nntsuzu/KFTT huggingface dataset:
English: Facing a difficult financial situation, the national government became unable to construct railways, which the government had decided to be 'basically owned by the nation', and therefore, an increasing number of railways became to be constructed with private capital (refer to the railway history in Japan.)
Japanese: また、財政難となった国は、「原則国有」としていた鉄道の建設が困難になり、代わって私有資本による鉄道建設が進んだ（→日本の鉄道史）。
English: When the Seinan War came to an end, the privileges of the warrior class were denied clearly, and the downfall of the warrior class was determined.
Japanese: 西南戦争に決着が付いた時点で、士族階級の特権は明白に否定され、その没落が決定付けられた。
English: The economic confusion having accompanied the war increased the difference between the rich and the poor, reducing many farmers to tenant farmers.
Japanese: 戦争にともなう経済の混乱は貧富の差の拡大をもたらし、多くの農民が没落し小作農となった。
English: On the other hand, some large landowners and Zaibatsu accumulated capital, taking the opportunity to become primitive stage capitalists.
Japanese: その一方で、一部の大地主や財閥は資本を蓄積し、その中から初期資本家が現れる契機となった。
English: In the society, importance became to be placed on 'money' more than on 'social status', resultantly advancing the modernization of Japan.
Japanese: 「身分」よりも「財」が優越する社会が到来し、結果的に日本の近代化を進めることなった。
English: Politics led by the lawmakers representing the interests of the Ministry of Interior, which has been dominated by the faction from the Choshu domain even after the defeat in the Pacific War, started.
Japanese: 太平洋戦争による敗戦を経ても現代でも続く、長州藩閥の影響による内務省族主導の政治体制が始まった。
English: The Seinan War, which is the last civil war in Japan, put an end to the military professional jobs of the warrior class at the conclusion.
Japanese: 西南戦争は日本最後の内戦となり、士族という軍事専門職の存在を消滅させて終焉した。
English: The fact that the government army, mostly composed of conscripted soldiers, won the war against Saigo's army, mainly consisted of persons in the warrior class, verified that the fighting ability of soldiers from the warrior class and that of those from farmers were not different; accordingly, a system of general conscription was established.
Japanese: 士族を中心にした西郷軍に、徴兵を主体とした政府軍が勝利したことで、士族出身の兵士も農民出身の兵士も戦闘力に違いはないことが実証され、徴兵制による国民皆兵体制が定着した。
English: The government army correctly grasped that the factors of its victory were its superior modernized equipment, firepower, means of communication, and command ability.
Japanese: 政府軍は勝利の原因が、近代的装備、火力、通信手段、指揮能力の違いにあったことを正しく把握していた。
English: Therefore, in the policies of modernizing forces after the Seinan War, the government army kept its policies of deploying regular troops based on conscription, and of modernizing equipment and the supreme command.
Japanese: 西南戦争後の軍の近代化路線では、徴兵を基盤とした常備軍を置き、装備統帥の近代化を追求する路線に変更はなかった。
English: On the other hand, although having been superior in troop strength and firepower, soldiers in Kumamoto Garrison were often defeated by soldiers from warrior class in Saigo's army in strategic fights.
Japanese: 一方で、兵力と火力に勝っていながら、鎮台兵は戦術的戦闘ではしばしば西郷軍の士族兵に敗北した。
English: There is an opinion that, seeing the sight that soldiers from warrior class in Satsuma furiously rushed in with swords and waged hand-to-hand fights with swords, the Japanese army became to place importance on hand-to-hand fights.
Japanese: 薩摩士族兵達の苛烈な白刃突撃や白兵戦を見て、日本軍は白兵戦を重視するに至ったとの意見もある。
English: However, as described above, even after this war, the Army in the Meiji period aimed at gaining fire superiority (the policy that the quality of the firepower of guns and artillery decides the war) as in other nations.
Japanese: しかしながら、これ以降も上述の通り、明治陸軍は諸外国と同様に火力優勢（銃砲火力の優劣が勝敗を決する）を採用している。
English: The reasons why Saigo's army was stronger in hand-to-hand fights are considered as follows: Saigo's army occupied a vantage ground, and there was a tremendous difference in the sword-handling ability between the warrior class, who had been familiar with handling swords, and the conscripted soldiers, who had had only a few years of sword-handling training.
