Query: COVID inflammatory response [SEP] What is the mechanism of inflammatory response and pathogenesis of COVID-19 cases? [SEP] Looking for a range of studies which describes the inflammatory response cells and pathogenesis during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, including the mechanism of anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, and vitamin supplements

title: Glycyrrhizin inhibits the manifestations of anti-inflammatory responses that appear in association with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS)-like reactions
abstract: In association with the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), anti-inflammatory response syndrome is commonly manifested in patients with trauma, burn injury, and after major surgery. These patients are increasingly susceptible to infection with various pathogens due to the excessive release of anti-inflammatory cytokines from anti-inflammatory effector cells. Recently, CC-chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) found in the sera of mice with pancreatitis was identified as an active molecule for SIRS-associated anti-inflammatory response manifestation. Also, the inhibitory activity of glycyrrhizin (GL) on CCL2 production was reported. Therefore, the effect of GL on SIRS-associated anti-inflammatory response manifestation was investigated in a murine SIRS model. Without any stimulation, splenic T cells from mice 5 days after SIRS induction produced cytokines associated with anti-inflammatory response manifestation. However, these cytokines were not produced by splenic T cells from SIRS mice previously treated with GL. In dual-chamber transwells, IL-4-producing cells were generated from normal T cells cultured with peripheral blood polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) from SIRS mice. However, IL-4-producing cells were not generated from normal T cells in transwell cultures performed with PMN from GL-treated SIRS mice. CCL2 was produced by PMN from SIRS mice, while this chemokine was not demonstrated in cultures of PMN from SIRS mice treated with GL. These results indicate that GL has the capacity to suppress SIRS-associated anti-inflammatory response manifestation through the inhibition of CCL2 production by PMN.

title: Prevention and treatment of COVID-19 disease by controlled modulation of innate immunity
abstract: The recent outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), triggered by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses an enormous threat to global public health and economies. Human coronaviruses normally cause no or mild respiratory disease but in the past two decades, potentially fatal coronavirus infections have emerged, causing respiratory tract illnesses such as pneumonia and bronchitis. These include severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), followed by the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and recently the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus outbreak that emerged in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Currently, most COVID-19 patients receive traditional supportive care including breathing assistance. To halt the ongoing spread of the pandemic SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus and rescue individual patients, established drugs and new therapies are under evaluation. Since it will be some time until a safe and effective vaccine will be available, the immediate priority is to harness innate immunity to accelerate early antiviral immune responses. Second, since excessive inflammation is a major cause of pathology, targeted anti-inflammatory responses are being evaluated to reduce inflammation-induced damage to the respiratory tract and cytokine storms. Here, we highlight prominent immunotherapies at various stages of development that aim for augmented anti-coronavirus immunity and reduction of pathological inflammation.

title: ACE2 activators for the treatment of COVID 19 patients
abstract: The paper of Cheng H. et al., describes an interesting hypothesis regarding the organ protective effects of ACE2 activation against the malignant effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans, and describes interesting previous results reporting ACE2 higher levels in children, young people and women that is coincident with a lower morbidity and health problems associated to COVID19. In the present comment the treatment of COVID19 patients with ACE2 activators, such as diminazene aceturate (DIZE), which are currently used as antiparasitic drugs, is proposed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Managing patients with rheumatic diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic: The French Society of Rheumatology answers to most frequently asked questions up to May 2020
abstract: Rheumatologists must contend with COVID-19 pandemic in the management of their patients and many questions have been raised on the use of both anti-inflammatory drugs and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARD). The French Society of Rheumatology (SFR) selected the most critical ones to the daily practice of a rheumatologist and a group of 10 experts from SFR and Club Rheumatism and Inflammation (CRI) boards proposed responses based on the current knowledge of May 2020.  Following the availability of the first 18 questions and statements, 1400 individuals consulted the frequently asked questions between the March 31, 2020 and April 12, 2020. As a result, 16 additional questions were forwarded to the SFR, and answered by the board. An additional round of review by email and video conference was organized, which included updates of the previous statements. The scientific relevance of 5 of the questions led to their inclusion in this document. Each response received a final assessment on a scale of 0-10 with 0 meaning no agreement whatsoever and 10 being in complete agreement. The mean values of these votes for each question are presented as the levels of agreement (LoA) at the end of each response. This document was last updated on April 17, 2020.  Based on current scientific literature already published, in most circumstances, there is no contraindication to the initiation or continuation of anti-inflammatory drugs as well as DMARDs. If signs suggestive of infection (coronavirus or other) occur, treatments should be discontinued and resumed, if necessary, after 2 weeks without any symptoms. Only, some signals suggest that people taking an immunosuppressive dose of corticosteroid therapy are at greater risk of developing severe COVID-19. Intra-articular injections of glucocorticoids are allowed when there is no reasonable therapeutic alternative, and providing that precautions to protect the patient and the practitioner from viral contamination are adopted, included appropriate information to the patient.  Currently available data on managing patients with rheumatic diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic are reassuring and support continuing or initiating symptomatic as well as specific treatments of these diseases, the main target of their management remaining their appropriate control, even during this pandemic.

title: The molecular basis of paediatric malarial disease
abstract: Severe falciparum malaria is an acute systemic disease that can affect multiple organs, including those in which few parasites are found. The acute disease bears many similarities both clinically and, potentially, mechanistically, to the systemic diseases caused by bacteria, rickettsia, and viruses. Traditionally the morbidity and mortality associated with severe malarial disease has been explained in terms of mechanical obstruction to vascular flow by adherence to endothelium (termed sequestration) of erythrocytes containing mature-stage parasites. However, over the past few decades an alternative ‘cytokine theory of disease’ has also evolved, where malarial pathology is explained in terms of a balance between the pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The final common pathway for this pro-inflammatory imbalance is believed to be a limitation in the supply and mitochondrial utilisation of energy to cells. Different patterns of ensuing energy depletion (both temporal and spatial) throughout the cells in the body present as different clinical syndromes. This chapter draws attention to the over-arching position that inflammatory cytokines are beginning to occupy in the pathogenesis of acute malaria and other acute infections. The influence of inflammatory cytokines on cellular function offers a molecular framework to explain the multiple clinical syndromes that are observed during acute malarial illness, and provides a fresh avenue of investigation for adjunct therapies to ameliorate the malarial disease process.

title: Recommendations for coronavirus infection in rheumatic diseases treated with biologic therapy
abstract: The Coronavirus-associated disease, that was first identified in 2019 in China (CoViD-19), is a pandemic caused by a bat-derived beta-coronavirus, named SARS-CoV2. It shares homology with SARS and MERS-CoV, responsible for past outbreaks in China and in Middle East. SARS-CoV2 spread from China where the first infections were described in December 2019 and is responsible for the respiratory symptoms that can lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome. A cytokine storm has been shown in patients who develop fatal complications, as observed in past coronavirus infections. The management includes ventilatory support and broad-spectrum antiviral drugs, empirically utilized, as a targeted therapy and vaccines have not been developed. Based upon our limited knowledge on the pathogenesis of CoViD-19, a potential role of some anti-rheumatic drugs may be hypothesized, acting as direct antivirals or targeting host immune response. Antimalarial drugs, commonly used in rheumatology, may alter the lysosomal proteases that mediates the viral entry into the cell and have demonstrated efficacy in improving the infection. Anti-IL-1 and anti-IL-6 may interfere with the cytokine storm in severe cases and use of tocilizumab has shown good outcomes in a small cohort. Baricitinib has both antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. Checkpoints inhibitors such as anti-CD200 and anti-PD1 could have a role in the treatment of CoViD-19. Rheumatic disease patients taking immunosuppressive drugs should be recommended to maintain the chronic therapy, prevent infection by avoiding social contacts and pausing immunosuppressants in case of infection. National and international registries are being created to collect data on rheumatic patients with CoViD-19.

title: Disease severity-specific neutrophil signatures in blood transcriptomes stratify COVID-19 patients
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is currently leading to increasing numbers of COVID-19 patients all over the world. Clinical presentations range from asymptomatic, mild respiratory tract infection, to severe cases with acute respiratory distress syndrome, respiratory failure, and death. Reports on a dysregulated immune system in the severe cases calls for a better characterization and understanding of the changes in the immune system. Here, we profiled whole blood transcriptomes of 39 COVID-19 patients and 10 control donors enabling a data-driven stratification based on molecular phenotype. Neutrophil activation-associated signatures were prominently enriched in severe patient groups, which was corroborated in whole blood transcriptomes from an independent second cohort of 30 as well as in granulocyte samples from a third cohort of 11 COVID-19 patients. Comparison of COVID-19 blood transcriptomes with those of a collection of over 2,600 samples derived from 11 different viral infections, inflammatory diseases and independent control samples revealed highly specific transcriptome signatures for COVID-19. Further, stratified transcriptomes predicted patient subgroup-specific drug candidates targeting the dysregulated systemic immune response of the host.

title: Features of COVID-19 post-infectious cytokine release syndrome in children presenting to the emergency department
abstract: The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has not appeared to affect children as severely as adults. However, approximately 1 month after the COVID-19 peak in New York City in April 2020, cases of children with prolonged fevers abruptly developing inflammatory shock-like states have been reported in Western Europe and the United States. This case series describes four previously healthy children with COVID-19 infection confirmed by serologic antibody testing, but negative by nasopharyngeal RT-PCR swab, presenting to the Pediatric Emergency Department (PED) with prolonged fever (5 or more days) and abrupt onset of hemodynamic instability with elevated serologic inflammatory markers and cytokine levels (IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-&#945;). Emergency physicians must maintain a high clinical suspicion for this COVID-19 associated post-infectious cytokine release syndrome, with features that overlap with Kawasaki Disease (KD) and Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS) in children with recent or current COVID-19 infection, as patients can decompensate quickly.

title: Hip Fracture Outcomes During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Early Results From New York
abstract: To evaluate inpatient outcomes among patients with hip fracture treated during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City.  Multicenter retrospective cohort study.  One Level 1 trauma center and one orthopaedic specialty hospital in New York City.  Fifty-nine consecutive patients (average age 85 years, range: 65–100 years) treated for a hip fracture (OTA/AO 31, 32.1) over a 5-week period, March 20, 2020, to April 24, 2020, during the height of the COVID-19 crisis.  COVID-19 infection status was used to stratify patients. The primary outcome was inpatient mortality. Secondary outcomes were admission to the intensive care unit, unexpected intubation, pneumonia, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolus, myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular accident, urinary tract infection, and transfusion. Baseline demographics, comorbidities, treatment characteristics, and COVID-related symptomatology were also evaluated.  Ten patients (15%) tested positive for COVID-19 (COVID+) (n = 9; 7 preoperatively and 2 postoperatively) or were presumed positive (n = 1), 40 (68%) patients tested negative, and 9 (15%) patients were not tested in the primary hospitalization. American Society of Anesthesiologists' scores were higher in the COVID+ group (d = −0.83; P = 0.04); however, the Charlson Comorbidity Index was similar between the study groups (d = −0.17; P = 0.63). Inpatient mortality was significantly increased in the COVID+ cohort (56% vs. 4%; odds ratio 30.0, 95% confidence interval 4.3–207; P = 0.001). Including the one presumed positive case in the COVID+ cohort increased this difference (60% vs. 2%; odds ratio 72.0, 95% confidence interval 7.9–754; P < 0.001).  Hip fracture patients with concomitant COVID-19 infection had worse American Society of Anesthesiologists' scores but similar baseline comorbidities with significantly higher rates of inpatient mortality compared with those without concomitant COVID-19 infection.

title: COVID‐19 and islet transplantation: different twins
abstract: For those who work in the field of islet transplantation, the micro vascular COVID‐19 lung vessels obstructive thrombo‐inflammatory syndrome (recently referred to as MicroCLOTS) is familiar, as one cannot fail to recognize the presence of similarities with the instant blood mediated inflammatory reaction (IBMIR) occurring in the liver hours and days after islet infusion. Evidences in both MicroCLOTS and IBMIR suggest the involvement of the coagulation cascade and complement system activation, and proinflammatory chemokines/cytokines release. Identification and targeting of pathway(s) playing a role as “master regulator(s)” in the post‐islet transplant detrimental inflammatory events could be potentially useful to suggest innovative COVID‐19 treatments and vice versa. All the scientific organizations across the world are fighting the COVID‐19 pandemic. Islet transplantation, and more generally the transplantation scientific community, could contribute suggesting strategies for innovative approaches. At the same time, in the near future, clinical trials in COVID‐19 patients will produce an enormous quantity of clinical and translational data on the control of inflammation, and complement/microthrombosis activation. These data will represent a legacy to be transformed into innovation in the transplant field. It will be our contribution to change a dramatic event into advancement for the transplant field, and ultimately for our patients.

title: Longitudinal immunological analyses reveal inflammatory misfiring in severe COVID-19 patients
abstract: Recent studies have provided insights into the pathogenesis of coronavirus disease 2019  and severe (ICU) disease. Immune profiling revealed an overall increase in innate cell lineages with a concomitant reduction in T cell number. We identify an association between early, elevated cytokines and worse disease outcomes. Following an early increase in cytokines, COVID-19 patients with moderate disease displayed a progressive reduction in type-1 (antiviral) and type-3 (antifungal) responses. In contrast, patients with severe disease maintained these elevated responses throughout the course of disease. Moreover, severe disease was accompanied by an increase in multiple type 2 (anti-helminths) effectors including, IL-5, IL-13, IgE and eosinophils. Unsupervised clustering analysis of plasma and peripheral blood leukocyte data identified 4 immune signatures, representing (A) growth factors, (B) type-2/3 cytokines, (C) mixed type-1/2/3 cytokines, and (D) chemokines that correlated with three distinct disease trajectories of patients. The immune profile of patients who recovered with moderate disease was enriched in tissue reparative growth factor signature (A), while the profile for those with worsened disease trajectory had elevated levels of all four signatures. Thus, we identified development of a maladapted immune response profile associated with severe COVID-19 outcome and early immune signatures that correlate with divergent disease trajectories.

title: Involvement of Cardiovascular System As The Critical Point in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Prognosis and Recovery
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has already caused more than 300,000 deaths worldwide. Several studies have elucidated the central role of cardiovascular complications in the disease course. Herein, we provide a concise review of current knowledge regarding the involvement of cardiovascular system in the pathogenesis and prognosis of COVID-19. We summarize data from 21 studies involving in total more than 21,000 patients from Asia, Europe and the USA indicating that severe disease is associated with the presence of myocardial injury, heart failure and arrhythmias. Additionally, we present the clinical and laboratory differences between recovered and deceased patients highlighting the importance of cardiac manifestations. For the infected patients, underlying cardiovascular comorbidities and especially existing cardiovascular disease seem to predispose to the development of cardiovascular complications, which are in turn associated with higher mortality rates. We provide mechanistic insights into the underlying mechanisms including direct myocardial damage by the virus and the consequences of the hyperinflammatory syndrome developed later in the disease course. Finally, we summarize current knowledge on therapeutic modalities and recommendations by scientific societies and experts regarding the cardiovascular management of COVID-19 patients.

title: Histopathological findings in a COVID-19 patient affected by ischemic gangrenous cholecystitis
abstract: Since its first documentation, a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection has emerged worldwide, with the consequent declaration of a pandemic disease (COVID-19). Severe forms of acute respiratory failure can develop. In addition, SARS-CoV-2 may affect organs other than the lung, such as the liver, with frequent onset of late cholestasis. We here report the histological findings of a COVID-19 patient, affected by a tardive complication of acute ischemic and gangrenous cholecystitis with a perforated and relaxed gallbladder needing urgent surgery.  A 59-year-old Caucasian male, affected by acute respiratory failure secondary to SARS-CoV-2 infection was admitted to our intensive care unit (ICU). Due to the severity of the disease, invasive mechanical ventilation was instituted and SARS-CoV-2 treatment (azithromycin 250 mg once-daily and hydroxychloroquine 200 mg trice-daily) started. Enoxaparin 8000 IU twice-daily was also administered subcutaneously. At day 8 of ICU admission, the clinical condition improved and patient was extubated. At day 32, patient revealed abdominal pain without signs of peritonism at examination, with increased inflammatory and cholestasis indexes at blood tests. At a first abdominal CT scan, perihepatic effusion and a relaxed gallbladder with dense content were detected. The surgeon decided to wait and see the evolution of clinical conditions. The day after, conditions further worsened and a laparotomic cholecystectomy was performed. A relaxed and perforated ischemic gangrenous gallbladder, with a local tissue inflammation and perihepatic fluid, was intraoperatively met. The gallbladder and a sample of omentum, adherent to the gallbladder, were also sent for histological examination. Hematoxylin-eosin-stained slides display inflammatory infiltration and endoluminal obliteration of vessels, with wall breakthrough, hemorrhagic infarction, and nerve hypertrophy of the gallbladder. The mucosa of the gallbladder appears also atrophic. Omentum vessels also appear largely thrombosed. Immunohistochemistry demonstrates an endothelial overexpression of medium-size vessels (anti-CD31), while not in micro-vessels, with a remarkable activity of macrophages (anti-CD68) and T helper lymphocytes (anti-CD4) against gallbladder vessels. All these findings define a histological diagnosis of vasculitis of the gallbladder.  Ischemic gangrenous cholecystitis can be a tardive complication of COVID-19, and it is characterized by a dysregulated host inflammatory response and thrombosis of medium-size vessels.

title: Letter: low population mortality from COVID‐19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees North supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity
abstract: The recent editorial by Rhodes et al considered latitude and mentioned one mechanism that vitamin D is important in regulating and suppressing the inflammatory response of cytokines of respiratory epithelial cells and macrophages to various pathogens, including respiratory viruses and preventing cytokine storm and the subsequent acute respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) (1).

title: COVID-19: Unanswered questions on immune response and pathogenesis
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 has rapidly increased in pandemic scale since it first appeared in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. In these troubled days the scientific community is asking for rapid replies to prevent and combat the emergency. It is generally accepted that only achieving a better understanding of the interactions between the virus and the host immune response and of the pathogenesis of infection is crucial to identify valid therapeutic tools to control virus entry, replication, and spread as well as to impair its lethal effects. On the basis of recent research progress of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and the results on previous coronaviruses, in this contribution we underscore some of the main unsolved problems, mostly focusing on pathogenetic aspects and host immunity to the virus. On this basis, we also touch important aspects regarding the immune response in asymptomatic subjects, the immune evasion of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in severe patients, and differences in disease severity by age and sex.

title: SARS-CoV-2 activates lung epithelia cell proinflammatory signaling and leads to immune dysregulation in COVID-19 patients by single-cell sequencing
abstract: The outbreak of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection has become a global health emergency. We aim to decipher SARS-CoV-2 infected cell types, the consequent host immune response and their interplay in the lung of COVID-19 patients.  We analyzed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data of lung samples from 17 subjects (6 severe COVID-19 patients, 3 mild patients who recovered and 8 healthy controls). The expression of SARS-CoV-2 receptors (ACE2 and TMPRSS2) was examined among different cell types in the lung. The immune cells infiltration patterns, their gene expression profiles, and the interplay of immune cells and SARS-CoV-2 target cells were further investigated.  Compared to healthy controls, the overall ACE2 (receptor of SARS-CoV-2) expression was significantly higher in lung epithelial cells of COVID-19 patients, in particular in ciliated cell, club cell and basal cell. Comparative transcriptome analysis of these lung epithelial cells of COVID-19 patients and healthy controls identified that SARS-CoV-2 infection activated pro-inflammatory signaling including interferon pathway and cytokine signaling. Moreover, we identified dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19. In severe COVID-19 patients, significantly higher neutrophil, but lower T and NK cells in lung were observed along with markedly increased cytokines (CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL7, CCL3L1 and CCL4L2) compared with healthy controls as well as mild patients who recovered. The cytotoxic phenotypes were shown in lung T and NK cells of severe patients as evidenced by enhanced IFN{gamma}, Granulysin, Granzyme B and Perforin expression. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection altered the community interplay of lung epithelial cells and immune cells: the interaction between epithelial cells with macrophage, T and NK cell was stronger, but their interaction with neutrophils was lost in COVID-19 patients compared to healthy controls.  SARS-CoV-2 infection activates pro-inflammatory signaling in lung epithelial cells expressing ACE2 and causes dysregulation of immune response to release more pro-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection breaks the interplay of lung epithelial cells and immune cells.

title: [Clinical observation of 6 severe COVID-19 patients treated with plasma exchange or tocilizumab]
abstract: To observe the clinical effect of plasma exchange and tocilizumab in treatment of patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).  Six patients with severe COVID-19 admitted in First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College from January 25 to February 25, 2020. Three patients were treated with plasma exchange and three patients were treated with tocilizumab. The effect on excessive inflammatory reaction of plasma exchange and tocilizumab was observed.  The C-reactive protein (CRP) and IL-6 levels were significantly decreased and the lymphocyte and prothrombin time were improved in 3 patients after treatment with plasma exchange; while inflammation level was not significantly decreased, and lymphocyte and prothrombin time did not improve in 3 patients treated with tocilizumab.  For severe COVID-19 patients with strong inflammatory reaction, plasma exchange may be preferred.

title: IPS-1 Is Essential for the Control of West Nile Virus Infection and Immunity
abstract: The innate immune response is essential for controlling West Nile virus (WNV) infection but how this response is propagated and regulates adaptive immunity in vivo are not defined. Herein, we show that IPS-1, the central adaptor protein to RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) signaling, is essential for triggering of innate immunity and for effective development and regulation of adaptive immunity against pathogenic WNV. IPS-1(−/−) mice exhibited increased susceptibility to WNV infection marked by enhanced viral replication and dissemination with early viral entry into the CNS. Infection of cultured bone-marrow (BM) derived dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages (Macs), and primary cortical neurons showed that the IPS-1-dependent RLR signaling was essential for triggering IFN defenses and controlling virus replication in these key target cells of infection. Intriguingly, infected IPS-1(−/−) mice displayed uncontrolled inflammation that included elevated systemic type I IFN, proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine responses, increased numbers of inflammatory DCs, enhanced humoral responses marked by complete loss of virus neutralization activity, and increased numbers of virus-specific CD8+ T cells and non-specific immune cell proliferation in the periphery and in the CNS. This uncontrolled inflammatory response was associated with a lack of regulatory T cell expansion that normally occurs during acute WNV infection. Thus, the enhanced inflammatory response in the absence of IPS-1 was coupled with a failure to protect against WNV infection. Our data define an innate/adaptive immune interface mediated through IPS-1-dependent RLR signaling that regulates the quantity, quality, and balance of the immune response to WNV infection.

title: Respuesta inflamatoria en relación con COVID-19 y otros fenotipos protrombóticos./ Respuesta inflamatoria en relación con COVID-19 y otros fenotipos protrombóticos./ Inflammatory Response in Relation to COVID-19 and Other Prothrombotic Phenotypes
abstract: The haemostatic system acts in concert with inflammation, so that after inflammatory response various mediators activate the haemostatic system through endothelial dysfunction, platelet activation and coagulation promoting thrombosis, which is termed thromboinflammation. In this process, the inflammasome acquires special relevance; its stimulation promotes innate and adaptive immune responses. Inflammasome activation plays an important physiopathological role in several disorders with inflammatory and thrombotic phenomena. The role of thromboinflammation has become relevant in the COVID-19 pandemic, in which a cytokine storm has been described as one of the responsible mechanisms.

title: Challenges and management options of tubo-ovarian cancer during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic

title: Coronavirus is the trigger, but the immune response is deadly

title: A Review of SARS-CoV-2 and the Ongoing Clinical Trials
abstract: The sudden outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV, later named SARS-CoV-2) in Wuhan, China, which rapidly grew into a global pandemic, marked the third introduction of a virulent coronavirus into the human society, affecting not only the healthcare system, but also the global economy. Although our understanding of coronaviruses has undergone a huge leap after two precedents, the effective approaches to treatment and epidemiological control are still lacking. In this article, we present a succinct overview of the epidemiology, clinical features, and molecular characteristics of SARS-CoV-2. We summarize the current epidemiological and clinical data from the initial Wuhan studies, and emphasize several features of SARS-CoV-2, which differentiate it from SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), such as high variability of disease presentation. We systematize the current clinical trials that have been rapidly initiated after the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic. Whereas the trials on SARS-CoV-2 genome-based specific vaccines and therapeutic antibodies are currently being tested, this solution is more long-term, as they require thorough testing of their safety. On the other hand, the repurposing of the existing therapeutic agents previously designed for other virus infections and pathologies happens to be the only practical approach as a rapid response measure to the emergent pandemic, as most of these agents have already been tested for their safety. These agents can be divided into two broad categories, those that can directly target the virus replication cycle, and those based on immunotherapy approaches either aimed to boost innate antiviral immune responses or alleviate damage induced by dysregulated inflammatory responses. The initial clinical studies revealed the promising therapeutic potential of several of such drugs, including favipiravir, a broad-spectrum antiviral drug that interferes with the viral replication, and hydroxychloroquine, the repurposed antimalarial drug that interferes with the virus endosomal entry pathway. We speculate that the current pandemic emergency will be a trigger for more systematic drug repurposing design approaches based on big data analysis.

title: [Diagnostic steps and estimation of disease prognosis in COVID-19-infected patients].
abstract: In December 2019, a new coronavirus outbreak hit his head in Wuhan, China. The identified pathogen is a new coronavirus named "severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2," or SARS-CoV-2, and the respiratory syndrome it elicits was named "coronavirus disease 2019," or COVID-19. The World Health Organization (WHO) classified the epidemic as a pandemic in March 2020. We reviewed the currently available international literature on the COVID-19 epidemic. In this paper, we summarize the relevant information for the diagnosis and prognosis of the new coronavirus. Details of the anamnestic factors and initial test results required to raise a clinical suspicion, the method of microbiological sampling, the basic information on the molecular diagnostic test - the 'gold-standard' real-time 'reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) - in particular the diagnostic current public health regulations for testing. We also place emphasis on the parameters of high-risk patients and how to identify them. The COVID-19 pandemic may also have significant epidemiological and health consequences in Hungary. In addition to epidemiological measures to slow down the epidemic, the timely identification and adequate hospital care of already infected individuals is also a key issue in terms of mortality. The chances of critically ill patients can only be improved with high-quality, careful intensive care, and to be able to provide the best, it is useful to use the experience of medical colleagues already working in endemic countries. Orv Hetil. 2020; 160 (17): 667-671.

title: Transcriptomic characteristics of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Circulating in China and 158 other countries and areas, the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak has caused devastating mortality and posed a great threat to public health. However, efforts to identify effectively supportive therapeutic drugs and treatments has been hampered by our limited understanding of host immune response for this fatal disease. To characterize the transcriptional signatures of host inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 (HCoV-19) infection, we carried out transcriptome sequencing of the RNAs isolated from the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) specimens of COVID-19 patients. Our results reveal distinct host inflammatory cytokine profiles to SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients, and highlight the association between COVID-19 pathogenesis and excessive cytokine release such as CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL3/MIP-1A, and CCL4/MIP1B. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 induced activation of apoptosis and P53 signalling pathway in lymphocytes may be the cause of patients’ lymphopenia. The transcriptome dataset of COVID-19 patients would be a valuable resource for clinical guidance on anti-inflammatory medication and understanding the molecular mechansims of host response.

title: Risk factors for severity and mortality in adult COVID-19 inpatients in Wuhan
abstract: In December 2019, COVID-19 outbreak occurred in Wuhan. Data on the clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with severe COVID-19 are limited.  The severity on admission, complications, treatment, and outcomes of COVID-19 patients were evaluated.  Patients with COVID-19 admitted to Tongji Hospital from January 26, 2020 to February 5, 2020 were retrospectively enrolled and followed-up until March 3, 2020. Potential risk factors for severe COVID-19 were analyzed by a multivariable binary logistic model. Cox proportional hazard regression model was used for survival analysis in severe patients.  We identified 269 (49.1%) of 548 patients as severe cases on admission. Elder age, underlying hypertension, high cytokine levels (IL-2R, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-a), and high LDH level were significantly associated with severe COVID-19 on admission. The prevalence of asthma in COVID-19 patients was 0.9%, markedly lower than that in the adult population of Wuhan. The estimated mortality was 1.1% in nonsevere patients and 32.5% in severe cases during the average 32 days of follow-up period. Survival analysis revealed that male, elder age, leukocytosis, high LDH level, cardiac injury, hyperglycemia, and high-dose corticosteroid use were associated with death in patients with severe COVID-19.  Patients with elder age, hypertension, and high LDH level need careful observation and early intervention to prevent the potential development of severe COVID-19. Severe male patients with heart injury, hyperglycemia, and high-dose corticosteroid use may have high risk of death.

title: IL-15 immunotherapy is a viable strategy for COVID-19.
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pulmonary inflammatory disease induced by a newly recognized coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). SARS-CoV-2 infection was detected for the first time in the city of Wuhan in China and spread all over the world at the beginning of 2020. Several millions of people have been infected with SARS-CoV-2, and almost 382,867 human deaths worldwide have been reported so far. Notably, there has been no specific, clinically approved vaccine or anti-viral treatment strategy for COVID-19. Herein, we review COVID-19, the viral replication, and its effect on promoting pulmonary fibro-inflammation via immune cell-mediated cytokine storms in humans. Several clinical trials are currently ongoing for anti-viral drugs, vaccines, and neutralizing antibodies against COVID-19. Viral clearance is the result of effective innate and adaptive immune responses. The pivotal role of interleukin (IL)-15 in viral clearance involves maintaining the balance of induced inflammatory cytokines and the homeostatic responses of natural killer and CD8+ T cells. This review presents supporting evidence of the impact of IL-15 immunotherapy on COVID-19.

title: Cytokine storm in COVID‐19 and parthenolide: preclinical evidence
abstract: A group of patients with pneumonia caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) were reported from China in December 2019. Although several antiviral drugs are widely tested, none of them has been approved as specific antiviral therapy for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Accumulating evidence established a hyperinflammatory states or cytokine storm in COVID‐19. Among these cytokines, IL‐6 plays a key role in cytokine storm and can predict the adverse clinical outcomes and fatality in these patients. Based on the evidence of the significant role of IL‐6 in cytokine storm, diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases as principal comorbidities, it seems that anti‐cytokine therapy may be useful in patients with severe COVID‐19 to reduce mortality. Recent studies demonstrated that herbal‐derived natural products had immunosuppressive and anti‐inflammatory properties and exhibited exceptional act on mediators of inflammation. Parthenolide is the principal sesquiterpene lactones and the main biologically active constituent Tanacetum parthenium (commonly known as feverfew) which has could significantly reduce IL‐1, IL‐2, IL‐6, IL‐8, and TNF‐α production pathways established in several human cell line models in vitro and in vivo studies. Therefore, parthenolide may be one of the herbal candidates for clinical evaluation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Doctors race to understand inflammatory condition in kids

title: Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China
abstract: In December 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emerged in Wuhan and rapidly spread throughout China.  Demographic and clinical data of all confirmed cases with COVID-19 on admission at Tongji Hospital from January 10 to February 12, 2020, were collected and analyzed. The data of laboratory examinations, including peripheral lymphocyte subsets, were analyzed and compared between severe and non-severe patients.  Of the 452 patients with COVID-19 recruited, 286 were diagnosed as severe infection. The median age was 58 years and 235 were male. The most common symptoms were fever, shortness of breath, expectoration, fatigue, dry cough and myalgia. Severe cases tend to have lower lymphocytes counts, higher leukocytes counts and neutrophil-lymphocyte-ratio (NLR), as well as lower percentages of monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. Most of severe cases demonstrated elevated levels of infection-related biomarkers and inflammatory cytokines. The number of T cells significantly decreased, and more hampered in severe cases. Both helper T cells and suppressor T cells in patients with COVID-19 were below normal levels, and lower level of helper T cells in severe group. The percentage of naïve helper T cells increased and memory helper T cells decreased in severe cases. Patients with COVID-19 also have lower level of regulatory T cells, and more obviously damaged in severe cases.  The novel coronavirus might mainly act on lymphocytes, especially T lymphocytes. Surveillance of NLR and lymphocyte subsets is helpful in the early screening of critical illness, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19.

title: Novel COronaVirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic: What are the risks for systemic sclerosis patients?

title: Hydroxychloroquine and Covid-19: A Cellular and Molecular Biology Based Update
abstract: As the time for finding a definitive and safe cure as a vaccine for novel Corona Virus Disease 2019 (Covid-19) is still far, there is need to study in depth about the other potential drugs, which can save millions of lives due to Covid-19 pandemic. Right at the center of the debate is the use of drug “Hydroxychloroquine” as a prophylaxis as well as a treatment strategy against Covid-19 in conjunction with azithromycin. In this review, we will study the cellular and molecular aspects of hydroxychloroquine, which had driven its use in Covid-19 patients, as well as its chemistry and pharmacokinetics along with clinical trials going on worldwide using hydroxychloroquine against Covid-19.

title: Seven recommendations to rescue the patients and reduce the mortality from COVID-19 infection: An immunological point of view
abstract: Now COVID-19 is causing a severe public health emergency and the mortality is rapidly increasing all over the world. In the current pandemic era, although there have been many efforts to diagnose a number of patients with symptoms or close contacts, there is no definite guideline for the initial therapeutic approach for them and therefore, many patients have been dying due to a hyperinflammatory immunological reaction labeled as “cytokine storm”. Severe patients are hospitalized and the treatment is done, though they have not been established yet. Currently, however, no treatment is provided for those who are isolated at home or shelter until they get severe symptoms, which will increase the harms to the patients. In this review, we discuss some important points dedicated to the management of patients with COVID-19, which should help reducing morbidity and mortality. In this era, we suggest 7 recommendations to rescue the patients and to reduce the morbidity and mortality due to COVID-19 based on the immunological point of view.

title: The importance of initial response during outbreaks: A perspective from observations on COVID-19

title: Thalidomide-Revisited: Are COVID-19 Patients Going to Be the Latest Victims of Yet Another Theoretical Drug-Repurposing?
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is a worldwide threatening health issue. The progression of this viral infection occurs in the airways of the lungs with an exaggerated inflammatory response referred to as the "cytokine storm" that can lead to lethal lung injuries. In the absence of an effective anti-viral molecule and until the formulation of a successful vaccine, anti-inflammatory drugs might offer a complementary tool for controlling the associated complications of COVID-19 and thus decreasing the subsequent fatalities. Drug repurposing for several molecules has emerged as a rapid temporary solution for COVID-19. Among these drugs is Thalidomide; a historically emblematic controversial molecule that harbors an FDA approval for treating erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) and multiple myeloma (MM). Based on just one-case report that presented positive outcomes in a patient treated amongst others with Thalidomide, two clinical trials on the efficacy and safety of Thalidomide in treating severe respiratory complications in COVID-19 patients were registered. Yet, the absence of substantial evidence on Thalidomide usage in that context along with the discontinued studies on the efficiency of this drug in similar pulmonary diseases, might cause a significant obstacle for carrying out further clinical evaluations. Herein, we will discuss the theoretical effectiveness of Thalidomide in attenuating inflammatory complications that are encountered in COVID-19 patients while pinpointing the lack of the needed evidences to move forward with this drug.

title: Unravelling the debate on heme effects in COVID-19 infections
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak was recently declared a worldwide pandemic. Infection triggers the respiratory tract disease COVID-19, which is accompanied by serious changes of clinical biomarkers such as hemoglobin and interleukins. The same parameters are altered during hemolysis, which is characterized by an increase in labile heme. We present two approaches that aim at analyzing a potential link between available heme and COVID-19 pathogenesis. Four COVID-19 related proteins, i.e. the host cell proteins ACE2 and TMPRSS2 as well as the viral protein 7a and S protein, were identified as potential heme binders. We also performed a detailed analysis of the common pathways induced by heme and SARS-CoV-2 by superimposition of knowledge graphs covering heme biology and COVID-19 pathophysiology. Herein, focus was laid on inflammatory pathways, and distinct biomarkers as the linking elements. Finally, the results substantially improve our understanding of COVID-19 infections and disease progression of patients with different clinical backgrounds and expand the diagnostic and treatment options.

title: Report of the ‘Mechanisms of lung injury and immunomodulator interventions in influenza’ workshop, 21 March 2010, Ventura, California, USA
abstract: Please cite this paper as: Howard et al. (2011) Report of the ‘Mechanisms of lung injury and immunomodulator interventions in influenza’ workshop, 21 March 2010, Ventura, California, USA*. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 5(6), 453–e475. The clinical course of influenza and the extent of lung injury are determined by both viral and host factors, as well as sometimes secondary bacterial infections and exacerbations of underlying conditions. The balance between viral replication and the host immune responses is central to disease pathogenesis, and the extent of lung injury in severe influenza infections may be due in part to overly exuberant or dysregulated innate inflammatory responses or sometimes deficient responses. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is the principal cause of respiratory failure associated with severe influenza. ARDS can be triggered by both direct lung insults (e.g. respiratory pathogens) and systemic insults (e.g. sepsis), and the lung damage is exacerbated by the inflammatory response associated with either infectious or non‐infectious insults. This workshop aimed to review the current understanding of lung injury in acute influenza and describe cellular and molecular mechanisms of lung injury that are common to influenza and infections by other respiratory pathogens. In addition, therapeutic agents that target host response proteins and pathways were identified and investigational agents in development reviewed. A logical strategy would be to combine antiviral treatment with drugs that modify excessive host responses or supplement deficient ones. However, a better understanding of common cell signalling pathways associated with acute lung injury caused by influenza and other pathogens is necessary to understand immunopathologic causes of lung injury. This will help determine which immunomodulatory interventions might be useful, and to predict the appropriate timing and consequences of their use.

title: Effects of Anticoagulants and Corticosteroids therapy in patients affected by severe COVID-19 Pneumonia
abstract: In the absence of a standard of treatment for COVID-19, the combined use of anti-inflammatory (corticosteroids and Enoxaparin) and antiviral drugs may be more effective than using either modality alone in the treatment of COVID-19.  Patients hospitalized between April 10th, 2020, through May 10th, 2020, who had confirmed COVID-19 infection with clinical or radiographic evidence of pneumonia, in which 65 patients have moderate COVID-19 pneumonia, and 63 patients have severe COVID-19 pneumonia. All patients received early combination therapy of anti-inflammatory (corticosteroids and Enoxaparin) and antiviral drugs. They assessed for type and duration of treatment, and days need to wean from oxygen therapy, length of stay, virus clearance time, and complication or adverse events. All patients had more than 28 days follow up after discharge from the hospital.  Moderate COVID-19 pneumonia group were 65 patients who received Enoxaparin, antiviral drugs, empirical antibiotics for pneumonia, and standard treatment for comorbidity. Male patients were 50 (76.9 %) and female patients were 15 (23.1 %). 34 (52.3 %) patients have comorbidity, 25 (38.5%) patients have Diabetes Mellitus and 2 (3.1 %) pregnant ladies. 19 (29.2 %) patients were on low flow oxygen therapy, 3L oxygen or less to maintain oxygen saturation more than 92%. All patients discharged home with no major or minor bleeding complications or significant complications. Severe COVID-19 pneumonia group were 63 patients who received methylprednisolone, enoxaparin, antiviral drugs, empirical antibiotics for pneumonia, and standard treatment for comorbidity. Male patients were 55 (87.3 %) and female patients were 8 (12.7 %). 37 (58.7 %) patients have comorbidity, and 24 (38.1%) patients have Diabetes Mellitus. 32 (50.8 %) patients were on low flow oxygen therapy, 4-9L oxygen, and 31 (49.2 %) patients were on low flow oxygen therapy, 10L oxygen or more, including 12 patients on a non-rebreathing mask. Patients received methylprednisolone were 37 (58.7 %) for 3 days, 16 (25.4 %) for 5 days and 10 (15.9 %) for more than 5 days. Sixty-two patients discharged home with one patient had a long stay, and the other two transferred to ICU. One long-stay patient transferred to ICU on low flow oxygen therapy.  Early use of a combined anti-inflammatory (corticosteroids and Enoxaparin) and antiviral drugs treatment in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 pneumonia prevent complications of the disease and improve clinical outcomes.

title: Severe refractory thrombocytopenia in a woman positive for coronavirus disease 2019 with lupus and antiphospholipid syndrome.
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has created new challenges that necessitate prompt responses in unexpected clinical situations. Multiple extrapulmonary manifestations and complications of COVID-19 have already been described, but only scattered data are present on immunologic manifestations. We present a case of severe refractory thrombocytopenia in a 51-year-old woman with a history of long-standing systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome who presented with hemoptysis in the setting of COVID-19 infection. The patient failed to respond to initial treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin, high-dose steroids, and platelet transfusion, but responded to eltrombopag, with prompt improvement of a platelet count. The current case report provides clinical data of relevance to the largely unexplored question of the immunologic complications of COVID-19 in patients with a pre-existing inflammatory state.

title: Decreased serum albumin level indicates poor prognosis of COVID-19 patients: hepatic injury analysis from 2,623 hospitalized cases
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic which has caused numerous deaths worldwide. The present study investigated the roles of hypoproteinemia in the clinical outcome and liver dysfunction of COVID-19 patients. In this retrospective study, we extracted data from 2,623 clinically confirmed adult COVID-19 patients (>18 years old) between January 29, 2020 and March 6, 2020 in Tongji Hospital, Wuhan, China. The patients were divided into three groups—non-critically ill, critically ill, and death groups—in accordance with the Chinese Clinical Guideline for COVID-19. Serum albumin, low-density lipoproteins cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoproteins cholesterol (HDL-C) concentrations and inflammatory cytokines levels were measured and compared among these three groups. The median age of these 2,623 patients was 64 years old (interquartile range (IQR), 52–71). Among the patients enrolled in the study, 2,008 (76.6%) were diagnosed as non-critically ill and 615 (23.4%) were critically ill patients, including 383 (14.6%) critically ill survivors and 232 (8.8%) critically ill deaths in the hospital. Marked hypoalbuminemia occurred in 38.2%, 71.2%, and 82.4% patients in non-critically ill, critically ill, and death groups, respectively, on admission and 45.9%, 77.7%, and 95.6% of these three groups, respectively, during hospitalization. We also discovered that serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and HDL levels were significantly lower in critically ill and death groups compared to non-critically ill group. Meanwhile, the patients displayed dramatically elevated levels of serum inflammatory factors, while a markedly prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) in critically ill patients reflected coagulopathy. This study suggests that COVID-19-induced cytokine storm causes hepatotoxicity and subsequently critical hypoalbuminemia, which are associated with exacerbation of disease-associated inflammatory responses and progression of the disease and ultimately leads to death for some critically ill patients.

