nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: On the same day, a group led by Katsuyori was captured by the army led by Kazumasu TAKIGAWA at a place in Tano in front of Tenmokuzan Mountain.
Japanese: 同日、勝頼一行は天目山の目前にある田野の地で滝川一益隊に捕捉された。
English: Masastsune TSUCHIYA and Tomoharu KOMIYAMA bravely fought against their enemies; Masatsune later came to be known for having killed one thousand soldiers with a sword in one hand.
Japanese: 土屋昌恒・小宮山友晴らが奮戦し、土屋昌恒は「片手千人斬り」の異名を残すほどの活躍を見せた。
English: In Shirotsukuri, Toriibata in Tano, which was the last battlefield of Katsuyori, he bravely fought off Nobunaga's large army with a small number of troops.
Japanese: 勝頼最後の戦となった田野の四郎作・鳥居畑では、信長の大軍を僅かな手勢で奮闘撃退した。
English: However, being hopelessly outnumbered, Katsuyori and his son, Nobukatsu and Mrs. Hojo committed suicide, along with Mitsukata NAGASAKA, Tsuchiya brothers and Akiyama Kii no kami (governor of Kii Province); some people believe that Katsusuke ATOBE also committed suicide, but others believe that he was killed in the battle to defend Suwa.
Japanese: しかし、衆寡敵せず、勝頼、信勝父子・北条夫人は自害し、長坂光堅、土屋兄弟、秋山紀伊守らも殉死した（跡部勝資も殉死したとする説もあるが、諏訪防衛戦で戦死したとも。
English: In any case, the theory in "Koyo Gunkan" (record of the military exploits of the Takeda family, compiled by one of the Takeda vassals, and completed in 1616 by Kagenori OBATA) that claims that Nagasaka and Atobe escaped violates a historical fact).
Japanese: いずれにしても『甲陽軍鑑』が記載の長坂・跡部逃亡説は史実に反する）。
English: It was March 14, 1582 when the heads of Katsuyori and his son, Nobukatsu, reached Nobunaga who had invaded Namiai.
Japanese: やがて、浪合に進出していた信長の元に勝頼・信勝父子の首が届いたのは3月14日のことであった。
English: On March 16, 1582, Nobutoyo TAKEDA was killed by his disloyal vassal, Kakuunsai (Nobutsune) SHIMOSONE, and Nobushige OYAMADA was also executed at Kai-Zenko-ji Temple on the grounds of having betrayed his master.
Japanese: 3月16日には武田信豊が家臣の下曽根覚雲斎（信恒）に背かれて殺され、小山田信茂も「主君を裏切った」と言う理由で甲斐善光寺で処刑された。
English: Nobushige YODA also came within an inch of being executed by the order of Nobunaga; however, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA seeking manpower in the Takeda family let him get away.
Japanese: 依田信蕃も信長の命により処刑されそうになったが、武田氏の人材を求めていた徳川家康は彼を逃がした。
English: Nobushige provided assistance to help Ieyasu conquer Shinano and Kai Provinces, which had been left without a territorial governor after the Honnoji Incident.
Japanese: 信蕃は本能寺の変後、空白地帯となった信濃・甲斐に家康を手引きし、その占領に貢献した。
English: There were many other people, including Mukawashu warriors (warriors active in the remote region of Kai Province) and those who later came to be known as the four major Tokugawa magistrates, who were protected by Masakazu NARUSE (military commander in the Sengoku Period), a former vassal of the Takeda clan who became a vassal of the Tokugawa clan.
Japanese: 他にも武川衆や後の徳川四奉行といった多くの人材が旧武田家臣で徳川氏に帰参していた成瀬正一(戦国武将)を頼り、難を逃れている。
English: Nobuchika (Ryuho) UNNO who was the second son of Shingen and became a priest due to blindness committed suicide after letting his son, Kenryo, Nobumichi TAKEDA, escape.
Japanese: 信玄の次男で盲目ゆえ仏門に入っていた海野信親（竜芳）は、息子の顕了武田信道を逃した後、自刃した。
English: The descendants of Nobumichi helped Nagayasu OKUBO achieve success and survived vicissitudes of history, maintaining their lineage for generations.
