shoen.
Japanese: そこで、開発領主らは開発所領を有力寺社や有力貴族へ寄進し、田地は荘園となった。
English: Upon donation, the development landholders were appointed as shokan by the new landholder and were given kyuden.
Japanese: 寄進に際して、開発領主は新領主から荘官に任じられるとともに、給田を与えられた。
English: The development landholder lost the kaihatsu shoryo recognized by the kokuga, but it was conventional that they were given equivalent or more rice fields as Kyuden.
Japanese: このとき、開発領主は国衙から認められた開発所領を失ったが、それと同等か、より多くの田地を給田として与えられることが一般的であった。
English: In addition, land that was directly under the development landholder's control, such as Tsukuda, Horinouchi and Monden, was also recognized as Kyuden.
Japanese: また、開発領主の直営地である佃・堀ノ内・門田なども給田として認められた。
English: The shokan was responsible for collecting the nengu and kuji (public duties) for the shoen landholder, but the kyuden were exempt from all nengu and kuji, and the exempt portion was the income of the kyuden right holder.
Japanese: 荘官は荘園領主へ年貢・公事を貢納する義務を負っていたが、給田については年貢・公事がすべて免除され、免除分が給田権利者の収入となった。
English: This was the most different aspect compared to Menden, which were exempt from only kuji, and Kyumyo exempt from temporary zoyaku, and was also called Honkyuden to distinguish it from Menden and Kyumyo.
Japanese: この点が、公事のみが免除される免田（めんでん）、臨時雑役が免除される給名（きゅうみょう）との大きな違いであり、免田・給名と区別するために本給田（ほんきゅうでん）と呼ばれることもあった。
English: Originally,many handicraftsmen were affiliated with the Kokuga organization and produced the supplies required for Kokuga management.
Japanese: 元々、国衙機構には多種多様な手工業者が所属し、国衙運営に必要な物資を生産していた。
English: The payment was paid by the Kokuga, but in the late Heian period, the Kokuga organization based on the Ritsuryo system was dramatically reorganized and Kyuden were given to handicraftsmen as payment instead.
Japanese: その報酬は国衙から給与されていたが、平安後期以降、律令制に基づく国衙機構が大きく変質し再編成が行なわれると、手工業者への報酬に代えて給田が設定されていった。
English: As for Shoen, shoen landholders kept handicraftsmen within their shoen to obtain necessary supplies and gave Kyuden according to their ability.
Japanese: 荘園においても、荘園領主らは必要物資を得るために荘園内に手工業者・職人を確保し、職能に応じて彼らへ給田を与えていった。
English: After the Jyokyu War in the early thirteenth century, the Shinpo rippo (the regulation regarding new Jito appointments) was established to give 1 cho of kyuden per 11 cho of shoen koryo to newly appointed jito, but in actuality, there were many cases where two or even three cho of kyuden were given, strongly pushing the invasion of newly appointed jito into shoen koryo.
Japanese: 13世紀前半の承久の乱以降、新補地頭に対して荘園公領11町当たり1町の給田を与える新補率法が成立すると、実際には1町にとどまらず2町・3町の給田を設定する例が多く見られ、新補地頭による荘園公領侵出を強く後押しした。
English: The management of shoen was first done using their own servants and followers, but as the ages went on, leasing out to the village headman and farmers within the shoen became the practice.
Japanese: 給田の経営は、はじめ自らの下人・所従らを駆使して行なわれていたが、時代が下るにつれ、荘園内の名主・百姓らへ請作に出して行なわれていったと考えられている。
English: Kyuden in the middle ages were largely classified into Shokan kyuden given to shokan, and shokunin kyuden given to nengu couriers and handicraftsmen.
Japanese: 中世の給田は、荘官等へ給与する荘官給田、年貢輸送者や手工業者へ給与する職人給田に大きく分けられる。
English: Shokan kyuden were classified into Azukaridokoro (a deputy of "Shoen" manor lord) kyu, Jitokyu, Kumon (a local shoen official) kyu, Geshi (a local keeper) kyu, Tadokorokyu, Sotsuibushi (government post in charge of police and military roles) kyu, Tonekyu, Bantokyu, Jotsukai (a lower-ranked officer who governs Shoen manor) kyu, Anju (officer who recorded and stored documents at Shoens, authorities) kyu, Nanushi (village headman) kyu, Shikiji (a person with an official rank but has no corresponding position) kyu, Sanshikyu, Zushi (temporary officer who made maps of rice fields) kyu, Kunin (low ranking staff who did odd jobs) kyu, etc.