title: Mast cells contribute to coronavirus-induced inflammation: new anti-inflammatory strategy.
abstract: Coronavirus, which can cause respiratory syndrome, to date has affected over seventeen thousand individuals, especially in China. Coronavirus is interspecies and can also be transmitted from man to man, with an incubation ranging from 1 to 14 days. Human coronavirus infections can induce not only mild to severe respiratory diseases, but also inflammation, high fever, cough, acute respiratory tract infection and dysfunction of internal organs that may lead to death. Coronavirus infection (regardless of the various types of corona virus) is primarily attacked by immune cells including mast cells (MCs), which are located in the submucosa of the respiratory tract and in the nasal cavity and represent a barrier of protection against microorganisms. Viral activate MCs release early inflammatory chemical compounds including histamine and protease; while late activation provokes the generation of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members including IL-1, IL-6 and IL-33. Here, we propose for the first time that inflammation by coronavirus may be inhibited by anti-inflammatory cytokines belonging to the IL-1 family members.

title: Targeting the catecholamine-cytokine axis to prevent SARS-CoV-2 cytokine storm syndrome
abstract: The mortality of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) appears to be driven by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and a dysregulated immune response to SARS-CoV-2. Emerging evidence suggests that a subset of COVID-19 is characterized by the development of a cytokine storm syndrome (CSS), and interleukin (IL)-6 levels are predictors of COVID-19 severity and in-hospital mortality. Targeting hyper-inflammation in COVID-19 may be critical for reducing mortality. Catecholamines enhance inflammatory injury by augmenting the production of IL-6 and other cytokines through a self-amplifying feed-forward loop in immune cells that requires alpha-1 adrenergic receptor (α1-AR) signaling. Prophylactic inhibition of catecholamine synthesis with the α1-AR antagonist prazosin reduced catecholamines and cytokine responses in mice, and resulted in markedly increased survival following various hyper-inflammatory stimuli. These findings offer a rationale for studying α1-AR antagonists in the prophylaxis of patients with COVID-19-CSS and ARDS. As high infection rates threaten to overwhelm hospital capacity during this pandemic, preventative approaches that ameliorate COVID-19 severity and reduce excessive mortality are desperately needed. We hypothesize that treatment with prazosin of individuals who test positive for SARS-CoV-2 could reduce catecholamine surges, secondary cytokine dysregulation, and mortality. To investigate a potential role for α1-AR antagonists in preventing poor outcomes in ARDS, we conducted a retrospective analysis of hospitalized patients diagnosed with ARDS. Using data from the Truven Health MarketScan Research Database (2010-2017), we identified 13,125 men (age 45-64) with ARDS, of whom 655 patients (5.0%) were prescribed α1-AR antagonists in the previous year. Applying logistic regression models, we found that patients with prior use of α1-AR antagonists had lower odds of invasive mechanical ventilation compared to non-users (adjusted OR=0.75, 95% CI 0.59-0.95, p=0.019). Perhaps more importantly, those patients had a ~36% lower incidence of both being ventilated and dying in the hospital (adjusted OR=0.59, 95% CI 0.34-0.95, p=0.042). By contrast, prior use of beta-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) antagonists was not correlated with either outcome. We extended these analyses to patients admitted with pneumonia. Of 108,956 subjects in this cohort, 5,498 patients (5.0%) were taking α1-AR antagonist. Similar to ARDS, patients with pneumonia on α1-AR antagonists (but no β-AR antagonists) had a lower odds of mechanical ventilation (adjusted OR=0.83, 95% CI 0.75-0.92, p<0.001) and of both being ventilated and dying in the hospital (adjusted OR=0.77, 95% CI 0.62-0.94, p=0.014) compared to non-users. Mirroring findings from pre-clinical models, these data support a clinical rationale to study α1-AR antagonists in the prevention of severe complications of pneumonia, ARDS, and COVID-19. Prospective, randomized clinical trials of alpha-1 receptor antagonists (e.g. prazosin) administered prior to the onset of severe symptoms are needed to assess their efficacy in preventing CSS and reducing mortality in COVID-19.

title: Early Short Course Corticosteroids in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19
abstract: There is no proven antiviral or immunomodulatory therapy for COVID-19. The disease progression associated with the pro-inflammatory host response prompted us to examine the role of early corticosteroid therapy in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19.  We conducted a single pre-test, single post-test quasi-experiment in a multi-center health system in Michigan from March 12 to March 27, 2020. Adult patients with confirmed moderate to severe COVID were included. A protocol was implemented on March 20, 2020 using early, short-course, methylprednisolone 0.5 to 1 mg/kg/day divided in 2 intravenous doses for 3 days. Outcomes of pre- and post-corticosteroid groups were evaluated. A composite endpoint of escalation of care from ward to ICU, new requirement for mechanical ventilation, and mortality was the primary outcome measure. All patients had at least 14 days of follow-up.  We analyzed 213 eligible subjects, 81 (38%) and 132 (62%) in pre-and post-corticosteroid groups, respectively. The composite endpoint occurred at a significantly lower rate in post-corticosteroid group compared to pre-corticosteroid group (34.9% vs. 54.3%, p=0.005). This treatment effect was observed within each individual component of the composite endpoint. Significant reduction in median hospital length of stay was observed in the post-corticosteroid group (8 vs. 5 days, p < 0.001). Multivariate regression analysis demonstrated an independent reduction in the composite endpoint at 14-days controlling for other factors (aOR: 0.45; 95% CI [0.25-0.81]).  An early short course of methylprednisolone in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 reduced escalation of care and improved clinical outcomes.

title: The case of complement activation in COVID-19 multiorgan impact
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease COVID-19 originates in the lungs, but it may extend to other organs, causing, in severe cases, multiorgan damage, including cardiac injury and acute kidney injury. In severe cases, the presence of kidney injury is associated with increased risk of death, highlighting the relevance of this organ as a target of SARS-CoV-2 infection. COVID-19-associated tissue injury is not primarily mediated by viral infection, but rather is a result of the inflammatory host immune response, which drives hypercytokinemia and aggressive inflammation that affect lung parenchymal cells, diminishing oxygen uptake, but also endothelial cells, resulting in endotheliitis and thrombotic events and intravascular coagulation. The complement system represents the first response of the host immune system to SARS-CoV-2 infection, but there is growing evidence that unrestrained activation of complement induced by the virus in the lungs and other organs plays a major role in acute and chronic inflammation, endothelial cell dysfunction, thrombus formation, and intravascular coagulation, and ultimately contributes to multiple organ failure and death. In this review, we discuss the relative role of the different complement activation products in the pathogenesis of COVID-19-associated tissue inflammation and thrombosis and propose the hypothesis that blockade of the terminal complement pathway may represent a potential therapeutic option for the prevention and treatment of lung and multiorgan damage.

title: Targeting inflammation and cytokine storm in COVID-19

title: Comparative replication and immune activation profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in human lungs: an ex vivo study with implications for the pathogenesis of COVID-19
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an emerging coronavirus that has resulted in nearly 1,000,000 laboratory-confirmed cases including over 50,000 deaths. Although SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV share a number of common clinical manifestations, SARS-CoV-2 appears to be highly efficient in person-to-person transmission and frequently cause asymptomatic infections. However, the underlying mechanism that confers these viral characteristics on high transmissibility and asymptomatic infection remain incompletely understood.  We comprehensively investigated the replication, cell tropism, and immune activation profile of SARS-CoV-2 infection in human lung tissues with SARS-CoV included as a comparison.  SARS-CoV-2 infected and replicated in human lung tissues more efficiently than that of SARS-CoV. Within the 48-hour interval, SARS-CoV-2 generated 3.20 folds more infectious virus particles than that of SARS-CoV from the infected lung tissues (P<0.024). SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV were similar in cell tropism, with both targeting types I and II pneumocytes, and alveolar macrophages. Importantly, despite the more efficient virus replication, SARS-CoV-2 did not significantly induce types I, II, or III interferons in the infected human lung tissues. In addition, while SARS-CoV infection upregulated the expression of 11 out of 13 (84.62%) representative pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines, SARS-CoV-2 infection only upregulated 5 of these 13 (38.46%) key inflammatory mediators despite replicating more efficiently.  Our study provided the first quantitative data on the comparative replication capacity and immune activation profile of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV infection in human lung tissues. Our results provided important insights on the pathogenesis, high transmissibility, and asymptomatic infection of SARS-CoV-2.

title: COVID-19, Virology and Geroscience: A Perspective
abstract: A new Coronavirus, called SARS-CoV-2, was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The SARS-CoV-2 spread very rapidly, causing a global pandemic, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Older adults have higher peak of viral load and, especially those with comorbidities, had higher COVID-19-related fatality rates than younger adults. In this Perspective paper, we summarize current knowledge about SARS-CoV-2 and aging, in order to understand why older people are more affected by COVID-19. We discuss about the possibility that the so-called “immunosenescence” and “inflammaging” processes, already present in a fraction of frail older adults, could allow the immune escape of SARS-CoV-2 leading to COVID-19 serious complications. Finally, we propose to use geroscience approaches to the field of COVID-19.

title: Immune and Metabolic Signatures of COVID-19 Revealed by Transcriptomics Data Reuse
abstract: The current pandemic of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) has affected millions of individuals and caused thousands of deaths worldwide. The pathophysiology of the disease is complex and mostly unknown. Therefore, identifying the molecular mechanisms that promote progression of the disease is critical to overcome this pandemic. To address such issues, recent studies have reported transcriptomic profiles of cells, tissues and fluids from COVID-19 patients that mainly demonstrated activation of humoral immunity, dysregulated type I and III interferon expression, intense innate immune responses and inflammatory signaling. Here, we provide novel perspectives on the pathophysiology of COVID-19 using robust functional approaches to analyze public transcriptome datasets. In addition, we compared the transcriptional signature of COVID-19 patients with individuals infected with SARS-CoV-1 and Influenza A (IAV) viruses. We identified a core transcriptional signature induced by the respiratory viruses in peripheral leukocytes, whereas the absence of significant type I interferon/antiviral responses characterized SARS-CoV-2 infection. We also identified the higher expression of genes involved in metabolic pathways including heme biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation and tryptophan metabolism. A BTM-driven meta-analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from COVID-19 patients showed significant enrichment for neutrophils and chemokines, which were also significant in data from lung tissue of one deceased COVID-19 patient. Importantly, our results indicate higher expression of genes related to oxidative phosphorylation both in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes and BALF, suggesting a critical role for mitochondrial activity during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Collectively, these data point for immunopathological features and targets that can be therapeutically exploited to control COVID-19.

title: Gastrointestinal, Hepatobiliary, and Pancreatic Manifestations of COVID-19
abstract: There is an increasing number of confirmed cases and deaths caused by the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) contributing to the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. At this point, the need for further disease characterization is critical. COVID-19 is well established as a respiratory tract pathogen; however, recent studies have shown an increasing number of patients reporting gastrointestinal manifestations such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. The time from onset of gastrointestinal symptoms to hospital presentation is often delayed compared to that of respiratory symptoms. It has been noted that SARS-CoV-2 RNA can be detected in fecal matter for an extended period of time, even after respiratory samples have tested negative and patients are asymptomatic. In this article, SARS-CoV-2 and its disease COVID-19 will be reviewed with consideration of the latest literature about gastrointestinal symptomatology, the mechanisms by which the virus may inflict damage, and the possibility of viral replication contributing to a fecal-oral route of transmission.

title: COVID-19 and diabetes: Knowledge in progress
abstract: We aimed to briefly review the general characteristics of the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and provide a better understanding of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in people with diabetes, and its management.  We searched for articles in PubMed and Google Scholar databases till 02 April 2020, with the following keywords: "SARS-CoV-2", "COVID-19", "infection", "pathogenesis", "incubation period", "transmission", "clinical features", "diagnosis", "treatment", "diabetes", with interposition of the Boolean operator "AND".  The clinical spectrum of COVID-19 is heterogeneous, ranging from mild flu-like symptoms to acute respiratory distress syndrome, multiple organ failure and death. Older age, diabetes and other comorbidities are reported as significant predictors of morbidity and mortality. Chronic inflammation, increased coagulation activity, immune response impairment, and potential direct pancreatic damage by SARS-CoV-2 might be among the underlying mechanisms of the association between diabetes and COVID-19. No conclusive evidence exists to support the discontinuation of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI), angiotensin receptor blockers or thiazolidinediones because of COVID-19 in people with diabetes. Caution should be taken to potential hypoglycemic events with the use of chloroquine in these subjects. Patient tailored therapeutic strategies, rigorous glucose monitoring and careful consideration of drug interactions might reduce adverse outcomes.  Suggestions are made on the possible pathophysiological mechanisms of the relationship between diabetes and COVID-19, and its management. No definite conclusions can be made based on current limited evidence. Further research regarding this relationship and its clinical management is warranted.

title: Persistent SARS-CoV-2 presence is companied with defects in adaptive immune system in non-severe COVID-19 patients
abstract: COVID-19 has been widely spreading. We aim to examine adaptive immune cells in non-severe patients with persistent SARS-CoV-2 shedding.  non-severe patients with persistent SARS-CoV-2 presence transferred to Zhongnan hospital of Wuhan University were retrospectively recruited to PP (persistently positive) group, which was further allocated to PPP group (n=19) and PPN group (n=18), according to their testing results after 7 days (N=negative). Epidemiological, demographic, clinical and laboratory data were collected and analyzed. Data from age- and sex-matched non-severe patients at disease onset (PA [positive on admission] patients, n=37), and lymphocyte subpopulation measurements from matched 54 healthy subjects were extracted for comparison.  Compared with PA patients, PP patients had much improved laboratory findings, including WBCs, neutrophils, lymphocytes, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, albumin, AST, CRP, SAA, and IL-6. The absolute numbers of CD3+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, and NK cells were significantly higher in PP group than that in PA group, and were comparable to that in healthy controls. PPP subgroup had markedly reduced B cells and T cells compared to PPN group and healthy subjects. Finally, paired results of these lymphocyte subpopulations from 10 PPN patients demonstrated that the number of T cells and B cells significantly increased when the SARS-CoV-2 tests turned negative.  Persistent SARS-CoV-2 presence in non-severe COVID-19 patients is associated with reduced numbers of adaptive immune cells. Monitoring lymphocyte subpopulations could be clinically meaningful in identifying fully recovered COVID-19 patients.  Coronavirus disease 2019; SARS-CoV-2: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; HC: Healthy controls.

title: Detection of SARS-CoV-2-specific humoral and cellular immunity in COVID-19 convalescent individuals
abstract: The World Health Organization has declared SARS-CoV-2 virus outbreak a world-wide pandemic. However, there is very limited understanding on the immune responses, especially adaptive immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, we collected blood from COVID-19 patients who have recently become virus-free and therefore were discharged, and detected SARS-CoV-2-specific humoral and cellular immunity in 8 newly discharged patients. Follow-up analysis on another cohort of 6 patients 2 weeks post discharge also revealed high titers of IgG antibodies. In all 14 patients tested, 13 displayed serum neutralizing activities in a pseudotype entry assay. Notably, there was a strong correlation between neutralization antibody titers and the numbers of virus-specific T cells. Our work provides a basis for further analysis of protective immunity to SARS-CoV-2, and understanding the pathogenesis of COVID-19, especially in the severe cases. It has also implications in developing an effective vaccine to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: The clinical course and its correlated immune status in COVID-19 pneumonia
abstract: To explore the clinical course and its dynamic features of immune status in COVID-19 patients and find predictors correlated with severity and prognosis of COVID-19.  The electronic medical records of 204 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia confirmed by nucleic acid testing were retrospectively collected and analyzed.  Patients were divided into severe (69) and non-severe group (135). Lymphocyte subsets count, including CD3 + T cell, CD4 + T cell, CD8 + T cell, B cell (CD19+) and NK cell (CD16 + 56+), were significantly lower in severe group (P＜0.001). The dynamic levels of T lymphocytes in severe group were significantly lower from disease onset, but in the improved subgroup the value of T lymphocyte began to increase after about 15-day treatment and finally returned to the normal level. The cut-off value of the counts of CD3+ (576), CD4+ (391) and CD8+ (214) T cell were calculated and indicated significantly high sensitivity and specificity for severity of COVID-19.  Our results shown that the decrease of CD3+, CD4+ and CD8 + T lymphocyte correlated with the course of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia, especially in severe cases. The level of T lymphocyte could be used as an indicator for prediction of severity and prognosis of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. The application of glucocorticoid should be cautious in severe cases.

title: COVID-19 and treatment with NSAIDs and corticosteroids: should we be limiting their use in the clinical setting?
abstract: Given the current SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic, the availability of reliable information for clinicians and patients is paramount. There have been a number of reports stating that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids may exacerbate symptoms in COVID-19 patients. Therefore, this review aimed to collate information available in published articles to identify any evidence behind these claims with the aim of advising clinicians on how best to treat patients. This review found no published evidence for or against the use of NSAIDs in COVID-19 patients. Meanwhile, there appeared to be some evidence that corticosteroids may be beneficial if utilised in the early acute phase of infection, however, conflicting evidence from the World Health Organisation surrounding corticosteroid use in certain viral infections means this evidence is not conclusive. Given the current availability of literature, caution should be exercised until further evidence emerges surrounding the use of NSAIDs and corticosteroids in COVID-19 patients.

title: The Role of Astrocytes, Microglia, and Endothelial Cells in Coronavirus-Induced Demyelination: Induction of cytokines and other signaling mechanisms
abstract: Infection of neurotropic strains of coronaviruses in susceptible animals results in acute encephalomyelitis followed by a chronic demyelinating disease, similar to multiple sclerosis (MS). Although the mechanism of chronic coronavirus-induced demyelination is not entirely clear, studies show that it is mostly immune-mediated. Astrocytes, microglia and endothelial cells play an important role in normal functions as well as in immunologic and pathologic processes in the central nervous system (CNS). The interaction between coronaviruses and these cells induces various inflammatory mediators including cytokines, chemokines, MHC and NO, which acting in concert are involved in the pathogenesis of demyelination.

title: Harnessing adenosine A2A receptors as a strategy for suppressing the lung inflammation and thrombotic complications of COVID-19: Potential of pentoxifylline and dipyridamole
abstract: Counterproductive lung inflammation and dysregulated thrombosis contribute importantly to the lethality of advanced COVID-19. Adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR), expressed by a wide range of immune cells, as well as endothelial cells and platelets, exert cAMP-mediated anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic effects that potentially could be highly protective in this regard. The venerable drug pentoxifylline (PTX) exerts both anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic effects that reflect its ability to boost the responsiveness of A2AR to extracellular adenosine. The platelet-stabilizing drug dipyridamole (DIP) blocks intracellular uptake of extracellularly-generated adenosine, thereby up-regulating A2AR signaling in a way that should be functionally complementary to the impact of PTX in that regard. Moreover, DIP has recently been reported to slow the cellular replication of SARS-CoV-2 in clinically feasible concentrations. Both PTX and DIP are reasonably safe, well-tolerated, widely available, and inexpensive drugs. When COVID-19 patients can be treated within several days of symptom onset, using PTX + DIP in conjunction with hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) and an antibiotic - azithromycin (AZM) or doxycycline - might be warranted. HCQ and AZM can suppress SARS-CoV-2 proliferation in vitro and may slow the cell-to-cell spread of the virus; a large case series evaluating this combination in early-stage patients reported an impressively low mortality rate. However, whereas HCQ and AZM can promote QT interval lengthening and may be contraindicated in more advanced COVID-19 entailing cardiac damage, doxycycline has no such effect and exerts a potentially beneficial anti-inflammatory action. In contrast to HCQ, we propose that the combination of PTX + DIP can be used in both early and advanced stages of COVID-19. Concurrent use of certain nutraceuticals - yeast beta-glucan, zinc, vitamin D, spirulina, phase 2 inducers, N-acetylcysteine, glucosamine, quercetin, and magnesium - might also improve therapeutic outcomes in COVID-19.

title: Immunosuppression for hyperinflammation in COVID-19: a double-edged sword?

title: Acute respiratory failure in COVID-19: is it "typical" ARDS?
abstract: In December 2019, an outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was identified in Wuhan, China. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared this outbreak a significant threat to international health. COVID-19 is highly infectious and can lead to fatal comorbidities especially acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Thus, fully understanding the characteristics of COVID-19-related ARDS is conducive to early identification and precise treatment. We aimed to describe the characteristics of COVID-19-related ARDS and to elucidate the differences from ARDS caused by other factors. COVID-19 mainly affected the respiratory system with minor damage to other organs. Injury to the alveolar epithelial cells was the main cause of COVID-19-related ARDS, and endothelial cells were less damaged with therefore less exudation. The clinical manifestations were relatively mild in some COVID-19 patients, which was inconsistent with the severity of laboratory and imaging findings. The onset time of COVID-19-related ARDS was 8-12 days, which was inconsistent with ARDS Berlin criteria, which defined a 1-week onset limit. Some of these patients might have a relatively normal lung compliance. The severity was redefined into three stages according to its specificity: mild, mild-moderate, and moderate-severe. HFNO can be safe in COVID-19-related ARDS patients, even in some moderate-severe patients. The more likely cause of death is severe respiratory failure. Thus, the timing of invasive mechanical ventilation is very important. The effects of corticosteroids in COVID-19-related ARDS patients were uncertain. We hope to help improve the prognosis of severe cases and reduce the mortality.

title: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges
abstract: The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2; previously provisionally named 2019 novel coronavirus or 2019-nCoV) disease (COVID-19) in China at the end of 2019 has caused a large global outbreak and is a major public health issue. As of 11 February 2020, data from the World Health Organization (WHO) have shown that more than 43 000 confirmed cases have been identified in 28 countries/regions, with >99% of cases being detected in China. On 30 January 2020, the WHO declared COVID-19 as the sixth public health emergency of international concern. SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to two bat-derived severe acute respiratory syndrome-like coronaviruses, bat-SL-CoVZC45 and bat-SL-CoVZXC21. It is spread by human-to-human transmission via droplets or direct contact, and infection has been estimated to have mean incubation period of 6.4 days and a basic reproduction number of 2.24–3.58. Among patients with pneumonia caused by SARS-CoV-2 (novel coronavirus pneumonia or Wuhan pneumonia), fever was the most common symptom, followed by cough. Bilateral lung involvement with ground-glass opacity was the most common finding from computed tomography images of the chest. The one case of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in the USA is responding well to remdesivir, which is now undergoing a clinical trial in China. Currently, controlling infection to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2 is the primary intervention being used. However, public health authorities should keep monitoring the situation closely, as the more we can learn about this novel virus and its associated outbreak, the better we can respond.

title: Characterizing and controlling the inflammatory network during influenza A virus infection
abstract: To gain insights into the pathogenesis of influenza A virus (IAV) infections, this study focused on characterizing the inflammatory network and identifying key proteins by combining high-throughput data and computational techniques. We constructed the cell-specific normal and inflammatory networks for H5N1 and H1N1 infections through integrating high-throughput data. We demonstrated that better discrimination between normal and inflammatory networks by network entropy than by other topological metrics. Moreover, we identified different dynamical interactions among TLR2, IL-1β, IL10 and NFκB between normal and inflammatory networks using optimization algorithm. In particular, good robustness and multistability of inflammatory sub-networks were discovered. Furthermore, we identified a complex, TNFSF10/HDAC4/HDAC5, which may play important roles in controlling inflammation, and demonstrated that changes in network entropy of this complex negatively correlated to those of three proteins: TNFα, NFκB and COX-2. These findings provide significant hypotheses for further exploring the molecular mechanisms of infectious diseases and developing control strategies.

title: Intermittent fasting, a possible priming tool for host defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection: Crosstalk among calorie restriction, autophagy and immune response
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative pathogen of deadly Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic, which emerged as a major threat to public health across the world. Although there is no clear gender or socioeconomic discrimination in the incidence of COVID-19, individuals who are older adults and/or with comorbidities and compromised immunity have a relatively higher risk of contracting this disease. Since no specific drug has yet been discovered, strengthening immunity along with maintaining a healthy living is the best way to survive this disease. As a healthy practice, calorie restriction in the form of intermittent fasting (IF) in several clinical settings has been reported to promote several health benefits, including priming of the immune response. This dietary restriction also activates autophagy, a cell surveillance system that boosts up immunity. With these prevailing significance in priming host defense, IF could be a potential strategy amid this outbreak to fighting off SARS-CoV-2 infection. Currently, no review so far available proposing IF as an encouraging strategy in the prevention of COVID-19. A comprehensive review has therefore been planned to highlight the beneficial role of fasting in immunity and autophagy, that underlie the possible defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection. The COVID-19 pathogenesis and its impact on host immune response have also been briefly outlined. This review aimed at revisiting the immunomodulatory potential of IF that may constitute a promising preventive approach against COVID-19.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its implications for cardiovascular care: expert document from the German Cardiac Society and the World Heart Federation
abstract: Coronavirus diseases 2019 (COVID-19) has become a worldwide pandemic affecting people at high risk and particularly at advanced age, cardiovascular and pulmonary disease. As cardiovascular patients are at high risk but also have dyspnea and fatigue as leading symptoms, prevention, diagnostics and treatment in these patients are important to provide adequate care for those with or without COVID-19 but most importantly when comorbid cardiovascular conditions are present. Severe COVID-19 with acute respiratory distress (ARDS) is challenging as patients with elevated myocardial markers such as troponin are at enhanced high risk for fatal outcomes. As angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is regarded as the viral receptor for cell entry and as the Coronavirus is downregulating this enzyme, which provides cardiovascular and pulmonary protection, there is ongoing discussions on whether treatment with cardiovascular drugs, which upregulate the viral receptor ACE2 should be modified. As most of the COVID-19 patients have cardiovascular comorbidities like hypertension, diabetes, coronary artery disease and heart failure, which imposes a high risk on these patients, cardiovascular therapy should not be modified or even withdrawn. As cardiac injury is a common feature of COVID-19 associated ARDS and is linked with poor outcomes, swift diagnostic management and specialist care of cardiovascular patients in the area of COVID-19 is of particular importance and deserves special attention.

title: Functional characterization of SARS-CoV-2 infection suggests a complex inflammatory response and metabolic alterations
abstract: Covid-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has reached the category of a worldwide pandemic. Even though intensive efforts, no effective treatments or a vaccine are available. Molecular characterization of the transcriptional response in Covid-19 patients could be helpful to identify therapeutic targets. In this study, RNAseq data from peripheral blood mononuclear cell samples from Covid-19 patients and healthy controls was analyzed from a functional point of view using probabilistic graphical models. Two networks were built: one based on genes differentially expressed between healthy and infected individuals and another one based on the 2,000 most variable genes in terms of expression in order to make a functional characterization. In the network based on differentially expressed genes, two inflammatory response nodes with different tendencies were identified, one related to cytokines and chemokines, and another one related to bacterial infections. In addition, differences in metabolism, which were studied in depth using Flux Balance Analysis, were identified. SARS-CoV2-infection caused alterations in glutamate, methionine and cysteine, and tetrahydrobiopterin metabolism. In the network based on 2,000 most variable genes, also two inflammatory nodes with different tendencies between healthy individuals and patients were identified. Similar to the other network, one was related to cytokines and chemokines. However, the other one, lower in Covid-19 patients, was related to allergic processes and self-regulation of the immune response. Also, we identified a decrease in T cell node activity and an increase in cell division node activity. In the current absence of treatments for these patients, functional characterization of the transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 infection could be helpful to define targetable processes. Therefore, these results may be relevant to propose new treatments.  SARS-CoV-2 infection caused Covid-19 which has reached the category of a worldwide pandemic. However, no treatments or vaccines are still available. For this reason, it is still necessary the molecular study of this disease. In this study, we reanalyzed data from peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Covid-19 patients and healthy controls using computational techniques that allow the study of differential biological processes and metabolic pathways. The results suggested a complex inflammatory response, involving genes related to response to bacterial infection and allergic processes, and alterations in metabolic pathways such as glutamate metabolism, cysteine and methionine metabolism or tetrahydrobiopterin metabolism. These processes could be used in the future as therapeutic targets in Covi-19 infection.

title: Culture of Regulatory T‐Cell Lines from Bronchial Mucosa
abstract: T lymphocytes play a major role in many immune responses. In the last decade, special focus has been on the function of Th1 and Th2 effector cells. Now the importance of regulatory CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells in maintenance of the immunological homeostasis emerges. Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disorder often affecting the lungs. The typical sarcoid granulomas consists of epitheloid cells, macrophages and lymphocytes, mainly CD4(+) T cells of Th1 phenotype. We have cultured T cells from bronchial biopsies of patients with sarcoidosis as well as from controls in high levels of interleukin 2 (IL‐2) and IL‐4 and demonstrate spontaneously arising CD4(+) CD25(+) populations and high concentrations of IL‐10 in these cultures. The main difference between cultures of sarcoid origin compared to controls is a very much higher concentration of the inflammatory cytokines IL‐6 and TNF‐α in cultures of sarcoid origin.

title: Detectable serum SARS-CoV-2 viral load (RNAaemia) is closely correlated with drastically elevated interleukin 6 (IL-6) level in critically ill COVID-19 patients
abstract: Although the detection of SARS-CoV-2 viral load in respiratory specimens has been widely used to diagnose coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), it is undeniable that serum SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid (RNAaemia) could be detected in a fraction of COVID-19 patients. However, it is not clear whether testing for RNAaemia is correlated with the occurrence of cytokine storms or with the specific class of patients.  This study enrolled 48 patients with COVID-19 admitted to the General Hospital of Central Theater Command, PLA, a designated hospital in Wuhan, China. The patients were divided into three groups according to the "Diagnosis and Treatment of New Coronavirus Pneumonia (6th edition)" issued by the National Health Commission of China. The clinical and laboratory data were collected. The serum viral load and IL-6 levels were determined. .  Clinical characteristics analysis of 48 cases of COVID-19 showed that RNAaemia was diagnosed only in the critically ill group and seemed to reflect the severity of the disease. Furthermore, the level of inflammatory cytokine IL-6 in critically ill patients increased significantly, almost 10 times that in other patients. More importantly, the extremely high IL-6 level was closely correlated with the detection of RNAaemia (R = 0.902).  Detectable serum SARS-Cov-2 RNA(RNAaemia) in COVID-19 patients was associated with elevated IL-6 concentration and poor prognosis. Because the elevated IL-6 may be part of a larger cytokine storm which could worsen outcome, IL-6 could be a potential therapeutic target for critically ill patients with an excessive inflammatory response.

title: COVID-19 and the nervous system
abstract: A pandemic due to novel coronavirus arose in mid-December 2019 in Wuhan, China, and in 3 months’ time swept the world. The disease has been referred to as COVID-19, and the causative agent has been labelled SARS-CoV-2 due to its genetic similarities to the virus (SARS-CoV-1) responsible for the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic nearly 20 years earlier. The spike proteins of both viruses dictate tissue tropism using the angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE-2) receptor to bind to cells. The ACE-2 receptor can be found in nervous system tissue and endothelial cells among the tissues of many other organs. Neurological complications have been observed with COVID-19. Myalgia and headache are relatively common, but serious neurological disease appears to be rare. No part of the neuraxis is spared. The neurological disorders occurring with COVID-19 may have many pathophysiological underpinnings. Some appear to be the consequence of direct viral invasion of the nervous system tissue, others arise as a postviral autoimmune process, and still others are the result of metabolic and systemic complications due to the associated critical illness. This review addresses the preliminary observations regarding the neurological disorders reported with COVID-19 to date and describes some of the disorders that are anticipated from prior experience with similar coronaviruses.

title: Pharmacologic Therapy for COVID-19 Infection
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has focused attention on issues of epidemiology, public health, and vaccine design. I submit that attention to COVID-19 pharmacologic therapy needs similar emphasis, including identifying any existing medications that can be repurposed to treat COVID-19 patients.

title: COVID‐19 polyradiculitis in 24 patients without SARS‐CoV‐2 in the cerebro‐spinal fluid
abstract: to summarise and discuss current knowledge about COVID-19-associated Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS). METHOD  altogether 18 articles were found, which reported 23 patients with COVID-19-associated GBS. A further patient came to our attention by personal communication. Among these 24 included patients age ranged from 20 to 76y. There was male preponderance. Fourteen patients presented with acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP), 4 with acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN), 3 with Miller-Fisher syndrome (MFS), and 2 with acute motor and sensory axonal neuropathy (AMSAN). In one patient the subtype was not specified. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was tested for SARS-CoV-2 in 15 patients but was negative for the virus in all of them. Seven patients required artificial ventilation. Twenty-one patients received intravenous immunoglobulines (IVIG). Thirteen patients recovered, 6 did not, and 2 patients died.  SARS-CoV-2 can cause GBS. SARS-CoV-2-associated GBS occurs in the absence of the virus in the CSF. Clinical presentation, course, response to treatment, and outcome do not vary between SARS-CoV-2-associated GBS and GBS due to other triggers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: p38 MAPK inhibition: A promising therapeutic approach for COVID-19
abstract: COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is a major source of morbidity and mortality due to its inflammatory effects in the lungs and heart. The p38 MAPK pathway plays a crucial role in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and has been implicated in acute lung injury and myocardial dysfunction. The overwhelming inflammatory response in COVID-19 infection may be caused by disproportionately upregulated p38 activity, explained by two mechanisms. First, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) activity is lost during SARS-CoV-2 viral entry. ACE2 is highly expressed in the lungs and heart and converts Angiotensin II into Angiotensin 1-7. Angiotensin II signals proinflammatory, pro-vasoconstrictive, pro-thrombotic activity through p38 MAPK activation, which is countered by Angiotensin 1-7 downregulation of p38 activity. Loss of ACE2 upon viral entry may tip the balance towards destructive p38 signaling through Angiotensin II. Second, SARS-CoV was previously shown to directly upregulate p38 activity via a viral protein, similar to other RNA respiratory viruses that may hijack p38 activity to promote replication. Given the homology between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, the latter may employ a similar mechanism. Thus, SARS-CoV-2 may induce overwhelming inflammation by directly activating p38 and downregulating a key inhibitory pathway, while simultaneously taking advantage of p38 activity to replicate. Therapeutic inhibition of p38 could therefore attenuate COVID-19 infection. Interestingly, a prior preclinical study showed protective effects of p38 inhibition in a SARS-CoV mouse model. A number of p38 inhibitors are in the clinical stage and should be considered for clinical trials in serious COVID-19 infection.

title: Long-term Co-existence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) with Antibody Response in Non-severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Patients
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection causing coronavirus disease 2019 has spread worldwide. Whether antibodies are important for the adaptive immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 infection needs to be determined. Here, 26 cases of COVID-19 in Jinan, China, were examined and shown to be mild or with common clinical symptoms and no cases of severe symptoms were found among these patients. A striking feature of some patients is that SARS-CoV-2 could exist in patients who have virus-specific IgG antibodies for a very long period, with one case for up to 36 days. One COVID-19 patient who did not produce any SARS-CoV-2-bound IgG successfully cleared SARS-CoV-2 after 46 days of illness, revealing that without antibody-mediated adaptive immunity, innate immunity may still be powerful enough to eliminate SARS-CoV-2. Overall, this report may provide a basis for further analysis of both innate and adaptive immunity in SARS-CoV-2 clearance, especially in non-severe cases. This study also has implications for understanding the pathogenesis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2.

title: Novel COronaVirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic: What are the risks for systemic sclerosis patients?

title: A close-up on COVID-19 and cardiovascular diseases
abstract: To analyze the potential mechanism of cardiovascular dysfunctions induced by Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and to evaluate more effective therapeutic pathways for patients with cardiovascular diseases. Data Synthesis COVID-19 mainly invades the lungs, causing its serious damage. Studies found that COVID-19 induced the renin-angiotensin system imbalance, inflammatory storm, hypoxemia and stress response et al, all contributed to hypertension and serious myocardial damage in the process of virus pathogenesis, even increasing mortality in COVID-19 patients.  In the process of management of COVID-19 infections, close attention should be paid on both lung and cardiovascular damage, especially on those with only symptoms of cardiovascular diseases. Early identification, timely and effective treatments, maintenance of hemodynamics and electrophysiological stability are of great significance on effective treatment and long-term prognosis. The pandemic of COVID-19 has been taking lives worldwide. It caused by a novel coronavirus which human being are lack of defensive function in whole population. It targets human’s lung and causes serious damage of lungs. Based on early reports, for people with underlying heart issues, the concerns are serious. It appears people over 65 with coronary heart diseases or hypertension is more likely to be infected and to develop more severe symptoms. In addition, some of hospitalized COVID-19 patients had cardiovascular diseases in China. As characteristic analysis of COVID-19 patients, hypertension and severe myocardial damage contribute to severity  and mortality of COVID-19 patients . Therefore, to better understand the development of COVID-19 and the impacts of cardiovascular diseases will add valuable measures to the management of COVID-19 patients.

title: Assessing ACE2 expression patterns in lung tissues in the pathogenesis of COVID-19
abstract: It has been reported that SARS-CoV-2 may use ACE2 as a receptor to gain entry into human cells, in a way similar to that of SARS-CoV. Analyzing the distribution and expression level of ACE2 may therefore help reveal underlying mechanisms of viral susceptibility and post-infection modulation. In this study, we utilized previously uploaded information on ACE2 expression in various conditions including SARS-CoA to evaluate the role of ACE2 in SARS-CoV and extrapolate that to COVID-19. We found that the expression of ACE2 in healthy populations and patients with underlying diseases was not significantly different. However, based on the elevated expression of ACE2 in cigarette smokers, we speculate that long-term smoking may be a risk factor for COVID-19. Analysis of ACE2 in SARS-CoV infected cells suggests that ACE2 is not only a receptor but is also involved in post-infection regulation, including immune response, cytokine secretion, and viral genome replication. Moreover, we constructed Protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks and identified hub genes in viral activity and cytokine secretion. Our findings may help clinicians and researchers gain more insight into the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 and design therapeutic strategies for COVID-19.

title: Predicting COVID-19 Incidence Using Anosmia and Other COVID-19 Symptomatology: Preliminary Analysis Using Google and Twitter
abstract: To determine the relative correlations of Twitter and Google Search user trends concerning smell loss with daily coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) incidence in the United States, compared to other severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) symptoms. To describe the effect of mass media communications on Twitter and Google Search user trends.  Retrospective observational study.  United States.  Google Search and “tweet” frequency concerning COVID-19, smell, and nonsmell symptoms of COVID-19 generated between January 1 and April 8, 2020, were collected using Google Trends and Crimson Hexagon, respectively. Spearman coefficients linking each of these user trends to COVID-19 incidence were compared. Correlations obtained after excluding a short timeframe (March 22 to March 24) corresponding to the publication of a widely read lay media publication reporting anosmia as a symptom of infection was performed for comparative analysis.  Google searches and tweets concerning all nonsmell symptoms (0.744 and 0.761, respectively) and COVID-19 (0.899 and 0.848) are more strongly correlated with disease incidence than smell loss (0.564 and 0.539). Twitter users tweeting about smell loss during the study period were more likely to be female (52%) than users tweeting about COVID-19 more generally (47%). Tweet and Google Search frequency pertaining to smell loss increased significantly (>2.5 standard deviations) following a widely read media publication linking smell loss and SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Google Search and tweet frequency regarding fever and shortness of breath are more robust indicators of COVID-19 incidence than anosmia. Mass media communications represent important confounders that should be considered in future analyses.

title: Prevention and management of COVID-19 among patients with diabetes: an appraisal of the literature
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has emerged as one of the greatest challenges faced by humankind in the recent past. People with diabetes and related comorbidities are at increased risk of its complications and of COVID-19-related death. Older age, multi-morbidity, hyperglycaemia, cardiac injury and severe inflammatory response are predictors of poor outcome. The complex interplay between COVID-19, diabetes and the effects of related therapies is being explored. Most patients experience a mild illness with COVID-19, while people with diabetes are at increased risk of severe disease. Optimising glycaemic control and adopting measures to prevent disease spread are critical aspects. The management of mild disease is supportive, while very many immunomodulatory and antiviral therapies are being investigated for the treatment of severe disease. Several of these agents have specific considerations for use in people with diabetes. Since mass population lockdowns are considered a key step in controlling disease spread, it follows that, in addition to the direct vulnerability to severe COVID-19, people with diabetes can be affected by limited access to healthcare, insulin, other medications and blood glucose monitoring equipment. Measures to prevent disease spread at the individual and community level are the key to mitigating the rapidly escalating pandemic, while agents for chemoprophylaxis and vaccines are being explored. People with diabetes should be recognised as a vulnerable group for complicated disease and are at risk during times of disturbed social systems. Strategies are needed to safeguard the health of patients with diabetes during the pandemic. This review summarises the current knowledge and perceived challenges for prevention and management of COVID-19 in people with diabetes.

title: Mitochondria and Microbiota dysfunction in COVID-19 pathogenesis.
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has taken the world by surprise into a major crisis of overwhelming morbidity and mortality. This highly infectious disease is associated with respiratory failure unusual in other coronavirus infections. Mounting evidence link the accelerated progression of the disease in COVID-19 patients to the hyper-inflammatory state termed as the "cytokine storm" involving major systemic perturbations. These include iron dysregulation manifested as hyperferritinemia associated with disease severity. Iron dysregulation induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and promotes oxidative stress. The mitochondria are the hub of cellular oxidative homeostasis. In addition, the mitochondria may circulate "cell-free" in non-nucleated platelets, in extracellular vesicles and mitochondrial DNA is found in the extracellular space. The heightened inflammatory/oxidative state may lead to mitochondrial dysfunction leading to platelet damage and apoptosis. The interaction of dysfunctional platelets with coagulation cascades aggravates clotting events and thrombus formation. Furthermore, mitochondrial oxidative stress may contribute to microbiota dysbiosis, altering coagulation pathways and fueling the inflammatory/oxidative response leading to the vicious cycle of events. Here, we discuss various cellular and systemic incidents caused by SARS-CoV-2 that may critically impact intra and extracellular mitochondrial function, and contribute to the progression and severity of the disease. It is crucial to understand how these key modulators impact COVID-19 pathogenesis in the quest to identify novel therapeutic targets that may reduce fatal outcomes of the disease.

