nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
NON-THERMAL EMISSIONS FROM COOL CORES HEATED BY COSMIC RAYS IN GALAXY CLUSTERS

We study non-thermal emissions from cool cores in galaxy clusters. We adopted a recent model in which cosmic rays (CRs) prevail in the cores and stably heat them through CR streaming. The non-thermal emissions come from the interaction between CR protons and intracluster medium (ICM). Comparison between the theoretical predictions and radio observations shows that the overall CR spectra must be steep, and most of the CRs in the cores are low-energy CRs. Assuming that the CRs are injected through active galactic nucleus activities, we study the nature of the shocks that are responsible for the CR acceleration. The steep CR spectra are likely to reflect the fact that the shocks travel in hot ICM with fairly small Mach numbers. We also study the dependence on the CR streaming velocity. The results indicate that synchrotron emissions from secondary electrons should be observed as radio mini-halos in the cores. In particular, low-frequency observations (e.g., LOFAR) are promising. However, the steepness of the spectra makes it difficult to detect non-thermal X-ray and gamma-ray emissions from the cores. The low-energy CRs may be heating optical filaments observed in the cores.
Competition between commensurate and incommensurate magnetic ordering in Fe 1+y Te

The Fe1+y Te1-x Sex compounds belong to the family of iron-based high temperature superconductors, in which superconductivity often appears upon doping antiferromagnetic parent compounds. Unlike other Fe-based superconductors (in which the antiferromagnetic order is at the Fermi surface nesting wavevector [1/2,1/2,1]), the Fe1+y Te1-x Sex parent compound Fe1+y Te orders at a different wavevector, [1/2, 0, 1/2]. Furthermore, the ordering wavevector depends on y, the occupation of interstitial sites with excess iron; the origin of this behavior is controversial. Using inelastic neutron scattering on Fe1.08 Te, we find incommensurate magnetic fluctuations above the Neel temperature, even though the ordered state is bicollinear and commensurate with gapped spin waves. This behavior can be understood in terms of a competition between commensurate and incommensurate order, which we explain as a lock-in transition caused by the magnetic anisotropy.
The distribution of interplanetary dust between 0.96 and 1.04 au as inferred from impacts on the STEREO spacecraft observed by the heliospheric imagers

The distribution of dust in the ecliptic plane between 0.96 and 1.04 au has been inferred from impacts on the two Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) spacecraft through observation of secondary particle trails and unexpected off-points in the heliospheric imager (HI) cameras. This study made use of analysis carried out by members of a distributed web-based citizen science project Solar Stormwatch. A comparison between observations of the brightest particle trails and a survey of fainter trails shows consistent distributions. While there is no obvious correlation between this distribution and the occurrence of individual meteor streams at Earth, there are some broad longitudinal features in these distributions that are also observed in sources of the sporadic meteor population. The different position of the HI instrument on the two STEREO spacecraft leads to each sampling different populations of dust particles. The asymmetry in the number of trails seen by each spacecraft and the fact that there are many more unexpected off-points in the HI-B than in HI-A indicates that the majority of impacts are coming from the apex direction. For impacts causing off-points in the HI-B camera, these dust particles are estimated to have masses in excess of 10−17 kg with radii exceeding 0.1 μm. 
 
 
 
For off-points observed in the HI-A images, which can only have been caused by particles travelling from the anti-apex direction, the distribution is consistent with that of secondary ‘storm’ trails observed by HI-B, providing evidence that these trails also result from impacts with primary particles from an anti-apex source. Investigating the mass distribution for the off-points of both HI-A and HI-B, it is apparent that the differential mass index of particles from the apex direction (causing off-points in HI-B) is consistently above 2. This indicates that the majority of the mass is within the smaller particles of this population. In contrast, the differential mass index of particles from the anti-apex direction (causing off-points in HI-A) is consistently below 2, indicating that the majority of the mass is to be found in larger particles of this distribution.
The Anatomy of the Facebook Social Graph

We study the structure of the social graph of active Facebook users, the largest social network ever analyzed. We compute numerous features of the graph including the number of users and friendships, the degree distribution, path lengths, clustering, and mixing patterns. Our results center around three main observations. First, we characterize the global structure of the graph, determining that the social network is nearly fully connected, with 99.91% of individuals belonging to a single large connected component, and we confirm the "six degrees of separation" phenomenon on a global scale. Second, by studying the average local clustering coefficient and degeneracy of graph neighborhoods, we show that while the Facebook graph as a whole is clearly sparse, the graph neighborhoods of users contain surprisingly dense structure. Third, we characterize the assortativity patterns present in the graph by studying the basic demographic and network properties of users. We observe clear degree assortativity and characterize the extent to which "your friends have more friends than you". Furthermore, we observe a strong effect of age on friendship preferences as well as a globally modular community structure driven by nationality, but we do not find any strong gender homophily. We compare our results with those from smaller social networks and find mostly, but not entirely, agreement on common structural network characteristics.
Four degrees of separation

