nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: The Muromachi bakufu basically took over the system, and some people worked as Yuhitsu were appointed to be Bugyonin (a magistrate) increasing their influences in the government and formed a group called Bugyoshu or Yuhitsukata.
Japanese: 基本的に室町幕府もこの制度を引き継いだが、次第に右筆の中から奉行人に任じられて発言力を増大させて、奉行衆（右筆方）と呼ばれる集団を構成するようになった。
English: In the Muromachi bakuhu, Yuhitsu was separated into some roles such as Hakaraikata-yuhitsu, which took charge of the administrative affairs, Tono-yuhitsu, which took charge of writing official documents, and Sakuji-yuhitsu, which took charge of constructing buildings.
Japanese: なお、室町幕府では、行政実務を担当する計方右筆・公文書作成を担当する外右筆（とのゆうひつ）・作事造営を担当する作事右筆などと言った区別があった。
English: In the Sengoku period (period of warring states) (Japan), Yuhitsu started to accompany army in order to issue necessary documents during wartime period.
Japanese: 戦国時代_(日本)に入ると、戦時に必要な文書を発給するための右筆が戦にも同行するようになった。
English: Under both the Oda and Toyotomi governments, which were established after the unification of the warring daimyo, there was an institution called the Yuhitsushu (corps of administrators), who not only created public documents, but also sometimes stood in as the Bugyo (magistrate) or the Daikan (local governor) of directly-controlled lands, taking part in the policymaking processes.
Japanese: 戦国大名から統一政権を打ち立てた織田政権・豊臣政権の両政権では右筆衆（ゆうひつしゅう）の制が定められ、右筆衆が行政文書を作成するだけではなく、奉行・蔵入地代官などを兼務してその政策決定の過程から関与する場合もあった。
English: Mitsunari ISHIDA, Masaie NAGATSUKA, Nagamori MASHITA, included in the Gobugyo (five Bugyo) of the Toyotomi government, were originally the members of Yuhitsushu belonged to Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI.
Japanese: 豊臣政権の五奉行であった石田三成・長束正家・増田長盛は元々豊臣秀吉の右筆衆出身であった。
English: Other famous Yuhitsushu are Ryosei MYOIN, Sekian TAKEI, Choan KUSUNOKI, Yukan MATSUI of the Oda government, and Soze WAKU, Nagatoshi YAMANAKA, Yoshitaka KINOSHITA of the Toyotomi government.
Japanese: 他に右筆衆として著名なものに織田政権の明院良政・武井夕庵・楠長諳・松井友閑、豊臣政権の和久宗是・山中長俊・木下吉隆などがいる。
English: As stated below, after the Toyotomi government had fallen, some of the Yuhitsushu were hired by the Tokugawa government, and the term Yuhitsushu was also adopted by the Edo Bakufu.
Japanese: なお、後述のように豊臣政権の没落後、右筆衆の中には徳川政権によって右筆に登用されたものもおり、右筆衆という言葉は江戸幕府でも採用されている。
English: Although Yuhitsu existed in the Tokugawa clan as a warring lord, because those Yuhitsu who were working for Ieyasu TOKUGAWA when he was in Mikawa Province were appointed to administrative posts, such as Bugyo or Daikan, or Fudai Daimyo (a daimyo in hereditary vassal to the Tokugawa family) as Ieyasu expanded his influence and subdued various regions to unify Japan, it is thought that many of them who were hired as Yuhitsu when the Edo Bakuhu was established were the children of the Bugyo-shu belonged to the former Muromachi Bakuhu (Naosuke SOGA), the Yuhitsu-shu of the Toyotomi government (Shigeyasu OHASHI), supported the 'eastern' army at the Battle of Sekigahara, and the Yuhitsu of the former Gohojo clan, served Ieyasu when he subdued Kanto region.
Japanese: 戦国大名としての徳川氏にも右筆は存在したと考えられるが、徳川家康の三河国時代の右筆は家康の勢力拡大と天下掌握の過程で奉行・代官などの行政職や譜代大名などに採用されたために、江戸幕府成立時に採用されていた右筆は多くは旧室町幕府奉行衆の子弟（曾我尚祐）や関ヶ原の戦いで東軍を支持した豊臣政権の右筆衆（大橋重保）、関東地方平定時に家康に仕えた旧後北条氏の右筆（久保正俊）などであったと考えられている。
English: Including the Tokugwa Shogun family, all Daimyo generally appointed Yuhitsu from their vassals; however, Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA, a Shogun originally from the Tatebayashi Domain, brought his Yuhitsu from the Tatebayashi Domain to the Edo-jo Castle and let him serve as Yuhitsu.