title: COVID 19 and heart failure: from infection to inflammation and angiotensin II stimulation. Searching for evidence from a new disease
abstract: Patients with cardiovascular disease and, namely, heart failure are more susceptible to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) and have a more severe clinical course once infected. Heart failure and myocardial damage, shown by increased troponin plasma levels, occur in at least 10% of patients hospitalized for COVID‐19 with higher percentages, 25%–35% or more, when patients critically ill or with concomitant cardiac disease are considered. Myocardial injury may be elicited by multiple mechanisms, including those occurring with all severe infections, such as fever, tachycardia, adrenergic stimulation, as well as those caused by the exaggerated inflammatory response, endotheliitis and, in some cases, myocarditis that have been shown in patients with COVID‐19. A key role may be that of the renin–angiotensin‐aldosterone system. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) infects human cells binding to angiotensin‐converting‐enzyme 2 (ACE2), an enzyme responsible of the cleavage of angiotensin II into angiotensin 1–7, which has vasodilating and anti‐inflammatory effects. Virus‐mediated downregulation of ACE2 may increase angiotensin II stimulation and contribute to the deleterious hyper‐inflammatory reaction of COVID‐19. On the other hand, ACE2 may be upregulated in patients with cardiac disease and treated with ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers. ACE2 upregulation may increase the susceptibility to COVID‐19 but may be also protective versus angiotensin II mediated vasoconstriction and inflammatory activation. Recent data show the lack of untoward effects of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers for COVID‐19 infection and severity. Prospective trials are needed to ascertain whether these drugs may have protective effects. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Apoptotic Cell Death in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis: Apoptosis of effector cells as a safe mechanism in the termination of an autoimmune inflammatory attack
abstract: Particularly in the vulnerable CNS with a low capacity for regeneration specialized mechanisms must be active for the fast and gentle elimination of dysregulated autoaggressive immune cells. In EAE, local apoptosis of autoimmune T-cells has been identified as a safe means for the removal of these unwanted cells. T-cell apoptosis in situ followed by phagocytic clearance of apoptotic remnants by glia assures a minimum of detrimental bystander damage to the local parenchyma and down-regulates the local inflammatory reaction. The pharmacological augmentation of local apoptosis of inflammatory effector cells might gain therapeutic importance also in human neuroimmunological diseases such as multiple sclerosis.

title: The laboratory tests and host immunity of COVID-19 patients with different severity of illness
abstract: BACKGROUNDThe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), infected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has caused a severe outbreak throughout the world. The host immunity of COVID-19 patients is unknown.METHODSThe routine laboratory tests and host immunity in COVID-19 patients with different severity of illness were compared after patient admission.RESULTSA total of 65 SARS-CoV-2-positive patients were classified as having mild (n = 30), severe (n = 20), and extremely severe (n = 15) illness. Many routine laboratory tests, such as ferritin, lactate dehydrogenase, and D-dimer, were increased in severe and extremely severe patients. The absolute numbers of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, and B cells were gradually decreased with increased severity of illness. The activation markers such as HLA-DR and CD45RO expressed on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were increased in severe and extremely severe patients compared with mild patients. The costimulatory molecule CD28 had opposite results. The percentage of natural Tregs was decreased in extremely severe patients. The percentage of IFN-Î³-producing CD8+ T cells was increased in both severe and extremely severe patients compared with mild patients. The percentage of IFN-Î³-producing CD4+ T cells was increased in extremely severe patients. IL-2R, IL-6, and IL-10 were all increased in extremely severe patients. The activation of DC and B cells was decreased in extremely severe patients.CONCLUSIONThe number and function of T cells are inconsistent in COVID-19 patients. The hyperfunction of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells is associated with the pathogenesis of extremely severe SARS-CoV-2 infection.FUNDINGThis work was funded by the National Mega Project on Major Infectious Disease Prevention (2017ZX10103005-007) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2019kfyRCPY098).

title: Heightened Innate Immune Responses in the Respiratory Tract of COVID-19 Patients
abstract: The outbreaks of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection have posed a severe threat to global public health. It is unclear how the human immune system responds to this infection. Here, we used metatranscriptomic sequencing to profile immune signatures in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of eight COVID-19 cases. The expression of proinflammatory genes, especially chemokines, was markedly elevated in COVID-19 cases compared to community-acquired pneumonia patients and healthy controls, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 infection causes hypercytokinemia. Compared to SARS-CoV, which is thought to induce inadequate interferon (IFN) responses, SARS-CoV-2 robustly triggered expression of numerous IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). These ISGs exhibit immunopathogenic potential, with overrepresentation of genes involved in inflammation. The transcriptome data was also used to estimate immune cell populations, revealing increases in activated dendritic cells and neutrophils. Collectively, these host responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection could further our understanding of disease pathogenesis and point toward antiviral strategies.

title: Non-lytic antibiotic treatment in community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia does not attenuate inflammation: the PRISTINE trial
abstract: The inflammatory response in pneumococcal infection is primarily driven by immunoreactive bacterial cell wall components [lipoteichoic acid (LTA)]. An acute release of these components occurs when pneumococcal infection is treated with β-lactam antibiotics.  We hypothesized that non-lytic rifampicin compared with lytic β-lactam antibiotic treatment would attenuate the inflammatory response in patients with pneumococcal pneumonia.  In the PRISTINE (Pneumonia treated with RIfampicin aTtenuates INflammation) trial, a randomized, therapeutic controlled, exploratory study in patients with community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia, we looked at LTA release and inflammatory and clinical response during treatment with both rifampicin and β-lactam compared with treatment with β-lactam antibiotics only. .  Forty-one patients with community-acquired pneumonia were included; 17 of them had pneumococcal pneumonia. LTA release, LTA-mediated inflammatory responses, clinical outcomes, inflammatory biomarkers and transcription profiles were not different between treatment groups.  The PRISTINE study demonstrated the feasibility of adding rifampicin to β-lactam antibiotics in the treatment of community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia, but, despite solid in vitro and experimental animal research evidence, failed to demonstrate a difference in plasma LTA concentrations and subsequent inflammatory and clinical responses. Most likely, an inhibitory effect of human plasma contributes to the low immune response in these patients. In addition, LTA plasma concentration could be too low to mount a response via Toll-like receptor 2 in vitro, but may nonetheless have an effect in vivo.

title: COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system: implications for risk assessment, diagnosis, and treatment options
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak, caused by SARS-CoV-2, represents the greatest medical challenge in decades. We provide a comprehensive review of the clinical course of COVID-19, its comorbidities, and mechanistic considerations for future therapies. While COVID-19 primarily affects the lungs, causing interstitial pneumonitis and severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), it also affects multiple organs, particularly the cardiovascular system. Risk of severe infection and mortality increase with advancing age and male sex. Mortality is increased by comorbidities: cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, chronic pulmonary disease, and cancer. The most common complications include arrhythmia (atrial fibrillation, ventricular tachyarrhythmia, and ventricular fibrillation), cardiac injury [elevated highly sensitive troponin I (hs-cTnI) and creatine kinase (CK) levels], fulminant myocarditis, heart failure, pulmonary embolism, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Mechanistically, SARS-CoV-2, following proteolytic cleavage of its S protein by a serine protease, binds to the transmembrane angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) —a homologue of ACE—to enter type 2 pneumocytes, macrophages, perivascular pericytes, and cardiomyocytes. This may lead to myocardial dysfunction and damage, endothelial dysfunction, microvascular dysfunction, plaque instability, and myocardial infarction (MI). While ACE2 is essential for viral invasion, there is no evidence that ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) worsen prognosis. Hence, patients should not discontinue their use. Moreover, renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors might be beneficial in COVID-19. Initial immune and inflammatory responses induce a severe cytokine storm [interleukin (IL)-6, IL-7, IL-22, IL-17, etc.] during the rapid progression phase of COVID-19. Early evaluation and continued monitoring of cardiac damage (cTnI and NT-proBNP) and coagulation (D-dimer) after hospitalization may identify patients with cardiac injury and predict COVID-19 complications. Preventive measures (social distancing and social isolation) also increase cardiovascular risk. Cardiovascular considerations of therapies currently used, including remdesivir, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, tocilizumab, ribavirin, interferons, and lopinavir/ritonavir, as well as experimental therapies, such as human recombinant ACE2 (rhACE2), are discussed.

title: COVID-19 and the Renin Angiotensin System: Implications for the Older Adults

title: Involvement of interleukin 6 in SARS-CoV-2 infection: siltuximab as a therapeutic option against COVID-19
abstract: The aim of the study was to explore the involvement of interleukin 6 in SARS-CoV-2 infection, and to position the drug siltuximab in the management of severe forms of COVID-19. A bibliographic search was performed in Pubmed on the immune response to the disease, and in ClinicalTrials.gov on clinical trials with interleukin 6 blockers. Interleukin 6 is involved in the cytokine cascade, which originates as a consequence of an excessive immune response secondary to viral infection, aggravating lung affectation. Blockers of this cytokine (tocilizumab, sarilumab and siltuximab) are being studied as a strategy for treating the disease. Siltuximab is a monoclonal antibody indicated in Castleman's disease that could be administered in a single dose of 11 mg/kg in severe forms of COVID-19 that have increased interleukin 6.

title: Origin, Potential Therapeutic Targets and Treatment for Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)
abstract: The ongoing episode of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) has imposed a serious threat to global health and the world economy. The disease has rapidly acquired a pandemic status affecting almost all populated areas of the planet. The causative agent of COVID-19 is a novel coronavirus known as SARS-CoV-2. The virus has an approximate 30 kb single-stranded positive-sense RNA genome, which is 74.5% to 99% identical to that of SARS-CoV, CoV-pangolin, and the coronavirus the from horseshoe bat. According to available information, SARS-CoV-2 is inferred to be a recombinant virus that originated from bats and was transmitted to humans, possibly using the pangolin as the intermediate host. The interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with the human ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) receptor, and its subsequent cleavage by serine protease and fusion, are the main events in the pathophysiology. The serine protease inhibitors, spike protein-based vaccines, or ACE2 blockers may have therapeutic potential in the near future. At present, no vaccine is available against COVID-19. The disease is being treated with antiviral, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, herbal medicines, and active plasma antibodies. In this context, the present review article provides a cumulative account of the recent information regarding the viral characteristics, potential therapeutic targets, treatment options, and prospective research questions.

title: Abstracts of the 37th annual meeting of the GTH (Gesellschaft für Thrombose- und Hämostase-forschung)

title: Protein Coding and Long Noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Transcriptional Landscape in SARS-CoV-2 Infected Bronchial Epithelial Cells Highlight a Role for Interferon and Inflammatory Response.
abstract: The global spread of COVID-19, caused by pathogenic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) underscores the need for an imminent response from medical research communities to better understand this rapidly spreading infection. Employing multiple bioinformatics and computational pipelines on transcriptome data from primary normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE) during SARS-CoV-2 infection revealed activation of several mechanistic networks, including those involved in immunoglobulin G (IgG) and interferon lambda (IFNL) in host cells. Induction of acute inflammatory response and activation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) was prominent in SARS-CoV-2 infected NHBE cells. Additionally, disease and functional analysis employing ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) revealed activation of functional categories related to cell death, while those associated with viral infection and replication were suppressed. Several interferon (IFN) responsive gene targets (IRF9, IFIT1, IFIT2, IFIT3, IFITM1, MX1, OAS2, OAS3, IFI44 and IFI44L) were highly upregulated in SARS-CoV-2 infected NBHE cell, implying activation of antiviral IFN innate response. Gene ontology and functional annotation of differently expressed genes in patient lung tissues with COVID-19 revealed activation of antiviral response as the hallmark. Mechanistic network analysis in IPA identified 14 common activated, and 9 common suppressed networks in patient tissue, as well as in the NHBE cell model, suggesting a plausible role for these upstream regulator networks in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Our data revealed expression of several viral proteins in vitro and in patient-derived tissue, while several host-derived long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) were identified. Our data highlights activation of IFN response as the main hallmark associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro and in human, and identified several differentially expressed lncRNAs during the course of infection, which could serve as disease biomarkers, while their precise role in the host response to SARS-CoV-2 remains to be investigated.

title: Compassionate use of others’ immunity — understanding gut microbiome in Covid-19

title: Fibrinolytic abnormalities in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and versatility of thrombolytic drugs to treat COVID-19
abstract: The global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is associated with the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which requires ventilation in critically ill patients. The pathophysiology of ARDS results from acute inflammation within the alveolar space and prevention of normal gas exchange. The increase in proinflammatory cytokines within the lung leads to recruitment of leukocytes, further propagating the local inflammatory response. A consistent finding in ARDS is the deposition of fibrin in the air spaces and lung parenchyma. COVID-19 patients show elevated D-dimers and fibrinogen. Fibrin deposits are found in the lungs of patients due to the dysregulation of the coagulation and fibrinolytic systems. Tissue factor (TF) is exposed on damaged alveolar endothelial cells and on the surface of leukocytes promoting fibrin deposition, while significantly elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) from lung epithelium and endothelial cells create a hypofibrinolytic state. Prophylaxis treatment of COVID-19 patients with low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) is important to limit coagulopathy. However, to degrade pre-existing fibrin in the lung it is essential to promote local fibrinolysis. In this review, we discuss the repurposing of fibrinolytic drugs, namely tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA), to treat COVID-19 associated ARDS. tPA is an approved intravenous thrombolytic treatment, and the nebulizer form has been shown to be effective in plastic bronchitis and is currently in Phase II clinical trial. Nebulizer plasminogen activators may provide a targeted approach in COVID-19 patients to degrade fibrin and improving oxygenation in critically ill patients.

title: Insights into SARS-CoV-2 genome, structure, evolution, pathogenesis and therapies: Structural genomics approach
abstract: The sudden emergence of severe respiratory disease, caused by a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has recently become a public health emergency. Genome sequence analysis of SARS-CoV-2 revealed its close resemblance to the earlier reported SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). However, initial testing of the drugs used against SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV has been ineffective in controlling SARS-CoV-2. The present study highlights the genomic, proteomic, pathogenesis, and therapeutic strategies in SARS-CoV-2 infection. We have carried out sequence analysis of potential drug target proteins in SARS-CoV-2 and, compared them with SARS-CoV and MERS viruses. Analysis of mutations in the coding and non-coding regions, genetic diversity, and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 has also been done. A detailed structural analysis of drug target proteins has been performed to gain insights into the mechanism of pathogenesis, structure-function relationships, and the development of structure-guided therapeutic approaches. The cytokine profiling and inflammatory signalling are different in the case of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We also highlighted possible therapies and their mechanism of action followed by clinical manifestation. Our analysis suggests a minimal variation in the genome sequence of SARS-CoV-2, may be responsible for a drastic change in the structures of target proteins, which makes available drugs ineffective.

title: The role of airway macrophages in apoptotic cell clearance following acute and chronic lung inflammation
abstract: Acute and chronic inflammatory responses in the lung are associated with the accumulation of large quantities of immune and structural cells undergoing apoptosis, which need to be engulfed by phagocytes in a process called ‘efferocytosis’. Apoptotic cell recognition and removal from the lung is mediated predominantly by airway macrophages, though immature dendritic cells and non-professional phagocytes, such as epithelial cells and mesenchymal cells, can also display this function. Efficient clearance of apoptotic cells from the airways is essential for successful resolution of inflammation and the return to lung homeostasis. Disruption of this process leads to secondary necrosis of accumulating apoptotic cells, release of necrotic cell debris and subsequent uncontrolled inflammatory activation of the innate immune system by the released ‘damage associated molecular patterns’ (DAMPS). To control the duration of the immune response and prevent autoimmune reactions, anti-inflammatory signalling cascades are initiated in the phagocyte upon apoptotic cell uptake, mediated by a range of receptors that recognise specific phospholipids or proteins externalised on, or secreted by, the apoptotic cell. However, prolonged activation of apoptotic cell recognition receptors, such as the family of receptor tyrosine kinases Tyro3, Axl and MerTK (TAM), may delay or prevent inflammatory responses to subsequent infections. In this review, we will discuss recent advances in our understanding of the mechanism controlling apoptotic cell recognition and removal from the lung in homeostasis and during inflammation, the contribution of defective efferocytosis to chronic inflammatory lung diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma and cystic fibrosis, and implications of the signals triggered by apoptotic cells in the susceptibility to pulmonary microbial infections.

title: Counter-regulatory 'Renin-Angiotensin' System-based Candidate Drugs to Treat COVID-19 Diseases in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19 and the 'Renin-Angiotensin' System The ubiquitous 'Renin-Angiotensin' system (RAS), also referred to as 'Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone' system, plays a crucial physiological role in humans as being a key regulator of renal, cardiovascular and innate immune functions [1, 2]. It appears to work in tandem with vitamin D, a secosteroid pro-hormone which reportedly acts as a negative regulatory factor of the RAS [3-6]. A dysfunction (e.g. over-reactivity) of RAS, together with hypovitaminosis D, is likely associated with some of the various renal, cardiac, vascular and immune outcomes that might be observed in COVID-19 patients, including the cytokine storm (i.e. unopposed hyperactive immune reaction generating both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines) and consequent lethal acute respiratory distress syndrome [1, 7]. Recently, SARS-CoV-2 [8, 9], the causative agent of COVID-19, has been described to interfere with the RAS  by interacting -via its spike (S) glycoprotein- with the metallopeptidase Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor [9, 10] that is expressed at the surface of epithelial cells from blood vessels, lung, kidney (renal tubules), intestine, and heart, as well as on cerebral neurons and immune monocytes/macrophages [11-13]. The main SARS-CoV-2-related COVID-19 symptoms/diseases reported hitherto are hypertension, atherosclerosis, thrombosis (coagulopathy), diarrhea, glaucoma, anosmia, ageusia, skin lesions (dermatitis), autoimmune inflammation of the central nervous system, and damages to various organs such as the lung, heart, kidney, and testicle [1, 2, 14]. All these diffuse COVID-19 disorders are likely linked to an over-reaction of RAS in SARS-CoV-2-infected persons. Such a RAS imbalance would be also favored by hypovitaminosis D [2-7, 11]. Since RAS appears to be central in COVID-19 symptoms/diseases, selective targeting of key component(s) of this system might be appropriate to treat RAS-dependent disorders. COVID-19 Disorders: 'Renin-Angiotensin' System (RAS) & Counter-regulatory RAS In the RAS pathway [1, 15], Renin (kidney) cleaves Angiotensinogen (liver) to give Angiotensin I (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPFHL). The latter is cleaved by the Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) to produce Angiotensin II (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPF), which is the substrate of ACE2 (SARS-CoV-2 receptor) and key player of the RAS. The cellular targets of Angiotensin II are the vasoconstrictor type 1 (AT1R) and vasodilatator type 2 (AT2R) Angiotensin II receptors (AT1R is expressed at the surface of monocytes/macrophages and T-cells indicating that RAS acts on innate immunity in host). When cleaved by ACE2, Angiotensin II gives Angiotensin 1-7 (i.e. peptide DRVYIHP), targeting the vasodilatator proto-oncogene Mas receptor (MasR). Angiotensin 1-7 can be further transformed to Alamandine (i.e. peptide ARVYIHP) by an aspartate decarboxylase. Alamandine would bind to the vasodilatator Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor member D (MRGD) thus promoting most of the Angiotensin 1-7-like effects. Angiotensin II can produce Angiotensin A (i.e. peptide ARVYIHPF) via an aspartate decarboxylase, and Alamandine via an additional ACE2 cleavage. ACE2 can also cleave Angiotensin I to form Angiotensin 1-9 (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPFH), which targets AT2R. In the RAS pathway were finally evidenced the related Angiotensin III (i.e. peptide RVYIHPF) and Angiotensin IV (i.e. peptide VYIHPF) variants targeting the AT1R and vasodilatator AT4R, respectively. From the known molecular functioning of the RAS, Angiotensins I and II (aside Angiotensin III) are playing central roles in the activity of RAS and associated pathologies, including COVID-19 [2, 10]. Interestingly, it appears that a 'counter-regulatory' RAS does exist to modulate system homeostasis; it relies on Angiotensin 1-7, Angiotensin 1-9, Alamandine, Angiotensin A, and Angiotensin IV, which are targeting the MasR, AT2R, MRGD, ACE2 and AT4R vasodilatator receptors, respectively. These peptides were found to exhibit cardioprotective, vasoactive (anti-hypertensive), anti-hypertrophic and/or anti-inflammatory potentials . Such naturally-produced molecules of the RAS are expected to counteract the SARS-CoV-2-induced over-activation of RAS and reverse, to some extent, the associated COVID-19 diseases. CONCLUDING REMARKS A recent report suggests that RAS inhibitors may act on the severity of viral infection and mortality of COVID-19 patients . Whether or not RAS blockers would be beneficial to COVID-19 cases is still controversial. The RAS inhibitors likely prevent the cytokine storm as RAS is reported to control the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines [1, 7]. It appears that COVID-19 disorders of SARS-CoV-2-infected humans depend on the RAS over-reacted by the (ACE2-dependent) viral infection and vitamin D deficiency. The track for a possible COVID-19 treatment would be to target RAS using specific candidate chemotherapeutic drugs. The proposed molecules are (so far) ACE inhibitors (to prevent the production of Angiotensin II from Angiotensin I), and blockers/antagonists of AT1R such as Losartan and derivatives. Recombinant ACE2 (under clinical trials) is also considered as a decoy for the recognition and competitive binding to the spike (S) glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 . We support the use of natural candidate peptide drugs that belong to the 'counter-regulatory' RAS, i.e. Angiotensin 1-7, Angiotensin 1-9, Alamandine, Angiotensin A and/or Angiotensin IV to treat COVID-19 disorders. The targeted receptors would thus be MasR, AT2R, MRGD, ACE2 and AT4R. The authors wish to thank Bonabes De Rougé MD for fruitful discussions.

title: Still puzzling questions in immunology (infection and immunity)

title: The Role of Chemokines during Viral Infection of the CNS

title: Clinical presentation and course of COVID-19
abstract: Information about the clinical presentation and course of COVID-19 is evolving rapidly. On presentation, cough and fever predominate, but extrapulmonary symptoms are also common; in some patients, loss of sense of smell may be an early but favorable sign. The mortality rate varies widely in different reports but should become clearer as more data are collected. Risk factors for severe disease and death include comorbid conditions such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Other implicated factors include older age, obesity, end-stage renal disease, and a higher neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio.

title: May COVID-19 outbreaks lead to a worsening of skin chronic inflammatory conditions?
abstract: The emergence of the novel beta Coronavirus has raised serious concerns due to the virus rapid dissemination worldwide. Many areas throughout the world are now experiencing the COVID 19 outbreaks with government and policy authorities taking many aggressive isolation or restriction measures, drastically reducing also patient’s visits and limiting only to the most urgent ones such as oncological visits or emergencies. Several studies have demonstrated a relationship between increased weight, obesity, diabetes, hypertension and inflammatory skin diseases. Furthermore, weight loss interventions have been shown to improve psoriasis, as well as hidradenitis suppurativa, and increase responsiveness to treatment of this conditions. We suppose that due to aggressive isolation or restriction measures, in the next future dermatologist will face with a common worsening of chronic skin inflammatory conditions due to reduced physical activities, increased intake of calories with the derived increase body weight and always more frequent treatment discontinuation. It is time to start potential preventive strategies which could limit the expected negative impact of COVID-19 related quarantine on skin diseases.

title: Immuno-pathogenesis of nCOVID-19 and a possible host-directed therapy including anti-inflammatory and anti-viral prostaglandin (PG J(2)) for effective treatment and reduce the death toll
abstract: Coronaviruses including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2, also known as 2019-nCoV especially in China) replicate and divide in host cell. During this they are partly hidden from the innate immune responses although inflammatory consequences of viral replication still occur. We propose that anti-inflammatory antiviral prostaglandins may not only restrict viral replication but can also prevent inflammatory responses in the lungs and other vital organs that are known to be part of the immuno-pathogenesis of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). The combination of anti-inflammatory antiviral prostaglandins with interferons may lead to the clearance of viruses inside the growth-restricted infected cells. However, further experimental studies and clinical trials should be conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of these possible therapies.

title: Use of anakinra in severe COVID-19: a case report
abstract: Relevant inflammatory cytokine storm is associated with severity of disease and IL1 inhibition is a cornerstone treatment for hyperinflammatory diseases. We present here the case of a patient with critical COVID-19 successfully treated with IL-1 receptor antagonist (anakinra).

title: The ability to suppress macrophage-mediated inflammation in orbital fat stem cells is controlled by miR-671-5p
abstract: Our previous works demonstrated that systemic orbital fat-derived stem cell (OFSC) transplantation was effective in ameliorating lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced extensive acute lung injury (ALI) in vivo mainly through paracrine regulation of macrophage-mediated cytokine-storm. In this study, we explore the molecular mechanism(s) of OFSCs regulating macrophage activity in a cytokine-inducible fashion.  LPS (100 ng/ml)-activated macrophages were treated by conditioned medium from OFSCs (OFSCs-CM) or non-contact cultured with OFSCs for 6 hours. The potency of OFSCs on macrophage proliferation and pro-inflammation ability were determined. Expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages, inducible immuno-modulatory factors in OFSCs, were investigated. Deep sequencing analysis as well as interaction between microRNA (miRNA) and genes of immuno-modulators in OFSCs induced by activated macrophages was predicted by miRTar. Transfection of miRNA inhibitor into OFSCs was performed. Real-time RT-PCR and transplantation of OFSCs into mice with LPS-induced ALI confirmed the in vitro and in vivo mechanism.  The paracrine effect of OFSCs on inhibition of macrophage pro-inflammatory cytokine release was more potent than induction of macrophage G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. OFSCs-CM suppressed LPS-induced inducible nitric oxide synthetase and the pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1 alpha, and IL-1 beta expression in macrophages. Under non-contact culture, LPS-activated macrophages effectively triggered the expression of soluble immuno-modulating factors in OFSCs, i.e., IL-10, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1 RA), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, and soluble TNF receptor type II (sTNF RII). Under miRTar prediction, miR-671-5p was identified as a critical microRNA in regulation of multiple immune-modulating factors in OFSCs response to macrophages. The baseline level of miR-671-5p was high in OFSCs, and down-regulation of miR-671-5p upon co-culture with activated macrophages was observed. MiR-671-5p inhibitor transfection into OFSCs selectively enhanced the IL-1 RA and sTNF RII expressions. In addition, inhibition of miR-671-5p in OFSCs enhanced the anti-inflammatory ability against LPS-induced ALI.  The paracrine effect of OFSCs inhibits the pro-inflammatory ability and proliferation of macrophages. The immune-modulation capacity of OFSCs can be triggered by activated macrophages, and down-regulation of miR-671-5p enhances OFSC immuno-modulation ability by up-regulating IL-1 RA and sTNF RII expression.

title: Aberrant coagulation causes a hyper-inflammatory response in severe influenza pneumonia
abstract: Influenza A virus (IAV) infects the respiratory tract in humans and causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide each year. Aggressive inflammation, known as a cytokine storm, is thought to cause most of the damage in the lungs during IAV infection. Dysfunctional coagulation is a common complication in pathogenic influenza, manifested by lung endothelial activation, vascular leak, disseminated intravascular coagulation and pulmonary microembolism. Importantly, emerging evidence shows that an uncontrolled coagulation system, including both the cellular (endothelial cells and platelets) and protein (coagulation factors, anticoagulants and fibrinolysis proteases) components, contributes to the pathogenesis of influenza by augmenting viral replication and immune pathogenesis. In this review, we focus on the underlying mechanisms of the dysfunctional coagulatory response in the pathogenesis of IAV.

title: Editorial: low population mortality from COVID‐19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees North supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity
abstract: LINKED CONTENT This article is linked to Al‐Ani et al and Garg et al papers. To view these articles, visit https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15779 and https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15796.

title: Post-Transcriptional Control of Type I Interferon Induction by Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus in Its Natural Host Cells
abstract: Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is not only a poor inducer of type I interferon but also inhibits the efficient induction of type I interferon by porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and synthetic dsRNA molecules, Poly I:C. However, the mechanistic basis by which PRRSV interferes with the induction of type I interferon in its natural host cells remains less well defined. The purposes of this review are to summarize the key findings in supporting the post-transcriptional control of type I interferon in its natural host cells and to propose the possible role of translational control in the regulation of type I interferon induction by PRRSV.

title: Mechanisms of Hypersensitivity
abstract: Allergic reactions to drugs are not always the result of the drug’s protein-binding capacity, biotransformation, or degradation. Mediator release may occur via cross-linking of cell-bound IgE by di-(multi-) valent free drug. Physiological and pharmacological effects of histamine are mediated through four receptors, H(1), H(2), H(3), and H(4.) The H(3) receptor has a regulatory role in the release of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine; the H(4) receptor exerts a chemotactic effect on several cell types associated with allergy and asthma. Cysteinyl leukotrienes and PAF are powerful mediators of anaphylaxis, asthma, and shock. Sphingosine-1-phosphate, elevated in the lungs of asthmatics, regulates pulmonary epithelium permeability and contributes to the pathogenesis of anaphylaxis. Urticaria is a heterogeneous disease with many subtypes. Both ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers may cause angioedema. Abacavir changes the shape of the HLA antigen-binding cleft producing an alteration in the repertoire of self-peptides that bind HLA-B*57:01 and a T cell response to self-proteins. Drug-induced delayed-type cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions are mediated by CD4+ and CD8+ CD3+ T cells in the dermis and epidermis. Granulysin appears to be a key molecule for keratinocyte killing in TEN/SJS. Drugs provide good examples of types II (immune hemolytic anemia, drug-induced thrombocytopenia) and III (serum sickness-like) hypersensitivities.

title: Role of poly (ADP) ribose polymerase-1 inhibition by nicotinamide as a possible additive treatment to modulate host immune response and prevention of cytokine storm in COVID-19
abstract: COVID-19 is rapidly spreading contagious disease spreading across the world. Patients at risk are elderly people and those with comorbidity. Early studies done on Chinese patients who suggest cytokine storm to be responsible for lung injury. We need to understand the mechanism of modulating such robust response of immunity and resultant cytokine storm. We suggest nicotinamide, a potential poly ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitor, as a supportive treatment for the prevention of cytokine storm from injuring the lung parenchyma. Nicotinamide supplementation albeit at high dose may modulate outcome in COVID-19. Nicotinamide was used previously to reduce ventilator-induced lung injury and lung injury due to hypoxia. Nicotinamide congeners are used to treat chronic lung disease like tuberculosis. Certainly, nicotinamide is effective pharmacotherapy in lung injury – whether acute or chronic. Other measures used in treating COVID-19 are focusing on targeting interleukin-6 – a cytokine responsible for mayhem, while few are targeting granulocyte-macrophage colony- stimulating factor. We suggest targeting PARP in addition to other measures to block cytokines. By inhibiting PARP course of COVID-19 may be altered. Understanding the pathophysiology of acute lung injury is crucial. PARP plays a pivotal role on cytokine release in response to any lung injury ranging from viral infection to hypoxia. Various antiviral defenses and immune response need to be studied in detail.

title: Single-port laparoscopic total proctocolectomy with ileal pouch-anal anastomosis: initial operative experience.
abstract: has been used in urologic, gynecologic, general, and colorectal surgery. We herein report our experience with the use of SPLS for total proctocolectomy with ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (RP/IPAA).  All patients who underwent a RP/IPAA using SPLS between June and September 2009 were identified from a prospectively maintained laparoscopic database. All procedures were performed with the use of a 5-mm Olympus EndoEye™ and traditional laparoscopic instruments via a SILS™ port placed at the planned ileostomy site.  There were five patients (3 male) included in the study. Median age was 43 years (range=13-47 years). Median body mass index was 20.66 kg/m2 (range=14.63-25.97 kg/m2). Diagnoses included ulcerative colitis (n=4) and familial adenomatous polyposis (n=1). Median ASA score was 2 (range=1-3). Median operative time was 153 min (range=132-278 min). Median estimated blood loss was 100 ml (range=50-200 ml). There were no conversions to either a conventional laparoscopic or an open procedure. Median time to return of bowel function was 2 days. Median length of stay was 4 days (range=3-6 days). Postoperative complications included two patients with partial small-bowel obstructions. Both resolved with conservative management. All patients had their ileostomies closed.  RP/IPAA using SPLS is a safe technique. Additional studies are needed to compare SPLS to conventional laparoscopy and open surgery with respect to operative times, convalescence, and outcomes.

title: Immunopathological characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 cases in Guangzhou, China
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a respiratory disorder caused by the highly contagious SARS-CoV-2. The immunopathological characteristics of COVID-19 patients, either systemic or local, have not been thoroughly studied. In the present study, we analyzed both the changes in the cellularity of various immune cell types as well as cytokines important for immune reactions and inflammation. Our data indicate that patients with severe COVID-19 exhibited an overall decline of lymphocytes including CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, B cells, and NK cells. The number of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells was moderately increased in patients with mild COVID-19. IL-2, IL-6, and IL-10 were remarkably up-regulated in patients with severe COVID-19. The levels of IL-2 and IL-6 relative to the length of hospital stay underwent a similar "rise-decline" pattern, probably reflecting the therapeutic effect. In conclusion, our study shows that the comprehensive decrease of lymphocytes, and the elevation of IL-2 and IL-6 are reliable indicators of severe COVID-19.

title: Identification of a potential mechanism of acute kidney injury during the COVID-19 outbreak: a study based on single-cell transcriptome analysis

title: Rapid and robust bioanalytical assays are critical for SARS-CoV-2 therapeutic and vaccine development and beyond

title: Gaining Insights into the Codon Usage Patterns of TP53 Gene across Eight Mammalian Species
abstract: TP53 gene is known as the “guardian of the genome” as it plays a vital role in regulating cell cycle, cell proliferation, DNA damage repair, initiation of programmed cell death and suppressing tumor growth. Non uniform usage of synonymous codons for a specific amino acid during translation of protein known as codon usage bias (CUB) is a unique property of the genome and shows species specific deviation. Analysis of codon usage bias with compositional dynamics of coding sequences has contributed to the better understanding of the molecular mechanism and the evolution of a particular gene. In this study, the complete nucleotide coding sequences of TP53 gene from eight different mammalian species were used for CUB analysis. Our results showed that the codon usage patterns in TP53 gene across different mammalian species has been influenced by GC bias particularly GC(3) and a moderate bias exists in the codon usage of TP53 gene. Moreover, we observed that nature has highly favored the most over represented codon CTG for leucine amino acid but selected against the ATA codon for isoleucine in TP53 gene across all mammalian species during the course of evolution.

title: A potential role for Galectin-3 inhibitors in the treatment of COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has been declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. With no standard of care for the treatment of COVID-19, there is an urgent need to identify therapies that may be effective in treatment. Recent evidence has implicated the development of cytokine release syndrome as the major cause of fatality in COVID-19 patients, with elevated levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) observed in patients. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is an animal lectin that has been implicated in the disease process of a variety of inflammatory conditions. Inhibitors of the small molecule Gal-3 have been shown to reduce the levels of both IL-6 and TNF-α in vitro and have shown anti-inflammatory effects in vivo. Additionally, a key domain in the spike protein of β-coronaviridae, a genus which includes SARS-CoV2, is nearly identical in morphology to human Gal-3. These spike proteins are critical for the virus’ entry into host cells. Here we provide a systematic review of the available literature and an impetus for further research on the use of Gal-3 inhibitors in the treatment of COVID-19. Further, we propose a dual mechanism by which Gal-3 inhibition may be beneficial in the treatment of COVID-19, both suppressing the host inflammatory response and impeding viral attachment to host cells.

title: Effects of dihydroxylphenyl lactic acid on inflammatory responses in spinal cord injury.
abstract: The initial mechanical tissue disruption of spinal cord injury (SCI) is followed by a period of secondary injury that increases the size of the lesion. Secondary injuries are associated with edema, inflammation, excessive cytokine release, excitotoxicity and cell apoptosis. 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl lactic acid (DLA) is one of the major water-soluble components of chemical constituents from Salvia miltiorrhiza (SM). To investigate the inhibition effects of DLA on secondary injury of SCI, focusing especially on suppression of inflammatory responses and the mechanism of this effect, the following studies were performed: Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) scores to assess motor functions till 10 days after SCI; Nissl and Fast Blue histological staining and immunohistochemistry of inhibitory-kappa B-alpha (IκB-α) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 subunit protein; levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity analysis as an indicator of polymorphonuclear infiltration; IL-6 production in plasma 10 days after SCI; Western blot analysis to determine cytoplasm levels of IκB-α and NF-κB p65 subunit proteins in the nuclear fractions 10 days after SCI. DLA significantly attenuated the motor function and tissue damage following SCI in rats, significant reduced polymorphonuclear cell infiltration and IL-6 production, as well as reduced cytoplasm IκB-α degradation and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 subunit protein after SCI. In conclusion, the results clearly demonstrate that DLA inhibit the inflammation responses induced by SCI via inhibiting effect of production of IL-6 and nuclear translocation of NF-κB.

title: Severe COVID-19, Another Piece in the Puzzle of the Hyperferritinemic Syndrome. An Immunomodulatory Perspective to Alleviate the Storm
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an acute respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been declared as a worldwide public health emergency. Interestingly, severe COVID-19 is characterized by fever, hyperferritinemia, and a hyper-inflammatory process with a massive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which may be responsible for the high rate of mortality. These findings may advocate for a similarity between severe COVID-19 and some challenging rheumatic diseases, such as adult onset Still's disease, secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and catastrophic anti-phospholipid syndrome, which have been included in the “hyperferritinemic syndrome” category. Furthermore, as performed in these hyper-inflammatory states, severe COVID-19 may benefit from immunomodulatory therapies.

title: DNA Repair Protein OGG1 in Pulmonary Infection and Other Inflammatory Lung Diseases
abstract: In the last decades, extensive research has uncovered functional roles and underlying mechanisms of DNA repair enzyme 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase (OGG1) in the pathogenesis of inflammatory response in infection and other diseases in the lung. OGG1 excises 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxo-dG) lesion on DNA that is often induced by generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and has been linked to mutations, cancer development, and tissue damage. Most, if not all, environmental toxic agents and mammalian cellular metabolites elicit the generation of ROS, either directly, indirectly, or both, which is among the first cellular responses. ROS in combination with other oxidative molecules/moieties are recognized as a major factor for killing invading pathogens but meanwhile can cause tissue damage. ROS potentially modify proteins, lipids, and DNA due to the strong molecular reactivity. While oxidative stress causes increased levels of all types of oxidatively modified DNA bases, accumulation of 8-oxo-dG in the DNA has been singled out to be a main culprit linking to various inflammatory disease processes. Oxidatively damaged DNA bases such as 8-oxo-dG are primarily repaired by the base excision repair (BER) mechanism, in which OGG1, as the lesion recognition enzyme, plays a fundamental role in fixing this DNA damage. In this chapter, we summarize the roles and potential mechanistic analyses of OGG1 in lung infection and other inflammatory diseases.

title: Can COVID 2019 disease induces a specific cardiovascular damage or it exacerbates pre-existing cardiovascular diseases?
abstract: A novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 causes acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with cardiovascular and multiple organ failure till death. The main mechanisms of virus internalization and interaction with the host are down-regulation or upregulation of the ACE2 receptor, the surface glycoprotein competition mechanism for the binding of porphyrin to iron in heme formation as well as interference with the immune system. The interference on renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) activation, heme formation, and the immune response is responsible for infection diffusion, endothelial dysfunction, vasoconstriction, oxidative damage and releasing of inflammatory mediators. The main pathological findings are bilateral interstitial pneumonia with diffuse alveolar damage (DAD). Because ACE receptor is also present in the endothelium of other districts as well as in different cell types, and as porphyrins are transporters in the blood and other biological liquids of iron forming heme, which is important in the assembly of the hemoglobin, myoglobin and the cytochromes, multiorgan damage occurs both primitive and secondary to lung damage. More relevantly, myocarditis, acute myocardial infarction, thromboembolism, and disseminated intravasal coagulation (DIC) are described as complications in patients with poor outcome. Here, we investigated the role of SARSCoV-2 on the cardiovascular system and in patients with cardiovascular comorbidities, and possible drug interference on the heart.

title: Pathological Findings and Management of COVID-19 Patients: A Brief Overview of Modern-day Pandemic
abstract: Today the world is facing one of the deadliest pandemics caused by COVID-19. This highly transmissible virus has an incubation period of 2 to 14 days. It acts by attaching to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE2) with the help of glycoprotein spikes, which it uses as a receptor. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR; rt-PCR) is the gold standard diagnostic test, and chest X-ray and computed tomography (CT) scan are the other main investigations. Several medications and passive immunization are in use to treat the condition. We searched using PubMed and Google Scholar using keywords such as COVID-19, coronavirus, and their combination with pathological findings, clinical features, management, and treatment to search for relevant published literature. After the removal of duplications and the selection of only published English literature from the past five years, we had a total of 31 papers to review. Most of the COVID-19 affected patients have mild pneumonia symptoms, and those with severe disease have comorbidities. Patients with COVID-19 had pathological findings, like ground-glass opacities, consolidations, pleural effusion, lymphadenopathy, and interstitial infiltration of inflammatory cells. Radiological changes show lung changes such as consolidations and opacities, and the pathological findings were infiltration of inflammatory cells and hyalinization. Patients with mild symptoms should self-quarantine, whereas those with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are treated in the hospital. Medications under trial include antivirals, antibacterials, antimalarials, and passive immunization. Supportive treatment such as oxygen therapy, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and ventilator support can also be used. The symptoms shown by patients are very mild and self-limiting. There is no definitive treatment, although a combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin have shown good results, and passive immunization also shows promising results, their safety profile is yet to be studied in detail.

title: Editorial: low population mortality from COVID-19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees North supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity

title: The importance of initial response during outbreaks: A perspective from observations on COVID-19

title: The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The Perspectives of clinical immunologists from China
abstract: The pandemic outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is rapidly spreading all over the world. Reports from China showed that about 20% of patients developed severe disease, resulting in a fatality of 4%. In the past two months, we clinical immunologists participated in multi-rounds of MDT (multidiscipline team) discussion on the anti-inflammation management of critical COVID-19 patients, with our colleagues dispatched from Chinese leading PUMC Hospital to Wuhan to admit and treat the most severe patients. Here, from the perspective of clinical immunologists, we will discuss the clinical and immunological characteristics of severe patients, and summarize the current evidence and share our experience in anti-inflammation treatment, including glucocorticoids, IL-6 antagonist, JAK inhibitors and choloroquine/hydrocholoroquine, of patients with severe COVID-19 that may have an impaired immune system.