Japanese: 荘官給田には、預所給、地頭給、公文給、下司給、田所給、惣追捕使給、刀禰給、番頭給、定使給、案主給、名主給、職事給、散仕給、図師給、公人給などがあった。
English: Shokunin kyuden included Kajitori (rower) kyu, Furyokyu, Fune (ship) kyu, Kaji (blacksmith) kyu, Bansho (builder) kyu, Edokoro (art office) kyu, Himono (craft of bending Hinoki bark) kyu, Dokisaku (pottery) kyu and Dodoukutorei (road building) kyu.
Japanese: 職人給田には、梶取給、夫領給、船給、鍛冶給、番匠給、絵所給、檜物給、土器作給、道々工等例給などがあった。
English: Main examples are Kyuden, Chonan-cho, Chosei-gun, Chiba Prefecture, Kyuden, Sedagaya Ward, Tokyo, Kyuden, Shimokanuki, Numazu City, Shizuoka Prefecture.
Japanese: 主なものに、千葉県長生郡長南町給田、東京都世田谷区給田(世田谷区)、静岡県沼津市下香貫給田などがある。
English: Others: Kumonkyu (Kuga-cho, Iwakuni City, Yamaguchi Prefecture), Jitokyu (Akaiwa City, Okayama Prefecture, Maebaru City, Fukuoka Prefecture), Kajikyu (Nankoku City, Kochi Prefecture, Koga City, Fukuoka Prefecture), Banshokyu (Hofu City, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Totsuka Ward, Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture) and Tobitakyu (Kamigakyu, Chofu City, Tokyo) are examples of place names originating from Kyuden that are still in use today throughout the nation.
Japanese: その他、久門給（公文給。山口県岩国市玖珂町）、地頭給（岡山県赤磐市、福岡県前原市）、鍛冶給（高知県南国市、福岡県古賀市）、番匠給（山口県防府市、神奈川県横浜市戸塚区）、飛田給（・上ヶ給）（東京都調布市）など、給田に由来する地名が今も各地に残存している。
English: Nenryososhomai was the term for the shomai (milled rice) itself or the system determined by Daijokanpu (official documents issued by Daijokan, Grand Council of State) during the Heian period which required the raw grain collected as So in the provinces to be tithed to the central government as refined white rice
Japanese: 年料租舂米（ねんりょうそしょうまい）とは、平安時代に太政官符によって、令制国の租の稲穀を精米した白米を中央に貢進させる制度、またその舂米そのもののこと。
English: It began when the rice tithed to the central government as Soyocho under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) went into arrears in the Heian period, and Denso that was kept as Fudokoku (emergency grain) was tithed to the central government for use in food supplies for government officials.
Japanese: 律令制において租庸調として中央に貢進されていた米が平安時代に滞るようになると、官司の大粮に宛がうために本来は不動穀に充てられる筈であった田租を中央に貢進したのが最初とされている。
English: The oldest record is a Daijokanpu in 846.
Japanese: 最古の記録は承和_(日本)13年（846年）の太政官符によるものである。
English: "Engishiki" (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers) states that 18 provinces surrounding Kinai and the coastal provinces that did not pay Nenryobetsunosokoku paid a total of 24,500 koku.
Japanese: 延喜式においては、年料別納租穀を負担しない畿内周辺及び沿岸諸国を中心とした18ヶ国で計24,500石(単位)を負担した。
English: Originally, it was tithed to the Minbusho (Ministry of Popular Affairs) and then distributed to the various Kanji (government official), but in the tenth century, the Minbusho did not intervene, but each province directly tithed shomai to a given Kanji and this became one of the factors that led to each Kanji becoming responsible for their individual finances.
Japanese: 当初は民部省に貢進された後で各官司に配分されたが、10世紀に入ると民部省を関与させずに特定の官司に対して特定の国が舂米を直接貢進する形式に替わり、各官司の財政が独立採算制に変わっていく一因となった。
English: Nenryoshomai was the term for the shomai itself or the system under the Ritsuryo system which required a designated amount of white rice from the provinces to be tithed to the central government every year.
Japanese: 年料舂米（ねんりょうしょうまい）とは、日本の律令制において、令制国より毎年一定量の白米を中央に貢進させる制度、またその舂米そのもののこと。
English: According to the Denryo, raw grain collected as So was taken to the Shoso (public repository) and considered shozei (rice tax) but part of them was refined into white rice and transported to the capital during the designated period (February to August) depending upon the province they belonged.