Frigyes Karinthy, in his 1929 short story "Láncszemek" (in English, "Chains") suggested that any two persons are distanced by at most six friendship links.1 Stanley Milgram in his famous experiments challenged people to route postcards to a fixed recipient by passing them only through direct acquaintances. Milgram found that the average number of intermediaries on the path of the postcards lay between 4:4 and 5:7, depending on the sample of people chosen. We report the results of the first world-scale social-network graph-distance computations, using the entire Facebook network of active users (≈ 721 million users, ≈ 69 billion friendship links). The average distance we observe is 4:74, corresponding to 3:74 intermediaries or "degrees of separation", prompting the title of this paper. More generally, we study the distance distribution of Facebook and of some interesting geographic subgraphs, looking also at their evolution over time. The networks we are able to explore are almost two orders of magnitude larger than those analysed in the previous literature. We report detailed statistical metadata showing that our measurements (which rely on probabilistic algorithms) are very accurate.
Collective Behavior of Stock Prices as a Precursor to Market Crash(Financial and Consumer Markets,Proceedings of the YITP Workshop on Econophysics,Econophysics 2011-The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Economy-)

We study precursors to the global market crash that occurred on all main stock exchanges throughout the world in October 2008 about three weeks after the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. on 15 September. We examine the collective behavior of stock returns and analyze the market mode, which is a market-wide collective mode, with constituent issues of the FTSE 100 index listed on the London Stock Exchange. Before the market crash, a sharp rise in a measure of the collective behavior was observed. It was shown to be associated with news including the words "financial crisis." They did not impact stock prices severely alone, but they exacerbated the pessimistic mood that prevailed among stock market participants. Such news increased after the Lehman shock preceding the market crash. The variance increased along with the cumulative amount of news according to a power law.
All spacetimes beyond Einstein (Obergurgl Lectures)

Which geometries on a smooth manifold (apart from Lorentzian metrics) can serve as a spacetime structure? This question is comprehensively addressed from first principles in eight lectures, exploring the kinematics and gravitational dynamics of all tensorial geometries on a smooth manifold that can carry predictive matter equations, are time-orientable, and allow to distinguish positive from negative particle energies.
Inkjet-printed graphene electronics.

We demonstrate inkjet printing as a viable method for large-area fabrication of graphene devices. We produce a graphene-based ink by liquid phase exfoliation of graphite in N-methylpyrrolidone. We use it to print thin-film transistors, with mobilities up to ∼95 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1), as well as transparent and conductive patterns, with ∼80% transmittance and ∼30 kΩ/□ sheet resistance. This paves the way to all-printed, flexible, and transparent graphene devices on arbitrary substrates.
Adiabatic theorem for quantum systems with spectral degeneracy

By stating the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics in a clear and rigorous way, we establish a necessary condition and a sufficient condition for its validity, where the latter is obtained employing our recently developed adiabatic perturbation theory. Also, we simplify further the sufficient condition into a useful and simple practical test at the expense of its mathematical rigor. We present results for the most general case of quantum systems, i.e., those with degenerate energy spectra. These conditions are of upmost importance for assessing the validity of practical implementations of non-Abelian braiding and adiabatic quantum computation. To illustrate the degenerate adiabatic approximation, and the necessary and sufficient conditions for its validity, we analyze in depth an exactly solvable time-dependent degenerate problem.
How people interact in evolving online affiliation networks

The study of human interactions is of central importance for understanding the behavior of individuals, groups and societies. Here, we observe the formation and evolution of networks by monitoring the addition of all new links and we analyze quantitatively the tendencies used to create ties in these evolving online affiliation networks. We first show that an accurate estimation of these probabilistic tendencies can only be achieved by following the time evolution of the network. For example, actions that are attributed to the usual friend of a friend mechanism through a static snapshot of the network are overestimated by a factor of two. A detailed analysis of the dynamic network evolution shows that half of those triangles were generated through other mechanisms, in spite of the characteristic static pattern. We start by characterizing every single link when the tie was established in the network. This allows us to describe the probabilistic tendencies of tie formation and extract sociological conclusions as follows. The tendencies to add new links differ significantly from what we would expect if they were not affected by the individuals' structural position in the network, i.e., from random link formation. We also find significant differences in behavioral traits among individuals according to their degree of activity, gender, age, popularity and other attributes. For instance, in the particular datasets analyzed here, we find that women reciprocate connections three times as much as men and this difference increases with age. Men tend to connect with the most popular people more often than women across all ages. On the other hand, triangular ties tendencies are similar and independent of gender. Our findings can be useful to build models of realistic social network structures and discover the underlying laws that govern establishment of ties in evolving social networks.
The Gravitational Wave International Committee Roadmap: The future of gravitational wave astronomy