Japanese: 徳川将軍家のみならず、諸大名においても同じように家臣の中から右筆（祐筆）を登用するのが一般的であったが、館林藩から将軍に就任した徳川綱吉は、館林藩から自分の右筆を江戸城に入れて右筆業務を行わせた。
English: Consequently, Yuhitsu was separated into two kinds, Omote-yuhitsu, preparing and managing Monjo related to general administrative matters, and Oku-yuhitsu, preparing and managing Monjo related to the Shogun as his close associates.
Japanese: このため一般行政文書の作成・管理を行う既存の表右筆と将軍の側近として将軍の文書の作成・管理を行う奥右筆に分離することとなった。
English: Although on its early stage, the both Yuhitsu were up against each other, later the system selecting Oku-yuhitsu out of Omote-yuhitsu was established and the separation was settled.
Japanese: 当初は双方の右筆は対立関係にあったが、後に表右筆から奥右筆を選定する人事が一般化すると両者の棲み分けが進んだ。
English: Although Oku-yuhitsu was prohibited from making any personal contacts with people other than Shogun, only Sobayonin (lord chamberlain) and Oku-yuhitsu could serve as Toritsugi (an attendant who serves Shogun by informing of a visitor and convey the message).
Japanese: 奥右筆は将軍以外の他者と私的な関係を結ぶことを禁じられていたが、将軍への文書の取次ぎは側用人と奥右筆のみが出来る職務であった。
English: There was an separated office placed for Oku-yuhitsu and they researched and released reports about policy issues sent by Roju (senior councilor) or Wakadoshiyori (junior councilor) under the supervision of Shogun.
Japanese: また奥右筆のために独立した御用部屋が設置され、老中・若年寄などから上げられた政策上の問題を将軍の指示によって調査・報告を行った。
English: Consequently, any confrontations with Oku-yuhitsu (who managed everything in Edo-jo Castle behind the scenes) carried the risk of compromising one's position, and this was true even for the daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) of Taihan (a large domain) or the heads of the O-oku (the inner halls of Edo Castle where the wife of the shogun and her servants resided).
Japanese: このために、大藩の大名、江戸城を陰で仕切る大奥の首脳でも奥右筆との対立を招くことは自己の地位を危うくする危険性を孕んでいた。
English: Meanwhile, the treatment of Omote-yuhitsu was one step lower than Oku-yuhitsu, they did not related to any secrecies but the preparation of Monjo related to general administrative matters such as Hanmotsu (autographic signatures) or Shuinjo(shogunate license to trade), and management of Bugencho (Registers of vassals) of territorial lords and Myobu (identification) of Hatamoto (direct retainers of the Bakufu, which is a form of Japanese feudal government headed by Shogun) or Gokenin (an immediate vasal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods).
Japanese: 一方、表右筆は待遇は奥右筆よりも一段下がり、機密には関わらず、判物・朱印状などの一般の行政文書の作成や諸大名の分限帳や旗本・御家人などの名簿を管理した。
English: The three scholars of Dejima were the ones who came to Dejima in Nagasaki during the Edo period and conducted a study of natural history.
Japanese: 出島の三学者（でじまのさんがくしゃ）とは、江戸時代、長崎の出島に渡来して博物学的研究を行った3人の学者のこと。
English: At that time, the Japanese government permitted trading only with the Dutch under the national isolation policy, but none of the three were Dutch.
Japanese: 当時日本は鎖国政策によりオランダとの交易のみを認めていたが、3人はいずれもオランダ人ではなかった。
English: Philipp Franz von SIEBOLD was a German physician and naturalist.
Japanese: フィリップ・フランツ・フォン・シーボルトは、ドイツ人医師・博物学者。
English: He arrived as a physician to Nagasaki Trading House, but he opened Narutakijuku School next year and taught medical science and natural history to the Japanese.