Japanese: 西郷軍の白兵戦が強かったのは、地の利が西郷軍にあったことと、幼い頃より刀剣に慣れ親しんでいた士族と、訓練されたとはいえ数年程度の徴集兵では錬度に雲泥の差があったからである。
English: The Japanese Army started placing importance on hand-to-hand fights when it was predicted that hand-to-hand fights would occur frequently when the infiltration strategy, employed through a study on the First World War, was to be used.
Japanese: 日本軍が白兵戦を重視し始めたのは、第一次世界大戦の研究を通じて採用された浸透戦術によって、白兵戦闘が多発すると予見されてからである。
English: In the Second Shanghai Jihen (Shanghai incident), in which short-distance battles occurred in various places, the main arms of the Japanese soldiers were grenades and tenth-year (Taisho 10, or 1921) type grenade launchers.
Japanese: 各所で苛烈な近距離戦闘が発生した第二次上海事変での日本兵の主な武器は手榴弾や十年式擲弾筒であった。
English: On the other hand, it is famous that the Soviet soldiers challenged the Japanese soldiers to traditional hand-to-hand fights in the August attack in the Nomonhan incident.
Japanese: ノモンハン事件ソ連軍の8月攻勢時のソ連兵達の方が銃剣による伝統的白兵戦を挑んだ事で有名である。
English: From the lessons obtained through the Seinan War, the tendency of emphasizing moral education for conscripted soldiers became stronger.
Japanese: 西南戦争の教訓から、徴兵兵士に対する精神教育を重視する傾向が強まった。
English: Reasoning that the supreme commander Takamori SAIGO raised the fighting spirit of Saigo's army, the national government in the Meiji period appointed Emperor to the commander-in-chief of the Imperial Army and Navy to raise the morale of the armies.
Japanese: 西郷軍の士気が高かったのは西郷隆盛が総大将であったからだと考え明治政府は、天皇を大日本帝国陸軍・海軍の大元帥に就かせて軍の士気高揚を図るようになった。
English: Even after the equipment for manufacturing ammunition for Snider rifles was confiscated, Saigo's army continued fighting with Enfield guns, and therefore, the government army was forced to spend lots of war cost to suppress the attacks of the Saigo's army.
Japanese: スナイドル弾薬製造装置を取り上げられても西郷軍がエンフィールド銃で戦い、巨額の戦費を費やしてこれを鎮圧せざるを得なかった。
English: So as not to repeat that mistake, the government started to withdraw the muzzle loaders, which were an older model but superior in the ability to continue war and stored in various places throughout the nation, in 1878 after the end of the Seinan War.
Japanese: この事を反省して、旧式ではあっても継戦能力に優れた前装銃が各地に分散保管されている状況を危険視した政府は、西南戦争後の明治11年からこれらを回収した。
English: Then, the government managed to prohibit the possession of arms by the general public to prevent a civil war by converting all of the withdrawn guns into Snider rifles, making the arms factories monopolized by the national Army, and regulating the possession of military guns more strictly.
Japanese: まとめてスナイドル銃に改造して、軍による造兵施設の独占と軍用銃の所持を厳しく規制する事で、国民の武装を封じて内乱の再発を防ごうと努めた。
English: Around that time, whether SAIGO participated in the rebellion in Satsuma or not was a question.
Japanese: 当時、此薩摩の暴動に付いては、西郷が加つて居るか居らぬかと云ふことは、一の疑問であつた。
English: Actually, because even OYAMA said that 'SAIGO never participates in the rebellion', the general public also said that 'SAIGO does not participate in it, because OYAMA says so'.
Japanese: 現に大山すらも「西郷は決して加つて居らぬ」と云ふものだから、一般の人も「大山がああ云ふのであるから、西郷は加つて居らぬ」と云ふたものであつた。
English: However, I said that 'It is not true: Even if SAIGO has no idea of aiding the rebellion, he would eventually become involved in it by others, according to the obtained information'.