Japanese: 信道の系統は大久保長安の業績に絡み、数奇な運命を辿りながらも後世にその血脈を伝えている。
English: On March 21, 1582, Nobunaga ODA arrived at Suwa, and received a congratulatory gift of victory from Ujimasa HOJO through his emissary.
Japanese: 3月21日に織田信長は諏訪に到着し、北条氏政の使者から戦勝祝いを受け取った。
English: Nobukimi ANAYAMA: Permitted to rule his inherited territories and to make his legitimate son, Katsuchiyo, succeed him as the head of the Takeda clan
Japanese: 穴山信君：本領（甲斐河内）安堵、嫡子・勝千代に武田氏の名跡を継がせ、武田氏当主とすることが認められた
English: According to legend, Kazumasu wished for a tea cup used in tea ceremony, which was known as "Jukokonasu" (literally, "a tiny shining eggplant" in Japanese), one of the best-known works of art produced in Azuchi, and was concerned about the loss of the tea cup, which he considered as a treasure in the tradition of tea ceremony.
Japanese: 一益は「安土名物」と言われた茶道の「珠光小茄子」を所望していたとも言われ、「茶の湯の冥加が尽きてしまう」と嘆いていたとも言われている。
English: Kazumasu is also believed to have been appointed as governor of the Kanto region or as an official with similar authority.
Japanese: また関東管領、もしくはそれに準ずる権限の役に就いたとも言われている。
English: (In "Shinchoko-ki" (Biography of Nobunaga ODA), the post was called 'Kanto-hasshu no gokeigo' (post guarding eight provinces in the Kanto region), or 'Togoku-no-gi otoritsugi' (agency post concerning matters related to the eastern part of Japan, particular Kanto region), in "Date jika kiroku" (historical record of the Sendai clan), the post was called 'Togoku bugyo' (magistrate in the eastern part of Japan), and in "Hoan Nobunaga-ki"(Biography of Nobunaga ODA written by Hoan OZE) and "Buke-jiki" (record about samurai family), the post was called 'Kanto Kanrei.'
Japanese: （『信長公記』では「関東八州の御警固」「東国の儀御取次」、『伊達治家記録』では「東国奉行」、『甫庵信長記』と『武家事記』では「関東管領」と呼称されている。
English: The above descriptions are based on Katsuhiro TANIGUCHI, "Nobunaga-gun no Shireikan: Bushotachi no Shusse Kyoso" (Competition among the Military Commanders of the Nobunaga Army), Chuko Shinsho.)
Japanese: 以上『信長軍の司令官武将たちの出世競争』谷口克弘：著、中公新書より）。
English: Ujimasa HOJO received recognition for 'some of his performance at Suruga,' but, did not receive any special reward.
Japanese: 北条氏政は「駿河でひとかどの働きをした」という評価を得たものの、これといった恩賞はなかった。
English: Nobunaga ODA, who departed for Kai Province in April 1582, is reported to have seen Mt. Fuji at Daigahara (in present-day Hokuto City) for the first time in his life.
Japanese: 4月に入り織田信長は甲斐に向かい、その途中の台ヶ原（北杜市）で、生涯初めて富士山を見たとされる。
English: Meanwhile, Nobutada ODA's army started hunting down and killing the remnants of the Takeda clan and besieged Erin-ji Temple (in present-day Koshu City), where enemies sought shelter.
Japanese: 一方、織田信忠勢は武田残党の追討を開始し、残党が逃げ込んだ恵林寺（甲州市）を包囲。
English: Nobutada ODA burnt down the temple, and the temple priest, Kaisen Joki, died in the fire, leaving the well-known farewell words, "Suppress your self, and even fire is cool."
Japanese: 織田信忠は寺を焼き討ちし、寺の和尚である快川紹喜は「心頭滅却すれば火も自ら涼し…」という辞世を残し炎の中に消えた。
English: Nobutada ODA also employed farmers to kill many other people, including ministers of justice, court ladies and persons named Damine or Nagashino, whose severed heads were presented to his army.
Japanese: この他にも諏訪刑部・諏訪采女・段嶺某・長篠某といった者たちを農民を使って殺させ、その首が織田方へと献上された。
English: Given gold in exchange for these heads, farmers searched for important members of the Takeda clan to kill them and present their heads to Oda's army.