Japanese: 長崎商館医として着任したが、翌年には鳴滝塾を開いて日本人に医学・博物学の指導を行う。
English: In December, 1998, Heijo-kyu Palace was registered as one of the World Heritage under the name of 'Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara' together with Todai-ji Temple (the first registered ancient remains in Japan).
Japanese: 1998年12月、「古都奈良の文化財」として東大寺などと共に世界文化遺産に登録された（考古遺跡としては日本初）。
English: Heijo-kyu Palace was situated at the north end of Heijo-kyo, consisting of Dairi (Imperial Palace), Chodo-in where ceremonies were performed, and offices where officials carried out their work, covering an area of about 120 ha.
Japanese: 平城京の北端に置かれ、天皇の住まいである内裏と、儀式を行う朝堂院、役人が執務を行う官庁から成り、約120haを占めていた。
English: The Palace was surrounded by big tsujibei (a mud wall with a roof) about five meters high, and the wall had twelve gates named after local ruling families names such as Suzaku-mon Gate, and government officials entered the Palace through the gates.
Japanese: 周囲は5ｍ程度の大垣が張り巡らされ、朱雀門はじめ豪族の氏名にちなんだ12の門が設置され役人らはそれらの門より出入りした。
English: In 1852, a government official at the magistrate's office Sadamasa KITAURA estimated the site of Heijo-kyo by drawing "Heijokyu daidairi ato tsubowari no zu" (Heijo-kyu Palace Dai-dairi site zoning map).
Japanese: 1852年（文政8年）、奉行所の役人であった北浦定政が『平城宮大内裏跡坪割之図』を著し、平城京の跡地を推定した。
English: During the Meiji period, an architectural historian Tadashi SEKINO discovered a grassy mound in the rice paddies to be a stylobate for Daigokuden (the Imperial Audience Hall) (latter), and published "Heijo-kyo oyobi dai-dairi ko" (A Study of Heijo-kyo and Dai-dairi) in Nara Newspaper in 1907.
Japanese: 明治時代に建築史家、関野貞が田んぼの中にある小高い芝地が大極殿（第二次）の基壇であることを発見、1907年『平城京及大内裏考』を奈良新聞に発表した。
English: This study article brought a movement of preserving the Heijo-kyu Palace Site that was mainly directed by Kajuro TANADA, Bunshiro MIZOBE, and others.
Japanese: この研究記事がきっかけとなり、棚田嘉十郎・溝辺文四郎らが中心となり平城宮跡の保存の運動が起こった。
English: In 1921, the central part of the Heijo-kyu Palace Site was purchased by private donations and entrusted to the government.
Japanese: 1921年には、平城宮跡の中心部分が民間の寄金によって買い取られ、国に寄付された。
English: After that, in 1922, "Heijo-kyu shi" (平城宮址, meaning the Heijo-kyu Palace Site) was designated as a national historic site (later a special historic site).
Japanese: その後、平城宮址（へいじょうきゅうし）は1922年に国の史跡に指定された（後に特別史跡）。
English: In 1960s, two national preservation movements arose against the private railway company's train inspection garage problem and also the national route construction problem.
Japanese: 1960年代に私鉄電車の検車庫問題と国道建設問題に対する二度の国民的保存運動がおこった。
English: Later, the name of the Site was changed to "Heijo-kyu seki" (平城宮跡) since the character "址" ('shi' or 'ato') in "Heijo-kyu shi" (平城宮址) was out of kanji for common use (a list of 1945 kanji established in 1981).
Japanese: のちに址（し・あと）が常用漢字外であるため平城宮跡（へいじょうきゅうせき）と書かれるようになる。
English: The Kodo Hall of Toshodai-ji Temple (a National Treasure) is the Higashi Choshuden (government workers' building), one of the relocated buildings from Chodo-in in Heijo-kyu Palace.
Japanese: なお、唐招提寺の講堂（国宝）は平城宮朝堂院にあった建物の一つである東朝集殿を移築したものである。
English: Some parts have been rebuilt in the style of the Kamakura period as changed from the Kirizuma-zukuri style (a style of building with a gable roof) to the Irimoya style (a style of building with a half-hipped roof), but the building is still precious as the only ancient structural remnants of Heijo-kyu Palace.