title: Immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and mechanisms of immunopathological changes in COVID-19
abstract: As a zoonotic disease that has already spread globally to several million human beings and possibly to domestic and wild animals, eradication of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) appears practically impossible. There is a pressing need to improve our understanding of the immunology of this disease to contain the pandemic by developing vaccines and medicines for the prevention and treatment of patients. In this review, we aim to improve our understanding on the immune response and immunopathological changes in patients linked to deteriorating clinical conditions such as cytokine storm, acute respiratory distress syndrome, autopsy findings and changes in acute-phase reactants, and serum biochemistry in COVID-19. Similar to many other viral infections, asymptomatic disease is present in a significant but currently unknown fraction of the affected individuals. In the majority of the patients, a 1-week, self-limiting viral respiratory disease typically occurs, which ends with the development of neutralizing antiviral T cell and antibody immunity. The IgM-, IgA-, and IgG-type virus-specific antibodies levels are important measurements to predict population immunity against this disease and whether cross-reactivity with other coronaviruses is taking place. High viral load during the first infection and repeated exposure to virus especially in healthcare workers can be an important factor for severity of disease. It should be noted that many aspects of severe patients are unique to COVID-19 and are rarely observed in other respiratory viral infections, such as severe lymphopenia and eosinopenia, extensive pneumonia and lung tissue damage, a cytokine storm leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome, and multiorgan failure. Lymphopenia causes a defect in antiviral and immune regulatory immunity. At the same time, a cytokine storm starts with extensive activation of cytokine-secreting cells with innate and adaptive immune mechanisms both of which contribute to a poor prognosis. Elevated levels of acute-phase reactants and lymphopenia are early predictors of high disease severity. Prevention of development to severe disease, cytokine storm, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and novel approaches to prevent their development will be main routes for future research areas. As we learn to live amidst the virus, understanding the immunology of the disease can assist in containing the pandemic and in developing vaccines and medicines to prevent and treat individual patients.

title: Potential therapeutic effect of Qingwen Baidu Decoction against Corona Virus Disease 2019: a mini review
abstract: The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an acute respiratory infectious disease. At present, COVID-19 has no specific therapeutic drugs, and the main clinical treatment is symptomatic treatment and control of complications. On March 5, 2020, the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China issued the Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Infection (, which integrated traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) into the treatment of COVID-19. The purpose of this study is to summarize recent studies on the clinic application, pharmacological action, chemical substances and mechanism of Qingwen Baidu Decoction (QBD) on the treatment of various diseases. The results suggested that QBD has multiple pharmacological effects such as anti-inflammation, antiviral, antibacterial, immunomodulatory, antipyretic and so on. It has been used in the treatment of sepsis, epidemic hemorrhagic fever, epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis, infantile pneumonia, sepsis-related encephalopathy, epidemic encephalitis B and other diseases. In addition, this study attempts to explore the possible mechanism of QBD in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. Through the analysis of the chemical substances, pharmacological action and mechanism of QBD, this paper will provide a reference theoretical basis for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 by QBD.

title: Potential Role of Anti-interleukin (IL)-6 Drugs in the Treatment of COVID-19: Rationale, Clinical Evidence and Risks
abstract: The epidemic due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has been spreading globally, raising increasing concerns. This public health emergency has triggered a race to find medications to improve the prognosis of this disease. There is currently great interest in drug repositioning to manage SARS-CoV-2 infection, that is, the evaluation of the potential benefits of a drug that has already been proven safe and effective in humans for other approved indications. As interleukin-6 (IL-6) acts as a key driver of the inflammation associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), IL-6 and IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) inhibition appear to be promising targets for the treatment of COVID-19 patients. It is important to critically analyze the available evidence concerning the use of the available anti-IL-6 (siltuximab) and anti-IL-6R (tocilizumab and sarilumab) agents in COVID-19 patients, in terms of both benefit and risk. In this review, the pathogenesis of the cytokine storm induced by COVID-19, the role of IL-6 in this cytokine storm, the rationale for the use of anti-IL-6 agents, and key information on potential benefits and safety monitoring of these biologicals in COVID-19 patients is discussed.

title: The MERS-CoV receptor DPP4 as a candidate binding target of the SARS-CoV-2 spike
abstract: The ongoing outbreak of the novel coronavirus pneumonia COVID-19 has caused great number of cases and deaths, but our understanding about the pathogen SARS-CoV-2 remains largely unclear. The attachment of the virus with the cell-surface receptor and a co-factor is the first step for the infection. Here, bioinformatics approaches combining human-virus protein interaction prediction and protein docking based on crystal structures have revealed the high affinity between human dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) and the spike (S) receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2. Intriguingly, the crucial binding residues of DPP4 are identical to those as bound to the MERS-CoV-S. Moreover, E484 insertion and adjacent substitutions should be most essential for this DPP4-binding ability acquirement of SARS-CoV-2-S compared with SARS-CoV-S. This potential utilization of DPP4 as a binding target for SARS-CoV-2 may offer novel insight into the viral pathogenesis, and help the surveillance and therapeutics strategy for meeting the challenge of COVID-19.

title: Cytokine storm syndrome in severe COVID-19

title: Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Secretome for Severe COVID-19 Infections: Premises for the Therapeutic Use
abstract: From the end of 2019, the world population has been faced the spread of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 responsible for COVID-19 infection. In approximately 14% of the patients affected by the novel coronavirus, the infection progresses with the development of pneumonia that requires mechanical ventilation. At the moment, there is no specific antiviral treatment recommended for the COVID-19 pandemic and the therapeutic strategies to deal with the infection are only supportive. In our opinion, mesenchymal stem cell secretome could offer a new therapeutic approach in treating COVID-19 pneumonia, due to the broad pharmacological effects it shows, including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, regenerative, pro-angiogenic and anti-fibrotic properties.

title: The Impact of the COVID-19 “Infodemic” on Drug-Utilization Behaviors: Implications for Pharmacovigilance
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that hit the world in 2020 triggered a massive dissemination of information (an “infodemic”) about the disease that was channeled through the print, broadcast, web, and social media. This infodemic also included sensational and distorted information about drugs that likely first influenced opinion leaders and people particularly active on social media and then other people, thus affecting choices by individual patients everywhere. In particular, information has spread about some drugs approved for other indications (chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, favipiravir, and umifenovir) that could have led to inappropriate and therefore hazardous use. In this article, we analyze the rationale behind the claims for use of these drugs in COVID-19, the communication about their effects on the disease, the consequences of this communication on people’s behavior, and the responses of some influential regulatory authorities in an attempt to minimize the actual or potential risks arising from this behavior. Finally, we discuss the role of pharmacovigilance stakeholders in emergency management and possible strategies to deal with other similar crises in the future.

title: Dysregulation of the immune system as a driver of the critical course of the novel coronavirus disease 2019.
abstract: Novel coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious respiratory-related disease induced by the newly emerged virus SARS-CoV-2. Given that inflammatory immune cells may induce severe lung injury, the involvement of immune factors in the pathogenesis of the disease cannot be overestimated. It has been demonstrated that coronaviruses (CoVs) have developed mechanisms of immune evasion, making them invisible to the immune system at an early stage of infection. The mechanism relies on inhibition of the anti-viral response of type I interferons (IFNs), which supports uncontrolled viral replication in epithelial cells. There is growing body of evidence that the fatal hyperinflammation ('cytokine storm') responsible for the severe course of COVID-19 is a consequence of massive SARS-CoV-2 replication rather than inappropriate hyperresponsiveness of the immune system. Therefore, a dampened innate anti-viral immune response seems to be the primary cause of the delayed critical cascade of uncontrolled immune events leading to fulminating systemic inflammation. The occurrence of virus transmission even in asymptomatic subjects infected with SARS-CoV-2 clearly strengthens the evidence for a key role of sufficient immune control of viral replication in a subset of cases (e.g. in children, a population with highly effective innate immune responses). Although administration of immunomodulatory therapeutics is recommended under certain conditions in the guidelines of COVID-19 management, controversies regarding treatment protocols in immunocompromised patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 still exist. Extended knowledge of clinicians on the dysregulated immune response, which is a driver of the COVID-19 outcome, may improve both therapeutic protocols and the prognosis of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients.

title: ß-sitosterol ameliorates influenza A virus-induced proinflammatory response and acute lung injury in mice by disrupting the cross-talk between RIG-I and IFN/STAT signaling
abstract: ß-Sitosterol (24-ethyl-5-cholestene-3-ol) is a common phytosterol Chinese medical plants that has been shown to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. In this study we investigated the effects of ß-sitosterol on influenza virus-induced inflammation and acute lung injury and the molecular mechanisms. We demonstrate that ß-sitosterol (150-450 µg/mL) dose-dependently suppresses inflammatory response through NF-&#954;B and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling in influenza A virus (IAV)-infected cells, which was accompanied by decreased induction of interferons (IFNs) (including Type I and III IFN). Furthermore, we revealed that the anti-inflammatory effect of ß-sitosterol resulted from its inhibitory effect on retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) signaling, led to decreased STAT1 signaling, thus affecting the transcriptional activity of ISGF3 (interferon-stimulated gene factor 3) complexes and resulting in abrogation of the IAV-induced proinflammatory amplification effect in IFN-sensitized cells. Moreover, ß-sitosterol treatment attenuated RIG-I-mediated apoptotic injury of alveolar epithelial cells (AEC) via downregulation of pro-apoptotic factors. In a mouse model of influenza, pre-administration of ß-sitosterol (50, 200 mg·kg-1·d-1, i.g., for 2 days) dose-dependently ameliorated IAV-mediated recruitment of pathogenic cytotoxic T cells and immune dysregulation. In addition, pre-administration of ß-sitosterol protected mice from lethal IAV infection. Our data suggest that ß-sitosterol blocks the immune response mediated by RIG-I signaling and deleterious IFN production, providing a potential benefit for the treatment of influenza.

title: COVID-19 and the Rationale for Pharmacotherapy: A South African Perspective

title: Host-directed therapies for improving poor treatment outcomes associated with the middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus infections
abstract: Three years after its first discovery in Jeddah Saudi Arabia, the novel zoonotic pathogen of humans, the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) continues to be a major threat to global health security. 1 Sporadic community acquired cases of MERS continue to be reported from the Middle East. The recent nosocomial outbreaks in hospitals in Seoul, Korea and at the National Guard Hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia indicate the epidemic potential of MERS-CoV. Currently there are no effective anti-MERS-CoV anti-viral agents or therapeutics and MERS is associated with a high mortality rate (40%) in hospitalised patients. A large proportion of MERS patients who die have a range of pulmonary pathology ranging from pneumonia to adult respiratory distress syndrome with multi-organ failure, compounded by co-morbidities, reflecting a precarious balance of interactions between the host-immune system and MERS-CoV. Whilst we wait for new MERS-CoV specific drugs, therapeutics and vaccines to be developed, there is a need to advance a range of Host-Directed Therapies. A range of HDTs are available, including commonly used drugs with good safety profiles, which could augment host innate and adaptive immune mechanisms to MERS-CoV, modulate excessive inflammation and reduce lung tissue destruction. We discuss the rationale and potential of using Host-Directed Therapies for improving the poor treatment outcomes associated with MERS. Carefully designed randomized controlled trials will be needed to determine whether HDTs could benefit patients with MERS. The recurrent outbreaks of MERS-CoV infections at hospitals in the Middle East present unique opportunities to conduct randomized clinical trials. The time has come for a more coordinated global response to MERS and a multidisciplinary global MERS-CoV response group is required to take forward priority research agendas.

title: Social representations, identity threat, and coping amid COVID-19.
abstract: This article describes an integrative social psychological framework within which human reactions to COVID-19 can be understood and predicted. It is argued that social representations of COVID-19 (and its mitigation strategies) must resonate among diverse communities, not be too threatening, and provide clear pathways for action and engagement.

title: Pathogenicity and Viral Shedding of MERS-CoV in Immunocompromised Rhesus Macaques
abstract: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) has recently emerged in the Middle East. Since 2012, there have been approximately 2,100 confirmed cases, with a 35% case fatality rate. Disease severity has been linked to patient health status, as people with chronic diseases or an immunocompromised status fare worse, although the mechanisms of disease have yet to be elucidated. We used the rhesus macaque model of mild MERS to investigate whether the immune response plays a role in the pathogenicity in relation to MERS-CoV shedding. Immunosuppressed macaques were inoculated with MERS-CoV and sampled daily for 6 days to assess their immune statues and to measure viral shedding and replication. Immunosuppressed macaques supported significantly higher levels of MERS-CoV replication in respiratory tissues and shed more virus, and virus disseminated to tissues outside of the respiratory tract, whereas viral RNA was confined to respiratory tissues in non-immunosuppressed animals. Despite increased viral replication, pathology in the lungs was significantly lower in immunosuppressed animals. The observation that the virus was less pathogenic in these animals suggests that disease has an immunopathogenic component and shows that inflammatory responses elicited by the virus contribute to disease.

title: Towards treatment planning of COVID-19: Rationale and hypothesis for the use of multiple immunosuppressive agents: anti-antibodies, immunoglobulins, and corticosteroids
abstract: The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV2, can cause a potentially fatal disease, COVID-19, in humans. Here, we will provide an overview of therapeutic options for COVID-19. Plasma from patients recovered from COVID-19 that contains antibodies against SARS-CoV2 has shown promising results in patients with severe COVID-19. Also, IVIG, combined with moderate-dose of corticosteroids, might improve patient outcomes. Evidence links COVID-19 to variable degrees of inflammation. Studies show that the use of corticosteroids might accelerate recovery from COVID-19. There are, however, no controlled clinical trials that show whether the use of corticosteroids can reduce COVID-19-related death. Also, the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL6 is the best-documented cytokine in COVID-19 correlated with severity, criticality, viral load, and prognosis of patients with COVID-19. Tocilizumab, a monoclonal antibody against IL6, could confer clinical benefit in patients with high IL6 levels. Essential elements that process SARS-CoV2 cell entry and specific characteristics that allow SARS-CoV2 to escape the immune system have the potential as targets for COVID-19 therapy.

title: Epicardial adipose tissue: fuel for COVID-19-induced cardiac injury?

title: The Impact of SARS-Cov-2 Virus Infection on the Endocrine System
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 virus has spread across the globe rapidly causing an unprecedented pandemic. Due to the novelty of the disease, the possible impact on endocrine system is not clear. In order to compile a mini-review describing possible endocrine consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection we performed a literature survey using the key words Covid-19, Coronavirus, SARS CoV-1, SARS Cov-2, Endocrine and related terms in medical databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, and MedARXiv from year 2000. Additional references were identified through manual screening of bibliographies and via citations in the selected articles. The literature review is current until April 28, 2020. In light of the literature, we discuss SARS-CoV-2 and explore the endocrine consequences based on the experience with structurally-similar SARS-CoV-1. Studies from the SARS -CoV-1 epidemic have reported variable changes in the endocrine organs. SARS-CoV-2 attaches to the ACE2 system in the pancreas causing perturbation of insulin production resulting in hyperglycemic emergencies. In patients with pre-existing endocrine disorders who develop COVID-19, several factors warrant management decisions. Hydrocortisone dose-adjustments are required in patients with adrenal insufficiency. Identification and management of Critical Illness Related Corticosteroid Insufficiency is crucial. Patients with Cushing’s syndrome may have poorer outcomes due to the associated immunodeficiency and coagulopathy. Vitamin D deficiency appears to be associated with increased susceptibility or severity to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and replacement may improve outcomes. Robust strategies required for the optimal management of endocrinopathies in COVID-19 are discussed extensively in this mini-review.

title: Corticosteroids, But Not TNF Antagonists, Are Associated With Adverse COVID-19 Outcomes in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Results From an International Registry
abstract: The impact of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is unknown. We sought to characterize the clinical course of COVID-19 among patients with IBD and evaluate the association among demographics, clinical characteristics, and immunosuppressant treatments on COVID-19 outcomes.  Surveillance Epidemiology of Coronavirus Under Research Exclusion for Inflammatory Bowel Disease (SECURE-IBD) is a large, international registry created to monitor outcomes of patients with IBD with confirmed COVID-19. We calculated age-standardized mortality ratios and used multivariable logistic regression to identify factors associated with severe COVID-19, defined as intensive care unit admission, ventilator use, and/or death.  525 cases from 33 countries were reported (median age 43 years, 53% men). Thirty-seven patients (7%) had severe COVID-19, 161 (31%) were hospitalized, and 16 patients died (3% case fatality rate). Standardized mortality ratios for patients with IBD were 1.8 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.9-2.6), 1.5 (95% CI, 0.7-2.2), and 1.7 (95% CI, 0.9-2.5) relative to data from China, Italy, and the United States, respectively. Risk factors for severe COVID-19 among patients with IBD included increasing age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.02), &#8805;2 comorbidities (aOR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.1-7.8), systemic corticosteroids (aOR, 6.9; 95% CI, 2.3-20.5), and sulfasalazine or 5-aminosalicylate use (aOR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.3-7.7). Tumor necrosis factor antagonist treatment was not associated with severe COVID-19 (aOR, 0.9; 95% CI, 0.4-2.2).  Increasing age, comorbidities, and corticosteroids are associated with severe COVID-19 among patients with IBD, although a causal relationship cannot be definitively established. Notably, tumor necrosis factor antagonists do not appear to be associated with severe COVID-19.

title: Detectable serum SARS-CoV-2 viral load (RNAaemia) is closely correlated with drastically elevated interleukin 6 (IL-6) level in critically ill COVID-19 patients
abstract: Although the detection of SARS-CoV-2 viral load in respiratory specimens has been widely used to diagnose coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), it is undeniable that serum SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid (RNAaemia) could be detected in a fraction of COVID-19 patients. However, it is not clear whether testing for RNAaemia is correlated with the occurrence of cytokine storms or with the specific class of patients.  This study enrolled 48 patients with COVID-19 admitted to the General Hospital of Central Theater Command, PLA, a designated hospital in Wuhan, China. The patients were divided into three groups according to the “Diagnosis and Treatment of New Coronavirus Pneumonia (6(th) edition)” issued by the National Health Commission of China. The clinical and laboratory data were collected. The serum viral load and IL-6 levels were determined. .  Clinical characteristics analysis of 48 cases of COVID-19 showed that RNAaemia was diagnosed only in the critically ill group and seemed to reflect the severity of the disease. Furthermore, the level of inflammatory cytokine IL-6 in critically ill patients increased significantly, almost 10 times that in other patients. More importantly, the extremely high IL-6 level was closely correlated with the detection of RNAaemia (R = 0.902).  Detectable serum SARS-Cov-2 RNA(RNAaemia) in COVID-19 patients was associated with elevated IL-6 concentration and poor prognosis. Because the elevated IL-6 may be part of a larger cytokine storm which could worsen outcome, IL-6 could be a potential therapeutic target for critically ill patients with an excessive inflammatory response.

title: All Hands on Deck: A Synchronized Whole-of-World Approach for COVID-19 Mitigation
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic can no longer be mitigated by nationwide approach of individual nations alone. Given its scale and accelerating expansion COVID-19 behooves a coordinated and simultaneous Whole- of-World approach that galvanizes clear global leadership and solidarity from all governments of the world. Considering an ‘all hands-on deck’ concept, we present a comprehensive list of tools and entities responsible for and enabling them, as well a conceptual framework to achieve the maximum impact. The list is drawn from pandemic mitigation tools developed in response to past outbreaks including influenza, coronaviruses, and Ebola and includes tools to minimize transmission in various settings including person-to-person, crowd, funerals, travel, workplace, and events and gatherings including business, social and religious venues. Included are the roles of individuals, communities, government and other sectors such as school system, health, institutions, and business. While individuals and communities have significant responsibilities to prevent person-to-person transmission, other entities can play a significant role to enable individuals and communities to make use of the tools. Historic and current data indicate the role of political will, whole-of-government approach, and the role of early introduction of mitigation measures. There is also an urgent need to further elucidate the immunologic mechanisms underlying the epidemiological characteristics such as the low disease burden among women, and role of COVID-19 in inducing Kawasaki like syndromes in children. Understanding the role of and development of anti-inflammatory strategies based on our understanding pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1, IL-6) is also critical. Similarly, the role of oxygen therapy as an anti-inflammatory strategy is evident and access to oxygen therapy should be prioritized to avoid the aggravation of COVID-19 infection. We highlight the need for global solidarity to share both mitigation commodities and infrastructure between countries. Given the global reach ofCOVID-19 and potential for repeat waves of outbreaks, we call on all countries and communities to act synergistically and emphasize the need for synchronized pan-global mitigation efforts to minimize everyone's risk, maximize collaboration and to commit to shared progress.

title: Crosstalk between endoplasmic reticulum stress and anti-viral activities: A novel therapeutic target for COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 caused by 2019-nCov/SARS-CoV-2 has become a pandemic with an urgent need for understanding the mechanisms and identifying a treatment. Viral infections including SARS-CoV are associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species, disturbances of Ca++ caused by unfolded protein response (UPR) mediated by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and is due to the exploitation of virus's own protein i.e., viroporins into the host cells. Several clinical trials are on-going including testing Remdesivir (anti-viral), Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine derivatives (anti-malarial drugs) etc. Unfortunately, each drug has specific limitations. Herein, we review the viral protein involvement to activate ER stress transducers (IRE-1, PERK, ATF-6) and their downstream signals; and evaluate combination therapies for COVID-19 mediated ER stress alterations. Melatonin is an immunoregulator, anti-pyretic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and ER stress modulator during viral infections. It enhances protective mechanisms for respiratory tract disorders. Andrographolide, isolated from Andrographis paniculata, has versatile biological activities including immunomodulation and determining SARS-CoV-2 binding site. Considering the properties of both compounds in terms of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-pyrogenic, anti-viral and ER stress modulation and computational approaches revealing andrographolide docks with the SARS-CoV2 binding site, we predict that this combination therapy may have potential utility against COVID-19.

title: The anti-viral facet of anti-rheumatic drugs: Lessons from COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has posed the world at a pandemic risk. Coronavirus-19 disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, which causes pneumonia, requires intensive care unit hospitalization in about 10% of cases and can lead to a fatal outcome. Several efforts are currently made to find a treatment for COVID-19 patients. So far, several anti-viral and immunosuppressive or immunomodulating drugs have demonstrated some efficacy on COVID-19 both in vitro and in animal models as well as in cases series. In COVID-19 patients a pro-inflammatory status with high levels of interleukin (IL)-1B, IL-1 receptor (R)A and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α has been demonstrated. Moreover, high levels of IL-6 and TNF-α have been observed in patients requiring intensive-care-unit hospitalization. This provided rationale for the use of anti-rheumatic drugs as potential treatments for this severe viral infection. Other agents, such as hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine might have a direct anti-viral effect. The anti-viral aspect of immunosuppressants towards a variety of viruses has been known since long time and it is herein discussed in the view of searching for a potential treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: COVID-19 Infection and Haematological Involvement: a Review of Epidemiology, Pathophysiology and Prognosis of Full Blood Count Findings
abstract: The unfolding COVID-19 pandemic began in December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei Province. COVID-19 is a systemic infection affecting several systems including the haematopoietic system. Surveys illustrating the laboratory findings of these patients conclude that lymphocytopenia, neutrophilia and thrombocytopenia are prominent amongst them. Moreover, it has been reported a significant decrease in T lymphocyte subsets and an increase of inflammatory cytokines of hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Generally, thrombocytopenia is commonplace in critically ill patients and usually suggests serious organ malfunction. In view of this, this review investigates the correlation between these abnormalities and the prognosis and disease course. Full blood count is an easy, economic and widely available tool which may help to discriminate between patients with or without severe disease. Last but not least, this review examines potential pathophysiological mechanisms by the novel coronavirus which contribute to these haematological alterations aiding the clinicians to better understand this disease and provide more clinical treatment options.

title: Influence of transfusion of lymphokine-activated T killer cells on inflammatory responses in dogs after laparotomy.
abstract: The influence of transfusion of lymphokine-activated T killer cells (T-LAK) on inflammatory responses was examined in dogs after laparotomy. Plasma C-reactive protein (CRP) level, cell numbers of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) and T lymphocyte subsets (CD3(+), CD4(+) and CD8(+)) and mRNA expression levels of cytokines including interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12, IL-4, IL-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were measured in dogs with (T-LAK group) or without (control group) a single T-LAK administration immediately after laparotomy. The plasma CRP level initially increased and then decreased to the normal range at 7 days after laparotomy in the T-LAK group, which was earlier than in the control group. The expression level of IL-10 mRNA showed a marked postoperative increase and was significantly higher than the preoperative level on day 7 (P<0.05), whereas the level in the control group showed no clear change after laparotomy. A significant increase in IL-2 mRNA expression level in the T-LAK group was observed on day 14, which was two weeks earlier than in the control group (P<0.05). These results suggest that T-LAK therapy in dogs after laparotomy leads to earlier resolution of postoperative inflammation by production of an anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) in the early phase of the postoperative period and earlier restoration of cell-mediated immunity related to cytokine production by PBMCs.

title: Activated macrophages are the main inflammatory cell in COVID-19 interstitial pneumonia infiltrates. Is it possible to show their metabolic activity and thus the grade of inflammatory burden with (18)F-Fluorocholine PET/CT?
abstract: The recent outbreak of Covid-19 has represented a major challenge for the countries affected by the disease, not only in terms of loss of human life, economic downturn, and constraint on individual freedom, but also for the great pressure on the national health systems and hospitals. The 380 kDa virus has been a perfect storm, especially for those national health systems used to working with limited resources and high intensity rhythms, such as Italy. For the first time in the new century, a virtually unknown fast-spreading disease has caused a public health emergency thus forcing most countries to deal with an insurmountable logistic gap. Hence, every branch of Medicine, even though not directly involved in the treatment, has been called upon to provide its contribution to resolve the crisis. It is now becoming more apparent that Covid-19 is not solely a lung disease, but a complex systemic disease involving several organs and systems. This is due to an abnormal inflammatory response which eventually leads to multisystemic coagulopathy which mainly, but not uniquely, targets the lungs. Although the pathophysiology of this syndrome is still not fully understood, macrophages and their immune complex system seem to play a key role. It is not yet clear why some patients develop the violent immune response which results in pneumonitis while others do not. There are clues indicating that the systemic hyper-inflammation defined as macrophage activation syndrome (MAS), or cytokine storm, requires an increase in choline consumption to synthesize phosphatidylcholine and stimulate phagocytosis, organelle biogenesis, secretory functions, and endocytosis. (18)F-Fluorocholine is a synthetic analog of the naturally occurring choline normally used for PET/CT imaging of prostate cancer patients. (18)F-Fluorocholine could image and quantify the macrophage activity in pulmonary interstitial infiltrates of Covid-19 pneumonia. If the hypothesis is confirmed experimentally, (18)F-Fluorocholine PET/CT could be used to in vivo image and quantify the degree of lung inflammation and potentially stratify the gravity of this disease.

title: The underlying changes and predicting role of peripheral blood inflammatory cells in severe COVID-19 patients: A sentinel?
abstract: The underlying changes of peripheral blood inflammatory cells (PBICs) in COVID-19 patients are little known. Moreover, the risk factors for the underlying changes of PBICs and their predicting role in severe COVID-19 patients remain uncertain.  This retrospective study including two cohorts: the main cohort enrolling 45 patients of severe type serving as study group, and the secondary cohort enrolling 12 patients of no-severe type serving as control group. The PBICs analysis was based on blood routine and lymphocyte subsets. The inflammatory cell levels were compared among patients according to clinical classifications, disease-associated phases, as well as one-month outcomes.  Compared with patients of non-severe type, the patients of severe type suffered from significantly decreased counts of lymphocytes, eosinophils, basophils, but increased counts of neutrophils. These PBICs alterations got improved in recovery phase, but persisted or got worse in aggravated phase. Compared with patients in discharged group, the patients in un-discharged/died group suffered from decreased counts of total T lymphocytes, CD4 + T lymphocytes, CD8 + T lymphocytes, as well as NK cells at 2 weeks after treatment. Clinical classification-critically severe was the independently risk factor for lymphopenia (OR = 7.701, 95%CI:1.265-46.893, P = 0.027), eosinopenia (OR = 5.595, 95%CI:1.008-31.054, P = 0.049), and worse one-month outcome (OR = 8.984; 95%CI:1.021-79.061, P = 0.048).  Lymphopenia and eosinopenia may serve as predictors of disease severity and disease progression in COVID-19 patients, and enhancing the cellular immunity may contribute to COVID-19 treatment. Thus, PBICs might become a sentinel of COVID-19, and it deserves attention during COVID-19 treatment.

title: Is the presence of lung injury in COVID-19 an independent risk factor for secondary lung cancer?
abstract: The morbidity and mortality of lung cancer are increasing. The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV-2, leading to subsequent pulmonary interstitial fibrosis with chronic inflammatory changes, e.g., inflammatory factors repeatedly continuously stimulating and attacking the alveolar epithelial cells. Meanwhile, 2019-nCoV-2 can activate PI3K/Akt and ERK signaling pathways, which can play the double roles as both anti-inflammatory and carcinogenic factors. Moreover, hypoxemia may be developed, resulting in the up-regulation of HIF-1 α expression, which can be involved in the occurrence, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis of lung cancer. Additionally, the immune system in 2019-nCoV-2 infected cases can be suppressed to cause tumor immune evasion. Therefore, we speculate that COVID-19 may be a risk factor of secondary lung cancer.

title: Inflammatory Response Cells During Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

title: A Dynamic Immune Response Shapes COVID-19 Progression
abstract: The inflammatory response to SARS-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is thought to underpin COVID-19 pathogenesis. We conducted daily transcriptomic profiling of three COVID-19 cases and found that the early immune response in COVID-19 patients is highly dynamic. Patient throat swabs were tested daily for SARS-CoV-2, with the virus persisting for 3 to 4 weeks in all three patients. Cytokine analyses of whole blood revealed increased cytokine expression in the single most severe case. However, most inflammatory gene expression peaked after respiratory function nadir, except expression in the IL1 pathway. Parallel analyses of CD4 and CD8 expression suggested that the pro-inflammatory response may be intertwined with T cell activation that could exacerbate disease or prolong the infection. Collectively, these findings hint at the possibility that IL1 and related pro-inflammatory pathways may be prognostic and serve as therapeutic targets for COVID-19. This work may also guide future studies to illuminate COVID-19 pathogenesis and develop host-directed therapies.

title: A Simulation Optimization Approach to Epidemic Forecasting
abstract: Reliable forecasts of influenza can aid in the control of both seasonal and pandemic outbreaks. We introduce a simulation optimization (SIMOP) approach for forecasting the influenza epidemic curve. This study represents the final step of a project aimed at using a combination of simulation, classification, statistical and optimization techniques to forecast the epidemic curve and infer underlying model parameters during an influenza outbreak. The SIMOP procedure combines an individual-based model and the Nelder-Mead simplex optimization method. The method is used to forecast epidemics simulated over synthetic social networks representing Montgomery County in Virginia, Miami, Seattle and surrounding metropolitan regions. The results are presented for the first four weeks. Depending on the synthetic network, the peak time could be predicted within a 95% CI as early as seven weeks before the actual peak. The peak infected and total infected were also accurately forecasted for Montgomery County in Virginia within the forecasting period. Forecasting of the epidemic curve for both seasonal and pandemic influenza outbreaks is a complex problem, however this is a preliminary step and the results suggest that more can be achieved in this area.

title: Why tocilizumab could be an effective treatment for severe COVID-19?
abstract: A severe pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome caused by a new coronavirus was identified in December 2019 (COVID-19), spread rapidly and has become a world-wide public health challenge. About 25% of COVID-19 patients experienced severe complications including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and even progressed into an intensive care unit (ICU) admission and died. The exploration for the mortality causes and advancing novel therapeutic development of severe COVID-19 is crucial at the moment. The biopsy samples analysis at autopsy suggested that increased alveolar exudate caused by aberrant host immune response and inflammatory cytokine storm probably impedes alveolar gas exchange and contributes to the high mortality of severe COVID-19 patients. Our research has identified that pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes incite inflammatory storm with large amount of interleukin 6, therefore monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 pathways may potentially curb inflammatory storm. Moreover, Tocilizumab treatment that blocking IL-6 receptors showed inspiring clinical results including temperature returned to normal quickly and respiratory function improved. Therefore, we suggest that Tocilizumab is an effective treatment in severe patients of COVID-19 to calm the inflammatory storm and reduce mortality.

title: Protective role of Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitors in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and COVID‐19
abstract: Severe cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are usually accompanied by an exuberant immune response comparable to cytokine release syndrome (CRS), with markedly elevated serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines which are thought to be a major drivers of morbidity and mortality for these patients (Huang, et al 2020). Several drugs with anti-inflammatory properties (tocilizumab, siltuximab, sarilumab, anakinra, among others) have been suggested as adjuncts to supportive care in the management of COVID-19, and several clinical trials are underway (NCT04315298, NCT04317092, NCT04306705).

title: Acute kidney injury in critically ill patients with COVID-19
abstract: Acute kidney injury (AKI) has been reported in up to 25% of critically-ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, especially in those with underlying comorbidities. AKI is associated with high mortality rates in this setting, especially when renal replacement therapy is required. Several studies have highlighted changes in urinary sediment, including proteinuria and hematuria, and evidence of urinary SARS-CoV-2 excretion, suggesting the presence of a renal reservoir for the virus. The pathophysiology of COVID-19 associated AKI could be related to unspecific mechanisms but also to COVID-specific mechanisms such as direct cellular injury resulting from viral entry through the receptor (ACE2) which is highly expressed in the kidney, an imbalanced renin-angotensin-aldosteron system, pro-inflammatory cytokines elicited by the viral infection and thrombotic events. Non-specific mechanisms include haemodynamic alterations, right heart failure, high levels of PEEP in patients requiring mechanical ventilation, hypovolemia, administration of nephrotoxic drugs and nosocomial sepsis. To date, there is no specific treatment for COVID-19 induced AKI. A number of investigational agents are being explored for antiviral/immunomodulatory treatment of COVID-19 and their impact on AKI is still unknown. Indications, timing and modalities of renal replacement therapy currently rely on non-specific data focusing on patients with sepsis. Further studies focusing on AKI in COVID-19 patients are urgently warranted in order to predict the risk of AKI, to identify the exact mechanisms of renal injury and to suggest targeted interventions.

title: Inflammasomes and Pyroptosis as Therapeutic Targets for COVID-19.
abstract: The inflammatory response to severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 infection has a direct impact on the clinical outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 patients. Of the many innate immune pathways that are engaged by severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2, we highlight the importance of the inflammasome pathway. We discuss available pharmaceutical agents that target a critical component of inflammasome activation, signaling leading to cellular pyroptosis, and the downstream cytokines as a promising target for the treatment of severe coronavirus disease 2019-associated diseases.

title: Immunopathology and immunotherapeutic strategies in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has become a major concern globally. As of 14 April 2020, more than 1.9 million COVID-19 cases have been reported in 185 countries. Some patients with COVID-19 develop severe clinical manifestations, while others show mild symptoms, suggesting that dysregulation of the host immune response contributes to disease progression and severity. In this review, we have summarized and discussed recent immunological studies focusing on the response of the host immune system and the immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 infection as well as immunotherapeutic strategies for COVID-19. Immune evasion by SARS-CoV-2, functional exhaustion of lymphocytes, and cytokine storm have been discussed as part of immunopathology mechanisms in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Some potential immunotherapeutic strategies to control the progression of COVID-19, such as passive antibody therapy and use of interferon &#945;ß and IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) inhibitor, have also been discussed. This may help us to understand the immune status of patients with COVID-19, particularly those with severe clinical presentation, and form a basis for further immunotherapeutic investigations.

title: Selective CD8 cell reduction by SARS-CoV-2 is associated with a worse prognosis and systemic inflammation in COVID-19 patients
abstract: The lymphopenia exhibited in patients with COVID-19 has been associated with a worse prognosis in the development of the disease. To understand the factors associated with a worse evolution of COVID-19, we analyzed comorbidities, indicators of inflammation such as CRP and the ratio of neutrophils/lymphocytes, as well as the count of blood cells with T-lymphocyte subtypes in 172 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Patients were grouped according to their needs for mechanical ventilation (ICU care) or not. Within the comorbidities studied, obesity was the only associated with greater severity and ICU admission. Both the percentage and the absolute number of neutrophils were higher in patients needing ICU care than non-ICU patients, whereas absolute lymphocyte count, and especially the percentage of lymphocytes, presented a deep decline in critical patients. There was no difference between the two groups of patients for CD4 T-lymphocytes, neither in percentage of lymphocyte nor in absolute number, however for CD8 T-cells the differences were significant for both parameters which were in decline in ICU patients. There was a firm correlation between the highest values of inflammation indicators with the decrease in percentage of CD8 T-lymphocytes. This effect was not seen with CD4 cells. Obesity together with lymphopenia, especially whether preferentially affects to CD8 T- lymphocytes, are factors that can predict a poor prognosis in patients with COVID-19.

title: Clinical and pathological investigation of severe COVID-19 patients.
abstract: Severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a pandemic. This study addressed the clinical and immunopathological characteristics of severe COVID-19.  Sixty-nine COVID-19 patients were classified into as severe and non-severe groups to analyze their clinical and laboratory characteristics. A panel of blood cytokines was quantified over time. Biopsy specimens from two deceased cases were obtained for immunopathological, ultrastructural, and in situ hybridization examinations.  Circulating cytokines, including IL8, IL6, TNFα, IP10, MCP1, and RANTES, were significantly elevated in severe COVID-19 patients. Dynamic IL6 and IL8 were associated with disease progression. SARS-CoV-2 was demonstrated to infect type II, type I pneumocytes and endothelial cells, leading to severe lung damage through cell pyroptosis and apoptosis. In severe cases, lymphopenia, neutrophilia, depletion of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, and massive macrophage and neutrophil infiltrates were observed in both blood and lung tissues.  A panel of circulating cytokines could be used to predict disease deterioration and inform clinical interventions. Severe pulmonary damage was predominantly attributed to both SARS-CoV-2 caused cytopathy and immunopathologic damage. Strategies that encourage pulmonary recruitment and overactivation of inflammatory cells by suppressing cytokine storm might improve the outcomes of severe COVID-19 patients.

title: Potential role of endothelial cell surface ectopic redox complexes in COVID-19 disease pathogenesis
abstract: The novel coronavirus infectious disease (COVID-19) has rapidly spread and poses a great challenge to researchers, both in elucidating its pathogenic mechanism and developing effective treatments. It has been recently proposed that COVID-19 is an endothelial disease. Indeed, the COVID-19 virus binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE2), which is expressed in endothelial cells. ACE2 could be implicated in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) caused by endothelial dysfunction due to viral damage. Consequently, oxidative stress could prime these cells to acquire a pro-thrombotic and pro-inflammatory phenotype, predisposing patients to thromboembolic and vasculitic events and to disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC). This implies a pivotal role played by oxygen in the pathogenetic mechanism of COVID-19 disease, in that its availability would tune the oxidant state and consequent damage.

title: Comparison of Hospitalized Patients With ARDS Caused by COVID-19 and H1N1
abstract: Since the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China in December 2019, considerable attention has been focused on its elucidation. However, it is also important for clinicians and epidemiologists to differentiate COVID-19 from other respiratory infectious diseases such as influenza viruses.  The aim of this study was to explore the different clinical presentations between COVID-19 and influenza A (H1N1) pneumonia in patients with ARDS.  This analysis was a retrospective case-control study. Two independent cohorts of patients with ARDS infected with either COVID-19 (n = 73) or H1N1 (n = 75) were compared. Their clinical manifestations, imaging characteristics, treatments, and prognosis were analyzed and compared.  The median age of patients with COVID-19 was higher than that of patients with H1N1, and there was a higher proportion of male subjects among the COVID-19 cohort (P < .05). Patients with COVID-19 exhibited higher proportions of nonproductive coughs, fatigue, and GI symptoms than those of patients with H1N1 (P < .05). Patients with H1N1 had higher Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scores than patients with COVID-19 (P < .05). The Pao 2/Fio 2 of 198.2 mm Hg in the COVID-19 cohort was significantly higher than the Pao 2/Fio 2 of 107.0 mm Hg in the H1N1 cohort (P < .001). Ground-glass opacities was more common in patients with COVID-19 than in patients with H1N1 (P < .001). There was a greater variety of antiviral therapies administered to COVID-19 patients than to H1N1 patients. The in-hospital mortality of patients with COVID-19 was 28.8%, whereas that of patients with H1N1 was 34.7% (P = .483). SOFA score-adjusted mortality of H1N1 patients was significantly higher than that of COVID-19 patients, with a rate ratio of 2.009 (95% CI, 1.563-2.583; P < .001).  There were many differences in clinical presentations between patients with ARDS infected with either COVID-19 or H1N1. Compared with H1N1 patients, patients with COVID-19-induced ARDS had lower severity of illness scores at presentation and lower SOFA score-adjusted mortality.

title: Dysentery as a rare GI symptom found in COVID-19 patients

title: TNFα inhibitor may be effective for severe COVID-19: learning from toxic epidermal necrolysis
abstract: Increased inflammatory cytokines [such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF&#945;) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] are observed in COVID-19 patients, especially in the severe group. The phenomenon of a cytokine storm may be the central inducer of apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells, which leads to rapid progression in severe group patients. Given the similarities of clinical features and pathogenesis between toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and COVID-19, we hypothesize that the application of etanercept, an inhibitor of TNF&#945;, could attenuate disease progression in severe group COVID-19 patients by suppressing systemic auto-inflammatory responses. The reviews of this paper are available via the supplemental material section.

title: Gaining insights on immune responses to the novel coronavirus, COVID-19 and therapeutic challenges
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is a new member of coronaviruses that its sudden spreading put the health care system of most countries in a tremendous shock. For controlling of the new infection, COVID-19, many efforts have been done and are ongoing to defeat this virus in the combat field. In this review, we focused on how the immune system behaves toward the virus and the relative possible consequences during their interactions. Then the therapeutic steps and potential vaccine candidates have been described in a hope to provide a better prospective of effective treatment and preventive strategies to the novel SARS-CoV in near future.