Gravitational wave science is on the verge of direct observation of the waves predicted by Einstein's General Theory of Relativity and opening the exciting new field of gravitational wave astronomy. In the coming decades, ultra-sensitive arrays of ground-based instruments and complementary spaced-based instruments will observe the gravitational wave sky, inevitably discovering entirely unexpected phenomena while providing new insight into many of the most profound astrophysical phenomena known. in July 2007 the Gravitational Wave International Committee (GWIC) initiated the development of a strategic roadmap for the field of gravitational wave science with a 30-year horizon. The goal of this roadmap is to serve the international gravitational wave community and its stakeholders as a tool for the development of capabilities and facilities needed to address the exciting scientific opportunities on the intermediate and long-term horizons.
Radiative signature of magnetic fields in internal shocks

Common models of blazars and gamma-ray bursts assume that the plasma underlying the observed phenomenology is magnetized to some extent. Within this context, radiative signatures of dissipation of kinetic and conversion of magnetic energy in internal shocks of relativistic magnetized outflows are studied. We model internal shocks as being caused by collisions of homogeneous plasma shells. We compute the flow state after the shell interaction by solving Riemann problems at the contact surface between the colliding shells, and then compute the emission from the resulting shocks. Under the assumption of a constant flow luminosity, we find that there is a clear difference between the models where both shells are weakly magnetized (σ≲ 10−2) and those where, at least, one shell has σ≳ 10−2. We obtain that the radiative efficiency is largest for models in which, regardless of the ordering, one shell is weakly and the other strongly magnetized. Substantial differences between weakly and strongly magnetized shell collisions are observed in the inverse-Compton part of the spectrum, as well as in the optical, X-ray and 1-GeV light curves. We propose a way to distinguish observationally between weakly magnetized and strongly magnetized internal shocks by comparing the maximum frequency of the inverse-Compton part and synchrotron part of the spectrum to the ratio of the inverse-Compton to synchrotron fluence. Finally, our results suggest that low-frequency peaked blazars (LBL) may correspond to barely magnetized flows, while high-frequency peaked blazars (HBL) could correspond to moderately magnetized ones. Indeed, by comparing with actual blazar observations, we conclude that the magnetization of typical blazars is σ≲ 0.01 for the internal shock model to be valid in these sources.
Sample-to-sample fluctuations in real-network ensembles.

Network modeling based on ensemble averages tacitly assumes that the networks meant to be modeled are typical in the ensemble. Previous research on network eigenvalues, which govern a range of dynamical phenomena, has shown that this is indeed the case for uncorrelated networks with minimum degree ≥ 3. Here, we focus on real networks, which generally have both structural correlations and low-degree nodes. We show that: (i) the ensemble distribution of the dynamically most important eigenvalues can be not only broad and far apart from the real eigenvalue but also highly structured, often with a multimodal rather than a bell-shaped form; (ii) these interesting properties are found to be due to low-degree nodes, mainly those with degree ≤ 3, and network communities, which is a common form of structural correlation found in real networks. In addition to having implications for ensemble-based approaches, this shows that low-degree nodes may have a stronger influence on collective dynamics than previously anticipated from the study of computer-generated networks.
Effects of deformed phase space on scalar field cosmology

The effects of phase space deformations in standard scalar field cosmology are studied. The deformation is introduced by modifying the symplectic structure of the minisuperspace variables to have a deformed Poisson algebra among the coordinates and the canonical momenta. It is found that in the deformed minisuperspace model the volume of the universe is non singular. Finally, the late time evolution gives rise to an accelerating scale factor, this acceleration is a consequence of the noncommutative deformation.
On Deformed Phase Space and $\Lambda$

In this letter we study the effects of a noncommutative in the phase space of an empty (4+1) Kaluza-Klein universe with cosmological constant. We analyze the effects of the noncommutative deformations on the cosmological constant. Finally we comment on the possibility that the origin of the cosmological constant in this model, is related to the noncommutativity between the 4 dimensional scale factor and the compact extra dimension.
Mathematics: the language of science

The purpose of this essay is to bring out the unique role of Mathematics in providing a base to the diverse sciences which conform to its rigid structure. Of these the physical and economic sciences are so intimately linked with mathematics, that they have become almost a part of its structure under the generic title of Applied Mathematics. But with the progress of time, more and more branches of Science are getting quantified and coming under its ambit. And once a branch of science gets articulated into a mathematical structure, the process goes beyond mere classification and arrangement, and becomes eligible as a candidate for enjoying its predictive powers! Indeed it is this single property of Mathematics which gives it the capacity to predict the nature of evolution in time of the said branch of science. This has been well verified in the domain of physical sciences, but now even biological sciences are slowly feeling its strength, and the list is expanding.
THE MILKY WAY HAS NO DISTINCT THICK DISK