Japanese: 切妻造を入母屋にしたり、鎌倉時代の様式で改造されている箇所もあるが、平城宮唯一の建築遺構として貴重である。
English: Maintenance of the remains and restoration of the buildings are in progress based on 'Tokubetsu shiseki heijokyuseki hozon seibi kihon koso' (Special Historic Site Heijo-kyu Site Preservation and Maintenance Project) settled by the Agency for Cultural Affairs.
Japanese: 文化庁による「特別史跡平城宮跡保存整備基本構想」に基づき、遺跡の整備・建造物の復原を進めている。
English: Already restored are Suzaku-mon Gate (construction completed in 1998), the district of Kunaisho (Ministry of the Sovereign's Household), and the district of Toin Teien Garden, and Daigokuden (former), which is the most important building, is now being restored for completion in 2010.
Japanese: すでに朱雀門（1998年竣工）・宮内省地区・東院庭園地区の復原が完了しており、もっとも重要な建物である大極殿（第一次）の復原が2010年の完成を目指して進められている。
English: Also, Kintetsu Nara Line and Tanida Nara Line of the Nara Prefectural Route 104 (Ichijo-oji Street), both of which pass across the Site, are being examined for relocation.
Japanese: また、敷地内を横切る近鉄奈良線と奈良県道104号谷田奈良線（一条大路）は移設が検討されている。
English: Kintetsu Nara Line, however, could be an underground line, involving Yamato-Saidaiji Station and Shin-Omiya Station.
Japanese: とくに近鉄奈良線については大和西大寺駅、新大宮駅とともに地下化される可能性もある。
English: Since part of its premises is on the Suzaku-oji Street Site, Nara City spent about 2.4 billion yen to secure a relocation site, but in January, 2000, Sekisui Chemical suggested abandoning the relocation plan due to a decrease in its profit, whose decision was finalized in February, 2001.
Japanese: 敷地の一部が朱雀大路跡地にかかっているため、奈良市が約24億円を投じて移転用地を確保したものの、2000年1月に同社から業績の悪化を理由に移転断念の申し入れがあり、翌2月に移転断念が決まった。
English: The relocation plan has been recently revitalized again, but not embodied yet.
Japanese: 最近になって再び移転構想が出てきているが、まだ具体化には至っていない。
English: Shishi is a historical term describing a commoner in the late Edo Period who actively contributed to the country.
Japanese: 志士（しし）とは、一般に日本の江戸時代後期の幕末において活動した在野の人物を差す歴史用語である。
English: The term Shishi is derived from a phrase in 'The Analects (of Confucius)' that was 'Shishi, a person of virtue accumulates virtues by killing himself'.
Japanese: 論語にある「志士仁人（ししじんじん）は（…）身を殺して以て仁をなすなり」が語源である。
English: It describes a character who places his life on the line for what he believes is right for his country.
Japanese: 天下国家のため正しいと信じたことを、生命をかけて貫く人物像を指した。
English: Subhas Chandra Bose, a leader in the Indian independence movement who fled to Japan during the World War 2, was also called a ""Shishi' of the Indian independence movement".
Japanese: 第二次世界大戦中日本に亡命していたスバス・チャンドラ・ボースなどのインド独立運動家を指して「インド独立の志士」とも呼んだ。
English: During the late Edo Period, the "Sono Shishi" pioneered the structure for the Meiji government while the Shogunate was still in a state of tumult over the expulsion of foreigners and anti-foreign sentiments.
Japanese: 鎖国と攘夷に揺れた幕末から明治国家建設の先駆けとなったのが、尊王志士である。
English: In the beginning they adhered to the ideal of "Sonno Joi ("Sonno"is the principle of revering the emperor, while "Joi" stands for anti-foreigner sentiments)", opposed all interactions with foreigners, believed that it was imperative to establish a emperor-centered government, and believed that the government should implement this ideal.
Japanese: 当初彼等は尊皇攘夷の下で、異国との交わりを忌み嫌い、天皇を中心とした国家の建設が不可欠だとして、幕府に対して、尊皇攘夷の履行を徹底すべきと考えた。
English: But when the Edo Shogunate began to rapidly lose it's power to unify the country, they hoped to overthrow the government and replace it with an integrated government centered around the emperor.