title: Acute encephalopathy with elevated CSF inflammatory markers as the initial presentation of COVID-19
abstract: COVID-19 is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus SARS-CoV-2. It is widely recognized as a respiratory pathogen, but neurologic complications can be the presenting manifestation in a subset of infected patients.  We describe a 78-year old immunocompromised woman who presented with altered mental status after witnessed seizure-like activity at home. She was found to have SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated neuroinflammation. In this case, we undertake the first detailed analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokines during COVID-19 infection and find a unique pattern of inflammation in CSF, but no evidence of viral neuroinvasion.  Our findings suggest that neurologic symptoms such as encephalopathy and seizures may be the initial presentation of COVID-19. Central nervous system inflammation may associate with neurologic manifestations of disease.

title: Coronavirus (COVID-19) Infection-Induced Chilblains: A Brisk Perieccrine Inflammatory Response
abstract: The varying cutaneous and pathological manifestations of coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19) may have prognostic implications. Acral ischemic findings present with a hypercoagulable state in critically ill COVID-19 patients. Pathologically confirmed varicella-like exanthem and perniosis COVID-19 cases have correlated with paucisymptomatic and asymptomatic patients in previous reports. We present the second case of biopsy-proven COVID-19 infection-induced chilblains (pernio) in a paucisymptomatic patient with a brisk perieccrine lymphocytic response. Based on an antecedent pathological study, we know coronavirus particles have been seen in the eccrine gland associated with a brisk peri-inflammatory response. The prominent perieccrine inflammation is helpful in the diagnosis of COVID-19 infections. Currently, nonischemic pathological findings correlate with a good prognosis based on the paucisymptomatic or asymptomatic nature of their disease courses. Patients presenting with suspected COVID-19 infection-induced chilblains who are paucisymptomatic or asymptomatic should be isolated and immediately tested with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing (as there is a delay in diagnosis based on the poor sensitivity of the current rapid test). We continue to stress the importance of early diagnosis and quarantining to prevent spread to the older and immunocompromised patients.

title: COVID 19 and low-glucose levels : is there a link ?

title: Are the cutaneous manifestations during or due to SARS-CoV-2 infection/COVID-19 frequent or not? Revision of possible pathophysiologic mechanisms
abstract: SARS-Cov-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus, a Betacoronavirus, composed of 16 non-structural proteins, with specific roles in replication of coronaviruses. The pathogenesis of COVID-19 is not yet fully understood. The virus and host factors interplay among distinct outcomes of infected patients.  Using MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) in PubMed, authors searched for articles cotaining information on COVID-19 and the skin.  The pathophysiology of the disease is multifactorial: association with innate immune response, hypercoagulability state, lung tissue damage, neurological and/or gastrointestinal tract involvement, monocytic/macrophage activation syndrome, culminating in exaggerated cytokine secretion, called “cytokine storm”, which leads to worsening and death. These systemic conditions may be associated with cutaneous lesions, that have polymorphic aspects, where at histopathological level show involvement in different skin changes. These lesions may be associated with multisystemic manifestations that could occur due to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor and transmembrane serine protease action, allowing the pulmonary infection and possibly skin manifestation. Several reports in literature show cutaneous lesions similar to chilblain, urticarial eruptions, diffuse or disseminated erythema, livedo racemosa, blue toe syndrome, retiform purpura, vesicle trunk, purpuric exanthema or exanthema with clinical aspects of symmetrical drug-related intertriginous and flexural exanthema (SDRIFE) and others.  This review describes the complexity of Covid-19, pathophysiological and clinical aspects, dermatological finding and other dermatological conditions associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection or COVID-19.

title: Combined IL‐6 and JAK‐STAT inhibition therapy in COVID‐19 related sHLH, potential game changer
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), caused by novel SARS‐CoV‐2, leads to significant mortality and morbidity with increasing evidence for inflammatory pathways being implicated in the lung damage it causes. (1,2) Severe COVID‐19 patients present with increased inflammatory markers, akin to secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH), that have been shown to predict mortality.  There is emerging evidence for the use of an interleukin 6 (IL‐6) inhibitor, tocilizumab (TCZ), for suppression of the inflammatory cytokine storm in this context. (5–7) Ruxolitinib (RXB), a JAK‐STAT inhibitor, has also been shown to have proven efficacy in the treatment of sHLH. (8) Both agents appear to be promising in the fight against SARS‐CoV‐2 infection, (9,10) leading to an increasing number of trials being registered with their use. (11,12) Until this point, no single agent has shown a survival benefit against SARS‐CoV‐2 and it is possible that monotherapy may not suppress inflammation enough to overcome the COVID‐19 related cytokine storm and hyper‐inflammation.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its implications for cardiovascular care: expert document from the German Cardiac Society and the World Heart Federation
abstract: Coronavirus diseases 2019 (COVID-19) has become a worldwide pandemic affecting people at high risk and particularly at advanced age, cardiovascular and pulmonary disease. As cardiovascular patients are at high risk but also have dyspnea and fatigue as leading symptoms, prevention, diagnostics and treatment in these patients are important to provide adequate care for those with or without COVID-19 but most importantly when comorbid cardiovascular conditions are present. Severe COVID-19 with acute respiratory distress (ARDS) is challenging as patients with elevated myocardial markers such as troponin are at enhanced high risk for fatal outcomes. As angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is regarded as the viral receptor for cell entry and as the Coronavirus is downregulating this enzyme, which provides cardiovascular and pulmonary protection, there is ongoing discussions on whether treatment with cardiovascular drugs, which upregulate the viral receptor ACE2 should be modified. As most of the COVID-19 patients have cardiovascular comorbidities like hypertension, diabetes, coronary artery disease and heart failure, which imposes a high risk on these patients, cardiovascular therapy should not be modified or even withdrawn. As cardiac injury is a common feature of COVID-19 associated ARDS and is linked with poor outcomes, swift diagnostic management and specialist care of cardiovascular patients in the area of COVID-19 is of particular importance and deserves special attention.

title: [Study on treatment of "cytokine storm" by anti-2019-nCoV prescriptions based on arachidonic acid metabolic pathway].
abstract: Since the outbreak of 2019-nCoV, the epidemic has developed rapidly and the situation is grim. LANCET figured out that the 2019-nCoV is closely related to "cytokine storm". "Cytokine storm" is an excessive immune response of the body to external stimuli such as viruses and bacteria. As the virus attacking the body, it stimulates the secretion of a large number of inflammatory factors: interleukin(IL), interferon(IFN), C-X-C motif chemokine(CXCL) and so on, which lead to cytokine cascade reaction. With the exudation of inflammatory factors, cytokines increase abnormally in tissues and organs, interfering with the immune system, causing excessive immune response of the body, resulting in diffuse damage of lung cells, pulmonary fibrosis, and multiple organ damage, even death. Arachidonic acid(AA) metabolic pathway is principally used to synthesize inflammatory cytokines, such as monocyte chemotactic protein 1(MCP-1), tumor necrosis factor(TNF), IL, IFN, etc., which is closely related to the occurrence, development and regression of inflammation. Therefore, the inhibition of AA metabolism pathway is benefit for inhibiting the release of inflammatory factors in the body and alleviating the "cytokine storm". Based on the pharmacophore models of the targets on AA metabolic pathway, the traditional Chinese medicine database 2009(TCMD 2009) was screened. The potential herbs were ranked by the number of hit molecules, which were scored by pharmacophore fit value. In the end, we obtained the potential active prescriptions on "cytokine storm" according to the potential herbs in the "National novel coronavirus pneumonia diagnosis and treatment plan(trial version sixth)". The results showed that the hit components with the inhibitory effect on AA were magnolignan Ⅰ, lonicerin and physcion-8-O-β-D-glucopy-ranoside, which mostly extracted from Magnoliae Officinalis Cortex, Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens, Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, Rhei Radix et Rhizoma, Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma, Scutellariae Radix, Gardeniae Fructus, Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Arctii Fructus, Dryopteridis Crassirhizomatis Rhizoma, Paeoniaeradix Rubra, Dioscoreae Rhizoma. Finally the anti-2019-nCoV prescriptions were analyzed to obtain the potential active prescriptions on AA metabolic pathway, Huoxiang Zhengqi Capsules, Jinhua Qinggan Granules, Lianhua Qingwen Capsules, Qingfei Paidu Decoction, Xuebijing Injection, Reduning Injection and Tanreqing Injection were found that may prevent 2019-nCoV via regulate cytokines. This study intends to provide reference for clinical use of traditional Chinese medicine to resist new coronavirus.

title: Clinical sequelae of the novel coronavirus: does COVID-19 infection predispose patients to cancer?
abstract: As cancer patients are clinically known to be predisposed to COVID-19 infection, a corollary question of whether COVID-19 infection predisposes to cancer is explored. This article seeks to establish an association between novel coronavirus sequelae and cancer. A literature review on COVID-19 mechanisms of action, molecular responses it elicits upon infection and tumorigenesis pathways is conducted to establish this association. Major signaling pathways implicated in aberrant cellular growth are activated, the ensuing cytokine storm weakens the immune system response to tumors, and patients may develop cancer as a result of superimposed mutagenic and/or carcinogenic events. Future work needs to be performed to support this hypothesis, both in in vitro models and preclinical studies. COVID-19 patients may need to be monitored post-infection for developing cancer.

title: Lessons Learned to Date on COVID-19 Hyperinflammatory Syndrome: Considerations for Interventions to Mitigate SARS-CoV-2 Viral Infection and Detrimental Hyperinflammation
abstract: The first case of human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 was reported in China in December 2019. A few months later, this viral infection had spread worldwide and became a pandemic. The disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, termed COVID-19, is multifactorial and associated with both specific antiviral as well as inflammatory responses, the extent of which may determine why some individuals are asymptomatic while others develop serious complications. Here we review possible life-threating immune events that can occur during disease progression to uncover key factors behind COVID-19 severity and provide suggestions for interventions with repurposed drugs in well-controlled and randomized clinical trials. These drugs include therapeutics with potential to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells such as serine protease inhibitors of the cellular protease TMPS2 and drugs targeting the renin-angiotensin system; antivirals with potential to block SARS-CoV-2 replication or factors that could boost the antiviral response; monoclonal antibodies targeting pro-inflammatory cytokines that drive the hyperinflammatory response during COVID-19 progression toward the severe stage and therapeutics that could ameliorate the function of the lungs. Furthermore, in order to help make more informed decisions on the timing of the intervention with the drugs listed in this review, we have grouped these therapeutics according to the stage of COVID-19 progression that we considered most appropriate for their mechanism of action.

title: Type I and Type III IFN Restrict SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Human Airway Epithelial Cultures
abstract: The newly emerged human coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, has caused a pandemic of respiratory illness. The innate immune response is critical for protection against Coronaviruses. However, little is known about the interplay between the innate immune system and SARS-CoV-2. Here, we modeled SARS-CoV-2 infection using primary human airway epithelial (pHAE) cultures, which are maintained in an air-liquid interface. We found that SARS-CoV-2 infects and replicates in pHAE cultures and is directionally released on the apical, but not basolateral surface. Transcriptional profiling studies found that infected pHAE cultures had a molecular signature dominated by pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokine induction, including IL-6, TNFα, CXCL8. We also identified NF-κB and ATF4 transcription factors as key drivers of this pro-inflammatory cytokine response. Surprisingly, we observed a complete lack of a type I or III IFN induction during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Pre-treatment or post-treatment with type I and III IFNs dramatically reduced virus replication in pHAE cultures and this corresponded with an upregulation of antiviral effector genes. Our findings demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 induces a strong pro-inflammatory cytokine response yet blocks the production of type I and III IFNs. Further, SARS-CoV-2 is sensitive to the effects of type I and III IFNs, demonstrating their potential utility as therapeutic options to treat COVID-19 patients.  The current pandemic of respiratory illness, COVID-19, is caused by a recently emerged coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2. This virus infects airway and lung cells causing fever, dry cough, and shortness of breath. Severe cases of COVID-19 can result in lung damage, low blood oxygen levels, and even death. As there are currently no vaccines or antivirals approved for use in humans, studies of the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 infection are urgently needed. SARS-CoV-2 infection of primary human airway epithelial cultures induces a strong pro-inflammatory cytokine response yet blocks the production of type I and III IFNs. Further, SARS-CoV-2 is sensitive to the effects of type I and III IFNs, demonstrating their potential utility as therapeutic options to treat COVID-19 patients.

title: Mathematical modeling of interaction between innate and adaptive immune responses in COVID‐19 and implications for viral pathogenesis
abstract: We have applied mathematical modeling to investigate the infections of the ongoing coronavirus disease‐2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic caused by SARS‐CoV‐2 virus. We first validated our model using the well‐studied influenza viruses and then compared the pathogenesis processes between the two viruses. The interaction between host innate and adaptive immune responses was found to be a potential cause for the higher severity and mortality in COVID‐19 patients. Specifically, the timing mismatch between the two immune responses has a major impact on disease progression. The adaptive immune response of the COVID‐19 patients is more likely to come before the peak of viral load, while the opposite is true for influenza patients. This difference in timing causes delayed depletion of vulnerable epithelial cells in the lungs in COVID‐19 patients while enhancing viral clearance in influenza patients. Stronger adaptive immunity in COVID‐19 patients can potentially lead to longer recovery time and more severe secondary complications. Based on our analysis, delaying the onset of adaptive immune responses during the early phase of infections may be a potential treatment option for high‐risk COVID‐19 patients. Suppressing the adaptive immune response temporarily and avoiding its interference with the innate immune response may allow the innate immunity to more efficiently clear the virus.

title: Accumulating evidence for a role of oxidized phospholipids in infectious diseases
abstract: Oxidized phospholipids (OxPL) were originally discovered as by-products and mediators of chronic inflammation such as in atherosclerosis. Over the last years, an increasing body of evidence led to the notion that OxPL not only contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory processes but in addition play an integral role as modulators of inflammation during acute infections. Thereby, host defense mechanisms involve the generation of oxygen radicals that oxidize ubiquitously present phospholipids, which in turn act as danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). These OxPL-derived DAMPs can exhibit both pro- and anti-inflammatory functions that ultimately alter the host response to pathogens. In this review, we summarize the currently available data on the role of OxPL in infectious diseases.

title: Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), SARS-CoV-2 and the pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
abstract: Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been established as the functional host receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus responsible for the current devastating worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). ACE2 is abundantly expressed in a variety of cells residing in many different human organs. In human physiology, ACE2 is a pivotal counter-regulatory enzyme to ACE by the breakdown of angiotensin II, the central player in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) and the main substrate of ACE2. Many factors have been associated with both altered ACE2 expression and COVID-19 severity and progression, including age, sex, ethnicity, medication, and several co-morbidities, such as cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome. Although ACE2 is widely distributed in various human tissues and many of its determinants have been well recognised, ACE2-expressing organs do not equally participate in COVID-19 pathophysiology, implying that other mechanisms are involved in orchestrating cellular infection resulting in tissue damage. Reports of pathologic findings in tissue specimens of COVID-19 patients are rapidly emerging and confirm the established role of ACE2 expression and activity in disease pathogenesis. Identifying pathologic changes caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection is crucially important as it has major implications for understanding COVID-19 pathophysiology and the development of evidence-based treatment strategies. Currently, many interventional strategies are being explored in ongoing clinical trials, encompassing many drug classes and strategies, including antiviral drugs, biological response modifiers, and RAAS inhibitors. Ultimately, prevention is key to combat COVID-19 and appropriate measures are being taken accordingly, including development of effective vaccines. In this review, we describe the role of ACE2 in COVID-19 pathophysiology, including factors influencing ACE2 expression and activity in relation to COVID-19 severity. In addition, we discuss the relevant pathological changes resulting from SARS-CoV-2 infection. Finally, we highlight a selection of potential treatment modalities for COVID-19.

title: Hydroxychloroquine application is associated with a decreased mortality in critically ill patients with COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic with no specific drugs and high mortality. The most urgent thing is to find effective treatments.  To determine whether hydroxychloroquine application may be associated with a decreased risk of death in critically ill COVID-19 patients and what is potential mechanism.  This retrospective study included all 568 critically ill COVID-19 patients who were confirmed by pathogen laboratory tests despite antiviral treatment and had severe acute respiratory distress syndrome, PAO2/FIO2 <300 with need of mechanical ventilation in Tongji Hospital, Wuhan, between February 1 of 2020 to April 8 of 2020. All 568 patients received comparable basic treatments including antiviral drugs and antibiotics, and 48 of them additionally received oral hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) treatment (200 mg twice a day for 7-10 days). Primary endpoint is mortality of patients, and inflammatory cytokines levels were compared between hydroxychloroquine and non-hydroxychloroquine (NHCQ) treatments.  In-hospital death and hospital stay time (day) were obtained, level of inflammatory cytokine (IL-6) was measured and compared between HCQ and NHCQ treatments.  The median age of 568 critically ill patients is 68 (57, 76) years old with 37.0% being female. Mortalities are 18.8% (9/48) in HCQ group and 45.8% (238/520) in NHCQ group (p<0.001). The time of hospital stay before patient death is 15 (10-21) days and 8 (4 - 14) days for the HCQ and NHCQ groups, respectively (p<0.05). The level of inflammatory cytokine IL-6 was significantly lowered from 22.2 (8.3-118.9) pg/mL at the beginning of the treatment to 5.2 (3.0-23.4) pg/ml (p<0.05) at the end of the treatment in the HCQ group but there is no change in the NHCQ group.  Hydroxychloroquine treatment is significantly associated with a decreased mortality in critically ill patients with COVID-19 through attenuation of inflammatory cytokine storm. Therefore, hydroxychloroquine should be prescribed for treatment of critically ill COVID-19 patients to save lives.

title: Expression of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 and Coincident Host Response Signature Varies by Asthma Inflammatory Phenotype
abstract: Over 300 million people carry a diagnosis of asthma with data to suggest they are at higher risk for infection or adverse outcomes from SARS-CoV-2. Asthma is remarkably heterogenous and it is currently unclear how patient intrinsic factors may relate to COVID-19.  Identify and characterize subsets of asthmatics at increased risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Participants from 2 large asthma cohorts were stratified using clinically relevant parameters to identify factors related to ACE2 expression within bronchial epithelium. ACE-2 correlated gene signatures were used to interrogate publicly available databases to identify upstream signaling events and novel therapeutic targets.  Stratifying by Type 2 inflammatory biomarkers, we identified subjects who demonstrated low peripheral blood eosinophils accompanied by increased expression of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 in bronchial epithelium. Genes highly correlated with ACE2 overlapped with Type 1 and 2 interferon signatures, normally induced by viral infections. T cell recruitment and activation within bronchoalveolar lavage cells of ACE2-high subjects was reciprocally increased. These patients demonstrated characteristics corresponding to risk factors for severe COVID-19, including male sex, history of hypertension, low peripheral blood and elevated BAL lymphocytes.  ACE2 expression is linked to upregulation of viral response genes in a subset of Type-2 low asthmatics with characteristics resembling known risk factors for severe COVID-19. Therapies targeting the interferon family and T cell activating factors may therefore be of benefit in a subset of patients.  Type-2 low asthmatics may be at increased risk for adverse outcome from COVID-19 and deserve increased vigilance upon developing symptoms.

title: Heat Shock Proteins and the Resolution of Inflammation by Lymphocytes
abstract: Depletion of phagocytes that infiltrate host organs like the lungs reduces inflammatory damage to tissues. Understanding the mechanisms by which this process occurs could lead to new therapeutic approaches to limit the detrimental effects of inflammation. The lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and skin are particularly prone to infection. Specialized immune cells protect these organs from tissue damage by eliminating phagocytes from inflamed tissues by recognizing signals produced by the phagocytes. One such signal is heat shock proteins (HSP) expressed on the cell surface of phagocytes. These HSP closely resemble their microbial equivalents, and therefore phagocytes that are labeled by HSP are recognized as target cells. T lymphocytes bearing γδT cell receptor (TCR) elicit fast responses to invading pathogens. Since the γδTCR has limited germline-encoded diversity, HSP are an ideal target for recognition by these cells. γδT cells exert cytotoxic actions towards macrophages and neutrophils that express Hsp60 or Hsp70, respectively, on their cell surface. Through the recognition of HSP on the cell surface of inflamed cells, γδT cells eliminate phagocytes from inflammatory sites, thereby preventing host tissue damage

title: Immune environment modulation in pneumonia patients caused by coronavirus: SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2
abstract: Currently, we are on a global pandemic of Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) which causes fever, dry cough, fatigue and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) that may ultimately lead to the death of the infected. Current researches on COVID-19 continue to highlight the necessity for further understanding the virus-host synergies. In this study, we have highlighted the key cytokines induced by coronavirus infections. We have demonstrated that genes coding interleukins (Il-1α, Il-1β, Il-6, Il-10), chemokine (Ccl2, Ccl3, Ccl5, Ccl10), and interferon (Ifn-α2, Ifn-β1, Ifn2) upsurge significantly which in line with the elevated infiltration of T cells, NK cells and monocytes in SARS-Cov treated group at 24 hours. Also, interleukins (IL-6, IL-23α, IL-10, IL-7, IL-1α, IL-1β) and interferon (IFN-α2, IFN2, IFN-γ) have increased dramatically in MERS-Cov at 24 hours. A similar cytokine profile showed the cytokine storm served a critical role in the infection process. Subsequent investigation of 463 patients with COVID-19 disease revealed the decreased amount of total lymphocytes, CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the severe type patients which indicated COVID-19 can impose hard blows on human lymphocyte resulting in lethal pneumonia. Thus, taking control of changes in immune factors could be critical in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Immune responses and pathogenesis in persistently PCR‐positive patients with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection
abstract: Coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) caused by SARS‐CoV‐2 emerged in China in December 2019 and then rapidly spread worldwide. Why COVID‐19 patients with the same clinical condition have different outcomes remains unclear. This study aimed to examine the differences in the phenotype and functions of major populations of immune cells between COVID‐19 patients with same severity but different outcomes. Four common type adult inpatients with laboratory confirmed COVID‐19 from Beijing YouAn Hospital, Capital Medical University were included in this study. The patients were divided into two groups based on whether or not COVID‐19 PCR‐negative conversion occurred within three weeks. Peripheral blood samples were collected to compare the differences in the phenotype and functions of major populations of immune cells between the two groups of patients. The result shows that the proportions of CD3(+)CD8(+)CD38(+)HLA‐DR(+)CD27(‐) effector T killer cells generally declined, whereas that of CD3(+)CD4(+)CD8(+) double‐positive T cells (DPTs) increased in the persistently PCR‐positive patients. In summary, considering the imbalance between effector T killer cells/ CD3+CD4+CD8+ DPTs was a possible key factor for PCR‐negative conversion in COVID‐19 patients. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Status and Suggestions on Postmortem Examination during the Outbreak of COVID-19.

title: Profiling COVID-19 pneumonia progressing into the cytokine storm syndrome: results from a single Italian Centre study on tocilizumab versus standard of care
abstract: Approximately 5% of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) develop a life-threatening pneumonia that often occurs in the setting of increased inflammation or “cytokine storm”. Anti-cytokine treatments are being evaluated but optimal patient selection remains unclear, and the aim of our study is to address this point.  Between February 29 to April 6, 2020, 111 consecutive hospitalized patients with COVID-19 pneumonia were evaluated in a single centre retrospective study. Patients were divided in two groups: 42 severe cases (TOCI) with adverse prognostic features including raised CRP and IL-6 levels, who underwent anti-cytokine treatments, mostly tocilizumab, and 69 standard of care patients (SOC).  In the TOCI group, all received anti-viral therapy and 40% also received glucocorticoids. In TOCI, 62% of cases were ventilated and there were 3 deaths (17.8 ± 10.6 days, mean follow up) with 7/26 cases remaining on ventilators, without improvement, and 17/26 developed bacterial superinfection. One fatality occurred in the 15 TOCI cases treated on noninvasive ventilation and 1 serious bacterial superinfection. Of the 69 cases in SOC, there was no fatalities and no bacterial complications. The TOCI group had higher baseline CRP and IL-6 elevations (p < 0.0001 for both) and higher neutrophils and lower lymphocyte levels (p = 0.04 and p = 0.001, respectively) with the TOCI ventilated patients having higher markers than non-ventilated TOCI patients.  Higher inflammatory markers, more infections and worse outcomes characterized ventilated TOCI cases compared to ward based TOCI. Despite the confounding factors, this suggests that therapy time in anti-cytokine randomized trials will be key.

title: COVID-19 in patients with rheumatic disease in Hubei province, China: a multicentre retrospective observational study
abstract: In the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the susceptibility of patients with rheumatic diseases to COVID-19 remains unclear. We aimed to investigate susceptibility to COVID-19 in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.  We did a multicentre retrospective study of patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases in Hubei province, the epicentre of the COVID-19 outbreak in China. Patients with rheumatic diseases were contacted through an automated telephone-based survey to investigate their susceptibility to COVID-19. Data about COVID-19 exposure or diagnosis were collected. Families with a documented history of COVID-19 exposure, as defined by having at least one family member diagnosed with COVID-19, were followed up by medical professionals to obtain detailed information, including sex, age, smoking history, past medical history, use of medications, and information related to COVID-19.  Between March 20 and March 30, 2020, 6228 patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases were included in the study. The overall rate of COVID-19 in patients with an autoimmune rheumatic disease in our study population was 0·43% (27 of 6228 patients). We identified 42 families in which COVID-19 was diagnosed between Dec 20, 2019, and March 20, 2020, in either patients with a rheumatic disease or in a family member residing at the same physical address during the outbreak. Within these 42 families, COVID-19 was diagnosed in 27 (63%) of 43 patients with a rheumatic disease and in 28 (34%) of 83 of their family members with no rheumatic disease (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 2·68 [95% CI 1·14–6·27]; p=0·023). Patients with rheumatic disease who were taking hydroxychloroquine had a lower risk of COVID-19 infection than patients taking other disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (OR 0·09 [95% CI 0·01–0·94]; p=0·044). Additionally, the risk of COVID-19 was increased with age (adjusted OR 1·04 [95%CI 1·01–1·06]; p=0·0081).  Patients with autoimmune rheumatic disease might be more susceptible to COVID-19 infection than the general population.

title: Early Short Course Corticosteroids in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19
abstract: There is no proven antiviral or immunomodulatory therapy for COVID-19. The disease progression associated with the pro-inflammatory host response prompted us to examine the role of early corticosteroid therapy in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19.  We conducted a single pre-test, single post-test quasi-experiment in a multi-center health system in Michigan from March 12 to March 27, 2020. Adult patients with confirmed moderate to severe COVID were included. A protocol was implemented on March 20, 2020 using early, short-course, methylprednisolone 0.5 to 1 mg/kg/day divided in 2 intravenous doses for 3 days. Outcomes of standard of care (SOC) and early corticosteroid groups were evaluated, with a primary composite endpoint of escalation of care from ward to ICU, new requirement for mechanical ventilation, and mortality. All patients had at least 14 days of follow-up.  We analyzed 213 eligible subjects, 81 (38%) and 132 (62%) in SOC and early corticosteroid groups, respectively.The composite endpoint occurred at a significantly lower rate in the early corticosteroid group (34.9% vs. 54.3%, p=0.005). This treatment effect was observed within each individual component of the composite endpoint. Significant reduction in median hospital length of stay was also observed in the early corticosteroid group (8 vs. 5 days, p < 0.001). Multivariate regression analysis demonstrated an independent reduction in the composite endpoint at 14-days controlling for other factors (aOR: 0.41; 95% CI [0.22 – 0.77]).  An early short course of methylprednisolone in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 reduced escalation of care and improved clinical outcomes.

title: Elevated Serum Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecules Expression in COVID-19 Patients
abstract: In a retrospective study of 39 COVID-19 patients and 32 control participants in China, we collected clinical data and examined the expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Serum levels of fractalkine, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and vascular adhesion protein-1 (VAP-1) elevated in mild patients, dramatically in severe cases, while decreased in the convalescence phase. In conclusion, the increased expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules is related to COVID-19 and disease severity and may contribute to coagulation dysfunction.

title: Author response to Letter to the Editor 'Liver impairment associated with disease progression in COVID-19 patients'

title: Clinical manifestations and evidence of neurological involvement in 2019 novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review and meta-analysis
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global pandemic, affecting millions of people. However, clinical research on its neurological manifestations is thus far limited. In this study, we aimed to systematically collect and investigate the clinical manifestations and evidence of neurological involvement in COVID-19.  Three medical (Medline, Embase, and Scopus) and two preprints (BioRxiv and MedRxiv) databases were systematically searched for all published articles on neurological involvement in COVID-19 since the outbreak. All included studies were systematically reviewed, and selected clinical data were collected for meta-analysis via random-effects.  A total of 41 articles were eligible and included in this review, showing a wide spectrum of neurological manifestations in COVID-19. The meta-analysis for unspecific neurological symptoms revealed that the most common manifestations were fatigue (33.2% [23.1–43.3]), anorexia (30.0% [23.2–36.9]), dyspnea/shortness of breath (26.9% [19.2–34.6]), and malaise (26.7% [13.3–40.1]). The common specific neurological symptoms included olfactory (35.7–85.6%) and gustatory (33.3–88.8%) disorders, especially in mild cases. Guillain–Barré syndrome and acute inflammation of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges were repeatedly reported after COVID-19. Laboratory, electrophysiological, radiological, and pathological evidence supported neurologic involvement of COVID-19.  Neurological manifestations are various and prevalent in COVID-19. Emerging clinical evidence suggests neurological involvement is an important aspect of the disease. The underlying mechanisms can include both direct invasion and maladaptive inflammatory responses. More studies should be conducted to explore the role of neurological manifestations in COVID-19 progression and to verify their underlying mechanisms.  The online version of this article (10.1007/s00415-020-09974-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

title: Cellular composition and interferon-γ expression of the local inflammatory response in feline infectious peritonitis (FIP)
abstract: Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is one of the most important viral diseases of cats. International studies estimate that approximately 80% of all purebred cats are infected with the causative agent, feline coronavirus (FCoV). Out of these, 5–12% develop clinical symptoms of FIP. The pathogenesis of the disease is complex with many unresolved issues relating to the role of the immune system. The aim of the present study was to determine the proportions of various inflammatory cell types in FIP lesions by using a panel of cat specific, thoroughly validated, monoclonal antibodies. In addition, the expression of interferon-γ within the inflammatory lesions was examined by RT-PCR. Our results confirm the mixed nature of the inflammatory reaction in FIP, involving B cells and plasma cells as well as CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. However, one cell type stands out as being the key element in both the “wet” and “dry” forms of FIP: the macrophage. Upregulation of IFN-γ expression within the inflammatory lesions suggests a local activation of macrophages, which might result in increased viral replication.

title: Differential Diagnosis of Common Acute Toxicologic Versus Nontoxicologic Illness
abstract: This table outlines common toxicologic versus nontoxicologic rule outs based on clinical abnormalities seen in an acutely ill animal. The purpose is to provide an initial guideline for considering toxicologic versus nontoxicologic rule outs when a patient is presented to a practicing veterinarian. Major clinical abnormalities followed by common toxicologic rule outs and non-toxicologic rule outs have been listed so that practicing veterinarians can narrow down an etiology quickly. Based on history, physical examination findings, and blood work changes, once a reasonable etiology has been narrowed down or established, the reader is encouraged to review a more detailed discussion on management of the particular poisoning or disease listed in this or other references.

title: E-cigarette-Induced Pulmonary Inflammation and Dysregulated Repair are Mediated by nAChR α7 Receptor: Role of nAChR α7 in ACE2 Covid-19 receptor regulation
abstract: Electronic cigarette (e-cig) vaping is increasing rapidly in the United States, as e-cigs are considered less harmful than combustible cigarettes. However, limited research has been conducted to understand the possible mechanism that mediate, toxicity and pulmonary health effects of e-cigs. We hypothesized that sub-chronic e-cig exposure induces inflammatory response and dysregulated repair/extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, which occur through the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR α7). Adult wild-type (WT), nAChRα7 knockout (KO), and lung epithelial cell-specific KO (nAChRα7 CreCC10) mice were exposed to e-cig aerosol containing propylene glycol (PG) with or without nicotine. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) and lungs tissues were collected to determine e-cig induced inflammatory response and ECM remodeling, respectively. Sub-chronic e-cig exposure with nicotine increased the inflammatory cellular influx of macrophages and T-lymphocytes including increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in BALF and increased ACE2 Covid-19 receptor, whereas nAChR α7 KO mice show reduced inflammatory responses associated with decreased ACE2 receptor. Interestingly, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as MMP2, MMP8, and MMP9 were altered both at the protein and mRNA transcript levels in female and male, but WT mice exposed to PG alone showed a sex-dependent phenotype. Moreover, MMP12 was increased significantly in male mice exposed to PG with or without nicotine in a nAChR α7-dependent manner. Additionally, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine altered the abundance of ECM proteins, such as collagen and fibronectin significantly in a sex-dependent manner, but without the direct role of nAChR α7 gene. Overall, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine affected lung inflammation and repair responses/ECM remodeling, which were mediated by nAChR α7 in a sex-dependent manner.

title: The Role of Cytokines including Interleukin-6 in COVID-19 induced Pneumonia and Macrophage Activation Syndrome-Like Disease
abstract: Severe COVID-19 associated pneumonia patients may exhibit features of systemic hyper-inflammation designated under the umbrella term of macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) or cytokine storm, also known as secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistocytosis (sHLH). This is distinct from HLH associated with immunodeficiency states termed primary HLH -with radically different therapy strategies in both situations. COVID-19 infection with MAS typically occurs in subjects with adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and historically, non-survival in ARDS was linked to sustained IL-6 and IL-1 elevation. We provide a model for the classification of MAS to stratify the MAS-like presentation in COVID-19 pneumonia and explore the complexities of discerning ARDS from MAS. We discuss the potential impact of timing of anti-cytokine therapy on viral clearance and the impact of such therapy on intra-pulmonary macrophage activation and emergent pulmonary vascular disease.

title: Management of inflammatory bowel disease patients in the COVID-19 pandemic era: a Brazilian tertiary referral center guidance
abstract: The world is fighting the COVID-19 outbreak and health workers, including inflammatory bowel diseases specialists, have been challenged to address the specific clinical issues of their patients. We hereby summarize the current literature in the management of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients during the COVID-19 pandemic era that support the rearrangement of our IBD unit and the clinical advice provided to our patients.

title: Clinical and Immune Features of Hospitalized Pediatric Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China
abstract: The epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of pediatric patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been reported, but information on immune features associated with disease severity is scarce.  To delineate and compare the immunologic features of mild and moderate COVID-19 in pediatric patients.  This single-center case series included 157 pediatric patients admitted to Wuhan Children's Hospital with laboratory-confirmed severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Data were collected from January 25 to April 18, 2020.  Documented SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Clinical and immunologic characteristics were collected and analyzed. Outcomes were observed until April 18, 2020.  Of the 157 pediatric patients with COVID-19, 60 (38.2%) had mild clinical type with pneumonia, 88 (56.1%) had moderate cases, 6 (3.8%) had severe cases, and 3 (1.9%) were critically ill. The 148 children with mild or moderate disease had a median (interquartile range [IQR]) age of 84 (18-123) months, and 88 (59.5%) were girls. The most common laboratory abnormalities were increased levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (median [IQR], 16.0 [12.0-26.0] U/L), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (median [IQR], 30.0 [23.0-41.8] U/L), creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) activity (median [IQR], 24.0 [18.0-34.0] U/L), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (median [IQR], 243.0 [203.0-297.0] U/L), which are associated with liver and myocardial injury. Compared with mild cases, levels of inflammatory cytokines including interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor &#945;, and interferon Î³ were unchanged, whereas the level of immune suppressive interleukin 10 was markedly increased in moderate cases compared with mild cases (median [IQR], 3.96 [3.34-5.29] pg/mL vs 3.58 [3.10-4.36] pg/mL; P = .048). There was no statistically significant difference in absolute number of lymphocytes (including T cells and B cells) between mild and moderate cases, but moderate cases were associated with a decrease in neutrophil levels compared with mild cases (median [IQR], 2310/µL [1680/µL-3510/µL] vs 3120/µL [2040/µL-4170/µL]; P = .01). Immunoglobin G and the neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio were negatively associated with biochemical indices related to liver and myocardial injury (immunoglobulin G, ALT: r, -0.3579; AST: r, -0.5280; CK-MB activity: r, -0.4786; LDH: r, -0.4984; and neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, ALT: r, -0.1893; AST: r, -0.3912; CK-MB activity: r, -0.3428; LDH: r, -0.3234), while counts of lymphocytes, CD4+ T cells, and interleukin 10 showed positive associations (lymphocytes, ALT: r, 0.2055; AST: r, 0.3615; CK-MB activity: r, 0.338; LDH: r, 0.3309; CD4+ T cells, AST: r, 0.4701; CK-MB activity: r, 0.4151; LDH: r, 0.4418; interleukin 10, ALT: r, 0.2595; AST: r, 0.3386; CK-MB activity: r, 0.3948; LDH: r, 0.3794).  In this case series, systemic inflammation rarely occurred in pediatric patients with COVID-19, in contrast with the lymphopenia and aggravated inflammatory responses frequently observed in adults with COVID-19. Gaining a deeper understanding of the role of neutrophils, CD4+ T cells, and B cells in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection could be important for the clinical management of COVID-19.

title: Systemic Capillary Leak Syndrome secondary to Covid-19
abstract: Systemic capillary leak syndrome is a rare disorder characterized by dysfunctional inflammatory response, endothelial dysfunction, and extravasation of fluid from the vascular space to the interstitial space leading to shock, hemoconcentration, hypoalbuminemia and subsequent organ failure. The condition may be idiopathic or secondary to an underlying cause, which can include viral infections. Here we describe a patient with acute COVID-19 infection who presented with hemoconcentration, shock and hypoalbuminemia. The patient subsequently developed rhabdomyolysis and compartment syndrome of all four extremities requiring fasciotomies. This is the first reported case of systemic capillary leak syndrome associated with COVID-19 infection. This case adds to the evolving spectrum of inflammatory effects associated with this viral infection.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: is interleukin-6 (IL-6) the 'culprit lesion' of ARDS onset? What is there besides Tocilizumab? SGP130Fc
abstract: Since the outbreak of COVID-19 many studies have been published showing possible therapies, here the author discusses the end of stage disease related drugs, like Tocilizumab which is currently being used in ARDS patients. In some patients, disease progression leads to an enormous secretion of cytokines, known as cytokine storm, among those cytokines IL-6 plays an important role. Here the author shows how IL-6 has both pro and anti-inflammatory properties, depending on the pathway of transduction: soluble (trans-signaling) or membrane-related (classic signaling), and suggests how targeting only the pro-inflammatory pathway, with SGP130Fc, could be a better option then targeting them both. Other possible IL-6 pathway inhibitors such as Ruxolitinib and Baricinitib are then analyzed, underlying how they lack the benefit of targeting only the pro-inflammatory pathway.

title: Managing patients with rheumatic diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic: The French Society of Rheumatology answers to most frequently asked questions up to May 2020
abstract: Rheumatologists must contend with COVID-19 pandemic in the management of their patients and many questions have been raised on the use of both anti-inflammatory drugs and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARD). The French Society of Rheumatology (SFR) selected the most critical ones to the daily practice of a rheumatologist and a group of 10 experts from SFR and Club Rheumatism and Inflammation (CRI) boards proposed responses based on the current knowledge of May 2020. Basic procedure: Following the availability of the first 18 questions and statements, 1400 individuals consulted the frequently asked questions between the March 31, 2020 and April 12, 2020. As a result, 16 additional questions were forwarded to the SFR, and answered by the board. An additional round of review by email and video conference was organized, which included updates of the previous statements. The scientific relevance of 5 of the questions led to their inclusion in this document. Each response received a final assessment on a scale of 0–10 with 0 meaning no agreement whatsoever and 10 being in complete agreement. The mean values of these votes for each question are presented as the levels of agreement (LoA) at the end of each response. This document was last updated on April 17, 2020.  Based on current scientific literature already published, in most circumstances, there is no contraindication to the initiation or continuation of anti-inflammatory drugs as well as DMARDs. If signs suggestive of infection (coronavirus or other) occurs, treatments should be discontinued and resumed, if necessary, after 2 weeks without any symptoms. Only, some signals suggest that people taking an immunosuppressive dose of corticosteroid therapy are at greater risk of developing severe COVID-19. Intra-articular injections of glucocorticoids are allowed when there is no reasonable therapeutic alternative, and providing that precautions to protect the patient and the practitioner from viral contamination are adopted, included appropriate information to the patient.  Currently available data on managing patients with rheumatic diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic are reassuring and support continuing or initiating symptomatic as well as specific treatments of these diseases, the main target of their management remaining their appropriate control, even during this pandemic.

title: Studies on the Influence of a Mutation of MASP‐2 on the Binding to MBL and Ficolins
abstract: The complement system is an important part of the innate immune system. The activation of complement proceeds through three different pathways that converge in the generation of C3‐activating enzyme complexes. Complement activation via the lectin pathway is initiated when recognition molecules, mannan‐binding lectin (MBL) or ficolin, bind to carbohydrate structures characteristic for microbial surfaces. In the circulation, MBL and ficolins are found in association with three structurally related MBL‐associated serine proteases (MASP)‐1, ‐2 and ‐3 and a small, nonenzymatic component, MAp19. MASP‐2 has been shown to elicit complement activation through the sequential proteolytic cleavage of C4 and C2 upon binding of MBL/MASP‐2 complexes to microbial surfaces. We have recently uncovered a polymorphism in the MASP‐2/MAp19 gene in a patient shown to be deficient in the lectin pathway of complement activation. The polymorphism results in a single amino acid substitution in the N‐terminal part of the MASP‐2 protein. Recombinant wildtype MASP‐2 and MASP‐2 containing the amino acid substitution in question was produced, and the ability to activate complement was studied. The mutation had a profound impact on MASP‐2 function, resulting in the lack of complement activation through the lectin pathway. ELISA‐based experiments showed that the mutation leads to the impairment of complement activation through influencing the binding of MASP‐2 to MBL or ficolins. Deficiencies in the lectin pathway of complement activation have so far been accounted for only by lack of functional MBL. The mutation described above is the first defect described affecting both activation through MBL and the ficolins.