Japanese: しかしながら、私は、「いや、そうでない,西郷はくみする考はなくとも、是迄の情報に於いては、外のものが必ず漕ぎ出すに違ひない」と云ふた。
English: In Kumamoto Prefecture in these days, all people in the warrior, farmer, artisan, and merchant classes seemed to adore the Satsuma soldiers, saying that there is nothing improper about them.
Japanese: 熊本県、士農工商に至るまで、此節は薩兵を慕ふが如き有様にて、万事不都合の義、毛頭無し。
English: The suffering experienced by Viscount TANI would be unimaginable for anyone except those like me who were besieged there as well.
Japanese: 谷子爵の当時の苦衷と云ふものは、共に籠城した余等でなければ、到底想像だも出来ないであろうと思はれる。
English: Since Viscount TANI said that high-ranking officers need not to go into battle, all of us sipped chestnut porridge, and jumped at the opportunity to stew the meat of military horses shot dead and ate it.
Japanese: 其所で、子爵は、幹部は、戦闘線に出なくともいいのであろうからと云ふので、余等一同は、栗の粥を啜り、砲弾で死んだ軍馬の肉を、是幸いと取って煮染にして喰ふ。
English: He said to his master that the rebel army lacked bullets, and made villagers collect the bullets that our forces shot and bought them 2 rin 5 mo (rin and mo: monetary units at that time) per bullet.
Japanese: 其君に曰く、賊軍、弾丸己に欠き、村民をして、我軍の射る所を、取拾せしめ、1箇二厘五毛の償を以つて之を買ふ。
English: The mountain roads on all sides were so steep that it was said if a strong warrior occupied the place, no weak warriors could pass it, even if they would number 10,000.
Japanese: 四顧皆山路、極めて険階、所謂一夫之を扼すれば、万卒も過る能はざるもの。
English: In collecting the dead body of the war after this, it is said that a low-level soldier, whose eye was shot by a gun, was out of Shogai for eight days, ate nothing and drank nothing, but was still alive.
Japanese: 是より先、戦死者を収拾するに方り、一兵卒其の隻眼を銃射せられ、八日間晶外に外れ、絶えて飲食せず、能く生命を保てりと。
English: Although having been defeated in Takahatayama, he had not received to move the kitchen, then, he collected cooking utensil and waited for a command.
Japanese: 高畑山巳に敗るると雖ども、未だ炊事所を移すの命を受けず、乃ち炊具を収めて命を待つ。
English: The troop commander went down a valley and retreated to Okamoto, and therefore, there was no time to send his command, and the rebels had already rushed in Tsuboya.
Japanese: 而して隊長は、谿を下り、岡許に退さしを以て、其命を伝ふるに暇あらず、賊は巳に坪屋に乱入す。
English: A certain soldier IJUIN said that a person who returned from Miyakonojo 45 days ago talked about the hardships that he ate strawberries, leaves, and grass, and even soil for four days.
Japanese: 伊集院某は、45日前、都城より帰り来り某困しみしを語るに、4日間、イチゴと草木の葉とを喰ひ、或は土をも喰たる由。
English: Kinjiro TAKEUCHI, who ran back the other day, also talked that their hardships were so extreme, for example, as to have used hard tree chips for bullets for small guns.
Japanese: 其他、竹内金次郎も先日走り帰りて、語るにも、小銃の弾丸は樫木を用る等、実に困難を極めたりと云。
English: It was slightly before the dawn on the 18th of the month when Jurota HENMI, a commander of the Satsuma army, led the Senpo-tai troop and attacked the government army at Mt. Eno.
Japanese: ・薩将辺見十郎太が、先鋒隊を掲げて、可愛岳の官軍を突いたときは、時恰も18日の昧爽であった。
English: Since it was just the time when the defense soldiers of the government army changed, the ensuing confusion and crowds of the defense soldiers were almost beyond description.
Japanese: ちょうど官軍守兵の交替期で、其時、守兵の混乱雑踏と云ふものは、殆ど形容することが出来ぬ。
English: Then HENMI flied down a precipice with irresistible force, high-jumped a reed field, and cut his way into the leaders' office of the government army (the 1st and 2nd brigades) quickly like lightning, shouting loudly.