Japanese: これに対して黄金を下したため、これを見た農民たちは武田方の名のあるものを探して殺し、その首を織田方に献上した。
English: Contrarily, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA ignored the order to hunt down the remnants, and hid surviving retainers of the Takeda clan in secret as mentioned above.
Japanese: 逆に徳川家康は、残党狩りの命を無視し、先述のように武田の遺臣たちを密かに匿った。
English: Nobunaga arrived in Ejiri (present-day Shimizu Ward, Shizuoka City) on April 13, in present-day Hamamatsu City on April 16, and returned in triumph to Azuchi-jo Castle on April 21, 1582.
Japanese: 4月13日に江尻（静岡市清水区）、16日に浜松市へ到り、21日に安土城に凱旋した。
English: Nagayoshi, who entered Kaizu-jo Castle, conquered neighboring warlords and fought off the attack of Kagekatsu UESUGI, while at the same time mounting an offensive against the Uesugi clan.
Japanese: 海津城に入った長可は近隣諸将を鎮撫し、上杉景勝の侵入を防ぎつつ、一方では上杉氏への攻勢を強めていた。
English: On May 27, 1582, Nagayoshi crossed the border between Shinano and Echigo Provinces to support the armies of northern provinces, including Katsuie SHIBATA's army, and invaded into the area around Nihongi (present-day Joetsu City) in Echigo Province, from where Kasugayama-jo Castle could be seen at a short distance.
Japanese: 5月27日には柴田勝家らの北国勢の支援のために信越国境を越えて、春日山城を指呼の間に望む越後国の二本木（上越市）辺りまでに乱入。
English: Informed of the invasion, Kagekatsu UESUGI was forced to quickly return to Kasugayama-jo Castle.
Japanese: その報を受けた上杉景勝は急遽、春日山城に引き返す必要に迫られることとなった。
English: However, when Nobunaga was killed in the Honnoji Incident, Nagayoshi MORI abandoned Kaizu-jo Castle, and fled back to his territory.
Japanese: しかし、本能寺の変で信長が討たれると、森長可は海津城を捨て本領地に逃げ帰った。
English: For subsequent movements of Kazumasu TAKIGAWA and Ujimasa HOJO, refer to the article, Battle of Kanna River, and for those of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, Ujimasa and Masayuki SANADA, refer to the article, the Tenshojingo War.
Japanese: 滝川一益、北条氏政のその後の動きは神流川の戦いを、徳川家康、氏政、真田昌幸のその後の動きは天正壬午の乱を参照されたい。
English: Katanagari (written as 刀狩 or 刀狩り) was a policy of heinobunri (separating warriors and peasants) which deprived those in the peasant class of their privilege of wearing swords, which highlighted the policy enacted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI through the katanagari edict (at the same time, pirate ship interdiction) issued on August 29, 1588 in the Azuchi-Momoyama period (The first person who executed katanagari was Katsuie SHIBATA.
Japanese: 刀狩（かたながり、刀狩り）とは、百姓身分の者の帯刀権を剥奪する兵農分離政策で、特に安土桃山時代の1588年8月29日（天正16年7月8日(旧暦)）に豊臣秀吉が刀狩令（同時に海上賊船禁止令）を出して大規模に推進した政策を指す（ただし、刀狩を最初に行なったのは柴田勝家である。
English: In June 1585, before the edict was issued, Hideyoshi obtained pledges from monks in the Kongobu-ji Temple to disarm, which is regarded by some people as the first attempt at katanagari.
Japanese: また、これに先立った1585年（天正13年）6月に秀吉が金剛峯寺の僧侶に対して武装放棄を確約させており、これを刀狩の最初とする見方もある）。
English: Katanagari is generally known as a policy of seeking to disarm a farming village by prohibiting peasants from owning arms and confiscating them.
Japanese: 一般的には百姓身分の者の武器所有を禁止し、それらを没収して農村の武装解除を図った政策として知られている。
English: Strictly prohibit the peasants from possessing weapons including katana (sword), wakizashi (sword shorter than katana), bow (weapon), yari (spear), and muskets.
Japanese: 百姓が刀や脇差、弓(武器)、槍、銃などの武器を持つことを固く禁じる。
English: Punish those who carry unnecessary weapons to disobey the orders of officials by refusing to pay land taxes or by staging ikki uprisings.