title: Macrophage polarization and its role in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome
abstract: Macrophages are highly plastic cells. Under different stimuli, macrophages can be polarized into several different subsets. Two main macrophage subsets have been suggested: classically activated or inflammatory (M1) macrophages and alternatively activated or anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophages. Macrophage polarization is governed by a highly complex set of regulatory networks. Many recent studies have shown that macrophages are key orchestrators in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and that regulation of macrophage polarization may improve the prognosis of ALI/ARDS. A further understanding of the mechanisms of macrophage polarization is expected to be helpful in the development of novel therapeutic targets to treat ALI/ARDS. Therefore, we performed a literature review to summarize the regulatory mechanisms of macrophage polarization and its role in the pathogenesis of ALI/ARDS.  A computer-based online search was performed using the PubMed database and Web of Science database for published articles concerning macrophages, macrophage polarization, and ALI/ARDS.  In this review, we discuss the origin, polarization, and polarization regulation of macrophages as well as the role of macrophage polarization in various stages of ARDS. According to the current literature, regulating the polarized state of macrophages might be a potential therapeutic strategy against ALI/ARDS.

title: Screening for Active COVID-19 Infection and Immunization Status Prior to Biologic Therapy in IBD Patients at the Time of the Pandemic Outbreak
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 has been recently classified as pandemic infection by the World Health Organization. Patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are invited to follow the national recommendations as any other person. It is unclear whether a more aggressive clinical course might develop in asymptomatic COVID-19 infected subjects during biological therapy and current evidence does not support treatment suspension. However, during pandemic, the start of treatment with immunosuppressive drugs and biologics should be postponed whenever possible and based on an individual risk assessment. When clinical conditions and the disease activity do not allow a treatment delay, before starting a biological therapy, screening of IBD patients for COVID-19 active infection by RT-PCR should be advisable, even in absence of clinical suspicion. Serum antibody testing, when available, could provide evidence of infection as well as identify patients already immune to the disease.

title: Systematic Identification of Novel, Essential Host Genes Affecting Bromovirus RNA Replication
abstract: Positive-strand RNA virus replication involves viral proteins and cellular proteins at nearly every replication step. Brome mosaic virus (BMV) is a well-established model for dissecting virus-host interactions and is one of very few viruses whose RNA replication, gene expression and encapsidation have been reproduced in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Previously, our laboratory identified ∼100 non-essential host genes whose loss inhibited or enhanced BMV replication at least 3-fold. However, our isolation of additional BMV-modulating host genes by classical genetics and other results underscore that genes essential for cell growth also contribute to BMV RNA replication at a frequency that may be greater than that of non-essential genes. To systematically identify novel, essential host genes affecting BMV RNA replication, we tested a collection of ∼900 yeast strains, each with a single essential gene promoter replaced by a doxycycline-repressible promoter, allowing repression of gene expression by adding doxycycline to the growth medium. Using this strain array of ∼81% of essential yeast genes, we identified 24 essential host genes whose depleted expression reproducibly inhibited or enhanced BMV RNA replication. Relevant host genes are involved in ribosome biosynthesis, cell cycle regulation and protein homeostasis, among other cellular processes. BMV 2a(Pol) levels were significantly increased in strains depleted for a heat shock protein (HSF1) or proteasome components (PRE1 and RPT6), suggesting these genes may affect BMV RNA replication by directly or indirectly modulating 2a(Pol) localization, post-translational modification or interacting partners. Investigating the diverse functions of these newly identified essential host genes should advance our understanding of BMV-host interactions and normal cellular pathways, and suggest new modes of virus control.

title: Three Novel Prevention, Diagnostic and Treatment Options for COVID-19 Urgently Necessitating Controlled Randomized Trials
abstract: Asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic infection with COVID-19 can result in silent transmission to large numbers of individuals, resulting in expansion of the pandemic with a global increase in morbidity and mortality. New ways of screening the general population for COVID-19 are urgently needed along with novel effective prevention and treatment strategies.  A hypothetical three-part prevention, diagnostic, and treatment approach based on an up-to-date scientific literature review for COVID- 19 is proposed. Regarding diagnosis, a validated screening questionnaire and digital app for COVID-19 could help identify individuals who are at risk of transmitting the disease, as well as those at highest risk for poor clinical outcomes. Global implementation and online tracking of vital signs and scored questionnaires that are statistically validated would help health authorities properly allocate essential health care resources to test and isolate those at highest risk for transmission and poor outcomes. Second, regarding prevention, no validated protocols except for physical distancing, hand washing, and isolation exist, and recently ivermectin and the antimalarial drugs chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine has been published to have anti-viral properties against COVID-19. A randomized trial of ivermectin or hydroxychloroquine alone, and/or nutraceuticals that have been published to support immune function including Vitamin C, zinc, and immunomodulatory supplements (3,6 Beta glucan) could be beneficial in preventing transmission or lessening symptomatology but requires statistical validation. Third, concerning treatment, COVID-19 induced inflammation and “cytokine storm syndrome” with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH)/Macrophage Activation Syndrome (MAS) have resulted in extreme morbidity and mortality in those with certain comorbidities, secondary to “acute respiratory distress syndrome” (ARDS) and multiorgan dysfunction with disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Deficiency in red blood cell, serum and alveolar glutathione has been published in the medical literature for ARDS, as well as viral and bacterial pneumonias, resulting from increased levels of free radical/oxidative stress. A randomized controlled trial of blocking NFKappa B and cytokine formation using glutathione precursors (N-acetyl-cysteine [NAC] and alpha lipoic acid) and PO/IV glutathione should be performed, along with an evaluation of Nrf2 activators (curcumin, sulforaphane glucosinolate) which have been scientifically proven to lower inflammation. Since high mortality rates from sepsis induced DIC due to COVID 19 infection has also been associated with thrombotic events and elevated levels of D-dimer, randomized controlled trials of using anticoagulant therapy with heparin is urgently required. This is especially important in patients on ventilators who have met certain sepsis induced coagulopathy (SIC) criteria. The use of acetazolamide with or without sildenafil also needs to be explored with or without heparin, since increased oxygen delivery to vital organs through prevention of thrombosis/pulmonary emboli along with carbonic anhydrase inhibition may help increase oxygenation and prevent adverse clinical outcomes.  a three-part prevention, diagnostic, and treatment plan is proposed for addressing the severe complications of COVID-19. Digital monitoring of symptoms to clinically diagnose early exposure and response to treatment; prevention with hydroxychloroquine and/or ivermetin as well as nutritional therapies that support a healthy immune response; treatment with anti-inflammatory therapies that block NFKappaB and activate Nrf2 pathways, as well as novel therapies that address COVID-19 pneumonia and ARDS with DIC including anticoagulation and/ or novel respiratory therapies with or without acetazolamide and sildenafil. These three broad-based interventions urgently need to be subjected to randomized, controlled trials.

title: Antipsychotic-Induced Immune Dysfunction: A Consideration for COVID-19 Risk
abstract: Patients with severe mental illness are more susceptible to infections for a variety of reasons, some associated with the underlying disease and some due to environmental factors including housing insecurity, smoking, poor access to healthcare, and medications used to treat these disorders. This increased susceptibility to respiratory infections may contribute to risk of COVID-19 infection in patients with severe mental illness or those in inpatient settings. Atypical antipsychotic (AA) medications are FDA approved to treat symptoms associated with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression and irritability associated with autism. Our team and others have shown that AA may have anti-inflammatory properties that may contribute to their efficacy in the treatment of mental health disorders. Additionally, AA are widely prescribed off-label for diverse indications to non-psychotic patients including older adults, who are also at increased risk for COVID-19 complications and mortality. The aim of this study was to determine if AA medications such as risperidone (RIS) alter the ability to mount an appropriate response to an acute inflammatory or adaptive immune challenge using a preclinical model. Short-term treatment of healthy mice with a dose of RIS that achieves plasma concentrations within the low clinical range resulted in disrupted response to an inflammatory (LPS) challenge compared to vehicle controls. Furthermore, RIS also prevented treated animals from mounting an antibody response following vaccination with Pneumovax23®. These data indicate that short- to intermediate-term exposure to clinically relevant levels of RIS dysregulate innate and adaptive immune responses, which may affect susceptibility to respiratory infections, including COVID-19.

title: Longitudinal characteristics of lymphocyte responses and cytokine profiles in the peripheral blood of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients
abstract: The dynamic changes of lymphocyte subsets and cytokines profiles of patients with novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and their correlation with the disease severity remain unclear.  Peripheral blood samples were longitudinally collected from 40 confirmed COVID-19 patients and examined for lymphocyte subsets by flow cytometry and cytokine profiles by specific immunoassays.  Of the 40 COVID-19 patients enrolled, 13 severe cases showed significant and sustained decreases in lymphocyte counts [0·6 (0·6-0·8)] but increases in neutrophil counts [4·7 (3·6-5·8)] than 27 mild cases [1.1 (0·8-1·4); 2·0 (1·5-2·9)]. Further analysis demonstrated significant decreases in the counts of T cells, especially CD8+ T cells, as well as increases in IL-6, IL-10, IL-2 and IFN-Î³ levels in the peripheral blood in the severe cases compared to those in the mild cases. T cell counts and cytokine levels in severe COVID-19 patients who survived the disease gradually recovered at later time points to levels that were comparable to those of the mild cases. Moreover, the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) (AUC=0·93) and neutrophil-to-CD8+ T cell ratio (N8R) (AUC =0·94) were identified as powerful prognostic factors affecting the prognosis for severe COVID-19.  The degree of lymphopenia and a proinflammatory cytokine storm is higher in severe COVID-19 patients than in mild cases, and is associated with the disease severity. N8R and NLR may serve as a useful prognostic factor for early identification of severe COVID-19 cases.  The National Natural Science Foundation of China, the National Science and Technology Major Project, the Health Commission of Hubei Province, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, and the Medical Faculty of the University of Duisburg-Essen and Stiftung Universitaetsmedizin, Hospital Essen, Germany.

title: Pathogenesis of virus-induced immune-mediated demyelination
abstract: Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease has been extensively studied as an attractive infectiousmodel for human multiple sclerosis. Virus-specific inflammatory Th1 cell responses followed by autoimmune responses to myelin antigens play a crucial role in the pathogenic processes leading to demyelination. Antibody and cytotoxic T cells (CTL) responses to virus appears to be primarily protective from demyelinating disease. Although the role of Th1 and CTL responses in the induction of demyelinating disease is controversial, assessment of cytokine sproduced locally in the central nervous system (CNS) during the course of disease and the effects of altered inflammatory cytokine levels strongly support the importance of Th1 responses in this virus-induced demyelinating disease. Induction of various chemokines and cytokines in different glial and antigen presenting cells upon viral infection appears to be an important initiation mechanism for inflammatory Th1 responses in the CNS. Coupled with the initial inflammatory responses, viral persistence in the CNS may be acritical factor for sustaining inflammatory responses and consequent immune-mediated demyelinating disease.

title: Cytokine storm and immunomodulatory therapy in COVID-19: role of chloroquine and anti-IL-6 monoclonal antibodies
abstract: • Discussion of the role of immunomodulatory agents to reduce the cytokine storm in severe cases of COVID-19. • Potential immunomodulatory agents currently used in the treatment of COVID-19 (chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine and tocilizumab) are discussed. • Other immunomodulatory agents with good safety profiles may be considered for use in combination with antiviral drugs for the treatment of severe or critical cases of COVID-19.

title: Regulation of Cytokine Production by the Unfolded Protein Response; Implications for Infection and Autoimmunity
abstract: Protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an essential cell function. To safeguard this process in the face of environmental threats and internal stressors, cells mount an evolutionarily conserved response known as the unfolded protein response (UPR). Invading pathogens induce cellular stress that impacts protein folding, thus the UPR is well situated to sense danger and contribute to immune responses. Cytokines (inflammatory cytokines and interferons) critically mediate host defense against pathogens, but when aberrantly produced, may also drive pathologic inflammation. The UPR influences cytokine production on multiple levels, from stimulation of pattern recognition receptors, to modulation of inflammatory signaling pathways, and the regulation of cytokine transcription factors. This review will focus on the mechanisms underlying cytokine regulation by the UPR, and the repercussions of this relationship for infection and autoimmune/autoinflammatory diseases. Interrogation of viral and bacterial infections has revealed increasing numbers of examples where pathogens induce or modulate the UPR and implicated UPR-modulated cytokines in host response. The flip side of this coin, the UPR/ER stress responses have been increasingly recognized in a variety of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Examples include monogenic disorders of ER function, diseases linked to misfolding protein (HLA-B27 and spondyloarthritis), diseases directly implicating UPR and autophagy genes (inflammatory bowel disease), and autoimmune diseases targeting highly secretory cells (e.g., diabetes). Given the burgeoning interest in pharmacologically targeting the UPR, greater discernment is needed regarding how the UPR regulates cytokine production during specific infections and autoimmune processes, and the relative place of this interaction in pathogenesis.

title: An insertion unique to SARS-CoV-2 exhibits superantigenic character strengthened by recent mutations
abstract: Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) associated with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a newly recognized condition in which children with recent SARS-CoV-2 infection present with a constellation of symptoms including hypotension, multiorgan involvement, and elevated inflammatory markers. These symptoms and the associated laboratory values strongly resemble toxic shock syndrome, an escalation of the cytotoxic adaptive immune response triggered upon the binding of pathogenic superantigens to MHCII molecules and T cell receptors (TCRs). Here, we used structure-based computational models to demonstrate that the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) exhibits a high-affinity motif for binding TCR, interacting closely with both the α- and β-chains variable domains’ complementarity-determining regions. The binding epitope on S harbors a sequence motif unique to SARS-CoV-2 (not present in any other SARS coronavirus), which is highly similar in both sequence and structure to bacterial superantigens. Further examination revealed that this interaction between the virus and human T cells is strengthened in the context of a recently reported rare mutation (D839Y/N/E) from a European strain of SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, the interfacial region includes selected residues from a motif shared between the SARS viruses from the 2003 and 2019 pandemics, which has intracellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-like character. These data suggest that the SARS-CoV-2 S may act as a superantigen to drive the development of MIS-C as well as cytokine storm in adult COVID-19 patients, with important implications for the development of therapeutic approaches.

title: Rationale for Evaluating PDE4 Inhibition for Mitigating against Severe Inflammation in COVID-19 Pneumonia and Beyond
abstract: In the absence of definitive anti-viral therapy, there is considerable interest in mitigating against severe inflammatory reactions in coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia to improve survival. These reactions are sometimes termed cytokine storm. PDE4 inhibitors (PDE4i) have anti-inflammatory properties with approved indications in inflammatory skin and joint diseases as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Furthermore, multiple animal models demonstrate strong anti-inflammatory effects of PDE4i in respiratory models of viral and bacterial infection and also after chemically mediated lung injury. The rationale for PDE4i use in COVID-19 patients comes from the multimodal mechanism of action with cytokine, chemokine, and other key pathway inhibition all achieved with an excellent safety profile. We highlight how PDE4i could be an overlooked treatment from the rheumatologic and respiratory armamentarium, which has potential beneficial immune-modulation for treating severe COVID-19 pneumonia associated with cytokine storms. The proposed use of PDE4i is also supported by age-related immune changes in inflammation severity in PDE4i modifiable pathways in primate coronavirus disease. In conclusion, over-exuberant anti-viral immune responses in older patients with COVID-19 may pose a substantial risk to patient survival and mitigation against such hyper-inflammation with PDE4i, especially with anti-viral agents, is a strategy that need to be pursed, especially in older patients.

title: Integrative pharmacological mechanism of vitamin C combined with glycyrrhizic acid against COVID-19: findings of bioinformatics analyses.
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a fatal and fast-spreading viral infection. To date, the number of COVID-19 patients worldwide has crossed over six million with over three hundred and seventy thousand deaths (according to the data from World Health Organization; updated on 2 June 2020). Although COVID-19 can be rapidly diagnosed, efficient clinical treatment of COVID-19 remains unavailable, resulting in high fatality. Some clinical trials have identified vitamin C (VC) as a potent compound pneumonia management. In addition, glycyrrhizic acid (GA) is clinically as an anti-inflammatory medicine against pneumonia-induced inflammatory stress. We hypothesized that the combination of VC and GA is a potential option for treating COVID-19.  The aim of this study was to determine pharmacological targets and molecular mechanisms of VC + GA treatment for COVID-19, using bioinformational network pharmacology.  We uncovered optimal targets, biological processes and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways of VC + GA against COVID-19. Our findings suggested that combinatorial VC and GA treatment for COVID-19 was associated with elevation of immunity and suppression of inflammatory stress, including activation of the T cell receptor signaling pathway, regulation of Fc gamma R-mediated phagocytosis, ErbB signaling pathway and vascular endothelial growth factor signaling pathway. We also identified 17 core targets of VC + GA, which suggest as antimicrobial function.  For the first time, our study uncovered the pharmacological mechanism underlying combined VC and GA treatment for COVID-19. These results should benefit efforts to address the most pressing problem currently facing the world.

title: Induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) and lung inflammation by Coronavirus-19 (COVI-19 or SARS-CoV-2): anti-inflammatory strategies
abstract: Coronavirus-19 (COVI-19) involves humans as well as animals and may cause serious damage to the respiratory tract, including the lung: coronavirus disease (COVID-19). This pathogenic virus has been identified in swabs performed on the throat and nose of patients who suffer from or are suspected of the disease. When COVI-19 infect the upper and lower respiratory tract it can cause mild or highly acute respiratory syndrome with consequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-6. The binding of COVI-19 to the Toll Like Receptor (TLR) causes the release of pro-IL-1ß which is cleaved by caspase-1, followed by inflammasome activation and production of active mature IL-1ß which is a mediator of lung inflammation, fever and fibrosis. Suppression of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members and IL-6 have been shown to have a therapeutic effect in many inflammatory diseases, including viral infections. Cytokine IL-37 has the ability to suppress innate and acquired immune response and also has the capacity to inhibit inflammation by acting on IL-18R&#945; receptor. IL-37 performs its immunosuppressive activity by acting on mTOR and increasing the adenosine monophosphate (AMP) kinase. This cytokine inhibits class II histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and inflammation in inflammatory diseases by suppressing MyD88 and subsequently IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF and CCL2. The suppression of IL-1ß by IL-37 in inflammatory state induced by coronavirus-19 can have a new therapeutic effect previously unknown. Another inhibitory cytokine is IL-38, the newest cytokine of the IL-1 family members, produced by several immune cells including B cells and macrophages. IL-38 is also a suppressor cytokine which inhibits IL-1ß and other pro-inflammatory IL-family members. IL-38 is a potential therapeutic cytokine which inhibits inflammation in viral infections including that caused by coronavirus-19, providing a new relevant strategy.

title: Immunophenotyping of COVID-19 and influenza highlights the role of type I interferons in development of severe COVID-19
abstract: Although most SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals experience mild coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), some patients suffer from severe COVID-19, which is accompanied by acute respiratory distress syndrome and systemic inflammation. To identify factors driving severe progression of COVID-19, we performed single-cell RNA-seq using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from healthy donors, patients with mild or severe COVID-19, and patients with severe influenza. Patients with COVID-19 exhibited hyper-inflammatory signatures across all types of cells among PBMCs, particularly up-regulation of the TNF/IL-1ß-driven inflammatory response as compared to severe influenza. In classical monocytes from patients with severe COVID-19, type I IFN response co-existed with the TNF/IL-1ß-driven inflammation, and this was not seen in patients with milder COVID-19. Interestingly, we documented type I IFN-driven inflammatory features in patients with severe influenza as well. Based on this, we propose that the type I IFN response plays a pivotal role in exacerbating inflammation in severe COVID-19.

title: Considerations for Statin Therapy in Patients with COVID‐19
abstract: Current coronavirus pandemic named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). SARS-CoV-2 is the third coronavirus outbreak during the current century after severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronaviruses.1 Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is an immunopathologic event and main cause of death following COVID-19. The main mechanism of ARDS is uncontrolled systemic inflammatory response and cytokine storm following release of proinflammatory cytokines (such as interferons (IFN), interleukines (IL), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α) and chemokines.2-3 So, some Chinese researchers proposed or used anti-inflammatory agents in the treatment regimen of patients with COVID-19.3-4.

title: COVID-19: Pathogenesis, cytokine storm and therapeutic potential of interferons
abstract: The outbreak of the novel SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has developed into a major health hazard across the globe. The rapid escalation of the COVID-19 and the considerable associated illness leading to death has transformed it into a critical global public health issue. The current clinical investigation in patients with COVID-19 has showed strong upregulation of cytokine and interferon production after critical infection with SARS-CoV2- induced pneumonia. The current research suggests that few groups of patients with COVID-19 might have a cytokine storm syndrome. Thus, identification and treatment of hyperinflammation using existing, approved therapies with proven safety profiles to address the immediate need to reduce the rising mortality. To date, no specific therapeutic drug or vaccine has been discovered to treat this COVID-19. Intensive research is in progress to identify a promising drug therapy. Hence, several options were proposed to control this fast-emerging pandemic, including antiviral drugs, vaccines, small-molecules, monoclonal antibodies, oligonucleotides, peptides, and interferons (IFNs).

title: Retinal pathology in multiple sclerosis: insight into the mechanisms of neuronal pathology

title: The pathogenesis of inflammatory disease: Surgical shock and multiple system organ failure
abstract: Chronic inflammatory disease, embracing rheumatoid arthritis (RA), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), hepatitis, asthma, atherosclerosis, multiple system organ failure (MSOF), etc., is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS originate from activated neutrophils in infections and in immune and autoimmune reactions, from tissue deposits of ferritin, and from futile cycling of cytochrome P450 (CYP) following exposure to persistent chemicals, and may be perpetuated by the actions of complement, cytokines and eicosanoids. Acute inflammation is normally arrested by removal of ROS by tissue glutathione (GSH) and the antioxidant vitamins, A, C and E, all of which are regenerated by NADH and NADPH. Failure of this antioxidant defence system can lead to oxidative stress and to chronic inflammatory disease, including surgical shock and MSOF. The roles of oxidative stress and microcirculatory arrest in promoting MSOF, and of GSH, the antioxidant defence system, and fibronectin in preventing this, are reviewed in the light of recent experimental studies of surgical shock, including fasting, anaesthesia, hepatic ischaemia and reperfusion.

title: Therapeutic strategies for critically ill patients with COVID-19
abstract: Since the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak originated from Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, at the end of 2019, it has become a clinical threat to the general population worldwide. Among people infected with the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), the intensive management of the critically ill patients in intensive care unit (ICU) needs substantial medical resource. In the present article, we have summarized the promising drugs, adjunctive agents, respiratory supportive strategies, as well as circulation management, multiple organ function monitoring and appropriate nutritional strategies for the treatment of COVID-19 in the ICU based on the previous experience of treating other viral infections and influenza. These treatments are referable before the vaccine and specific drugs are available for COVID-19.

title: Use of anakinra in severe COVID-19: a case report
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 19 is a global healthcare emergency with high lethality rate. Relevant inflammatory cytokine storm is associated with severity of disease and IL1 inhibition is a cornerstone treatment for hyperinflammatory diseases. We present here the case of a patient with critical COVID-19 successfully treated with IL-1 receptor antagonist (anakinra).

title: Coagulopathy in COVID‐19
abstract: The COVID‐19 pandemic has become an urgent issue in every country. Based on recent reports, the most severely ill patients present with coagulopathy, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)‐like massive intravascular clot formation is frequently seen in this cohort. Therefore, coagulation tests may be considered useful to discriminate severe cases of COVID‐19. The clinical presentation of COVID‐19‐associated coagulopathy is organ dysfunction primarily, while hemorrhagic events are less frequent. Changes in hemostatic biomarkers represented by increase in D‐dimer and fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products indicate the essence of coagulopathy is massive fibrin formation. In comparison with bacterial‐sepsis‐associated coagulopathy/DIC, prolongation of prothrombin time, and activated partial thromboplastin time, and decrease in antithrombin activity is less frequent and thrombocytopenia is relatively uncommon in COVID‐19. The mechanisms of the coagulopathy are not fully elucidated, however. It is speculated that the dysregulated immune responses orchestrated by inflammatory cytokines, lymphocyte cell‐death, hypoxia, and endothelial damage are involved. Bleeding tendency is uncommon, but the incidence of thrombosis in COVID‐19 and the adequacy of current recommendations regarding standard venous thromboembolic dosing are uncertain.

title: The involvement of the central nervous system in patients with COVID-19
abstract: Coronaviruses disease (COVID-19) has caused major outbreaks. A novel variant, SARS-CoV-2, is responsible for COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical presentations and pathological mechanisms of COVID-19 are broad. The respiratory aspect of the disease has been extensively researched. Emerging studies point out the possibility of the central nervous system (CNS) involvement by COVID-19. Here, we discuss the current evidence for CNS involvement in COVID-19 and highlight that the high pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 might be due to its neuroinvasive potential.

title: Monoclonal Antibody as a Potential Anti-COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is expanding rapidly, which made it as one of top priorities for scientists to develop novel treatment strategies. Researchers are racing to develop treatments based on antibodies to block and/or neutralize the coronavirus in affected patients. Initially, the genetic and structural similarity of the virus to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) created the potential for understanding disease pathogenesis. Researchers have published reports of specific monoclonal antibodies against to COVID-19 (B38, H4, 47D11) and hope that this method is effective. As well as studies on patients who are plasma therapy, the patient's condition shows improvement. The evidence for these studies is very promising and demonstrates the potential of monoclonal antibody therapy as a therapeutic approach and prevention of covid-19 infection.

title: Revisiting hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine for patients with chronic immunity-mediated inflammatory rheumatic diseases
abstract: Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine, also known as antimalarial drugs, are widely used in the treatment of rheumatic diseases and have recently become the focus of attention because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Rheumatologists have been using antimalarials to manage patients with chronic immune-mediated inflammatory rheumatic diseases for decades. It is an appropriate time to review their immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory mechanisms impact on disease activity and survival of systemic lupus erythematosus patient, including antiplatelet effect, metabolic and lipid benefits. We also discuss possible adverse effects, adding a practical and comprehensive approach to monitoring rheumatic patients during treatment with these drugs.

title: Corona (COVID-19) time musings: Our involvement in COVID-19 pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and vaccine planning

title: Biomarkers associated with COVID-19 disease progression
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is a scientific, medical, and social challenge. The complexity of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is centered on the unpredictable clinical course of the disease that can rapidly develop, causing severe and deadly complications. The identification of effective laboratory biomarkers able to classify patients based on their risk is imperative in being able to guarantee prompt treatment. The analysis of recently published studies highlights the role of systemic vasculitis and cytokine mediated coagulation disorders as the principal actors of multi organ failure in patients with severe COVID-19 complications. The following biomarkers have been identified: hematological (lymphocyte count, neutrophil count, neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio (NLR)), inflammatory (C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), procalcitonin (PCT)), immunological (interleukin (IL)-6 and biochemical (D-dimer, troponin, creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST)), especially those related to coagulation cascades in disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). New laboratory biomarkers could be identified through the accurate analysis of multicentric case series; in particular, homocysteine and angiotensin II could play a significant role.

title: Covid-19: the renin–angiotensin system imbalance hypothesis
abstract: The emergency of SARS-CoV-2 in China started a novel challenge to the scientific community. As the virus turns pandemic, scientists try to map the cellular mechanisms and pathways of SARS-CoV-2 related to the pathogenesis of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19). After transmembrane angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been found to be SARS-CoV-2 receptor, we hypothesized an immune-hematological mechanism for Covid-19 based on renin–angiotensin system (RAS) imbalance to explain clinical, laboratory and imaging findings on disease course. We believe that exaggerated activation of ACE/Angiotensin II (Ang II)/Angiotensin Type 1 (AT1) receptor RAS axis in line with reduction of ACE2/Angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas receptor may exert a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Covid-19. In this perspective, we discuss potential mechanisms and evidence on this hypothesis.

title: Combined IL-6 and JAK-STAT inhibition therapy in COVID-19 related sHLH, potential game changer
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by novel SARS-CoV-2, leads to significant mortality and morbidity with increasing evidence for inflammatory pathways being implicated in the lung damage it causes. (1,2) Severe COVID-19 patients present with increased inflammatory markers, akin to secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH), that have been shown to predict mortality.  There is emerging evidence for the use of an interleukin 6 (IL-6) inhibitor, tocilizumab (TCZ), for suppression of the inflammatory cytokine storm in this context. (5-7) Ruxolitinib (RXB), a JAK-STAT inhibitor, has also been shown to have proven efficacy in the treatment of sHLH. (8) Both agents appear to be promising in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 infection, (9,10) leading to an increasing number of trials being registered with their use. (11,12) Until this point, no single agent has shown a survival benefit against SARS-CoV-2 and it is possible that monotherapy may not suppress inflammation enough to overcome the COVID-19 related cytokine storm and hyper-inflammation.

title: Letter: low population mortality from COVID‐19 in countries south of latitude 35° North supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity—authors’ reply
abstract: We thank Dr Mansur for his interest in our editorial in which we highlighted the association between northern latitude and increased COVID-19 mortality1 and for his helpful comments about the potential importance of vitamin D effects on cathelicidin and on the renin-angiotensin system, which could be important in protecting against severe COVID-19.2 Vitamin D is a secosteroid hormone, derived like cortisol and sex hormones from cholesterol, so not surprisingly it has a broad range of actions reflecting the several hundred or more genes that are vitamin D-responsive.3,4.

title: No indications for overt innate immune suppression in critically ill COVID-19 patients
abstract: At the end of March 2020, there were in excess of 800.000 confirmed cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) worldwide. Several reports suggest that, in severe cases, COVID-19 may cause a hyperinflammatory 'cytokine storm'. However, unlike SARS-CoV infection, high levels of anti-inflammatory mediators have also been reported in COVID-19 patients. One study reported that 16% of COVID-19 patients who died developed secondary infection, which might indicate an immune-suppressed state. We explored kinetics of mHLA-DR expression, the most widely used marker of innate immune suppression in critically ill patients, in COVID-19 patients admitted to the ICU. Twenty-four confirmed COVID-19 patients were included, of which 75% was male and 79% had comorbidities. All patients were mechanically ventilated and exhibited large high levels of inflammatory parameters such as CRP and PCT. mHLA-DR expression levels were mostly within the normal range of 15000 - 45000 mAb/cell and showed no change over time. COVID-19 patients displayed notably higher mHLA-DR expression levels compared with bacterial septic shock patients. None of the COVID-19 patients developed a secondary infection. In conclusion, despite a pronounced inflammatory response, mHLA-DR expression kinetics indicate no overt innate immune suppression in COVID-19 patients. These data signify that innate immune suppression as a negative feedback mechanism following PAMP-induced inflammation appears not to be present in COVID-19.

title: A Comprehensive Review on Tocilizumab in COVID‐19 Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
abstract: Currently, the world is facing the pandemic of a novel strain of beta‐coronavirus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2). Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is the most devastating complication of SARS‐CoV‐2. It was indicated that cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and dominantly IL‐6 play a central role in the pathophysiology of ARDS related to the novel 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID‐19). Despite the global emergency of the disease, at this time, there are no proven therapies for the management of the disease. Tocilizumab is a potential recombinant monoclonal antibody against IL‐6 and currently is under investigation for the management of ARDS in patients with COVID‐19. Given these points, we reviewed the current evidence regarding the potential therapeutic role of tocilizumab and its important clinical issues in the treatment of ARDS related to COVID‐19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

title: Pathological inflammation in patients with COVID-19: a key role for monocytes and macrophages
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic caused by infection with SARS-CoV-2 has led to more than 200,000 deaths worldwide. Several studies have now established that the hyperinflammatory response induced by SARS-CoV-2 is a major cause of disease severity and death in infected patients. Macrophages are a population of innate immune cells that sense and respond to microbial threats by producing inflammatory molecules that eliminate pathogens and promote tissue repair. However, a dysregulated macrophage response can be damaging to the host, as is seen in the macrophage activation syndrome induced by severe infections, including in infections with the related virus SARS-CoV. Here we describe the potentially pathological roles of macrophages during SARS-CoV-2 infection and discuss ongoing and prospective therapeutic strategies to modulate macrophage activation in patients with COVID-19.

title: Pathology of infectious diseases: new agents, opportunistic, neglectable, emergent, reemergent diseases and why not super resistant nosocomial bacteria?

title: Caring for persons in detention suffering with mental illness during the Covid-19 outbreak

title: The immune system and COVID-19: Friend or foe?
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a novel highly contagious infection caused by SARS-CoV-2, which has been became a global public health challenge. The pathogenesis of this virus is not yet clearly understood, but there is evidence of a hyper-inflammatory immune response in critically ill patients, which leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multi-organ failure.  A literature review was performed to identify relevant articles on COVID-19 published up to April 30, 2020. The search resulted in 361 total articles. After reviewing the titles and abstracts for inclusion, some irrelevant papers were excluded. Additional relevant articles were identified from a review of citations referenced.  SARS-CoV-2, directly and indirectly, affects the immune system and avoids being eliminated in early stages. On the other hand, the secretion of inflammatory cytokines creates critical conditions that lead to multi-organ failure.  The immune system which is affected by the virus tries to respond via a cytokine storm and hyperinflammation, which itself leads to further multi-organ damage and even death.

title: Re-analysis of SARS-CoV-2-infected host cell proteomics time-course data by impact pathway analysis and network analysis: a potential link with inflammatory response
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by an outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Wuhan, China, has led to an unprecedented health and economic crisis worldwide. To develop treatments that can stop or lessen the symptoms and severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection, it is critical to understand how the virus behaves inside human cells, and so far studies in this area remain scarce. A recent study investigated translatome and proteome host cell changes induced in vitro by SARS-CoV-2. Here, we use the publicly available proteomics data from this study to re-analyze the in vitro cellular consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection by impact pathways analysis and network analysis. Notably, proteins linked to the inflammatory response, but also proteins related to chromosome segregation during mitosis, were found to be altered in response to viral infection. Upregulation of inflammatory response proteins is in line with the propagation of inflammatory reaction and lung injury that is observed in advanced stages of COVID-19 patients and which worsens with age.

title: Do High and Low Tumour Necrosis Factor‐α Responders Exist in Dairy Cows?
abstract: A whole blood stimulation assay with Escherichia coli (O111:B4) endotoxin was established to measure the capacity of dairy cows to produce the proinflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) ex vivo. Initially, a time‐ and dose‐dependent study was carried out to find the optimal stimulation conditions for the TNF‐α response. The TNF‐α response peaked between 3 and 4 h at 38.5 °C. A dose in the range of 5–10 g of E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/ml whole blood was found to give the maximum TNF‐α response.  Heparin‐stabilized blood samples were collected seven times over a period of 4 months (weeks −3, −1, 2, 3, 5, 9 and 13 around calving) and stimulated with 5 g/ml of E. coli LPS. Indeed, fluctuations in the TNF‐α responsiveness occurred over time. Moreover, the mean TNF‐α responsiveness of 38 cows was found to be significantly increased (P < 0.001) in the weeks close to calving. However, in the more stabile physiological periods, some cows had a consistently low TNF‐α response, whereas others had high a TNF‐α response. We are currently investigating whether high and low TNF‐α responders to E. coli LPS also exist in dairy cows in vivo. Moreover, the importance of TNF‐α responsiveness ex vivo to dairy cows' susceptibility and clinical response to experimental E. coli infections in the udder is being investigated.

title: Hepatic complications of COVID-19 and its treatment
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is highly contagious and has a variety of clinical manifestations, it can affect a number of other organs in addition to the lungs, and liver injury may occur. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 can cause liver injury through systemic inflammatory response syndrome, cytokine storms, ischemia-reperfusion injury, side effects of treatment drugs, and underlying liver disease and can attack liver cells directly via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Clinical studies have found that liver injury in COVID-19 patients mainly manifests as abnormal liver biochemical indicators, but there have been no reports of liver failure caused by this disease. The number of COVID-19 patients with liver injury is increasing, and the incidence of liver injury in COVID-19 patients with severe disease are higher than in patients with mild disease. Liver injury may be a risk factor, which worsens in patients with COVID-19, and hence it is necessary to pay attention to the occurrence of liver injury in the diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19.

title: Attenuated Novel SARS Coronavirus 2 Infection in an Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant patient on Ruxolitinib

title: Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome: A Manifestation of COVID-19 Cytokine Storm
abstract: Neuroimaging manifestations of COVID-19 are being reported with increasing frequency with recent reports of associated atypical leukoencephalopathies. We add to this literature by describing a COVID-19 + patient who demonstrated imaging findings typical for posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES). The inflammatory syndrome associated with novel corona virus infection has shown markedly increased levels of cytokines and inflammatory markers. This has also been described in a proposed mechanism for PRES, where elevated inflammatory markers result in endothelial injury causing interstitial fluid extravasation typical of PRES. We expect that other cases of PRES will be observed in this population given the scope of the Covid-19 pandemic.

title: Treatment of COVID-19 with pentoxifylline: Could it be a potential adjuvant therapy?
abstract: The world is facing a viral pandemic of a new coronavirus called COVID-19. Pentoxifylline is a methyl-xanthine derivative and it inhibits the phosphodiesterase IV (PDE IV). This drug is known for its unique features as an immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory agent, also it could have antiviral affects. This is a scoping review, in which all related articles on COVID-19 and the probable benefits of Pentoxifylline against COVID-19 pathogenesis, in Medline, Scopus, Web of Sciences, and Google Scholar up to 20 March 2020 with proper keywords including: pentoxifylline, Pentoxil, COVID-19, coronavirus, treatment, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antifibrosis, oxygenation, circulation, bronchodilator, ARDS, and organ failure. We found many confirmatory data on proper efficacy of pentoxifylline on controlling COVID-19 and its consequences. The antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, immune-modulatory, bronchodilator and respiratory supportive effects and protective roles in organ failures of PTX, along with its main functions means better circulation-oxygenation properties, low price and safety, make it a promising drug to be considered for COVID-19 treatment, especially as an adjuvant therapy in combination with other drugs.

title: Adjunct immunotherapies for the management of severely ill COVID-19 patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It has infected millions with more than 181,000 fatal cases as of 22nd April 2020. Currently, there are no specific COVID-19 therapies. Most patients depend on mechanical ventilation. Current COVID-19 data clearly highlight that cytokine storm and activated immune cell migration to the lungs characterize the early immune response to COVID-19 that causes severe lung damage and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome. In view of uncertainty associated with immunosuppressive treatments such as corticosteroids and their possible secondary effects, including risks of secondary infections, we suggest immunotherapies as an adjunct therapy in severe COVID-19 cases. Such immunotherapies based on inflammatory cytokine neutralization, immunomodulation and passive viral neutralization, not only reduce inflammation, inflammation-associated lung damage, or viral load, but could also prevent intensive care unit hospitalization and dependency on mechanical ventilation both of which are limited resources.

title: Involvement of the different lung compartments in the pathogenesis of pH1N1 influenza virus infection in ferrets
abstract: Severe cases after pH1N1 infection are consequence of interstitial pneumonia triggered by alveolar viral replication and an exacerbated host immune response, characterized by the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the influx of inflammatory leukocytes to the lungs. Different lung cell populations have been suggested as culprits in the unregulated innate immune responses observed in these cases. This study aims to clarify this question by studying the different induction of innate immune molecules by the distinct lung anatomic compartments (vascular, alveolar and bronchiolar) of ferrets intratracheally infected with a human pH1N1 viral isolate, by means of laser microdissection techniques. The obtained results were then analysed in relation to viral quantification in the different anatomic areas and the histopathological lesions observed. More severe lung lesions were observed at 24 h post infection (hpi) correlating with viral antigen detection in bronchiolar and alveolar epithelial cells. However, high levels of viral RNA were detected in all anatomic compartments throughout infection. Bronchiolar areas were the first source of IFN-α and most pro-inflammatory cytokines, through the activation of RIG-I. In contrast, vascular areas contributed with the highest induction of CCL2 and other pro-inflammatory cytokines, through the activation of TLR3.

title: Understand Research Hotspots Surrounding COVID-19 and Other Coronavirus Infections Using Topic Modeling
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a virus that causes severe respiratory illness in humans, which eventually results in the current outbreak of novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) around the world. The research community is interested to know what are the hotspots in coronavirus (CoV) research and how much is known about COVID-19. This study aimed to evaluate the characteristics of publications involving coronaviruses as well as COVID-19 by using a topic modeling analysis.  We extracted all abstracts and retained the most informative words from the COVID-19 Open Research Dataset, which contains all the 35,092 pieces of coronavirus related literature published up to March 20, 2020. Using Latent Dirichlet Allocation modeling, we trained an eight-topic model from the corpus. We then analyzed the semantic relationships between topics and compared the topic distribution between COVID-19 and other CoV infections.  Eight topics emerged overall: clinical characterization, pathogenesis research, therapeutics research, epidemiological study, virus transmission, vaccines research, virus diagnostics, and viral genomics. It was observed that COVID-19 research puts more emphasis on clinical characterization, epidemiological study, and virus transmission at present. In contrast, topics about diagnostics, therapeutics, vaccines, genomics and pathogenesis only accounted for less than 10% or even 4% of all the COVID-19 publications, much lower than those of other CoV infections.  These results identified knowledge gaps in the area of COVID-19 and offered directions for future research.  COVID-19, coronavirus, topic modeling, hotspots, text mining

title: Novel therapeutic targets for SARS-CoV-2-induced acute lung injury: Targeting a potential IL-1β/neutrophil extracellular traps feedback loop.
abstract: Most COVID-19 infected individuals present with mild flu-like symptoms; however, 5-10% of cases suffer from life-threatening pneumonia and respiratory failure. The pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 and its pathology of associated acute lung injury (ALI), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), sepsis, coagulopathy and multiorgan failure is not known. SARS-CoV-2 is an envelope virus with S (spike), M (membrane), N (nucleocapsid) and E (envelop) proteins. In a closely related coronavirus (SARS-CoV), the transmembrane E protein exerts an important role in membrane-ionic transport through viroporins, deletion of which reduced levels of IL-1β and a remarkably reduced lung edema compared to wild type. IL-1β is generated by macrophages upon activation of intracellular NLRP3 (NOD-like, leucine rich repeat domains, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3), part of the functional NLRP3 inflammasome complex that detects pathogenic microorganisms and stressors, while neutrophils are enhanced by increasing levels of IL-1β. Expiring neutrophils undergo "NETosis", producing thread-like extracellular structures termed neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which protect against mild infections and microbes. However, uncontrolled NET production can cause acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), coagulopathy, multiple organ failure, and autoimmune disease. Herein, we present arguments underlying our hypothesis that IL-1β and NETs, mediated via NLRP3 inflammasomes, form a feed-forward loop leading to the excessive alveolar and endothelial damage observed in severe cases of COVID-19. Considering such assertions, we propose potential drug candidates that could be used to alleviate such pathologies. Considering that recent efforts to ascertain effective treatments of COVID-19 in severe patients has been less than successful, investigating novel avenues of treating this virus are essential.