Japanese: しかし、やがて幕府の求心力が急速に低下すると、これを打倒し、江戸幕府に代わる天皇を中心とした統一政体の確立を望んだ。
English: The Bakucho War, in which the Edo Shogunate fought against the Choshu Domain, caused deep rifts between the Shogunate and the Yuhan, a powerful daimyo family.
Japanese: 江戸幕府と長州藩の幕長戦争などで有力な大名家である雄藩が幕府と対立を深めた。
English: The alliance between the Satsuma Domain and the Choshu Domain resulted in the fall of the Shogunate at the Boshin War.
Japanese: 結果、薩摩藩と長州藩による薩長連合の成立によってついに戊辰戦争によって倒幕を成し遂げた。
English: The term "Shishi" came to symbolize a person who puts his life towards political activity, such as the activists for Civic Rights, and Meiji Period socialists.
Japanese: 政治運動に命をかけるという人物モデルにもなり、自由民権運動の活動家や、明治社会主義者の一部にも「志士」という理想像が共有されていた。
English: The Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors was Shochoku (imperial edict) that Emperor Meiji issued to soldiers of the army and the navy on January 4.
Japanese: 軍人勅諭（ぐんじんちょくゆ）は、1月4日に明治天皇が陸海軍の軍人に下賜した詔勅である。
English: It is said to be drafted by Amane NISHI (illuminator) and improved by Genichiro FUKUCHI, Kowashi INOUE and Aritomo YAMAGATA.
Japanese: 西周(啓蒙家)が起草、福地源一郎・井上毅・山縣有朋‎によって加筆修正されたとされる。
English: At the time of the grant, the newly organized military had been shook up due to social unrest caused by Seinan War, Takebashi and Movement for democratic rights, and therefore, in order to settle the situation and establish a mental pillar they drafted the imperial rescript, which was made from the admonition for military men printed and distributed to all the officers and soldiers by Aritomo YAMAGATA, director general of the army, in October, 1878.
Japanese: 下賜当時、西南戦争・竹橋・自由民権運動などの社会情勢により、設立間もない軍部に動揺が広がっていたため、これを抑え、精神的支柱を確立する意図で起草されたものされ、1878年（明治11年）10月に陸軍卿山縣有朋‎が全陸軍将兵に印刷配布した軍人訓誡が元になっている。
English: On June 19, 'Resolution on eliminating Imperial Rescript on Education and others' by the House of Representatives and 'Resolution on confirming the lapse of Imperial Rescript on Education and others' by the House of Councilors confirmed it became null and void along with Imperial Rescript on Education
Japanese: 6月19日、教育勅語などと共に、衆議院の「教育勅語等排除に関する決議」および参議院の「教育勅語等の失効確認に関する決議」によって、その失効が確認された。
English: While ordinary imperial edicts had a Chinese classics flavor, the rescript was written in the Japanese literary style with hentaigana (anomorous Japanese cursive syllabary), and military men were required to recite it despite its long passages consisting of nearly 2,700 letters and characters in total.
Japanese: 通常の勅語が漢文調であるのに対し、変体仮名交じりの文語体で、総字数2700字におよぶ長文であるが、軍人は暗誦できることが求められた。
English: On the other hand, Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) often stated 'It is necessary to remember the spirit of the rescript. Sailors should rather memorize each rule than all the sentences of the rescript,' and they rarely needed to recite all the sentences.
Japanese: しかし、大日本帝国海軍では「御勅諭の精神を覚えておけばよい。御勅諭全文より諸例則等を覚えよ」とされることが多く、全文暗誦を求められることは多くなかった。
English: The rescript consists of the preamble, the main part and the last part: the preamble indicates Emperor holding supreme command, saying 'Being Emperor, I myself am commander in chief,' the main part tells military men five types of virtue of loyalty, courtesy, military prowess, faithfulness, and frugality, and the last part orders soldiers and sailors to follow and practice them sincerely.
Japanese: 内容は、前文で「朕は汝ら軍人の大元帥なるぞ」と天皇が統帥権を保持することを示し、続けて、軍人に忠節・礼儀・武勇・信義・質素の5つの徳目を説いた主文、これらを誠心をもって遵守実行するよう命じた後文から成る。
English: Particularly in the point of 'loyalty,' military men were ordered not to engage in politics, saying 'Military men are neither perplexed at political opinions nor involved in politics.'