Japanese: よけいな武器をもって年貢を怠ったり、一揆をおこしたりして役人の言うことを聞かない者は罰する。
English: In the development of katanagari, the government trumpeted that the confiscated arms would be made into material for the Great Buddha hall of Hoko-ji Temple.
Japanese: 刀狩の展開では没収された武器類を方広寺大仏殿の材料とすることが喧伝された。
English: In the Japanese medieval society, an offering of sword to Buddha was generally accepted as an expression of belief such that when regent Yasutoki HOJO prohibited the Buddhist monks in the city of Kamakura from wearing swords in the Kamakura period, he declared that he would contribute the confiscated swords to Kotoku-in Temple.
Japanese: 中世社会では、信仰の形として刀を仏にささげる行為が一般化しており、鎌倉時代には執権北条泰時が鎌倉市中の僧侶の帯刀を禁じた際に、没収した刀を高徳院に寄進すると述べている。
English: It was recorded in some documents such as "Tamonin Nikki" (Diary of Tamonin) written by Eishun (a monk in the Kofuku-ji Temple) and the like that the primary objective of the katanagari policy was preventing ikki (political community based on a league).
Japanese: また、英俊（興福寺僧侶）による『多聞院日記』などでは、政策の主目的が一揆（盟約による政治共同体）の防止であったと記されている。
English: In other words, with katanagari policy, the government sought to directly deter the peasants from forming ikki by disarming the soson (a community consisting of peasants' self-governing association) which would otherwise have the physical power to have peasants form an ikki league and revolt against the government.
Japanese: つまり、百姓身分の者が一揆を結成して政権に異議申し立てをする物理的実力たる惣村を武装解除し、一揆の結成そのものを抑止しようとしたというのである。
English: Soson villages, which were autonomous organizations formed by peasants at the time, had jurisdiction as well as military forces and police authority required to protect their jurisdiction based on the right to rule themselves, and owned enormous amounts of weapons.
Japanese: 当時の百姓身分の自治組織である惣村は、自検断権に基づき自ら司法権とその保証となる軍事警察力たる武力を持ち、膨大な武器を所有していた。
English: They also possessed a large quantity of arms, and multiple soson were united to form an ikki league which would resist the lord of the land.
Japanese: また、相互に一揆の盟約を結んで団結して、領主の支配に対して大きな抵抗力を持つ存在ともなっていたのである。
English: In 1585, prior to katanagari edict, Hideyoshi confiscated weapons from negoroshu (armed monks with muskets at more than 500 temples in Negoro district collectively called Negoro Temple) and saigashu (or saikashu: musket troop of powerful families in Kishu who supported Ishiyama Hongan-ji Temple), and Katsuie SHIBATA, a retainer to Nobunaga ODA, also executed a katanagari policy for putting down ikko ikki in the Echizen Province.
Japanese: 秀吉は1585年には先行して根来衆や雑賀衆から武器没収を行っており、また織田氏家臣の柴田勝家も越前国の一向一揆の鎮圧のために刀狩政策を行っている。
English: Actually, however, the katanagari edict developed as a means to deliver or confiscate swords and short swords, while arms used for religious ceremonies and muskets for getting rid of noxious beasts were still allowed, leaving a great deal of weapons in the villages even after the execution of the katanagari edict.
Japanese: ただ、実際には、刀や脇差の上納と没収が名目上で展開されたのみで、祭祀に用いる武具や害獣駆除のための鉄砲などは所持を許可されるなど、刀狩の展開後も農村には大量の武器が存在したままだった。
English: In other words, Hideyoshi's katanagari edict could not completely disarm soson.
Japanese: すなわち、秀吉の刀狩令によって惣村の完全なる武装解除が達成されたわけではない。
English: In many cases, the katanagari edict was implemented on the basis of murauke (village-wide, collective responsibility for tax payment), that is, the right of jikendan of soson.
Japanese: また、刀狩の展開の多くは村請すなわち惣村の自検断権に基づいて実行されたケースが多い。
English: Throughout the medieval era, the possession of weapons prevailed in Japan with civilians customarily wearing swords.
