Question: Which hormone abnormalities are common in Williams syndrome ?

Context:
WS and TD participants had similar profiles in a familiar setting, while participants with WS had elevated cortisol late in the day in the novel setting when social demands were higher. The cortisol awakening response in WS was associated with parent-reported levels of somatic complaints and social difficulties. Results suggest that adults with WS have a typical diurnal cortisol profile that may be sensitive to social and activity transitions throughout the day.
Results revealed significantly higher median levels of OT in WS versus controls at baseline, with a less marked increase in AVP. Further, in WS, OT and AVP increased in response to music and to cold, with greater variability and an amplified peak release compared to controls. In WS, baseline OT but not AVP, was correlated positively with approach, but negatively with adaptive social behaviors. These results indicate that WS deleted genes perturb hypothalamic-pituitary release not only of OT but also of AVP, implicating more complex neuropeptide circuitry for WS features and providing evidence for their roles in endogenous regulation of human social behavior. 
Three quarters of the WS subjects showed abnormal glucose curves, meeting diagnostic criteria for either diabetes or the pre-diabetic state of impaired glucose tolerance. Fasting mean glucose and median insulin levels did not differ significantly in the total WS cohort versus age-gender-BMI matched controls, though the glucose area under the curve was greater in the WS subjects. 
Williams syndrome (WS) is characterized by cardiovascular disease (elastin arteriopathy, peripheral pulmonary stenosis, supravalvular aortic stenosis, hypertension), distinctive facies, connective tissue abnormalities, intellectual disability (usually mild), a specific cognitive profile, unique personality characteristics, growth abnormalities, and endocrine abnormalities (hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria, hypothyroidism, and early puberty).
In the Williams-Beuren syndrome (WBS), disorders of the thyroid function and morphology have been reported and programs of thyroid screening and surveillance are recommended. 
In this report we describe an infant with WBS and congenital hypothyroidism, due to an important thyroid hypoplasia. The patient, a 1-month-old female, negative at primary neonatal thyroid screening, was referred to our hospital for dyspnea. Thyroid function tests showed a raised TSH (42 mIU/l; normal range 0.5-4 mIU/l) with a low FT(4) concentration (10.21 pmol/l; normal range: 10.29-24.45 pmol/l). Ultrasound examination of the neck showed a significant thyroid hypoplasia, whereas (99m)Tc-pertechnetate thyroid scintigraphy evidenced a thyroid gland in normal position, with reduced shape and overall weak fixation. 
Thyroid hypoplasia is a frequent characteristic of WBS and abnormalities of thyroid function are common in patients with this feature. Therefore, the possibility of congenital hypothyroidism should always be taken into consideration too and, even if congenital hypothyroidism neonatal screening is negative, thyroid (morphology and function) evaluation should be regularly assessed when the diagnosis is made and, thereafter, every year in the first years of life.
As growth hormone (GH) deficiency was diagnosed by an additional GH-stimulation test, we commenced with a GH-treatment. 
None of our patients had overt hypothyroidism; 29 patients (31.5%) had subclinical hypothyroidism. 
Thyroid involvement in Williams syndrome (WS) was recently reported in two small groups of patients, both showing an increased prevalence of elevation of TSH serum concentration; in one of the two reports, 70% of the patients demonstrated a hypoplasia of thyroid gland as well. 
Our study confirms the increased incidence of both elevated TSH serum values (37.9% in our sample) and thyroid gland hypoplasia (74.7%).
A WS patient with CPP is presented, whose pubertal development and bone age progression were arrested by administration of GnRH analogues. 
 This study confirms the presence of alterations of thyroid function in WS and also suggests the frequent occurrence of abnormalities of thyroid morphology in these patients.
We report a female infant with confirmed WBS who, through provocative testing, was found to have GHD and who responded satisfactorily to hGH therapy. 
In conclusion, GH deficiency might contribute to the growth failure in a number of patients with WBS and in such cases hGH therapy will most likely improve final height.
Thyrotropin level was very high (>50 microU/ml; normal value 0.2-4 microU/ml), while serum free T(3) (FT3) and free T(4) (FT4) levels were normal (FT3 3.6 pg/ml, normal value 2.8-5.6 pg/ml; FT4 11.6 pg/ml, normal value 6.6-14 pg/ml); antithyroid autoantibodies were absent. 
Recently a case of thyroid hemiagenesis in a child with WS has been reported; our patient underscores the association of hypothyroidism and WS. 
Thyroid hemiagenesis and elevated thyrotropin levels in a child with Williams syndrome.
A girl with Williams syndrome (WS) presented with elevated thyrotropin (TSH) levels (7.0 microU/ml), normal free thyroid hormone concentrations, and absent antithyroid autoantibodies.
TSH response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) injection (200 microg/mq, i.v.) was exaggerated and prolonged, suggesting subclinical hypothyroidism. The biological activity of circulating TSH was slightly below the normal range [TSH bioactivity (B) to immunoreactivity (I) ratio (TSH B/I) = 0.4, normal: 0.6-2.2]. These abnormalities are similar to those seen in patients with hypothalamic hypothyroidism.
However, abnormalities of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis and thyroid dysgenesis have been found in other WS cases. 
We report a boy with confirmed Williams-Beuren syndrome, who was found to have classical growth hormone deficiency and responded well to growth hormone therapy. 
Although growth hormone deficiency is not likely to be a common cause of short stature in Williams-Beuren syndrome, we nevertheless recommend evaluation of the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor I axis in all cases.
Endocrinological examinations revealed hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Prolonged and exaggerated responses of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) to insulin-induced hypoglycemia and corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) were also noted. 
Involvement of the calcitonin/CGRP gene in Williams syndrome is postulated on the basis that Williams syndrome children often have infantile hypercalcemia and deficient expression of calcitonin, a hormone that lowers serum calcium levels. 
These findings suggest that the calcitonin deficiency might be due either to mutations elsewhere in the gene or to defects in the cellular machinery needed for calcitonin synthesis and/or secretion.
It has been suggested that a defect in calcitonin function may play a role in Williams syndrome. 
 These patients were found to have significantly higher mean baseline calcium concentrations, delayed clearance of calcium after intravenous calcium loading, and blunted calcitonin responses after calcium infusion, compared with a group of seven normal children.
Our studies demonstrate that patients with Williams syndrome have a defect in the synthesis or release of immunoreactive calcitonin. A deficiency of calcitonin may explain the abnormalities of calcium metabolism seen in these patients and can serve as an important endocrine marker for Williams syndrome.
Additional periodic evaluations during childhood: serum concentration of calcium, thyroid function, hearing, and renal and bladder ultrasound examination. Periodic evaluations during adulthood: glucose tolerance; cardiac evaluation for mitral valve prolapse, aortic insufficiency, and arterial stenosis; and ophthalmologic evaluation for cataracts.
Subclinical hypothyroidism is a frequent but stable finding in young children with WS. The great majority of patients with WS >10 years, either with normal or hypoplastic thyroid, have normal thyroid function.
 Three cases (15%) of subclinical hypothyroidism were identified. Overt hypothyroidism was diagnosed in two cases (10%).

Answer: Thyroid hormone abnormalities are common in Williams syndrome. Oxytocin and vasopressin, cortisol, growth hormone and calcitonin were also implicated in the Williams syndrome.
Exact answer: thyroid