Japanese: 特に「忠節」の項において「政論に惑わず政治に拘わらず」と軍人の政治への不関与を命じる。
English: On the side of the Army (and a part of the Navy), however, since the imperial rescript was given by Emperor ahead of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan, there was an idea that the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors secures their independence from the government and the parliament (Some members of the Army even interpreted 'Military men are neither perplexed at political opinions nor involved in politics.' as 'Military men need not care about what the government and statesmen say').
Japanese: ところが大日本帝国憲法に先行して天皇から与えられた「勅諭」であることから、陸軍（および海軍の一部）は軍人勅諭を政府や議会に対する自らの独立性を担保するものと位置づけていた（陸軍の一部には「政論に惑わず政治に拘わらず」について「政府や政治家が何を言おうと気にする必要はない、ということだ」という解釈すらあったという）。
English: On the side of the Navy, most thought the rescript ordered them not to engage in politics, but there were some radicals who caused the May 15th Incident, terrorist assassination, that resulted in the end of party politics.
Japanese: 海軍においては政治への不関与を命じたものと位置づけるのが主流であったが、政党政治に終局をもたらせた暗殺テロ、五・一五事件に代表される急進派も存在した。
English: In terms of the war, an old saying 'Life is heavier than Mount Taishan in a sense, and lighter than a feather of a stork in another sense' was put in a phrase 'Keep it in mind that justice is heavier than a mountain and life is lighter than a feather of a stork,' that was an order meaning 'Do not waste life usually, but sometimes die for justice, for example for Emperor and the state' (cf. Senjinkun military code says, "Do not live as a captive to be subjected to humiliating treatment", and the Senjinkun idea of denying surrender), though why it was rephrased is unclear.
Japanese: 戦いに於いては「義は山嶽より重く死は鴻毛より軽しと心得よ」と、「死は或いは泰山より重く或いは鴻毛より輕し」という古諺を言換え、「普段は命を無駄にせず、けれども時には義のため、喩えば天皇のため国のために、命を捨てよ」と命じた物とされる（戦陣訓『生きて虜囚の辱を受けず』、戦陣訓降伏・投降の否定の思想を参照）が、換言の意図は不明である。
English: By the way, although some materials show this imperial rescript with letters of 'Onna (name) gyoji (imperial seal)' at the end, Emperor Meiji signed the rescript without putting gyoji ('Onna' was written on prints) and gave it directly to the Army and the Navy (It was notified by Minister of Army to the members of the Ministry as 'Meiji 15, Ministry of Army, Otsu No.2'), and therefore, to be exact only 'onna' was inscribed on prints.
Japanese: なお、資料によってはこの勅諭の末尾に「御名御璽」と表記しているものがあるが、この勅諭は明治天皇の署名（印刷物等に表記する場合は「御名」）のみで御璽を捺さずに陸海軍に直接下賜する形式を採った（軍内部には「明治15年陸軍省達乙第2号」として陸軍大臣から布達された）ため、印刷物の場合は「御名」のみ表記されるのが正確である。
English: In the book titled 'Watashi no naka no Nihongun (Japanese Army in myself)' by Shichihei YAMAMOTO (published by Bunshun Bunko), one combat medic drank in a banquet of a troop, and said in a loud voice, 'Totsugeki Ichiban, the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors is finished with women!'
Japanese: 山本七平の「私の中の日本軍」（文春文庫）では，ある衛生下士官が部隊の宴会で酔い，「突撃一番，軍人勅諭はオンナで終わらあー」と叫んだ事を記している。
English: Keiichi ITO was in the central China during the war (as a lance corporal of the Army) and when he became a novelist of military history later, he compared Senjinkun military code with the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors and said, '"the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors," that was issued in 1882, has a literary style with more solemn rhythm than "Senjinkun military code," pure national consciousness is seen through it, and it gives impression of a kind of epic literature instead of the military.
Japanese: 戦争中，中支の戦場にいた，のちの戦記作家の伊藤桂一(当時・陸軍上等兵)は，戦陣訓と軍人勅諭を比較して「「戦陣訓」にくらべると，明治十五年発布の「軍人勅諭」は荘重なリズムをもつ文体で，内部に純粋な国家意識が流れているし，軍隊を離れて，一種の叙事詩的な文学性をさえ感じるのである。
English: Though "Senjinkun military code" can not be compared with "'the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors," there is no mentality seen through "Senjinkun military code," but just a list of items to be pushed to soldiers vainly.