Japanese: 田令によれば、租として納められた稲穀は一旦正倉として納められて正税とされたが、そのうちの一部を精米して所属する国に対して指定された時期（2-8月）に都へと運んだ。
English: The costs of milling and transport was paid by the farmer who paid So, but later the transport costs were paid by the government according to the Kyakushiki (regulations) of the Ministry of Popular Affairs.
Japanese: 租を納める農民の個人負担によったが、後に民部省格式によって官による運送費の支給が定められる。
English: Initially, part of Denso was donated as determined by the Denryo, but after the system for storing Denso as Fudokoku (staples for an emergency) started, Suiko (government loans, often seed rice) was taken from the Doyoso Shozei (movable resource) that was allowed to be taken out by the Kunishi, part of the interest earned from this was used instead of Denso to pay for Nenryoshomai.
Japanese: 当初は田令の規定通り田租の一部が貢進されたが、田租を不動穀として備蓄する制度が始まると、国司による出納が許されていた動用倉正税の中から出挙が行われ、それによって得られた利息の一部を田租に替わって年料舂米にあてるようになった。
English: The Shozeicho and wooden tablets found from the Heijo site have shown that this was established as a system around the Tenpyo era and donations were made in units of 5 "to" (1 hyo/pyo), and it was determined that 3 hyo/pyo per head was to be transported if using a horse.
Japanese: 正税帳や平城宮跡から発掘された木簡などによって、天平年間にはシステムとして確立されていたこと、貢進は5斗（1俵）単位で行われたこと、ウマを用いて輸送する場合には1頭あたり3俵を運ぶと決められていたことが判明している。
English: "Engishiki" (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers) states that about 22 provinces surrounding Kinai and the coastal provinces donated 17,330 koku of white rice and 260 koku of mochi rice to the Oiryo (Bureau of Palace Kitchens under the Ministry of the Imperial Household), 200 koku of black rice to the Kuraryo (Bureau of Palace Storehouses) and 500 koku of black rice to the Minbusho (Ministry of Popular Affairs).
Japanese: 延喜式においては、畿内周辺及び沿岸諸国を中心とした22ヶ国より貢進が行われ、大炊寮に対して白米17,330石(単位)ともち米260斛、内蔵寮に対して黒米200斛、民部省に対して黒米500斛の貢進が行われた。
English: When the Nenryososhomai system required part of the Fudokoku (emergency grain) to be tithed to the central government, the target of the system was mainly the Nenryoshomai provinces.
Japanese: なお、後年において不動穀の一部を中央に貢進させる年料租舂米の制が布かれた際には主として年料舂米負担国が対象とされている。
English: If court staff or officers neglected their duties or made a mistake, they were held at the entrance of the court or guard offices.
Japanese: 宮中の侍臣、官人に職務上の怠慢や失錯があったとき、殿上口や近衛陣に監禁した。
English: Peeping during the Jimoku (ceremony for appointing officials), opening the Gosechi chodai and looking at the Gosechi princesses at the Gosechi no mai Dance (dance performance as part of a harvest festival), being late or absent from various chogi (ceremony at Imperial Court), or making mistakes when officially relaying documents were all activities that led to Meshikome.
Japanese: 除目の儀をひそかに覗う、五節舞で五節の帳台の戸を開いて舞姫を見るなどの失態、諸朝議に遅参し、または不参し、あるいはまた文書の奏達に失錯を演じたものにたいしておこなわれた。
English: Those who were under Meshikome were prohibited from visiting the emperor, eating or following and attending any official events.
Japanese: 召籠になったものは御前に参ること、御膳し従うこと、公事に従うことなどが禁じられた。
English: The term "hyakusho," which can also be pronounced "hyakusei" or "omitakara," was originally a word of Chinese origin that indicates all people with a hundred (many) surnames, i.e., all the social class with surnames.
Japanese: 百姓(ひゃくしょう/ひゃくせい/おおみたから）とは、元は百(たくさん）の姓を持つ者たち、すなわち有姓階層全体を指す漢語であった。
English: From the Zhou period to the Chunqiu period, the term indicated the Keishitaifu class (not the Kakyo [Imperial examination] elite in the Song period but the patriarch class in the ancient times) having a "surname," which was also a clan name of ancient times such as "Ji" and "Jiang."