Japanese: 而して辺見が、獅子奮迅の勢で、絶壁を飛下り、萱原の中を飛び越え、大喝一声、電光石火の如く、官軍の牙営(第一旅団、第二旅団)に斫り込んだ。
English: Shrunk back from his momentum, the government army scattered, and Major General MIYOSHI and Major General NOZU at the leaders' office were panic-stricken and fled, losing their staying places.
Japanese: その勢に辟易して、官軍は皆四散し、牙営に在つた三好少将や野津少将は、周章狼狽、所を失つて逃げた。
English: When we entered the leaders' office following HENMI, among various abandoned goods, the things that attracted our attention slightly were a three-stringed Japanese banjo and a pair of female low wooden clogs.
Japanese: 我等が辺見に従つて、牙営に入つたときには、種種の遺棄品も多くあつたが、一寸、吾人の目を惹いたものは、三味線と婦人の駒下駄であつた。
English: The Ritsuryo system is the Japanese term for the system of centralized government seen mainly in ancient East Asia.
Japanese: 律令制（りつりょうせい）は、主に古代東アジアで見られた中央集権的な統治制度である。
English: The term Ritsuryo system refers to the system based on the Ritsuryo codes; for the Ritsuryo codes, see the section 'Ritsuryo,' and for features of the Ritsuryo codes, see the section 'Ritsuryo law.'
Japanese: なお、律令制とは、律令に基づく制度を意味する用語であり、律令自体については律令の項を、律令の持つ法典としての性質などについては律令法の項を、それぞれ参照されたい。
English: The Ritsuryo system was a system for embodying the idea known in Japanese as odo omin (or odo oshin) and meaning 'the sovereign's land, the sovereign's people,' where 'the land and the people are placed under the rule of the emperor,' which had been had been held as an ideal since ancient times in China.
Japanese: 律令制とは、古代中国から理想とされてきた王土王民（王土王臣とも）、すなわち「土地と人民は王の支配に服属する」という理念を具現化しようとする体制であった。
English: The concept of odo omin, together with the idea of ikkun banmin ('one lord, the whole nation'), where 'only one sovereign rules the country and the people are equal under the rule,' formed two sides of the same coin.
Japanese: また、王土王民の理念は、「王だけが君臨し、王の前では誰もが平等である」とする一君万民思想と表裏一体の関係をなしていた。
English: Under the Ritsuryo system, based on the ideas of odo omin and ikkun banmin, cultivated land was granted equally to the people (peasants) who, in return, had to provide taxes, labor, and military service.
Japanese: 律令制では、王土王民および一君万民の理念のもと、人民（百姓）に対し一律平等に耕作地を支給し、その代償として、税・労役・兵役が同じく一律平等に課せられていた。
English: Furthermore, in an attempt to extend a more unified system of control over the populace, highly systematic codes, namely the Ritsuryo and Kyakushiki codes, were compiled; their promulgation created a very sophisticated bureaucratic organization whose basis lay in legal and ethical codes.
Japanese: さらに、こうした統一的な支配を遺漏なく実施するために、高度に体系的な法令、すなわち律令と格式が編纂され、律令格式に基づいた非常に精緻な官僚機構が構築されていた。
English: This bureaucratic organization was a necessary tool for ruling the people based on the idea of odo omin.
Japanese: この官僚機構は、王土王民理念による人民統治を実現するための必要な権力装置であった。
English: The Ritsuryo system specific to East Asia, although differing slightly with each period and dynasty, was generally comprised of the following four systems based on the ideas of odo omin and ikkun banmin, which became the basis of government.
Japanese: 東アジアに特有の律令制は、各時代・各王朝ごとに異なる部分もあったが、王土王民と一君万民の理念を背景として、概して次の4つの制度が統治の根幹となっていた。
English: The system was designed such that the sovereign would directly allot land to his people (peasants) without any intervention by powerful regional clans, the intermediate rulers between the sovereign and the people; in this, the system came very close to the Confucian ideal.