Japanese: 中世を通じて武器の所有は広く一般民衆にまで浸透しており、成人男性の帯刀は一般的であった。
English: People would often resort to force to solve even trivial matters, and Hideyoshi addressed this by prohibiting any conflict resolution using weapons (kenka choji rei (edict prohibiting quarrel and fighting)) throughout the nation in parallel with katanagari edict, which was inherited by the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
Japanese: また、近隣間の些細なトラブルでさえ暴力によって解決される傾向にあった、そのため、秀吉は刀狩と並行して武器の使用による紛争の解決を全国的に禁止（喧嘩停止令）し、この施策は江戸幕府にも継承された。
English: Based on the above-mentioned circumstances, the strongest theory as of late was that Hideyoshi's katanagari edict was aimed at the heinobunri, controlling the use of weapons by revoking the right for peasants to wear a sword and not aimed at disarming those in the peasant class.
Japanese: 以上のことから、秀吉の刀狩令は百姓身分の武装解除を目指したものではなく、百姓身分から帯刀権を奪い、武器使用を規制するという兵農分離を目的としたものであったとする学説が現在では有力である。
English: Later, upon introducing 'bunchi seiji' (civilian government), the Edo bakufu resumed control over the custom of sword bearing (in 1688, which was expanded throughout the nation in 1683).
Japanese: 後に江戸幕府が「文治政治」の導入に伴って、再び帯刀規制に乗り出す事になった（1668年（寛文8年）、後1683年（天和(日本)3年）に全国的に拡大）。
English: This was no more than a symbolic policy of control over wearing two swords which represents the status (see wakizashi), and fell short of eradicating the great deal of weapons stored in the rural villages.
Japanese: しかしこれも身分表象としての二本差し帯刀の規制による象徴的なものに留まり（脇差参照）、農村に蓄えられた膨大な武器を消滅させるには至らなかった。
English: In the Edo period after civil wars had ended and the nation was stabilized, although the peasants formed ikki in spite of the ostensible prohibition and held demonstrations (goso) to demand their rights, a certain compromise had been reached, and those on the side of the ikki refrained from using such long range weapons as muskets and bows which were most effective in battle.
Japanese: ただし、内戦状態が解消して安定状態がもたらされた江戸時代には、表向き禁止された百姓の一揆が結成され、それによる権益要求の示威活動（強訴）が行われても、一揆側で真に戦闘時に威力を発揮する鉄砲や弓矢といった飛び道具の持ち出しは自粛されるなど、一定の妥協が成立していた。
English: These cache of weapons in the rural villages were almost completely eradicated under the Occupation policy by the General Headquarters of the Allied Powers (GHQ) which was carried out after the Empire of Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration for the Pacific War and the Instrument of Surrender was signed.
Japanese: これらの農村の膨大な武器がほぼ完全に消滅するのは、大日本帝国が太平洋戦争においてポツダム宣言を受諾し降伏文書に調印した後の、連合国軍最高司令官総司令部の占領政策による。
English: After the Firearm and Sword Control Law was enforced in 1946, civilians were prohibited from possessing firearms for use other than hunting and target shooting and Japanese swords for use other than works of art.
Japanese: 1946年（昭和21年）に銃砲刀剣類所持等取締法が施行され、民間人は狩猟用や射撃競技用以外の銃器類と、美術用以外の日本刀を所持することができなくなった。
English: Since those who planned revolutions bore arms and gangs (yakuza) started conflicts, the law was reinforced and a several month examination (the period depends on the kind of firearms) was required to possess a firearm-related weapon, making the legal possession of firearms for the purpose of violence virtually impossible in any event in Japan.
Japanese: この時革命を起こそうと考えた者の武装やヤクザの抗争の影響でより一層武器の取締りが厳しくなり、特に銃器関連を所持するには銃器にもよるが、数ヶ月期間の審査が必要であり、少なくとも暴力行為を前提に銃器を合法的に所持するのは日本では事実上不可能になった。
English: Shi-no-ko-sho was a Confucian concept of societal ranking (government official, farmers, artisans, merchants) that accounted for the main part of the society.
Japanese: 士農工商（しのうこうしょう）とは、儒教において社会を構成する主要な身分（官吏・百姓・職人・商人）の上下関係を指す概念である。
English: In Japan, shi '士' (government official) was replaced with '侍' (samurai or warriors), ko (artisans) and sho (merchants) were collectively recognized as townsman without being differentiated, and no order existed between peasants (no) and the 'townsmen.'