Japanese: 周代から春秋時代には、特に古来の"姫"や"姜"といった族集団名でもある"姓"を持つ卿士大夫層(宋代の科挙試験エリートではなく、古代の族長層）を指す用語であった。
English: Thereafter, the clan dissolved, and a "family name," which even common people had merged with the original "surname" to end up with most of the common people having a surname.
Japanese: その後、族集団が解体し、庶民でも持つ家族名である"氏"と本来の"姓"の混同が進み、庶民でもほとんど姓を持つとされるようになった。
English: The term "hyakusho" that indicates common people is often found in books that are considered to be edited in the Zhanguo Dynasty (China) into the current form, such as "Rongo Analects" and "Eki" (I ching).
Japanese: 民衆を意味する百姓は、『論語』・『易』など戦国時代_(中国)に現在の形に編集されたと推定される書物から、頻見される。
English: The meaning of the term did not change significantly from then until today, and the term "lao bai xing" in modern Chinese indicates common people.
Japanese: その後、今日まで意味が大きく変化することはなく、現在中国でも老百姓といえば、一般庶民のことを指す。
English: However, since the late ancient times, the term became a name addressing a particular social status engaged in various regular vocations.
Japanese: しかし、古代末期以降、多様な生業に従事する特定の身分の呼称となった。
English: Specifically, the social class directly ruled by the ruling class in the local societies was referred to as a hyakusho.
Japanese: 具体的には支配者層が在地社会において直接把握の対象とした社会階層が百姓とされた。
English: This class included not only those who were engaged in agricultural management but also managers in commerce, handicraft, and fishery industries.
Japanese: この階層は現実には農業経営に従事する者のみならず、商業や手工業、漁業などの経営者も包括していた。
English: However, a principle of agricultural fundamentalism stating that the sphere of hyakusho should be agriculture, which did not always match the reality, was gradually passed through and spread since the medieval period, and the term was begun to be understood generally as a person engaged in agriculture.
Japanese: だが、中世以降次第に百姓の本分を農とすべきとする、実態とは必ずしも符合しない農本主義的理念が浸透・普及し、明治時代以降は、一般的に農民の事を指すと理解されるようになった。
English: As of now, that was "Sandaijitsuroku" (the sixth of the six classical Japanese history texts) edited in the late ninth century in which the term "hyakusho" indicated for the first time, a person engaged in agriculture.
Japanese: 百姓を農民の意味とした初見は、現在のところ9世紀末に編纂された『三代実録』である。
English: Note that it is common to pronounce the term as "hyakusei," which is a mixture of the Han reading of Chinese characters and the Wu reading, in the case of a Japanese reading of a Chinese passage or a use in ancient Japanese that is used in the original meaning, or "hyakusho," which is the Wu reading, in a case of a use in Japanese in or after the medieval period.
Japanese: なお、本来の意味で用いる漢文の読み下し及び日本の古代の用例には漢音と呉音の混交した"ひゃくせい"、日本の中世以降の用例には呉音の"ひゃくしょう"の読みを当てるのが慣例である。
English: In yamato-kotoba, words of Japanese origin, the Japanese reading "omitakara," which indicates "people who are great treasures of the country and should be cared for by an emperor," is given.
Japanese: 日本固有の大和言葉では、"天皇が慈しむべき天下の大いなる宝である万民"を意味する、"おおみたから"の和訓がふられている。
English: In the ancient times, the concept of hyakusho was all classes with surnames that were classified as "Ryo" (law-abiding people) in a family register under the Ritsuryo system, i.e., nobles, government officials, citizens, and zoshikinin (lower-level functionaries in the provincial government), excluding emperors, humble or lowly people without a surname who were classified as "Sen" such as slaves, and Emishi (northerners) who were classified as social outcasts.
Japanese: 古代においては律令制のもとで戸籍に"良"と分類された有姓階層全体、すなわち貴族、官人、公民、雑色人が百姓であり、天皇、及び"賎"とされた無姓の奴婢などの賎民、及び化外の民とされた蝦夷などを除外した概念であった。
English: The citizens, who were main constituents of people belonging to the hyakusho class, were organized by the gunji class, the descendants of classes of ancient local governments' heads up to the early Heian period, and the ruling and tax collection by kokushi (provincial governors) at kokuga (provincial government offices) were conducted through the gunji class.
Japanese: 百姓に属する民の主体であった公民は、平安時代初期までは古来の地方首長層の末裔である郡司層によって編成され、国衙における国司の各国統治、徴税事務もこの郡司層を通じて成された。