Japanese: 王が自らの支配する土地を、自らが支配する人民（百姓）へ直接（中間支配者である豪族を介さずに）班給するというものであり、儒教的な理想を多分に含んでいた。
English: In China, the system put emphasis on securing taxes rather than allotting land, whereas in Japan, the system emphasized land allotment.
Japanese: 中国では、土地の班給よりも租税の確保が重視されていたが、日本では土地の班給が重視されていた。
English: As the cultivated land was allotted for each peasants, taxes were imposed for each individual.
Japanese: 土地の班給が人民一人一人に対して行われたので、課税も個人に対してなされた。
English: This shows that the nations that followed the Ritsuryo codes completely ruled the people.
Japanese: これは、律令国家による人民支配が非常に徹底していたことを物語っている。
English: Taxes were uniformly imposed on everyone by eliminating any chance of using discretion.
Japanese: また、課税は恣意性の介入を排除して、誰に対しても同じように一律に行われた。
English: In fact, military service was not equally imposed on the people so that, for example, in Tang China, people in Jiangnan were exempted from almost all of their military services, and in Japan, only the people of the Kanto region were required to serve as frontier guards.
Japanese: ただし、唐代の江南では兵役がほぼ免除されていたり、日本では東国（関東地方）ばかりが防人の兵役義務を負っていたなど、必ずしも一律的に兵役が課されていないという実態があった。
English: This system enabled the creation of the family register and yearly tax records, which were to be used as the original registers in allotting land, imposing taxes, and conscription.
Japanese: この制度の下で、班給・課税・徴兵の台帳となる戸籍・計帳の作成が可能となった。
English: Conversely, the creation of the family register and the yearly tax records made it possible to enforce the three aforementioned systems.
Japanese: 逆に言えば、戸籍・計帳の作成によって、上記の三制度の実施が可能となったのである。
English: In order to thoroughly enforce the four aforementioned systems, the nations with the Ritsuryo system needed highly refined Ritsuryo codes and an advanced systematic bureaucracy based on those codes.
Japanese: 以上の4制度を漏れなく実施するために、律令国家は、非常に精緻な律令法典と、それに基づいた高度に体系化された官僚制を必要とした。
English: The Ritsuryo codes were organized as a legal system centered on 'ritsu,' a criminal code defining social standards, and 'ryo,' an administrative code defining the social system, with 'kyaku,' or amendments, for supplementing ritsu and ryo, and 'shiki' as provisions for enacting ritsu, ryo, and kyaku.
Japanese: 社会規範を規定する刑法的な律と社会制度を規定する行政法的な令が中心的な位置を占め、律令の不足を補う改正法としての格および律令と格の施行細則としての性格を持つ式が一つの法体系、即ち律令法典を構成していた。
English: In order to realize the intentions and orders of the emperor reliably, a highly refined system was established, with orders carried out by the bureaucracy in accordance with a rigid hierarchy where each government office and official's duties and responsibilities were clearly defined.
Japanese: 天子の意思命令を確実に具現化するため、各官庁と官僚の責任と任務を明確に区分し、精密に規定された階級に従って、命令を実行に移していく官僚制が、高度な体系の下に構築された。
English: In each government office, officials were generally divided into four ranks according to the importance of their duties and responsibilities.
Japanese: 各官庁内では、任務や責任の重さによって、官吏を四段階に区分することを原則としていた。
English: In Japan, the examination system was adopted for low to mid-ranked officials, although not thoroughly carried out for all officials because of the exceptional rule called 'on-i,' whereby children of high ranking nobles were automatically promoted to government posts.
Japanese: 日本では蔭位という例外規定が設けられ、高位の貴族の子弟は自動的に官職が与えられたため、徹底はしなかったが、官人の登用試験としては存在した。
English: Other systems, including a transportation system called Ekidensei for conveying information between the capital and local regions without delay, were also adopted to form the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: この他、中央と地方の情報伝達を遅滞なく行うための交通制度（駅伝制）なども、律令制を構成する制度として採用された。
English: In Chinese history, the Ritsuryo system was most prominent during the Sui and Tang dynasties, whereas in the surrounding East Asian countries, the system was widely enforced from the latter half of the 7th century to the 9th century as it was introduced from China.