Different stellar sub-populations of the Milky Way's stellar disk are known to have different vertical scale heights, their thickness increasing with age. Using SEGUE spectroscopic survey data, we have recently shown that mono-abundance sub-populations, defined in the [α/Fe]–[Fe/H] space, are well described by single-exponential spatial-density profiles in both the radial and the vertical direction; therefore, any star of a given abundance is clearly associated with a sub-population of scale height hz. Here, we work out how to determine the stellar surface-mass density contributions at the solar radius R0 of each such sub-population, accounting for the survey selection function, and for the fraction of the stellar population mass that is reflected in the spectroscopic target stars given populations of different abundances and their presumed age distributions. Taken together, this enables us to derive , the surface-mass contributions of stellar populations with scale height hz. Surprisingly, we find no hint of a thin–thick disk bi-modality in this mass-weighted scale-height distribution, but a smoothly decreasing function, approximately , from hz ≈ 200 pc to hz ≈ 1 kpc. As hz is ultimately the structurally defining property of a thin or thick disk, this shows clearly that the Milky Way has a continuous and monotonic distribution of disk thicknesses: there is no “thick disk” sensibly characterized as a distinct component. We discuss how our result is consistent with evidence for seeming bi-modality in purely geometric disk decompositions or chemical abundances analyses. We constrain the total visible stellar surface–mass density at the solar radius to be  pc−2.
Galaxy triplets in SDSS-DR7: I. Catalogue

We present a new catalogue of galaxy triplets derived from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 7. The identification of systems was performed c onsidering galaxies brighter than Mr = 20.5 and imposing constraints over the projected distances, radial velocity differences of neighbouring galaxies and isolation. To improve the identification of triplets we employed a data pixelization scheme, which allows to handle large amounts of data as in the SDSS photometric survey. Using spectroscopic and photometric data in the redshift range 0.01 6 z 6 0.40 we obtain5901 triplet candidates. We have used a mock catalogue to analyse the completeness and contamination of our methods. The results show a high level of completeness (� 80%) and low contamination (� 5%). By using photometric and spectroscopic data we have also addressed the effects of fiber collisions in the spectroscopic sample. We have defined an isolation criterion considering the distanc e of the triplet brightest galaxy to closest neighbour cluster, to describe a global environment, as well as the galaxies within a fixed aperture, around the triplet brightest galaxy, to meas ure the local environment. The final catalogue comprises 1092 isolated triplets of galaxies in the redshift range 0.01 6 z 6 0.40. Our results show that photometric redshifts provide very useful information, allowing to complete the sample of nearby systems whose detection is affected by fiber collisions, as well as extending the detection of triplets to large distances, w here spectroscopic redshifts are not available.
Weak lensing predictions for coupled dark energy cosmologies at non-linear scales

We present non-linear weak lensing predictions for coupled dark energy models using the Coupled Dark Energy Cosmological Simulations (CoDECS) simulations. We calculate the shear correlation function and error covariance expected for these models, for forthcoming ground-based [such as Dark Energy Survey (DES)] and space-based (Euclid) weak lensing surveys. We obtain predictions for the discriminatory power of a ground-based survey similar to DES and a space-based survey such as Euclid in distinguishing between Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM) and coupled dark energy models; we show that using the non-linear lensing signal we could discriminate between ΛCDM and exponential constant coupling models with β0≥ 0.1 at 4σ confidence level with a DES-like survey and β0≥ 0.05 at 5σ confidence level with Euclid. We also demonstrate that estimating the coupled dark energy models’ non-linear power spectrum, using the ΛCDM HALOFIT fitting formula, results in biases in the shear correlation function that exceed the survey errors.
Effective Evolution Equations in Quantum Physics

In these notes, we review some recent mathematical results concerning the derivation of effective evolution equations from many body quantum mechanics. In particular, we discuss the emergence of the Hartree equation in the so-called mean field regime (for example, for systems of gravitating bosons), and we show that the Gross-Pitaevskii equation approximates the dynamics of initially trapped Bose-Einstein condensates. We explain how effective evolution equations can be derived, on the one hand, by analyzing the so called BBGKY hierarchy, describing the time-evolution of reduced density matrices, and, on the other hand, by studying the dynamics of coherent initial states in a Fock-space representation of the many body system.
Invisible Higgs and scalar dark matter

In this proceeding, we show that when we combined WMAP and the most recent results of XENON100, the invisible width of the Higgs to scalar dark matter is negligible (≲ 10%), except in a small region with very light dark matter (≲ 10 GeV) not yet excluded by XENON100 or around 60 GeV where the ratio can reach 50% to 60%. The new results released by the Higgs searches of ATLAS and CMS set very strong limits on the elastic scattering cross section.