Japanese: 「戦陣訓」を「軍人勅諭」と比較することは酷であるにしても「戦陣訓」にはなんら灌漑している精神がなく，いたずらに兵隊に押しつける箇条書が羅列してあるだけである。
English: Did they think on earth that natural soldiers could follow every clause of restriction imaginable?
Japanese: およそ考えられるかぎりのあらゆる制約条項を，いったい生身の兵隊が守れるとでも思ったのであろうか。
English: Anyway, "Senjinkun military code" reflects the drastically weakened militaty organization, and therefore, a clever soldier would have already expected the crisis of the army when he read it.'
Japanese: ともかく「戦陣訓」には耗弱した軍の組織の反映があり，聡明なる兵隊はそれを読んだ時点で，すでに兵隊そのものの危機を予感したかもしれない。」と述べている。
English: The term "oyatoi-gaikokujin" refers to the practice, common from the late Edo period into the early Meiji period, of hiring Europeans and Americans to foster the importation into Japan of the advanced technologies, scholarship and systems of Europe and the United States under the banner of 'Shokusan-kogyo' (encouragement of production and industry).
Japanese: お雇い（御雇）外国人（おやといがいこくじん）とは、幕末以降明治初期に、「殖産興業」などを目的として、欧米の先進技術や学問、制度を輸入するために雇用された欧米人のことである。
English: Such foreigners were invited to Japan by the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and by various regional domains; beginning in the Meiji period, they were invited by the new Meiji government, prefectural offices, or by the private sector.
Japanese: 江戸幕府や各藩、明治以降は新政府や各府県、または民間によって招聘された。
English: In the final years of the Edo period, each domain competed in the hiring of foreigners to serve their lords; as such, they were also called Okakae-gaikokujin (foreigners in service).
Japanese: 幕末に各藩が競って外国人を抱えて雇用したために、お抱え外国人ともよばれることもある。
English: Although broadly speaking the designation oyatoi-gaikokujin also included the employees of foreign diplomatic missions in Japan as well as the (foreign) guards at the foreign settlements, for the purposes of this article the term will be used only for those foreigners who were employed by the Japanese government in order to foster the learning of new technologies and scholarship from Europe and the United States.
Japanese: 広義では在外公館で雇用されていた者や、外国人居留地の警備に当たった者なども含まれるが、本項では日本が欧米から新しい技術や知識を学ぶために雇用した人物について述べる。
English: Oyatoi-gaikokujin were employed to teach native Japanese the latest technologies and knowledge from Europe and the United States in order to fuel the process of Japan's modernization.
Japanese: お雇い外国人は、日本の近代化の過程で西欧の先進技術や知識を学ぶために雇用された。
English: From the early days of the Edo period, there had been foreigners hired for this purpose in Japan, notably Jan JOOSTEN and William ADAMS, both highly esteemed and well treated by Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, who valued them as advisers to the bakufu on foreign diplomacy or technology; there was also the example of Philipp Franz Balthasar von SIEBOLD, who was employed briefly as an adviser for the bakufu.
Japanese: 江戸時代初期からヤン・ヨーステンやウィリアム・アダムスなどの例があり、幕府の外交顧問や技術顧問を務め徳川家康の評価を得て厚遇されたほか、後にはフィリップ・フランツ・フォン・シーボルトなども一時期幕府顧問になったという経緯もある。
English: However, it was not until after the Meiji Restoration, which saw the end of the long period of national isolation and the beginning of Japan's search for models abroad, that the Japanese government began the full-scale hiring of foreigners.
Japanese: しかし外国人の雇用が本格化するのは鎖国が解かれ先進海外に範を求めるようになった明治維新以降である。
English: In 1855 of the end of Edo Period, the Tokugawa shogunate established a Japanese Naval School in Nagasaki and invited several Dutchmen, notably Willem Huyssen van KATTENDIJKE, to serve as advisers on military affairs.
Japanese: 幕末の1855年、徳川幕府は長崎に海軍伝習所を開設し、オランダからカッテンディーケらを招き軍事顧問とした。