Japanese: 中国史上では、隋から唐にかけての王朝で顕著であり、周辺の東アジア諸国では7世紀後期～9世紀頃に、中国由来の制度として広く施行された。
English: Both in China and its East Asian neighbors, the Ritsuryo system as described above disappeared or became a dead letter after the 10th century, but even after that period, it continued as a form of law in China, Japan, and Vietnam.
Japanese: 中国でも周辺の東アジア諸国でも、10世紀以後、上記のような律令制は死滅もしくは形骸化したが、その後も法形態としての律令は、中国や日本やベトナムなどで存続し続けた。
English: It is said that the Ritsuryo system can be traced back as far as the Qin and Western Han periods; but strictly speaking, it emerged and gradually developed in China during the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties.
Japanese: 律令制の祖形は、古く秦・前漢期まで遡るともいわれているが、厳密に言えば、律令制は中国の魏晋南北朝時代において出現し、徐々に形成されていった。
English: Following the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, there was a long period of war, bringing Chinese society to the brink of collapse.
Japanese: 後漢末期から戦乱の時代が長く続き、中国の社会は混乱を極め、ほとんど崩壊に至っていた。
English: In order to rebuild society, the Dynasties following the Wei Kingdom ruled based on the idea of odo omin.
Japanese: こうした社会の再建のため、魏(三国)に続く諸王朝は、王土王民の理念による統治を指向するようになったのである。
English: Wei adopted the tuntian system, where farmland deserted during the war was granted to people and the crop collected as military provisions, and the binghu military household system, where only military households were required to do military service, separating them from general households.
Japanese: 魏は、戦乱によって耕作者がいなくなった田地を人民に支給して軍糧を徴収する屯田制と、兵役義務を持つのは兵戸であり他の一般戸と区別する兵戸制を採用していた。
English: The tax system involved the adoption of a flat-rate rice field tax levied on each piece of land, and a tax in kind imposed on each household.
Japanese: また、税制としては、土地面積ごとに一定額の田租を賦課する定額田租と、戸ごとに物納を課する戸調を行っていた。
English: These systems were handed down through subsequent dynasties and formed the basis of the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: これらの制度は、その後の諸王朝も継承してゆき、律令制の基礎を形成することとなった。
English: The Western Jin Dynasty that followed Wei introduced the zhantian and ketian land systems, with its military and tax systems by and large continuations of the previous systems.
Japanese: 魏の次の西晋は、土地制度は占田・課田制を新たに布き、兵制・税制は前代の兵戸制・戸調制を概ね継承した。
English: In 268, during the Western Jin Dynasty, the Taishi Ritsuryo was established and is considered to be the first Ritsuryo code in history.
Japanese: 西晋の268年には泰始律令が制定され、これが最初の律令法典だとされている。
English: Northern Wei, which had unified northern China through the Sixteen Kingdoms period and become the first dynasty of the Northern Dynasties, largely contributed to the form of the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: その後の五胡十六国時代を経て、中国北部を統一して北朝最初の王朝となった北魏は、律令制の形成に大きく貢献した。
English: At first, Northern Wei implemented a local administration system called the sanchang system to systematically govern the people.
Japanese: 北魏はまず、人民を体系的に支配するために三長制という地方行政制度を実施した。
English: The sanchang system enabled uniform tax collection and creation of family registers.
Japanese: これにより、租税の徴収や戸籍の作成を一律的に行うことができるようになった。
English: The sixth emperor, Xiaowen, implemented the equal-field system and the equal assessment system on the assumption that the sanchang system would work.
Japanese: 第6代皇帝の孝文帝は、三長制の成果を前提として、均田制と均賦制を実施した。
English: These systems were for allocating cultivated land to the people and collecting taxes from them on a uniform basis, and with this, the basics of the Ritsuryo system are considered to have been complete.
Japanese: これは、一律に耕作地を支給し一律の基準で徴税を行うというもので、これにより律令制の基礎形成が完了したとされている。
English: As the equal assessment system was targeted at married couples, the unit of tax assessment was changed from households to married couples.