Japanese: ただし、日本では「士」は「侍」に置き換えられ、工と商に区別はなく一括して町人と認識されており、百姓（農）と「町人」との間に序列はなかった。
English: Originally, shi-no-ko-sho was a categorization of citizenry in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods in China (Shoshi hyakka (The Various Masters of the 100 Schools: Thinkers of Ancient China)), as described in "Kuan Tzu," 'the four social classes of government official, farmers, artisans, and merchants form the foundation of a country.'
Japanese: 本来、士農工商とは中国の春秋戦国時代（諸子百家）における民の分類法で例えば『管子』には「士農工商四民、国の礎」と記されている。
English: "Xun Zi" (or Hsun Tzu) and "Shunju Kokuryo-den" (Annotation of Guliang on Spring and Autumn Annals) described 'shi-sho-ko-no'; though in China, much more importance has traditionally been attached to "no" who settled in the land and produced crops, as opposed to the "sho" and "ko" who did not till the land and aimed at reaping profits.
Japanese: 『荀子』や『春秋穀梁伝』のように「士商工農」とするものもあるが、中国では伝統的に土地に基づかず利の集中をはかる「商・工」よりも土地に根ざし穀物を生み出す「農」が重視されてきた。
English: The thought was that if merchants and artisans were allowed to freely pursuit profits, their wealth would threaten the ruling class and farmers would give up the hard labor of agriculture start new careers as sho or ko, decreasing agricultural output, leading to famine, and resulting in the collapse of the social order.
Japanese: 商人や職人に自由に利潤追求を許せば、その経済力によって支配階級が脅かされ、農民が重労働である農業を嫌って商工に転身する事により穀物の生産が減少して飢饉が発生し、ひいては社会秩序が崩壊すると考えたのである。
English: In Japan, however, the aspect of reisetsu (propriety) was received more favorably than Confucianism; thus, the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) designated the Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) which had always insisted on the importance of moral practice as 'kangaku' (a school of learning advocated by the Tokugawa shogunate).
Japanese: しかし、日本では儒教の思想よりも礼節の面が受け入れられ、江戸幕府では道徳的実践を重んじる朱子学が「官学」と定められた。
English: "Nippo jisho" (Japanese-Portuguese dictionary) published by a missionary of the Society of Jesus in 1603 contained an entry on 'shi-no-ko-sho.'
Japanese: なお、慶長8年（1603年）にイエズス会の宣教師が出版した『日葡辞書』と呼ばれる辞典には「士農工商」の項目が収録されている。
English: The classes of samurai and peasants which had social mobility to some extent in the Warring States period (Japan) were fixed by taiko kenchi (the cadastral surveys conducted by Hideyoshi) which started around 1582 and katanagari (sword hunt) which was carried out in 1588.
Japanese: 戦国時代(日本)に比較的流動性があった侍と百姓が固定化されるのが天正9年（1582年）頃から始まった太閤検地や天正16年（1588年）の刀狩などによってである。
English: These policies which separated warriors and peasants were further enforced in the Edo period, and social mobility was reduced as a result.
Japanese: こうした兵農分離政策は江戸時代に一層強化され身分の移動は少なくなった。
English: In Confucianism, it was thought that profit pursuing would lead to desires that would ultimately cause a human being to deteriorate and that activities of involved in commerce and industry themselves would be contrary to what a human being should be; nevertheless, under the above-mentioned circumstances, merchants took the initiative in an economy based on the development of a monetary economy and industry.
Japanese: こうした中、儒教では利益の追求は欲望を生み出して人間を堕落の方向に向かわせると考えられ、商工業に携わること自体が本来の人間があるべき姿に反する行為として否定的に捉えられていたが、実際には貨幣経済や産業の発達により商人が経済の主導権を握るようになった。
English: As the classes that were actually involved in systems in the Edo period, samurai were ranked at the top with 'peasants' and 'townsmen' just below.
Japanese: 江戸時代の諸制度に実際に現れる身分は、武士を上位にし、その下に「百姓」と「町人」を並べるものであった。
English: According to this system, peasants were grouped by village, townsmen by town, with no difference between their ranks.
Japanese: この制度では、百姓を村単位で、町人を町単位で把握し、両者の間に上下関係はなかった。
English: Townsmen were not distinguished systematically by their occupation whether they were 'ko' or 'sho,' and there was no system of discriminating merchants against artisans.