title: Covid-19 in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases — Case Series from New York

title: Viral-associated exacerbations of asthma and COPD
abstract: Exacerbations of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are major burdens on the healthcare system, and contribute significantly to the mortality and morbidity associated with these diseases. Upper respiratory viral infections are associated with the majority of such disease exacerbations. The past few years have seen advances in the mechanisms by which viral infections induce pro-inflammatory chemokine production, and in our understanding of host antiviral and anti-inflammatory defence pathways that might regulate responses to infection. A more comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of these processes could elucidate new therapeutic approaches to reduce the devastating impact that these exacerbations have on quality of life and healthcare costs.

title: The current understanding and potential therapeutic options to combat COVID-19
abstract: The ongoing wreaking global outbreak of the novel human beta coronavirus (CoV) pathogen was presumed to be from a seafood wholesale market in Wuhan, China, belongs to the Coronaviridae family in the Nidovirales order. The virus is highly contagious with potential human-human transmission which was named as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spread across six continents and emerged as a global pandemic in short span with alarming levels of spread and severity. This virus associated symptoms and infectious respiratory illness is designated as coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19). The SARS-CoV-2 possesses enveloped club-like spike protein projections with positive-sense large RNA genome and has a unique replication strategy. This virus was believed to have zoonotic origin with genetical identity to bat and pangolin CoV. In the current review, we introduce a general overview about the human CoVs and the associated diseases, the origin, structure, replication and key clinical events that occur in the COVID-19 pathogenicity. Furthermore, we focused on possible therapeutic options such as repurposing drugs including antimalarials, antivirals, antiparasitic drugs, and anti-HIV drugs, as well as monoclonal antibodies, vaccines as potential treatment options. Also we have summarized the latest research progress on the usage of stem cell therapy, human convalescent serum, interferon's, in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Potential role for tissue factor in the pathogenesis of hypercoagulability associated with in COVID-19
abstract: In December 2019, a new and highly contagious infectious disease emerged in Wuhan, China. The etiologic agent was identified as a novel coronavirus, now known as Severe Acute Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Recent research has revealed that virus entry takes place upon the union of the virus S surface protein with the type I transmembrane metallo-carboxypeptidase, angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) identified on epithelial cells of the host respiratory tract. Virus triggers the synthesis and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and TNF-α and also promotes downregulation of ACE-2, which promotes a concomitant increase in levels of angiotensin II (AT-II). Both TNF-α and AT-II have been implicated in promoting overexpression of tissue factor (TF) in platelets and macrophages. Additionally, the generation of antiphospholipid antibodies associated with COVID-19 may also promote an increase in TF. TF may be a critical mediator associated with the development of thrombotic phenomena in COVID-19, and should be a target for future study.

title: Inflammatory and Coagulative Considerations for the Management of Orthopaedic Trauma Patients With COVID-19: A Review of the Current Evidence and Our Surgical Experience
abstract: Mounting evidence suggests that the pathogenesis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) involves a hyperinflammatory response predisposing patients to thromboembolic disease and acute respiratory distress. In the setting of severe blunt trauma, damaged tissues induce a local and systemic inflammatory response through similar pathways to COVID-19. As such, patients with COVID-19 sustaining orthopaedic trauma injuries may have an amplified response to the traumatic insult because of their baseline hyperinflammatory and hypercoagulable states. These patients may have compromised physiological reserve to withstand the insult of surgical intervention before reaching clinical instability. In this article, we review the current evidence regarding pathogenesis of COVID-19 and its implications on the management of orthopaedic trauma patients by discussing a case and the most recent literature.

title: The clinical benefits of Chinese patent medicines against COVID-19 based on current evidence
abstract: The outbreak of emerging infectious pneumonia caused by 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) has posed an enormous threat to public health, and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have made vast contribution to the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) among Chinese population. As an indispensable part of TCM, Chinese patent medicines (CPMs) are highly valued and critically acclaimed in their campaign to contain and tackle the epidemic, they can achieve considerable effects for both suspected cases under medical observation period, and confirmed individuals with serious underlying diseases or critical conditions. Given this, based on the Guideline on Diagnosis and Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China, the present review summarized the basic information, clinical evidence and published literatures of recommended CPMs against COVID-19. The details were thoroughly introduced involving compositions, therapeutic effects, clinical indications, medication history of CPMs and the profiles of corresponding research. With regard to infected patients with different stages and syndrome, the preferable potentials and therapeutic mechanism of CPMs were addressed through the comprehensive collection of relevant literatures and on-going clinical trials. This study could provide an insight into clinical application and underlying mechanism of recommended CPMs against COVID-19, with the aim to share the Chinese experience in clinical practice and facilitate scientific development of TCM, especially CPMs in the fierce battle of COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 and ECMO: the interplay between coagulation and inflammation—a narrative review
abstract: Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has presently become a rapidly spreading and devastating global pandemic. Veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (V-V ECMO) may serve as life-saving rescue therapy for refractory respiratory failure in the setting of acute respiratory compromise such as that induced by SARS-CoV-2. While still little is known on the true efficacy of ECMO in this setting, the natural resemblance of seasonal influenza’s characteristics with respect to acute onset, initial symptoms, and some complications prompt to ECMO implantation in most severe, pulmonary decompensated patients. The present review summarizes the evidence on ECMO management of severe ARDS in light of recent COVID-19 pandemic, at the same time focusing on differences and similarities between SARS-CoV-2 and ECMO in terms of hematological and inflammatory interplay when these two settings merge.

title: The ACE-2 in COVID-19: Foe or Friend?
abstract: COVID-19 is a rapidly spreading outbreak globally. Emerging evidence demonstrates that older individuals and people with underlying metabolic conditions of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia are at higher risk of morbidity and mortality. The SARS-CoV-2 infects humans through the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE-2) receptor. The ACE-2 receptor is a part of the dual system renin-angiotensin-system (RAS) consisting of ACE-Ang-II-AT1R axis and ACE-2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas axis. In metabolic disorders and with increased age, it is known that there is an upregulation of ACE-Ang-II-AT1R axis with a downregulation of ACE-2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas axis. The activated ACE-Ang-II-AT1R axis leads to pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic effects in respiratory system, vascular dysfunction, myocardial fibrosis, nephropathy, and insulin secretory defects with increased insulin resistance. On the other hand, the ACE-2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas axis has anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects on the respiratory system and anti-inflammatory, antioxidative stress, and protective effects on vascular function, protects against myocardial fibrosis, nephropathy, pancreatitis, and insulin resistance. In effect, the balance between these two axes may determine the prognosis. The already strained ACE-2-Ang-(1-7)-Mas in metabolic disorders is further stressed due to the use of the ACE-2 by the virus for entry, which affects the prognosis in terms of respiratory compromise. Further evidence needs to be gathered on whether modulation of the renin angiotensin system would be advantageous due to upregulation of Mas activation or harmful due to the concomitant ACE-2 receptor upregulation in the acute management of COVID-19.

title: The Pathogenesis of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Evaluation and Prevention
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a major health problem causing severe acute respiratory illness in humans. It has spread rapidly around the globe since its first identification in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The causative virus is called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and the World Health Organization (WHO) named the new epidemic disease Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). The incidence of COVID-19 continues to increase with more than three million confirmed cases and over 244,000 deaths worldwide. There is currently no specific treatment or vaccine against COVID-19. Therefore, in the absence of pharmaceutical interventions, the implementation of precautions and hygienic measures will be essential to control and to minimize human transmission of the virus. In this review, we highlight the epidemiology, transmission, symptoms, and treatment of this disease, as well as future strategies to manage the spread of this fatal coronavirus.

title: Updates of Cardiovascular Manifestations in COVID-19: Korean Experience to Broaden Worldwide Perspectives
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread worldwide. Not just respiratory complications such as pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome, cardiac manifestations have drawn attention due to the increased risk of mortality and morbidity related to SARS-CoV-2 infections. The mechanisms of the cardiac injury related to SARS-CoV-2 infections have been direct cardiac injury caused by angiotensin converting enzyme 2, hypoxemia, microvascular damage, and a systemic inflammatory response. Stress induced cardiomyopathy in a critically ill condition and acute coronary syndrome due to a vulnerable plaque rupture with coagulopathy can finally lead to acute heart failure with further cardiac manifestations. When dealing with the highly contagious viral disease-related cardiac manifestations, we should carefully apply the diagnostic and therapeutic methods to achieve the best therapeutic results without adding any risk of disease transmission.

title: COVID-19: risk for cytokine targeting in chronic inflammatory diseases?
abstract: COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has become pandemic. With sharply rising infection rates, patient groups characterized by an enhanced infection risk will be challenged by the virus. In this context, patients with chronic immune-mediated inflammatory diseases are of particular interest, as these diseases are characterized by an intrinsic immune dysfunction leading to inflammation that may enhance risk for severe infection.

title: The pathogenesis and treatment of the `Cytokine Storm' in COVID-19
abstract: Cytokine storm is an excessive immune response to external stimuli. The pathogenesis of the cytokine storm is complex. The disease progresses rapidly, and the mortality is high. Certain evidence shows that, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic, the severe deterioration of some patients has been closely related to the cytokine storm in their bodies. This article reviews the occurrence mechanism and treatment strategies of the COVID-19 virus-induced inflammatory storm in attempt to provide valuable medication guidance for clinical treatment.

title: Abstracts of the EPSM-ABEC 2008 conference

title: Virologic and clinical characteristics for prognosis of severe COVID-19: a retrospective observational study in Wuhan, China
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has progressed to a pandemic associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. The WHO and the United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have issued interim clinical guidance for management of patients with confirmed coronavirus disease (COVID-19), but there is limited data on the virologic and clinical characteristics for prognosis of severe COVID-19.  A total of 50 patients with severe COVID-19 were divided into good and poor recovery groups. The dynamic viral shedding and serological characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 were explored. The risk factors associated with poor recovery and lung lesion resolutions were identified. In addition, the potential relationships among the viral shedding, the pro-inflammatory response, and lung lesion evolutions were characterized.  A total of 58% of the patients had poor recovery and were more likely to have a prolonged interval of viral shedding. The longest viral shedding was 57 days after symptom onset. Older age, hyperlipemia, hypoproteinemia, corticosteroid therapy, consolidation on chest computed-tomography (CT), and prolonged SARS-CoV-2 IgM positive were all associated with poor recovery. Additionally, the odds of impaired lung lesion resolutions were higher in patients with hypoproteinemia, hyperlipemia, and elevated levels of IL-4 and ferritin. Finally, viral shedding and proinflammatory responses were closely correlated with lung lesion evolutions on chest CT.  Patients with severe COVID-19 have prolonged SARS-CoV-2 infection and delayed intermittent viral shedding. Older age, hyperlipemia, hypoproteinemia, corticosteroid usage, and prolonged SARS-CoV-2 IgM positive might be utilized as predicative factors for the patients with poor recovery.

title: COVID-19: disease pathways and gene expression changes predict methylprednisolone can improve outcome in severe cases

title: Cardiological society of India position statement on COVID-19 and heart failure
abstract: The COVID 19 global pandemic has engulfed humanity with a huge impact on health systems across the world. Many patients develop myocardial injury which can lead to significant cardiovascular complications including HF. This will require aggressive management strategies which are evolving. Guideline directed drug therapy including ACEI/ARB/ARNI is to be continued in patients with pre-existing HF. Long-term cardiovascular effects of COVID-19 are yet to be ascertained. Protection of health care personnel from contracting the disease should be given high priority.

title: Identification of a potential mechanism of acute kidney injury during the COVID-19 outbreak: a study based on single-cell transcriptome analysis

title: Pathogenesis of COPD (Persistence of Airway Inflammation): Why Does Airway Inflammation Persist After Cessation of Smoking?
abstract: The structural features of airways in patients with COPD are airway wall inflammation, fibrosis, muscle hypertrophy, and goblet cell metaplasia. These structural cellular changes contribute to mucus hypersecretion and destruction of the alveolar walls and a decline in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV(1)). At the cellular level, macrophages, T lymphocytes, and neutrophils, driven by cytokines including interleukin-8 (IL-8), gather on the airways. The main cause of COPD inflammation is cigarette smoke. Smoke causes an increase in the secretion of matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) and neutrophilic elastase from epithelial cells and neutrophils, which are responsible for mucin production and destruction of the lung. Initially, cigarette smoke influences the expression of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) including Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the intracellularly located nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs), retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs), and receptors for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) on lung epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and leukocytes in the lung. These actions bring about the production of cytokines and activation of inflammatory cells, leading to production of MMPs and neutrophilic elastase. The inflammatory changes persist for several months and years after smoking cessation and are sometimes irreversible. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) released from dying cells after cigarette smoking increase the number of apoptotic cells, suppress efferocytosis, induce hypoxia and oxidative stress, and prolong the inflammatory changes, even after smoking cessation. Viral and bacterial infections of the respiratory tract then fortify these inflammatory responses. Exacerbations of COPD then worsen the deterioration of COPD.

title: Are Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease at Increased Risk for Covid-19 Infection?
abstract: Crohn’s disease [CD] and ulcerative colitis [UC], the main inflammatory bowel diseases [IBD] in humans, are chronic, immune-inflammatory diseases, the pathogenesis of which suggests a complex interaction between environmental factors and genetic susceptibility. These disabling conditions affect millions of individuals and, together with the drugs used to treat them, can put patients at risk of developing complications and other conditions. This is particularly relevant today, as coronavirus disease [Covid-19] has rapidly spread from China to countries where IBD are more prevalent, and there is convincing evidence that Covid-19-mediated morbidity and mortality are higher in subjects with comorbidities. The primary objectives of this Viewpoint are to provide a focused overview of the factors and mechanisms by which the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 [SARS-CoV-2] infects cells and to illustrate the link between such determinants and intestinal inflammation. We also provide clues about the reasons why the overall IBD population might have no increased risk of developing SARS-CoV-2 infection and highlight the potential of cytokine blockers, used to treat IBD patients, to prevent Covid-driven pneumonia.

title: Potential Immunotherapeutic Targets For Hypoxia Due to COVI-FLU.
abstract: The world is currently embroiled in a pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a respiratory illness caused by the novel betacoronavirus SARS-CoV-2. The severity of COVID-19 disease ranges from asymptomatic to fatal acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In few patients, the disease undergoes phenotypic differentiation between 7-14 days of acute illness, either resulting in full recovery or symptom escalation. However, the mechanism of such variation is not clear, but the facts suggest that patient's immune status, co-morbidities, and the systemic effects of the viral infection (potentially depending on the SARS-CoV-2 strain involved) play a key role. Subsequently, patients with the most severe symptoms tend to have poor outcomes, manifest severe hypoxia, and possess elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (including IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) along with elevated levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, marked lymphopenia, and elevated neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios. Based on the available evidence, we propose a mechanism wherein SARS-CoV-2 infection induces direct organ damage while also fueling an IL-6-mediated cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and hypoxia, resulting in escalating systemic inflammation, multi-organ damage, and end-organ failure. Elevated IL-6 and hypoxia together predisposes patients to pulmonary hypertension, and the presence of asymptomatic hypoxia in COVID-19 further compounds this problem. Due to the similar downstream mediators, we discuss the potential synergistic effects and systemic ramifications of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus during co-infection, a phenomenon we have termed "COVI-Flu." Additionally, the differences between CRS and cytokine storm are highlighted. Finally, novel management approaches, clinical trials, and therapeutic strategies toward both SARS-CoV-2 and COVI-Flu infection are discussed, highlighting host response optimization and systemic inflammation reduction.

title: Prognostic value of interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin in patients with COVID-19
abstract: The inflammatory response plays a critical role in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and inflammatory cytokine storm increases the severity of COVID-19.  To investigate the ability of interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), and procalcitonin (PCT) to predict mild and severe cases of COVID-19.  This retrospective cohort study included 140 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 from January 18, 2020, to March 12, 2020. The study population was divided into two groups according to disease severity: a mild group (MG) (n = 107) and a severe group (SG) (n = 33). Data on demographic characteristics, baseline clinical characteristics, and the levels of IL-6, CRP, and PCT on admission were collected.  Among the 140 patients, the levels of IL-6, CRP, and PCT increased in 95 (67.9 %), 91 (65.0 %), and 8 (5.7 %) patients on admission, respectively. The proportion of patients with increased IL-6, CRP, and PCT levels was significantly higher in the SG than in the MG. Cox proportional hazard model showed that IL-6 and CRP could be used as independent factors to predict the severity of COVID-19. Furthermore, patients with IL-6 > 32.1 pg/mL or CRP > 41.8 mg/L were more likely to have severe complications.  The serum levels of IL-6 and CRP can effectively assess disease severity and predict outcome in patients with COVID-19.

title: The role of mast cells in the pathogenesis of pain in chronic pancreatitis
abstract: The biological basis of pain in chronic pancreatitis is poorly understood. Mast cells have been implicated in the pathogenesis of pain in other conditions. We hypothesized that mast cells play a role in the pain of chronic pancreatitis. We examined the association of pain with mast cells in autopsy specimens of patients with painful chronic pancreatitis. We explored our hypothesis further using an experimental model of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) -induced chronic pancreatitis in both wild type (WT) and mast cell deficient mice (MCDM).  Archival tissues with histological diagnoses of chronic pancreatitis were identified and clinical records reviewed for presence or absence of reported pain in humans. Mast cells were counted. The presence of pain was assessed using von Frey Filaments (VFF) to measure abdominal withdrawal responses in both WT and MCDM mice with and without chronic pancreatitis.  Humans with painful chronic pancreatitis demonstrated a 3.5-fold increase in pancreatic mast cells as compared with those with painless chronic pancreatitis. WT mice with chronic pancreatitis were significantly more sensitive as assessed by VFF pain testing of the abdomen when compared with MCDM.  Humans with painful chronic pancreatitis have an increased number of pancreatic mast cells as compared with those with painless chronic pancreatitis. MCDM are less sensitive to mechanical stimulation of the abdomen after induction of chronic pancreatitis as compared with WT. Mast cells may play an important role in the pathogenesis of pain in chronic pancreatitis.

title: COVID-19 and Diabetes: Knowledge in Progress
abstract: We aimed to briefly review the general characteristics of the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and provide a better understanding of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in people with diabetes, and its management.  We searched for articles in PubMed and Google Scholar databases till 02 April 2020, with the following keywords: “SARS-CoV-2”, “COVID-19”, “infection”, “pathogenesis”, “incubation period”, “transmission”, “clinical features”, “diagnosis”, “treatment”, “diabetes”, with interposition of the Boolean operator “AND”.  The clinical spectrum of COVID-19 is heterogeneous, ranging from mild flu-like symptoms to acute respiratory distress syndrome, multiple organ failure and death. Older age, diabetes and other comorbidities are reported as significant predictors of morbidity and mortality. Chronic inflammation, increased coagulation activity, immune response impairment, and potential direct pancreatic damage by SARS-CoV-2 might be among the underlying mechanisms of the association between diabetes and COVID-19. No conclusive evidence exists to support the discontinuation of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) or angiotensin receptor blockers because of COVID-19 in people with diabetes. Caution should be taken to potential hypoglycemic events with the use of chloroquine in these subjects. Patient tailored therapeutic strategies, rigorous glucose monitoring and careful consideration of drug interactions might reduce adverse outcomes.  Suggestions are made on the possible pathological mechanisms of the relationship between diabetes and COVID-19, and its management. No definite conclusions can be made based on current limited evidence. Further research regarding this relationship and its clinical management is warranted.

title: Preliminary Estimates of the Prevalence of Selected Underlying Health Conditions Among Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 — United States, February 12–March 28, 2020
abstract: On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) a pandemic (1). As of March 28, 2020, a total of 571,678 confirmed COVID-19 cases and 26,494 deaths have been reported worldwide (2). Reports from China and Italy suggest that risk factors for severe disease include older age and the presence of at least one of several underlying health conditions (3,4). U.S. older adults, including those aged ≥65 years and particularly those aged ≥85 years, also appear to be at higher risk for severe COVID-19-associated outcomes; however, data describing underlying health conditions among U.S. COVID-19 patients have not yet been reported (5). As of March 28, 2020, U.S. states and territories have reported 122,653 U.S. COVID-19 cases to CDC, including 7,162 (5.8%) for whom data on underlying health conditions and other known risk factors for severe outcomes from respiratory infections were reported. Among these 7,162 cases, 2,692 (37.6%) patients had one or more underlying health condition or risk factor, and 4,470 (62.4%) had none of these conditions reported. The percentage of COVID-19 patients with at least one underlying health condition or risk factor was higher among those requiring intensive care unit (ICU) admission (358 of 457, 78%) and those requiring hospitalization without ICU admission (732 of 1,037, 71%) than that among those who were not hospitalized (1,388 of 5,143, 27%). The most commonly reported conditions were diabetes mellitus, chronic lung disease, and cardiovascular disease. These preliminary findings suggest that in the United States, persons with underlying health conditions or other recognized risk factors for severe outcomes from respiratory infections appear to be at a higher risk for severe disease from COVID-19 than are persons without these conditions.

title: Liver injury during highly pathogenic human coronavirus infections
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐Cov‐2), the pathogen of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID‐19), has posed a serious threat to global public health. The WHO has declared the outbreak of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection an international public health emergency. Lung lesions have been considered as the major damage caused by SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. However, liver injury has also been reported to occur during the course of the disease in severe cases. Similarly, previous studies have shown that liver damage was common in the patients infected by the other two highly pathogenic coronavirus – severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS‐CoV) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV), and associated with the severity of diseases. In this review, the characteristics and mechanism of liver injury caused by SARS‐CoV, MERS‐CoV as well as SARS‐CoV‐2 infection were summarized, which may provide help for further studies on the liver injury of COVID‐19.

title: Induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) and lung inflammation by COVID-19: anti-inflammatory strategies
abstract: COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-19) involves humans as well as animals and may cause serious damage to the respiratory tract including the lung This pathogenic virus has been identified in swabs performed on the throat and nose of patients who suffer from or are suspected of the disease When COVID-19 infect the upper and lower respiratory tract it can cause mild or highly acute respiratory syndrome with consequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1b and IL-6 The binding of COVID-19 to the Toll Like Receptor (TLR) causes the release of pro-IL-1b which is cleaved by caspase-1, followed by inflammasome activation and production of active mature IL-1b which is a mediator of lung inflammation, fever and fibrosis Suppression of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members and IL-6 have been shown to have a therapeutic effect in many inflammatory diseases, including viral infections Cytokine IL-37 has the ability to suppress innate and acquired immune response and also has the capacity to inhibit inflammation by acting on IL-18Ra receptor IL-37 performs its immunosuppressive activity by acting on mTOR and increasing the adenosine monophosphate (AMP) kinase This cytokine inhibits class II histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and inflammation in inflammatory diseases by suppressing MyD88 and subsequently IL-1β, IL-6, TNF and CCL2 The suppression of IL-1b by IL-37 in inflammatory state induced by COVID-19 can have a new therapeutic effect previously unknown Another inhibitory cytokine is IL-38, the newest cytokine of the IL-1 family members, produced by several immune cells including B cells and macrophages IL-38 is also a suppressor cytokine which inhibits IL-1b and other pro-inflammatory IL-family members IL-38 is a potential therapeutic cytokine which inhibits inflammation in viral infections including that caused by COVID-19, providing a new relevant strategy

title: Sevoflurane, a sigh of relief in COVID-19?

title: Author response to Letter to the Editor ‘Liver impairment associated with disease progression in COVID‐19 patients’
abstract: We chose the CAP patients hospitalized in our hospital last year as the control because there was no suitable healthy control group available now. And considering the diverse etiology of CAP, the liver impairment appeared in CAP patients maybe result from ischemia/hypoxia-reperfusion injury, systemic inflammatory response or drug use before hospitalization, besides the pathogen itself.

title: Estimating the Early Outbreak Cumulative Incidence of COVID-19 in the United States: Three Complementary Approaches
abstract: Effectively designing and evaluating public health responses to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic requires accurate estimation of the weekly incidence of COVID-19. Unfortunately, a lack of systematic testing across the United States (US) due to equipment shortages and varying testing strategies has hindered the usefulness of the reported positive COVID-19 case counts. We introduce three complementary approaches to estimate the cumulative incidence of symptomatic COVID-19 during the early outbreak in each state in the US as well as in New York City, using a combination of excess influenza-like illness reports, COVID-19 test statistics, and COVID-19 mortality reports. Instead of relying on an estimate from a single data source or method that may be biased, we provide multiple estimates, each relying on different assumptions and data sources. Across our three approaches, there is a consistent conclusion that estimated state-level COVID-19 symptomatic case counts from March 1 to April 4, 2020 varied from 5 to 50 times greater than the official positive test counts. Nationally, our estimates of COVID-19 symptomatic cases in the US as of April 4 have a likely range of 2.2 to 5.1 million cases, with possibly as high as 8.1 million cases, up to 26 times greater than the cumulative confirmed cases of about 311,000. Extending our method to May 16, 2020, we estimate that cumulative symptomatic incidence ranges from 6.0 to 12.2 million, which compares with 1.5 million positive test counts. Our approaches demonstrate the value of leveraging existing influenza-like-illness surveillance systems during the flu season for measuring the burden of new diseases that share symptoms with influenza-like-illnesses. Our methods may prove useful in assessing the burden of COVID-19 during upcoming flu seasons in the US and other countries with comparable influenza surveillance systems.

title: Plasma IL-6 Levels following Corticosteroid Therapy as an Indicator of ICU Length of Stay in Critically ill COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admissions and mortality in severe COVID-19 patients are driven by cytokine storms and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Interim clinical trial results suggest that the corticosteroid dexamethasone displays superior 28-day survival in severe COVID-19 patients requiring ventilation or oxygen. Among 16 patients with plasma IL-6 measurement post-corticosteroid administration, a higher proportion of patients with an IL-6 value over 10 pg/mL have worse outcomes (i.e. ICU Length of Stay > 15 days or death) when compared to 41 patients treated with non-corticosteroid drugs including antivirals, tocilizumab, azithromycin, and hydroxychloroquine (p-value = 0.0024). Given this unexpected clinical association between post-corticosteroid IL-6 levels and COVID-19 severity, we hypothesized that the Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR or NR3C1) may be coupled to IL-6 expression in specific cell types that govern cytokine release syndrome (CRS). Examining single cell RNA-seq data from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of severe COVID-19 patients and nearly 2 million human cells from a pan-tissue scan shows that alveolar macrophages, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells co-express both NR3C1 and IL-6. The mechanism of Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) agonists mitigating pulmonary and multi-organ inflammation in some COVID-19 patients with respiratory failure, may be in part due to their successful antagonism of IL-6 production within lung macrophages and vasculature.

title: Baricitinib: A review of pharmacology, safety and emerging clinical experience in COVID-19
abstract: A hyperinflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, reminiscent of cytokine release syndrome, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome and organ damage in patients with COVID-19. Agents that inhibit components of the pro-inflammatory cascade have garnered interest as potential treatment options with hopes that dampening the pro-inflammatory process may improve clinical outcomes. Baricitinib is a reversible Janus-associated kinase (JAK)-inhibitor that interrupts the signaling of multiple cytokines implicated in COVID-19 immunopathology. It may also have antiviral effects by targeting host factors that viruses rely for cell entry and by suppressing type I interferon driven angiotensin-converting-enzyme-2 up regulation. However, baricitinib's immunosuppressive effects may be detrimental during acute viral infections by delaying viral clearance and increasing vulnerability to secondary opportunistic infections. The lack of reliable biomarkers to monitor patients' immune status as illness evolves complicates deployment of immunosuppressive drugs like baricitinib. Furthermore, baricitinib carries the risk of increased thromboembolic events which is concerning given the proclivity towards a hyper-coagulable state in COVID-19 patients. In this article we review available data on baricitinib with an emphasis on immunosuppressive and antiviral pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, safety and current progress in COVID-19 clinical trials.

title: General Adaptation in Critical Illness: Glucocorticoid Receptor-alpha Master Regulator of Homeostatic Corrections
abstract: In critical illness, homeostatic corrections representing the culmination of hundreds of millions of years of evolution, are modulated by the activated glucocorticoid receptor alpha (GRα) and are associated with an enormous bioenergetic and metabolic cost. Appreciation of how homeostatic corrections work and how they evolved provides a conceptual framework to understand the complex pathobiology of critical illness. Emerging literature place the activated GRα at the center of all phases of disease development and resolution, including activation and re-enforcement of innate immunity, downregulation of pro-inflammatory transcription factors, and restoration of anatomy and function. By the time critically ill patients necessitate vital organ support for survival, they have reached near exhaustion or exhaustion of neuroendocrine homeostatic compensation, cell bio-energetic and adaptation functions, and reserves of vital micronutrients. We review how critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency, mitochondrial dysfunction/damage, and hypovitaminosis collectively interact to accelerate an anti-homeostatic active process of natural selection. Importantly, the allostatic overload imposed by these homeostatic corrections impacts negatively on both acute and long-term morbidity and mortality. Since the bioenergetic and metabolic reserves to support homeostatic corrections are time-limited, early interventions should be directed at increasing GRα and mitochondria number and function. Present understanding of the activated GC-GRα's role in immunomodulation and disease resolution should be taken into account when re-evaluating how to administer glucocorticoid treatment and co-interventions to improve cellular responsiveness. The activated GRα interdependence with functional mitochondria and three vitamin reserves (B1, C, and D) provides a rationale for co-interventions that include prolonged glucocorticoid treatment in association with rapid correction of hypovitaminosis.

title: Silencing of immune activation with methotrexate in patients with COVID-19

title: The mechanism and treatment of gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with COVID-19
abstract: In addition to the typical respiratory response, new coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) is also associated with very common gastrointestinal symptoms. Cases with gastrointestinal symptoms are more likely to be complicated by liver injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and diarrhea can also lead to electrolyte disturbances, causing nausea and vomiting, headache, fatigue, etc. If not treated in time, coma and circulatory failure may ensue. As SARS-CoV-2 infects the human body through the combination of ACE2 in the gastrointestinal tract, the mechanism underlying the gastrointestinal symptoms may involve damage to the intestinal mucosal barrier and promotion of the production of inflammatory factors, causing cytokine storms. Indeed, after cells in the lungs become infected by SARS-CoV-2, effector CD4+ T cells reach the small intestine through the gut-lung axis, causing intestinal immune damage and diarrhea; early extensive use of antibacterial and antiviral drugs can also lead to diarrhea in patients. Thus, treatment options for COVID-19 patients should be promptly adjusted when they have gastrointestinal symptoms. Additionally, when drug-induced diarrhea occurs, drugs should be withdrawn or reduced, and microecological regulators should be applied to maintain the intestinal microecological balance and prevent secondary bacterial infections. To guarantee effective treatment, attention should be paid to the patient's enteral nutrition and digestive tract function. As SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in the feces of COVID-19 patients, future prevention and control efforts must consider the possibility of fecal-oral transmission of the virus.

title: Early combination of Tocilizumab and Corticosteroids: An upgrade in anti-inflammatory therapy for severe COVID.

title: Recognizing COVID-19-related myocarditis: the possible pathophysiology and proposed guideline for diagnosis and management
abstract: Human coronavirus-associated myocarditis is known, and a number of COVID-19-related myocarditis cases have been reported. The pathophysiology of COVID-19-related myocarditis is thought to be a combination of direct viral injury and cardiac damage due to the host’s immune response. COVID-19 myocarditis diagnosis should be guided by insights from previous coronavirus and other myocarditis experience. The clinical findings include changes in ECG, cardiac biomarkers, and impaired cardiac function. When cardiac MRI is infeasible, cardiac CT angiography with delayed myocardial imaging may serve to exclude significant coronary artery disease and identify myocardial inflammatory patterns. Because many COVID-19 patients have cardiovascular comorbidities, myocardial infarction should be considered. Where the diagnosis remains uncertain, an endomyocardial biopsy may help identify active cardiac infection through viral genome amplification and possibly refine the treatment risks of systemic immunosuppression. Arrhythmias are not uncommon in the COVID-19 patients; however, its pathophysiology is still speculative. Nevertheless, clinicians should be vigilant to provide prompt monitoring and treatments. The long-term impact of COVID-19 myocarditis, including in the majority of mild cases remains unknown.

title: The underlying changes and predicting role of peripheral blood inflammatory cells in severe COVID-19 patients: a sentinel?
abstract: The underlying changes of peripheral blood inflammatory cells (PBICs) in COVID-19 patients are little known. Moreover, the risk factors for the underlying changes of PBICs and their predicting role in severe COVID-19 patients remain uncertain.  This retrospective study including two cohorts: the main cohort enrolling 45 patients of severe type serving as study group, and the secondary cohort enrolling 12 patients of no-severe type serving as control group. The PBICs analysis was based on blood routine and lymphocyte subsets. The inflammatory cell levels were compared among patients according to clinical classifications, disease-associated phases, as well as one-month outcomes.  Compared with patients of non-severe type, the patients of severe type suffered from significantly decreased counts of lymphocytes, eosinophils, basophils, but increased counts of neutrophils. These PBICs alterations got improved in recovery phase, but persisted or got worse in aggravated phase. Compared with patients in discharged group, the patients in un-discharged/died group suffered from decreased counts of total T lymphocytes, CD4+T lymphocytes, CD8+T lymphocytes, as well as NK cells at 2 weeks after treatment. Clinical classification-critically severe was the independently risk factor for lymphopenia (OR=7.701, 95%CI:1.265-46.893, P=0.027), eosinopenia (OR=5.595, 95%CI:1.008-31.054, P=0.049) and worse one-month outcome (OR=8.984; 95%CI:1.021-79.061, P=0.048).  Lymphopenia and eosinopenia may serve as predictors of disease severity and disease progression in COVID-19 patients, and enhancing the cellular immunity may contribute to COVID-19 treatment. Thus, PBICs might become a sentinel of COVID-19, and it deserves attention during COVID-19 treatment.

title: Angiotensin‐converting enzyme‐2 (ACE2), SARS‐CoV‐2 and pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19)
abstract: Angiotensin‐converting enzyme‐2 (ACE2) has been established as the functional host receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), the virus responsible for the current devastating worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). ACE2 is abundantly expressed in a variety of cells residing in many different human organs. In human physiology, ACE2 is a pivotal counter‐regulatory enzyme to ACE by the breakdown of angiotensin II, the central player in the renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone system (RAAS) and the main substrate of ACE2. Many factors have been associated with both altered ACE2 expression and COVID‐19 severity and progression, including age, sex, ethnicity, medication and several co‐morbidities, such as cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome. Although ACE2 is widely distributed in various human tissues and many of its determinants have been well recognised, ACE2‐expressing organs do not equally participate in COVID‐19 pathophysiology, implying that other mechanisms are involved in orchestrating cellular infection resulting in tissue damage. Reports of pathologic findings in tissue specimens of COVID‐19 patients are rapidly emerging and confirm the established role of ACE2 expression and activity in disease pathogenesis. Identifying pathologic changes caused by SARS‐CoV‐2 infection is crucially important as it has major implications for understanding COVID‐19 pathophysiology and the development of evidence‐based treatment strategies. Currently, many interventional strategies are being explored in ongoing clinical trials, encompassing many drug classes and strategies, including antiviral drugs, biological response modifiers and RAAS inhibitors. Ultimately, prevention is key to combat COVID‐19 and appropriate measures are being taken accordingly, including development of effective vaccines. In this review, we describe the role of ACE2 in COVID‐19 pathophysiology, including factors influencing ACE2 expression and activity in relation to COVID‐19 severity. In addition, we discuss the relevant pathological changes resulting from SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. Finally, we highlight a selection of potential treatment modalities for COVID‐19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Informational needs assessment of non‐Hodgkin lymphoma survivors and their physicians

title: The Heart in COVID19: Primary Target or Secondary Bystander?
abstract: In the throes of the current COVID-19 pandemic, interest has burgeoned in the cardiovascular complications of this virulent viral infection. As troponin, a biomarker of cardiac injury, often rises in hospitalized patients, its interpretation and actionability require careful consideration. Fulminant myocarditis due to direct viral infection can certainly occur, but patients with increased oxygen demands due to tachycardia and fever, and reduced oxygen delivery due to hypotension and hypoxemia can cause myocardial injury indirectly. Cytokines released during the acute infection can elicit activation of cells within pre-existing atherosclerotic lesions, augmenting thrombotic risk and risk of ischemic syndromes. Moreover, microvascular activation by cytokines can cause not only myocardial injury but harm other organ systems commonly involved in COVID-19 infections including the kidneys. Dealing with the immense challenge of COVID-19 disease, confronted with severely ill patients in dire straits with virtually no rigorous evidence base to guide our therapy, we must call upon our clinical skills and judgment. These touchstones can help guide us in selecting patients who might benefit from the advanced imaging and invasive procedures that present enormous logistical challenges in the current context. Lacking a robust evidence base, pathophysiologic reasoning can help guide our choices of therapy for individual clinical scenarios. We must exercise caution and extreme humility, as often plausible interventions fail when tested rigorously. But act today we must, and understanding the multiplicity of mechanisms of myocardial injury in COVID-19 infection will help us meet our mission unsupported by the comfort of strong data.

title: Prior diagnoses and medications as risk factors for COVID-19 in a Los Angeles Health System
abstract: With the continuing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic coupled with phased reopening, it is critical to identify risk factors associated with susceptibility and severity of disease in a diverse population to help shape government policies, guide clinical decision making, and prioritize future COVID-19 research. In this retrospective case-control study, we used de-identified electronic health records (EHR) from the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Health System between March 9(th), 2020 and June 14(th), 2020 to identify risk factors for COVID-19 susceptibility (severe acute respiratory distress syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) PCR test positive), inpatient admission, and severe outcomes (treatment in an intensive care unit or intubation). Of the 26,602 individuals tested by PCR for SARS-CoV-2, 992 were COVID-19 positive (3.7% of Tested), 220 were admitted in the hospital (22% of COVID-19 positive), and 77 had a severe outcome (35% of Inpatient). Consistent with previous studies, males and individuals older than 65 years old had increased risk of inpatient admission. Notably, individuals self-identifying as Hispanic or Latino constituted an increasing percentage of COVID-19 patients as disease severity escalated, comprising 24% of those testing positive, but 40% of those with a severe outcome, a disparity that remained after correcting for medical comorbidities. Cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and renal disease were premorbid risk factors present before SARS-CoV-2 PCR testing associated with COVID-19 susceptibility. Less well-established risk factors for COVID-19 susceptibility included pre-existing dementia (odds ratio (OR) 5.2 [3.2–8.3], p=2.6 × 10(−10)), mental health conditions (depression OR 2.1 [1.6–2.8], p=1.1 × 10(−6)) and vitamin D deficiency (OR 1.8 , p=5.7 × 10(−6)). Renal diseases including end-stage renal disease and anemia due to chronic renal disease were the predominant premorbid risk factors for COVID-19 inpatient admission. Other less established risk factors for COVID-19 inpatient admission included previous renal transplant (OR 9.7 [2.8–39], p=3.2×10(−4)) and disorders of the immune system (OR 6.0 [2.3, 16], p=2.7×10(−4)). Prior use of oral steroid medications was associated with decreased COVID-19 positive testing risk (OR 0.61 [0.45, 0.81], p=4.3×10(−4)), but increased inpatient admission risk (OR 4.5 [2.3, 8.9], p=1.8×10(−5)). We did not observe that prior use of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers increased the risk of testing positive for SARS-CoV-2, being admitted to the hospital, or having a severe outcome. This study involving direct EHR extraction identified known and less well-established demographics, and prior diagnoses and medications as risk factors for COVID-19 susceptibility and inpatient admission. Knowledge of these risk factors including marked ethnic disparities observed in disease severity should guide government policies, identify at-risk populations, inform clinical decision making, and prioritize future COVID-19 research.

title: Characterization of epithelial IL-8 response to inflammatory bowel disease mucosal E. coli and its inhibition by mesalamine
abstract: Mucosally adherent E. coli are found in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colon cancer. They promote release of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-8 (IL-8). We explored mechanisms for this release and its inhibition by drugs.  IL-8 release from colon epithelial cells in response to mucosal E. coli isolates from IBD, colon cancer, and controls was characterized at the cellular and molecular level.  IL-8 response of HT29 cells was greater with Crohn's disease (689 ± 298 [mean ± SD] pg IL-8/mL at 4 hours, n = 7) and colon cancer isolates (532 ± 415 pg/mL, n = 14) than with ulcerative colitis (236 ± 58 pg/mL, n = 6) or control isolates (236 ± 100 pg/mL, n = 6, P < 0.0001). Bacterial supernatants contained shed flagellin that triggered IL-8 release. For whole bacteria the IL-8 response to E. coli that agglutinate red blood cells (548 ± 428 pg IL-8/mL, n = 16), a function that correlates with epithelial invasion, was greater than for nonhemagglutinators (281 ± 253 pg/mL, n = 17; P < 0.0001). This was particularly marked among E. coli that, although flagellate, could not release IL-8 from TLR5-transfected HEK293 cells. IL-8 release was mediated by extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and inhibited by mesalamine, but not hydrocortisone, at therapeutic concentrations.  Mucosa-associated E. coli shed flagellin that elicits epithelial IL-8 release but this may only become relevant when the mucosal barrier is weakened to expose basolateral TLR5. Adherent and invasive IBD and colon cancer E. coli isolates also elicit a flagellin-independent IL-8 response that may be relevant when the mucosal barrier is intact. The IL-8 release is MAPK-dependent and inhibited by mesalamine.