Japanese: なお、均賦制は夫婦に対して課税することとしていたため、課税単位の中心が戸単位から夫婦単位へと移行した。
English: The Western Wei Dynasty that followed Northern Wei replaced the binghu system with the fubing system based on the principle of the farmer-soldier, and the subsequent Northern Zhou Dynasty established the Three Departments and Six Ministries administrative system based on the Confucian ritual text "The Rites of Zhou" ("Zhouli") and launched a tax system called zuyongdiao.
Japanese: 北魏の次の西魏では、兵戸制に代わって府兵制という兵農一致を原則とする新たな兵制が生まれ、その次の北周は、儒教教典の周礼に基づいて三省六部の官制を整備し、租庸調と呼ばれる税制を開始した。
English: The Northern Dynasties enhanced the national power based on the systems to gradually become a threat to the Southern Dynasties.
Japanese: 北朝はこれらの制度を背景に国力を増強していき、次第に南朝を圧迫していった。
English: In 581, prior to the unification of China, Yang Jian of the Sui Dynasty promulgated the highly systematic Kaihuang Ritsuryo, which is considered to have completed the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 中国統一に先立つ581年に隋の楊堅は開皇律令を制定しているが、非常に体系的な内容を有しており、これにより律令制が完成したとされている。
English: Governmental organizations such as the Three Departments and Six Ministries and the Censorate were established, and the imperial examination was launched to increase opportunities for government officials.
Japanese: 官制も整備され三省六部や御史台が置かれ、官僚の登用に当たっては、幅広く門戸を開く科挙を始めた。
English: In the equal-field system, the target of government services and tax collection was changed from married couples to individual males (zheng: 21 - 59 of age, zhongnan: 16 -20 of age.)
Japanese: また均田制に於いて給付と課税の対象がそれまでの夫婦単位から男性個人単位（丁・中男）へと移行している。
English: It is considered that this change was caused by land shortage as the unification of China dramatically increased the number of people who received government services.
Japanese: これは、統一が為されたことにより給付対象が大幅に増え、そのことから来る土地不足が原因と思われる。
English: Based on the Ritsuryo system, the Tang Dynasty built up the country into a great empire and expanded its influence to other East Asian countries.
Japanese: 律令制により国力の充実した唐は大帝国を築き上げ、東アジア諸国へ大きな影響を与えた。
English: Accordingly, these East Asian countries accepted and absorbed the Tang Dynasty's Ritsuryo system to bolster national power.
Japanese: その結果、東アジアの各国とも国力整備のために、唐の律令制を受容・摂取するようになった。
English: It is known that Japan, Silla, Balhae, Tuyuhun, and the Tibetan Tubo Kingdom adopted the Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: 律令制を導入したのは、日本・新羅・渤海(国)・吐谷渾・吐蕃王朝などが知られている。
English: Although some of them did not promulgate the complete Ritsuryo codes, all of them more or less adopted some aspects of the Tang Dynasty's Ritsuryo system.
Japanese: これらの中には、必ずしも律令を制定していない国もあるが、いずれも唐律令の諸制度を多かれ少なかれ採用している。
English: It is considered that the Ritsuryo system reached its zenith during the early to mid-Tang Dynasty, although it was not always strictly enforced.
Japanese: 中国の律令制の最盛期は、唐初～中期とされているが、必ずしも律令制が厳密に施行されていた訳ではなかった。
English: For example, as the equal-field system before the Sui period was enforced only in the Northern Dynasties and not in the Southern Dynasties, it is considered that the it was enforced only around the North China in the early Tang Dynasty.
Japanese: 例えば、隋以前に均田制は北朝のみで施行されており、南朝では実施されていなかったので、唐初期において均田制は、おそらく華北を中心に施行されたにとどまっただろうと考えられている。
English: Even within the framework of the Ritsuryo system, it was possible under various pretexts to privately own large tracts of land, so that there existed private estates, owned mainly by families of noble rank.
Japanese: 律令の枠内でも様々な名目で大土地所有が可能となっており、貴族層を中心に荘園が存在していたという事実もある。