Japanese: また、町人の職業が「工」か「商」かを制度的に区別することはなく、商人を職人より冷遇する制度もなかった。
English: Besides, peasants were not limited to living on farming and many of them actually built a fortune through marine transportation or handicrafts, which should have belonged to trades of 'sho' or 'ko'.
Japanese: そして百姓の生業も農業に限られるものではなく、百姓身分で「商」や「工」に属するはずの海運業や手工業などによって財を成した者も多くいた。
English: An official announcement issued in October and November 1842 in the midst of the Tempo Reforms contained the following sentence: 'peasants must not start business of the townsman as a sideline' and set a ceiling on wages paid for employees who came from farming villages, all of which must have been countermeasures taken by the bakufu for fear that such tendencies would lead to a decline in agriculture.
Japanese: 天保の改革最中の天保13年（1842年）9月の御触書には「百姓の余技として、町人の商売を始めてはならない」という文があり、併せて農村出身の奉公人の給金に制限を設けているが、これはこうした風潮が農業の衰退に繋がる事を危惧した幕府の対応策であったと考えられる。
English: That is to say, hyakusho (peasant) in the current sense is a full-time farmer and categorized as 'nonin' (person engaged in agriculture); but in the Edo period, haykusho held a different meaning.
Japanese: つまり、現在でいう百姓とは農業専従者で「農人」として分類される存在であるが、江戸時代では範囲の異なる言葉であったのである。
English: Besides, only the head of the family was categorized under the peasant or the townsmen class in a strict sense, with subdivided classes in villages and towns.
Japanese: さらにいえば、厳密な百姓身分、町人身分とされたのは家の筆頭者だけであり、それ以外に村内、町内には細かな身分構造が存在していた。
English: As shown in an empirical study which inferred that 'townsmen' and 'merchants' were categorized into different classes, the actual class system in the Edo period was quite a complex and complicated structure.
Japanese: また「町人」と「商人」は異なる身分とみなされていたとする実証的研究もあり、実際の江戸時代の身分制度はかなり錯綜した複雑な構造を持っていたようである。
English: A considerable portion of the population was excluded from the shi-no-ko-sho (such as court nobles, Buddhist monks, Shinto priests, kengyo (the highest title of official ranks within the Todo-za, the guild for the blind)), and these people also had respective official ranks.
Japanese: そもそも、士農工商に含まれない身分、（公家・僧侶・神主・検校・役者、穢多など）も相当数おり、これらも公認の身分を保持していた。
English: The actual class system of the Edo period remains unclear in many respects and has yet to be studied more closely based on empirical data.
Japanese: 現実の江戸時代の身分制度は未解明な部分が多く、今後の実証的な研究が待たれる面が大きい。
English: Status was relatively flexible between peasants and townsmen, with status mobility also existing between those classes and low-ranking samurai (ashigaru (foot soldier)).
Japanese: 百姓・町人の間での身分移動は比較的容易であり、武士の下層（足軽）との身分移動も多くあった。
English: Focusing on the mobility to some extent between low-ranking samurai and high-ranking peasants, such classes may be called 'middle-ranking class.'
Japanese: 武士下層と百姓上層との間にある程度の流動性があることに着目し、この階層を「身分的中間層」と呼ぶ考え方もある。
English: In addition, the peasants could be granted the privileges of having a family name, wearing swords, and taking lives of people with impunity, or status as a samurai.
Japanese: この他、百姓が苗字帯刀・切捨御免の特権や「士分格」という格式を得ることがある。
English: Some people seem to think that there was a kind of 'freedom' in the Edo period based on this class mobility, however, the class system was a rigid framework that was also a highly flexible system which allowed for mobility.
Japanese: このような身分移動を根拠に、江戸時代にある種の「自由」を見る考え方もあるが、身分制は、枠組みとしては強固であり、ある程度の流動性を前提にした柔軟性の高いシステムなのである。
English: In the Meiji period, it was considered that Japan would not be able to develop into a modern nation unless it broke away from its class system based in the medieval feudal society: therefore the government abolished the class system from the Edo period and enacted the policy of shimin byodo (the equality of four classes).
Japanese: 明治時代になると近代国家に脱皮するためには中世封建制社会の身分制度を破棄することは避けて通れないと考えられ、政府により江戸時代の身分制度が廃止され四民平等（しみんびょうどう）の政策が採られることになった。