title: 17ß-Estradiol, a potential ally to alleviate SARS-CoV-2 infection
abstract: Considering that female sexual hormones may modulate the inflammatory response and also exhibit direct effects on the cells of the immune system, herein, we intend to discuss the sex differences and the role of estradiol in modulating the lung and systemic inflammatory response, focusing on its possible application as a treatment modality for SARS-CoV-2 patients. COVID-19 patients develop severe hypoxemia early in the course of the disease, which is silent most of the time. Small fibrinous thrombi in pulmonary arterioles and a tumefaction of endothelial were observed in the autopsies of fatal COVID-19 cases. Studies showed that the viral infection induces a vascular process in the lung, which included vasodilation and endothelial dysfunction. Further, the proportions of CD4+ T and CD8+ T lymphocytes were strongly reduced in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 infection. Estradiol is connected with CD4+ T cell numbers and increases T-reg cell populations, affecting immune responses to infection. It is known that estradiol exerts a protective effect on endothelial function, activating the generation of nitric oxide (NO) via endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Estrogen attenuates the vasoconstrictor response to various stimuli and induces vasodilation in the pulmonary vasculature during stress situations like hypoxia. It exerts a variety of rapid actions, which are initiated after its coupling with membrane receptors, which in turn, may positively modulate vascular responses in pulmonary disease and help to maintain microvascular flow. Direct and indirect mechanisms underlying the effects of estradiol were investigated, and the results point to a possible protective effect of estradiol against COVID-19, indicating that it may be considered as an adjuvant therapeutic element for the treatment of patients affected by the novel coronavirus.

title: How to Detect and Track Chronic Neurologic Sequelae of Covid-19? Use of Auditory Brainstem Responses and Neuroimaging for Long-term Patient Follow-up
abstract: This review intends to provide an overview of the current knowledge on neurologic sequelae of COVID-19 and their possible etiology, and, based on available data, proposes possible improvements in current medical care procedures. We conducted a thorough review of the scientific literature on neurologic manifestations of COVID-19, the neuroinvasive propensity of known coronaviruses (CoV) and their possible effects on brain structural and functional integrity. It appears that around one third of COVID-19 patients admitted to intensive care units (ICU) for respiratory difficulties exhibit neurologic symptoms. This may be due to progressive brain damage and dysfunction triggered by severe hypoxia and hypoxemia, heightened inflammation and SARS-CoV-2 dissemination into brain parenchyma, as suggested by current reports and analyses of previous CoV outbreaks. Viral invasion of the brain may particularly target and alter brainstem and thalamic functions and, consequently, result in sensorimotor dysfunctions and psychiatric disorders. Moreover, data collected from other structurally homologous CoV suggest that SARS-CoV-2 infection may lead to brain cell degeneration and demyelination similar to multiple sclerosis (MS). Hence, current evidence warrants further evaluation and long-term follow-up of possible neurologic sequelae in COVID-19 patients. It may be particularly relevant to evaluate brainstem integrity in recovered patients, as it is suspected that this cerebral area may particularly be dysfunctional following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Because CoV infection can potentially lead to chronic neuroinflammation and progressive demyelination, neuroimaging features and signs of MS may also be evaluated in the long term in recovered COVID-19 patients.

title: The majority of male patients with COVID-19 present low testosterone levels on admission to Intensive Care in Hamburg, Germany: a retrospective cohort study.
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to spread worldwide and pose a major public health burden. There is increasing evidence that men are more likely to die from SARS-CoV-2 infection than women. However, underlying factors that mediate the observed sex bias in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) remain unknown.  In this retrospective cohort, we included COVID-19 patients who were admitted to an Intensive Care Unit at the University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany. We obtained demographic data of all patients who were discharged or had died by 29th April 2020. We systematically analyzed sex hormones as well as cytokine and chemokine responses in male and female patients with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections upon hospital admission. We used uni- and multivariable linear regression methods to identify potential risk factors for disease severity in males and females.  All enrolled patients (n=45; n=35 males and n=10 females) presented comorbidities with hypertension being the most common (45.7% in males; 40% in females), followed by cancer (35% in males; 40% in females), obesity (34.3% in males and 30% in females), type II diabetes (25.7% in males and 20% in females) and chronic heart diseases (8.6% in males and 0% in females). We detected that the vast majority of male COVID-19 patients present low testosterone (68.6%) and low dihydrotestosterone (48.6%) levels. In contrast, most female COVID-19 patients have elevated testosterone levels (60%) without alterations in dihydrotestosterone levels. Both, female and male COVID-19 patients may present elevated estradiol levels (45.7% in males and 40% in females). Disease severity defined by SOFA score correlates with elevated cytokine responses (e.g. IL-6) in males and IL-2 in females. In male COVID-19 patients, testosterone levels negatively correlate with inflammatory IL-2 and IFN-{gamma}, whereas estradiol levels positively correlate with the inflammatory cytokine IL-6. Vice versa, in female COVID-19 patients, testosterone levels positively correlate with inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-6).  We here show that critically ill male COVID-19 patients suffer from severe testosterone and dihydrotestosterone deficiencies. Both androgens are required to mount antiviral immune responses to combat infection in males.

title: Network-based drug repurposing for novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2
abstract: Human coronaviruses (HCoVs), including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV, also known as SARS-CoV-2), lead global epidemics with high morbidity and mortality. However, there are currently no effective drugs targeting 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2. Drug repurposing, representing as an effective drug discovery strategy from existing drugs, could shorten the time and reduce the cost compared to de novo drug discovery. In this study, we present an integrative, antiviral drug repurposing methodology implementing a systems pharmacology-based network medicine platform, quantifying the interplay between the HCoV–host interactome and drug targets in the human protein–protein interaction network. Phylogenetic analyses of 15 HCoV whole genomes reveal that 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2 shares the highest nucleotide sequence identity with SARS-CoV (79.7%). Specifically, the envelope and nucleocapsid proteins of 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2 are two evolutionarily conserved regions, having the sequence identities of 96% and 89.6%, respectively, compared to SARS-CoV. Using network proximity analyses of drug targets and HCoV–host interactions in the human interactome, we prioritize 16 potential anti-HCoV repurposable drugs (e.g., melatonin, mercaptopurine, and sirolimus) that are further validated by enrichment analyses of drug-gene signatures and HCoV-induced transcriptomics data in human cell lines. We further identify three potential drug combinations (e.g., sirolimus plus dactinomycin, mercaptopurine plus melatonin, and toremifene plus emodin) captured by the “Complementary Exposure” pattern: the targets of the drugs both hit the HCoV–host subnetwork, but target separate neighborhoods in the human interactome network. In summary, this study offers powerful network-based methodologies for rapid identification of candidate repurposable drugs and potential drug combinations targeting 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2.

title: Current status of potential therapeutic candidates for the COVID-19 crisis
abstract: As of April 15, 2020, the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019) pandemic has swept through 213 countries and infected more than 1,870,000 individuals, posing an unprecedented threat to international health and the economy. There is currently no specific treatment available for patients with COVID-19 infection. The lessons learned from past management of respiratory viral infections have provided insights into treating COVID-19. Numerous potential therapies, including supportive intervention, immunomodulatory agents, antiviral therapy, and convalescent plasma transfusion, have been tentatively applied in clinical settings. A number of these therapies have provided substantially curative benefits in treating patients with COVID-19 infection. Furthermore, intensive research and clinical trials are underway to assess the efficacy of existing drugs and identify potential therapeutic targets to develop new drugs for treating COVID-19. Herein, we summarize the current potential therapeutic approaches for diseases related to COVID-19 infection and introduce their mechanisms of action, safety, and effectiveness.

title: COVID-19 and the role of chronic inflammation in patients with obesity
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the risk of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a particular risk to people living with preexisting conditions that impair immune response or amplify pro-inflammatory response. Low-grade chronic systemic inflammation, common in people with obesity, is associated with the development of atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension, well known comorbidities that adversely affect the outcomes of patients with COVID-19. Risk stratification based on the Edmonton Obesity Staging System (EOSS), which classifies obesity based on the presence of medical, mental, and/or functional complications rather than on body mass index (BMI), has been shown to be a better predictor of all-cause mortality and it may well be that EOSS stages may better describe the risk of hyperinflammation in patients with COVID-19 infection. Analyzing a group of metabolic ill patients with obesity (EOSS 2 and 3), we found an increased interleukin-6 and linear regression analysis showed a positive correlation with C-reactive protein (CRP) (p = 0.014) and waist-to-hip-ratio (WHR) (p = 0.031). Physicians should be aware of these findings in patients with COVID-19 infection. Early identification of possible hyperinflammation could be fundamental and should guide decision making regarding hospitalization, early respiratory support, and therapy with immunosuppression to improve mortality.

title: Controversies about COVID-19 and anticancer treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors

title: Genetic control of alphavirus pathogenesis
abstract: Alphaviruses, members of the positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus family Togaviridae, represent a re-emerging public health concern worldwide as mosquito vectors expand into new geographic ranges. Members of the alphavirus genus tend to induce clinical disease characterized by rash, arthralgia, and arthritis (chikungunya virus, Ross River virus, and Semliki Forest virus) or encephalomyelitis (eastern equine encephalitis virus, western equine encephalitis virus, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus), though some patients who recover from the initial acute illness may develop long-term sequelae, regardless of the specific infecting virus. Studies examining the natural disease course in humans and experimental infection in cell culture and animal models reveal that host genetics play a major role in influencing susceptibility to infection and severity of clinical disease. Genome-wide genetic screens, including loss of function screens, microarrays, RNA-sequencing, and candidate gene studies, have further elucidated the role host genetics play in the response to virus infection, with the immune response being found in particular to majorly influence the outcome. This review describes the current knowledge of the mechanisms by which host genetic factors influence alphavirus pathogenesis and discusses emerging technologies that are poised to increase our understanding of the complex interplay between viral and host genetics on disease susceptibility and clinical outcome.

title: Analysis of the molecular mechanism of Pudilan (PDL) treatment for COVID-19 by network pharmacology tools
abstract: Pudilan (PDL), a four-herb prescription with the traditional function of heat-clearing and detoxifying, has been clinically used as an anti-SARS-CoV-2 infectory agent in China for decades. PDL might also have therapeutic potentials for COVID-19 while the underlying mechanisms remain to be clarified.  We used network pharmacology analysis and selected 68 co-targeted genes/proteins as targets of both PDL and COVID-19. These co-targeted genes/proteins were predicted by SwissDock Server for their high-precision docking simulation, and analyzed by STRING for proteins to protein interaction (PPI), pathway and GO (gene ontology) enrichment. The therapeutic effect for PDL treatment on COVID-19 was validated by the TCMATCOV (TCM Anti COVID-19) platform.  PDL might prevent the entrance of SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells by blocking the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). It might inhibit the cytokine storm by affecting C-reactive protein (CRP), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin- 6 (IL-6), interleukin- 10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1), and other proteins. PDL might moderate the immune system to shorten the course of the disease, delay disease progression, and reduce the mortality rate.  PDL might have a therapeutic effect on COVID-19 through three aspects, including the moderate immune system, anti-inflammation, and anti-virus entry into cells.

title: Towards precision management of cardiovascular patients with COVID-19 to reduce mortality

title: GI-type T4SS-mediated horizontal transfer of the 89K pathogenicity island in epidemic Streptococcus suis serotype 2
abstract: Pathogenicity islands (PAIs), a distinct type of genomic island (GI), play important roles in the rapid adaptation and increased virulence of pathogens. 89K is a newly identified PAI in epidemic Streptococcus suis isolates that are related to the two recent large-scale outbreaks of human infection in China. However, its mechanism of evolution and contribution to the epidemic spread of S. suis 2 remain unknown. In this study, the potential for mobilization of 89K was evaluated, and its putative transfer mechanism was investigated. We report that 89K can spontaneously excise to form an extrachromosomal circular product. The precise excision is mediated by an 89K-borne integrase through site-specific recombination, with help from an excisionase. The 89K excision intermediate acts as a substrate for lateral transfer to non-89K S. suis 2 recipients, where it reintegrates site-specifically into the target site. The conjugal transfer of 89K occurred via a GI type IV secretion system (T4SS) encoded in 89K, at a frequency of 10(−6) transconjugants per donor. This is the first demonstration of horizontal transfer of a Gram-positive PAI mediated by a GI-type T4SS. We propose that these genetic events are important in the emergence, pathogenesis and persistence of epidemic S. suis 2 strains.

title: The Interaction of the Gut Microbiota with the Mucus Barrier in Health and Disease in Human
abstract: Glycoproteins are major players in the mucus protective barrier in the gastrointestinal and other mucosal surfaces. In particular the mucus glycoproteins, or mucins, are responsible for the protective gel barrier. They are characterized by their high carbohydrate content, present in their variable number, tandem repeat domains. Throughout evolution the mucins have been maintained as integral components of the mucosal barrier, emphasizing their essential biological status. The glycosylation of the mucins is achieved through a series of biosynthetic pathways processes, which generate the wide range of glycans found in these molecules. Thus mucins are decorated with molecules having information in the form of a glycocode. The enteric microbiota interacts with the mucosal mucus barrier in a variety of ways in order to fulfill its many normal processes. How bacteria read the glycocode and link to normal and pathological processes is outlined in the review.

title: COVID-19 AND PATIENTS UNDERGOING PHARMACOLOGICAL TREATMENTS FOR IMMUNE-MEDIATED INFLAMMATORY DISEASES: PROTOCOL FOR A RAPID LIVING SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
abstract: We propose to systematically review the available evidence to evaluate if patients with immune mediated inflammatory diseases under pharmacological treatment with immunosuppressants, immunobiologics, Disease-Modifying Anti-Rheumatic Drugs (DMARD) or targeted synthetic DMARDs have better or worse outcomes when infected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). This study is a protocol for our rapid living systematic review.  Protocol for a rapid living systematic review methodology following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) guidance. To conduct the rapid systematic review, we will employ abbreviated systematic review methods, including: not performing independent screens of abstracts and not searching grey literature. As this will be a living review, it will be continuously updated.

title: Coagulopathy of Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: Recent studies have reported a high prevalence of thrombotic events in coronavirus disease 2019. However, the significance of thromboembolic complications has not been widely appreciated. The purpose of this review is to provide current knowledge of this serious problem.  Narrative review.  Online search of published medical literature through PubMed using the term “COVID-19,” “SARS,” “acute respiratory distress syndrome,” “coronavirus,” “coagulopathy,” “thrombus,” and “anticoagulants.”  Articles were chosen for inclusion based on their relevance to coagulopathy and thrombosis in coronavirus disease 2019, and anticoagulant therapy. Reference lists were reviewed to identify additional relevant articles.  Coronavirus disease 2019 is associated with a strikingly high prevalence of coagulopathy and venous thromboembolism that may contribute to respiratory deterioration. Monitoring coagulation variables is important, as abnormal coagulation tests are related to adverse outcomes and may necessitate adjuvant antithrombotic interventions. In the initial phase of the infection, d-dimer and fibrinogen levels are increased, while activated partial prothrombin time, prothrombin time, and platelet counts are often relatively normal. Increased d-dimer levels three times the upper limit of normal may trigger screening for venous thromboembolism. In all hospitalized patients, thromboprophylaxis using low-molecular-weight heparin is currently recommended. The etiology of the procoagulant responses is complex and thought to be a result of specific interactions between host defense mechanisms and the coagulation system. Although the coagulopathy is reminiscent of disseminated intravascular coagulation and thrombotic microangiopathy, it has features that are markedly distinct from these entities.  Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2/coronavirus disease 2019 frequently induces hypercoagulability with both microangiopathy and local thrombus formation, and a systemic coagulation defect that leads to large vessel thrombosis and major thromboembolic complications, including pulmonary embolism in critically ill hospitalized patients. d-dimers and fibrinogen levels should be monitored, and all hospitalized patients should undergo thromboembolism prophylaxis with an increase in therapeutic anticoagulation in certain clinical situations.

title: Marked T cell activation, senescence, exhaustion and skewing towards TH17 in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia
abstract: The immune system of patients infected by SARS-CoV-2 is severely impaired. Detailed investigation of T cells and cytokine production in patients affected by COVID-19 pneumonia are urgently required. Here we show that, compared with healthy controls, COVID-19 patients’ T cell compartment displays several alterations involving naïve, central memory, effector memory and terminally differentiated cells, as well as regulatory T cells and PD1(+)CD57(+) exhausted T cells. Significant alterations exist also in several lineage-specifying transcription factors and chemokine receptors. Terminally differentiated T cells from patients proliferate less than those from healthy controls, whereas their mitochondria functionality is similar in CD4(+) T cells from both groups. Patients display significant increases of proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory cytokines, including T helper type-1 and type-2 cytokines, chemokines and galectins; their lymphocytes produce more tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-17, with the last observation implying that blocking IL-17 could provide a novel therapeutic strategy for COVID-19.

title: TB infection and BCG vaccination: Are we protected from COVID-19?
abstract: The incidence of emerging COVID-19 disease is variable across the different parts of the world. Apart from travel patterns, other factors determining this difference may include host immune response. Aim of this study was to assess the effect of TB endemicity and BCG coverage on COVID-19.   We reviewed available data regarding tuberculosis incidence, BCG coverage (as per WHO), and COVID-19 incidence of 174 countries. We divided the countries into four cohorts depending upon annual TB incidence and BCG coverage.  Countries with high TB incidence had lower COVID-19 as compared to countries with low TB incidence. Similarly, countries with high BCG coverage had lower incidence of COVID-19 suggesting some protective mechanisms in TB endemic areas. Although, the ecological differences and different testing strategies between countries could not be accounted for in this analysis.  Higher TB incidence and BCG coverage were found to be associated with lesser incidence of COVID-19. This outcome paves the way for further research into pathogenesis and immune response in COVID-19.

title: Management of Acute Severe Ulcerative Colitis in a Pregnant Woman With COVID-19 Infection: A Case Report and Review of the Literature
abstract: First detected in Wuhan, China, the novel 2019 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an enveloped RNA beta-coronavirus responsible for an unprecedented, worldwide pandemic caused by COVID-19. Optimal management of immunosuppression in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients with COVID-19 infection currently is based on expert opinion, given the novelty of the infection and the corresponding lack of high-level evidence in patients with immune-mediated conditions. There are limited data regarding IBD patients with COVID-19 and no data regarding early pregnancy in the era of COVID-19. This article describes a patient with acute severe ulcerative colitis (UC) during her first trimester of pregnancy who also has COVID-19. The case presentation is followed by a review of the literature to date on COVID-19 in regard to inflammatory bowel disease and pregnancy, respectively.

title: Demystifying the myths about COVID-19 infection and its societal importance

title: COVID-19 in children and altered inflammatory responses.

title: Cytokine storm in COVID-19: pathogenesis and overview of anti-inflammatory agents used in treatment
abstract: COVID-19 infection has a heterogenous disease course; it may be asymptomatic or causes only mild symptoms in the majority of the cases, while immunologic complications such as macrophage activation syndrome also known as secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, resulting in cytokine storm syndrome and acute respiratory distress syndrome, may also occur in some patients. According to current literature, impairment of SARS-CoV-2 clearance due to genetic and viral features, lower levels of interferons, increased neutrophil extracellular traps, and increased pyroptosis and probable other unknown mechanisms create a background for severe disease course complicated by macrophage activation syndrome and cytokine storm. Various genetic mutations may also constitute a risk factor for severe disease course and occurrence of cytokine storm in COVID-19. Once, immunologic complications like cytokine storm occur, anti-viral treatment alone is not enough and should be combined with appropriate anti-inflammatory treatment. Anti-rheumatic drugs, which are tried for managing immunologic complications of COVID-19 infection, will also be discussed including chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, JAK inhibitors, IL-6 inhibitors, IL-1 inhibitors, anti-TNF-&#945; agents, corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), and colchicine. Early recognition and appropriate treatment of immunologic complications will decrease the morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 infection, which requires the collaboration of infectious disease, lung, and intensive care unit specialists with other experts such as immunologists, rheumatologists, and hematologists.

title: Coronavirus disease 19 (Covid-19) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID).

title: COVID-19 cytokine storm: the interplay between inflammation and coagulation

title: Clinical features in 52 patients with COVID-19 who have increased leukocyte count: a retrospective analysis
abstract: Recent reports have showed that a proportion of patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) presented elevated leukocyte count. Clinical data about these patients is scarce. We aimed to evaluate the clinical findings of patients with COVID-19 who have increased leukocyte at admission. We retrospectively collected the clinical data on the 52 patients who have increased leukocyte count at admission from the 619 patients with confirmed COVID-19 who had pneumonia with abnormal features on chest CT scan in Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University in Wuhan, China, from February 3 to March 3, 2020. The mean age of the 52 patients with increased leukocyte count was 64.7 (SD 11.4) years, 32 (61.5%) were men and 47 (90.4%) had fever. Compared with the patients with non-increased leukocyte count, the patients with increased leukocyte count were significantly older (P < 0.01), were more likely to have underlying chronic diseases (P < 0.01), more likely to develop critically illness (P < 0.01), more likely to admit to an ICU (P < 0.01), more likely to receive mechanical ventilation (P < 0.01), had higher rate of death (P < 0.01) and the blood levels of neutrophil count and the serum concentrations of CRP and IL-6 were significantly increased, (P < 0.01). The older patients with COVID-19 who had underlying chronic disorders are more likely to develop leukocytosis. These patients are more likely to develop critical illness, with a high admission to an ICU and a high mortality rate.

title: Dysregulation of the immune system as a driver of the critical course of the novel coronavirus disease 2019
abstract: Novel coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious respiratory-related disease induced by the newly emerged virus SARS-CoV-2. Given that inflammatory immune cells may induce severe lung injury, the involvement of immune factors in the pathogenesis of the disease cannot be overestimated. It has been demonstrated that coronaviruses (CoVs) have developed mechanisms of immune evasion, making them invisible to the immune system at an early stage of infection. The mechanism relies on inhibition of the anti-viral response of type I interferons (IFNs), which supports uncontrolled viral replication in epithelial cells. There is growing body of evidence that the fatal hyperinflammation ('cytokine storm') responsible for the severe course of COVID-19 is a consequence of massive SARS-CoV-2 replication rather than inappropriate hyperresponsiveness of the immune system. Therefore, a dampened innate anti-viral immune response seems to be the primary cause of the delayed critical cascade of uncontrolled immune events leading to fulminating systemic inflammation. The occurrence of virus transmission even in asymptomatic subjects infected with SARS-CoV-2 clearly strengthens the evidence for a key role of sufficient immune control of viral replication in a subset of cases (e.g. in children, a population with highly effective innate immune responses). Although administration of immunomodulatory therapeutics is recommended under certain conditions in the guidelines of COVID-19 management, controversies regarding treatment protocols in immunocompromised patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 still exist. Extended knowledge of clinicians on the dysregulated immune response, which is a driver of the COVID-19 outcome, may improve both therapeutic protocols and the prognosis of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients.

title: Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic and Radical Cystectomy

title: Cytokine storm intervention in the early stages of COVID-19 pneumonia
abstract: Clinical intervention in patients with corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has demonstrated a strong upregulation of cytokine production in patients who are critically ill with SARS-CoV2-induced pneumonia. In a retrospective study of 41 patients with COVID-19, most patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection developed mild symptoms, whereas some patients later developed aggravated disease symptoms, and eventually passed away because of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), as a consequence of a severe cytokine storm. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infected pneumonia were first published January 30th, 2020; these guidelines recommended for the first time that cytokine monitoring should be applied in severely ill patients to reduce pneumonia related mortality. The cytokine storm observed in COVID-19 illness is also an important component of mortality in other viral diseases, including SARS, MERS and influenza. In view of the severe morbidity and mortality of COVID-19 pneumonia, we review the current understanding of treatment of human coronavirus infections from the perspective of a dysregulated cytokine and immune response.

title: Air Pollution and COVID-19: The Role of Particulate Matter in the Spread and Increase of COVID-19’s Morbidity and Mortality
abstract: Sars-Cov-2 virus (COVID-19) is a member of the coronavirus family and is responsible for the pandemic recently declared by the World Health Organization. A positive correlation has been observed between the spread of the virus and air pollution, one of the greatest challenges of our millennium. COVID-19 could have an air transmission and atmospheric particulate matter (PM) could create a suitable environment for transporting the virus at greater distances than those considered for close contact. Moreover, PM induces inflammation in lung cells and exposure to PM could increase the susceptibility and severity of the COVID-19 patient symptoms. The new coronavirus has been shown to trigger an inflammatory storm that would be sustained in the case of pre-exposure to polluting agents. In this review, we highlight the potential role of PM in the spread of COVID-19, focusing on Italian cities whose PM daily concentrations were found to be higher than the annual average allowed during the months preceding the epidemic. Furthermore, we analyze the positive correlation between the virus spread, PM, and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a receptor involved in the entry of the virus into pulmonary cells and inflammation.

title: Tocilizumab: A Therapeutic Option for the Treatment of Cytokine Storm Syndrome in COVID-19
abstract: Presently, we need more therapeutic molecules for this COVID-19 outbreak. The severity and mortality of the disease is associated with a high level of release of cytokine in the patients which is known as CRS (cytokine release syndrome) or cytokine storm syndrome. IL-6 is a type of pro-inflammatory cytokine which release in the severe COVID-19 patients. This cytokine initiates CRS the JAK-STAT pathway. Tocilizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody, is designed to bind both mIL-6R (membrane bound receptor for IL-6) and sIL-6R (soluble receptor for IL-6) and inhibit the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. It finally stops the cytokine storm syndrome. However, we need to understand that how tocilizumab is bound with mIL-6R or sIL-6R. Similarly, we also need to understand more about the real molecular mechanism of activity of tocilizumab.

title: A glimpse into the eye of the COVID-19 cytokine storm

title: The phenotypic changes of Î³Î´ T cells in COVID-19 patients
abstract: A novel pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome named coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), which caused by SARS-CoV-2 and broken in Wuhan, China in the end of 2019. Unfortunately, there is no specific antiviral agent or vaccine available to treat SARS-CoV-2 infections. Also, information regarding the immunological characteristics in COVID-19 patients remains limited. Here we collected the blood samples from 18 healthy donors (HD) and 38 COVID-19 patients to analyze changes in {gamma}{delta} T cells. In comparison to HD, the {gamma}{delta} T cells percentage was decreased. {gamma}{delta} T cells are able to immediately respond to SARS-CoV-2 infection and upregulate the activation marker CD25. In addition, the increased expression of CD4 in {gamma}{delta} T cells may serve as a biomarker for the assessment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Upper airway gene expression differentiates COVID-19 from other acute respiratory illnesses and reveals suppression of innate immune responses by SARS-CoV-2
abstract: We studied the host transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 by performing metagenomic sequencing of upper airway samples in 238 patients with COVID-19, other viral or non-viral acute respiratory illnesses (ARIs). Compared to other viral ARIs, COVID-19 was characterized by a diminished innate immune response, with reduced expression of genes involved in toll-like receptor and interleukin signaling, chemokine binding, neutrophil degranulation and interactions with lymphoid cells. Patients with COVID-19 also exhibited significantly reduced proportions of neutrophils and macrophages, and increased proportions of goblet, dendritic and B-cells, compared to other viral ARIs. Using machine learning, we built 26-, 10- and 3-gene classifiers that differentiated COVID-19 from other acute respiratory illnesses with AUCs of 0.980, 0.950 and 0.871, respectively. Classifier performance was stable at low viral loads, suggesting utility in settings where direct detection of viral nucleic acid may be unsuccessful. Taken together, our results illuminate unique aspects of the host transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 in comparison to other respiratory viruses and demonstrate the feasibility of COVID-19 diagnostics based on patient gene expression.

title: The Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer perspective on regulation of interleukin-6 signaling in COVID-19-related systemic inflammatory response
abstract: The pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has placed an unprecedented burden on healthcare systems around the world. In patients who experience severe disease, acute respiratory distress is often accompanied by a pathological immune reaction, sometimes referred to as 'cytokine storm'. One hallmark feature of the profound inflammatory state seen in patients with COVID-19 who succumb to pneumonia and hypoxia is marked elevation of serum cytokines, especially interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 17 (IL-17), interleukin 8 (IL-8) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Initial experience from the outbreaks in Italy, China and the USA has anecdotally demonstrated improved outcomes for critically ill patients with COVID-19 with the administration of cytokine-modulatory therapies, especially anti-IL-6 agents. Although ongoing trials are investigating anti-IL-6 therapies, access to these therapies is a concern, especially as the numbers of cases worldwide continue to climb. An immunology-informed approach may help identify alternative agents to modulate the pathological inflammation seen in patients with COVID-19. Drawing on extensive experience administering these and other immune-modulating therapies, the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer offers this perspective on potential alternatives to anti-IL-6 that may also warrant consideration for management of the systemic inflammatory response and pulmonary compromise that can be seen in patients with severe COVID-19.

title: Early Guillain-Barré syndrome in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a case report from an Italian COVID-hospital
abstract: Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is an acute polyradiculoneuropathy associated with dysimmune processes, often related to a previous infectious exposure. During Italian severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 outbreak, a woman presented with a rapidly progressive flaccid paralysis with unilateral facial neuropathy after a few days of mild respiratory symptoms. Coronavirus was detected by nasopharyngeal swab, but there was no evidence of its presence in her cerebrospinal fluid, which confirmed the typical albumin-cytological dissociation of GBS, along with consistent neurophysiological data. Despite immunoglobulin infusions and intensive supportive care, her clinical picture worsened simultaneously both from the respiratory and neurological point of view, as if reflecting different aspects of the same systemic inflammatory response. Similar early complications have already been observed in patients with para-infectious GBS related to Zika virus, but pathological mechanisms have yet to be established.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and Cardiovascular Complications: from Molecular Mechanisms to Pharmaceutical Management
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), elicited by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, is a pandemic public health emergency of global concern. Other than the profound severe pulmonary damage, SARS-CoV-2 infection also leads to a series of cardiovascular abnormalities, including myocardial injury, myocarditis and pericarditis, arrhythmia and cardiac arrest, cardiomyopathy, heart failure, cardiogenic shock, and coagulation abnormalities. Meanwhile, COVID-19 patients with preexisting cardiovascular diseases are often at a much higher risk of increased morbidity and mortality. Up–to-date, a number of mechanisms have been postulated for COVID-19-associated cardiovascular damage including SARS-CoV-2 receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) activation, cytokine storm, hypoxemia, stress and cardiotoxicity of antiviral drugs. In this context, special attention should be given towards COVID-19 patients with concurrent cardiovascular diseases, and special cardiovascular attention is warranted for treatment of COVID-19.

title: A new pharmacological approach based on remdesivir aerosolized administration on sars-cov-2 pulmonary inflammation: a possible and rational therapeutic application
abstract: The new zoonotic coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) responsible for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a new strain of coronavirus not previously seen in humans and which appears to come from bat species. It originated in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, and spread rapidly throughout the world, causing over 2,341,066 global cases and 161,324 deaths in almost every country in the world, including Europe, particularly Italy. In general, based on existing data published to date, 80.9% of patients infected with the virus develop mild infection; 13.8% severe pneumonia; 4.7% respiratory failure, septic shock or multi-organ failure; 3% of these cases are fatal. Critical patients have been shown to develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and hospitalization in intensive care units. The average age of patients admitted to hospital is 57-79 years, with one third half with an underlying disease. Asymptomatic infections have also been described, but their frequency is not known. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is mainly airborne from one person to another via droplets. The data available so far seem to indicate that SARS-CoV-2 is capable of producing an excessive immune reaction in the host. The virus attacks type II pneumocytes in the lower bronchi through the binding of the Spike protein (S protein) to viral receptors, of which the angiotensin 2 conversion enzyme (ACE2) receptor is the most important. ACE2 receptor is widely expressed in numerous tissues, including the oropharynx and conjunctiva, but mostly distributed in ciliated bronchial epithelial cells and type II pneumocytes in the lower bronchi. The arrival of SARS-CoV-2 in the lungs causes severe primary interstitial viral pneumonia that can lead to the “cytokine storm syndrome”, a deadly uncontrolled systemic inflammatory response triggered by the activation of interleukin 6 (IL-6), whose effect is extensive lung tissue damage and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), that are life-threatening for patients with COVID-19. In the absence of a therapy of proven efficacy, current management consists of off-label or compassionate use therapies based on antivirals, antiparasitic agents in both oral and parenteral formulation, anti-inflammatory drugs, oxygen therapy and heparin support and convalescent plasma. Like most respiratory viruses can function and replicate at low temperatures (i.e. 34-35°C) and assuming viral thermolability of SARS-CoV-2, local instillation or aerosol of antiviral (i.e. remdesivir) in humid heat vaporization (40°- 41°C) in the first phase of infection (phenotype I, before admission), both in asymptomatic but nasopharyngeal swab positive patients, together with antiseptic-antiviral oral gargles and povidone-iodine eye drops for conjunctiva (0,8-5% conjunctival congestion), would attack the virus directly through the receptors to which it binds, significantly decreasing viral replication, risk of evolution to phenotypes IV and V, reducing hospitalization and therefore death.

title: Study of the lymphocyte change between COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 pneumonia cases suggesting other factors besides uncontrolled inflammation contributed to multi-organ injury
abstract: The corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) shows unusually high transmission rate and unique clinical characteristics, with key pathological mechanism remaining unclear. Here, we analysed the laboratory data based on clinical samples from COVID-19 patients, in parallel comparison with non-COVID-19 pneumonia cases, in an attempt to elucidate the key pathological features of COVID-19 during its infection of the human body.  We analysed biochemical indices and lymphocyte subpopulation in COVID-19 patients, and compare these data from non-COVID-19 pneumonia cases. Correlation analysis was performed between leukocyte subgroups count and biochemical indexes in COVID-19 patients.  The study enrolled 110 patients, comprising 88 COVID-19 patients and 22 non-COVID-19 pneumonia cases. We observed significant differences, including abnormal biochemical indices (CRP, LDH, AST, eGFR, and sodium ion concentration) and reduced lymphocyte subsets count, between the COVID-19 patients and non-COVID-19-caused pneumonia cases. Correlation analysis indicates that the count for lymphocyte subsets-but not that for neutrophils and monocytes-exhibits a significant negative correlation with biochemical indices relating to organ injury, in the COVID-19 infected patients.  The study indicates significantly different clinical features between 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)-caused and non-2019-nCoV-caused pneumonia, especially in terms of lymphocytopenia and organ injury. Notably, correlation analysis demonstrates that tissue damage in COVID-19 patients is attributed to virus infection itself rather than uncontrolled inflammatory responses ("cytokine storm"). These findings provide new insights for developing efficient therapeutic strategies against COVID-19 infection.

title: Innate Immune Signaling and Proteolytic Pathways in the Resolution or Exacerbation of SARS-CoV-2 in Covid-19: Key Therapeutic Targets?
abstract: COVID-19 is caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (Cov)-2, an enveloped virus with a positive-polarity, single-stranded RNA genome. The initial outbreak of the pandemic began in December 2019, and it is affecting the human health of the global community. In common with previous pandemics (Influenza H1N1 and SARS-CoV) and the epidemics of Middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS)-CoV, CoVs target bronchial and alveolar epithelial cells. Virus protein ligands (e.g., haemagglutinin or trimeric spike glycoprotein for Influenza and CoV, respectively) interact with cellular receptors, such as (depending on the virus) either sialic acids, Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), or angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Host proteases, e.g., cathepsins, furin, or members of the type II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSP) family, such as Transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), are involved in virus entry by proteolytically activating virus ligands. Also involved are Toll Like Receptor (TLR) family members, which upregulate anti-viral and pro-inflammatory mediators [interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 and type I and type III Interferons among others], through the activation of Nuclear Factor (NF)-kB. When these events (virus cellular entry and innate immune responses) are uncontrolled, a deleterious systemic response is sometimes encountered in infected patients, leading to the well-described “cytokine storm” and an ensuing multiple organ failure promoted by a downregulation of dendritic cell, macrophage, and T-cell function. We aim to describe how the lung and systemic host innate immune responses affect survival either positively, through downregulating initial viral load, or negatively, by triggering uncontrolled inflammation. An emphasis will be put on host cellular signaling pathways and proteases involved with a view on tackling these therapeutically.

title: Inflammatory Cytokine Modulation of Cancer Cell Proliferation
abstract: Inflammatory cytokines have a critical role in modulation of both innate and adaptive immunity in response to foreign antigen. They also play an important role in anticancer immunity. For example, they can promote cell‐mediated immunity against cancer cells. With their immunostimulatory effects, these cytokines are being tested for cancer treatment in the form of DNA vaccine or adjuvant or therapeutic cytokines. Direct effect of these cytokines on cancer cell, however, is still unclear. In this project, we investigated whether IL‐1( and IL‐18 can modulate cancer cell proliferation. We employed a simple nonradioactive proliferation (MTT) assay and detection of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) to test the effect of these recombinant human cytokines on various cancer cell lines, including breast cancer cell line (MCF‐7), oral carcinoma cell line (KB), colon cancer cell line (Caco‐2) and choriocarcinoma cell line (Jar). Cytokines used in this study had both inhibitory and stimulatory effect on cell proliferation. Findings in this project could provide an insight of cancer cell response to these cytokines and this could lead to a consideration on using cytokine as immunotherapy for cancer treatment.

title: Oxidative stress in multiple sclerosis: Central and peripheral mode of action
abstract: Accumulating evidence suggests that oxidative stress plays a major role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). Reactive oxygen species (ROS), which if produced in excess lead to oxidative stress, have been implicated as mediators of demyelination and axonal damage in both MS and its animal models. One of the most studied cell populations in the context of ROS-mediated tissue damage in MS are macrophages and their CNS companion, microglia cells. However, and this aspect is less well appreciated, the extracellular and intracellular redox milieu is integral to many processes underlying T cell activation, proliferation and apoptosis. In this review article we discuss how oxidative stress affects central as well as peripheral aspects of MS and how manipulation of ROS pathways can potentially affect the course of the disease. It is our strong belief that the well-directed shaping of ROS pathways has the potential to ameliorate disease progression in MS.

title: Models of cytokine dynamics in the inflammatory response of viral zoonotic infectious diseases
abstract: Inflammatory responses to an infection from a zoonotic pathogen, such as avian influenza viruses, hantaviruses and some coronaviruses, are distinctly different in their natural reservoir versus human host. While not as well studied in the natural reservoirs, the pro-inflammatory response and viral replication appear controlled and show no obvious pathology. In contrast, infection in humans results in an initial high viral load marked by an aggressive pro-inflammatory response known as a cytokine storm. The key difference in the course of the infection between the reservoir and human host is the inflammatory response. In this investigation, we apply a simple two-component differential equation model for pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses and a detailed mathematical analysis to identify specific regions in parameter space for single stable endemic equilibrium, bistability or periodic solutions. The extensions of the deterministic model to two stochastic models account for variability in responses seen at the cell (local) or tissue (global) levels. Numerical solutions of the stochastic models exhibit outcomes that are typical of a chronic infection in the natural reservoir or a cytokine storm in human infection. In the chronic infection, occasional flare-ups between high and low responses occur when model parameters are in a region of bistability or periodic solutions. The cytokine storm with a vigorous pro-inflammatory response and less vigorous anti-inflammatory response occurs in the parameter region for a single stable endemic equilibrium with a strong pro-inflammatory response. The results of the model analyses and the simulations are interpreted in terms of the functional role of the cytokines and the inflammatory responses seen in infection of the natural reservoir or of the human host.

title: Considerations for the Development of Nasal Dosage Forms
abstract: The anatomy and physiology of the nasal cavity provide unique advantages for accessing targets for local, systemic, and potentially central nervous system drug delivery. This chapter discusses these advantages and the challenges that must be overcome to reach these targets. The chapter then comprehensively reviews nasal dosage forms, analytical testing, and regulatory requirements in the context of existing nasal spray products. Since nasal sprays are moving towards being preservative-free, the chapter covers specialized methods of achieving a sterile product, namely, formulation strategies, manufacturing strategies, and the device landscape that support this upcoming platform. Finally, the chapter reviews various pathways for regulatory approval around the world, for brand and generic, with particular emphasis on the growing acceptance of in vitro data for locally acting nasal spray products.

title: The potential role of Th17 immune responses in coronavirus immunopathology and vaccine-induced immune enhancement
abstract: Increasing evidence points to host Th17 inflammatory responses as contributing to the severe lung pathology and mortality of lower respiratory tract infections from coronaviruses. This includes host inflammatory and cytokine responses to COVID-19 caused by the SARS-2 coronavirus (SARS CoV2). From studies conducted in laboratory animals, there are additional concerns about immune enhancement and the role of potential host immunopathology resulting from experimental human COVID-19 vaccines. Here we summarize evidence suggesting there may be partial overlap between the underlying immunopathologic processes linked to both coronavirus infection and vaccination, and a role for Th17 in immune enhancement and eosinophilic pulmonary immunopathology. Such findings help explain the link between viral-vectored coronavirus vaccines and immune enhancement and its reduction through alum adjuvants. Additional research may also clarify links between COVID-19 pulmonary immunopathology and heart disease.

title: Release of potential pro-inflammatory peptides from SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoproteins in neutrophil-extracellular traps
abstract: COVID-2019 has progressed in around 10-15% of patients to an acute respiratory distress syndrome characterized by extensive pulmonary inflammation and elevated production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Neutrophil activation seems to be crucial in the initiation and perpetuation of this exacerbated lung inflammation. However, the precise mechanisms by which this activation occurs remain yet elusive. To this end, this in silico study tried to identify potential proinflammatory inducing peptides (PIPs) produced by the action of the elastase released in neutrophil-extracellular traps over SARS-CoV-2 particles. We found nine potential PIPs exclusive from the SARS-CoV-2, showing homology against T cell recognition epitopes. Moreover, 78 percent of these exclusive PIPs were found produced by the enzymatic cleavage on the spike glycoproteins, suggesting that high PIP concentrations might be released following SARS-CoV-2 huge replication rate. Therefore, these PIPs might play a role in the exacerbated inflammatory response observed in some patients. Highlights Nine potential PIPs were predicted exclusive from the SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 PIPs showed homology against T cell recognition epitopes. Most of PIPs were produced by enzymatic cleavage of the spike glycoproteins. The release of these PIPs might be related to the increased inflammatory response observed in the patients.

title: Molecular and Biochemical Characterization of the SARS-CoV Accessory Proteins ORF8a, ORF8b and ORF8ab
abstract: A novel coronavirus was identified as the aetiological agent for the global outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The SARS coronavirus genome encodes for proteins that are common to all members of the coronavirus, i.e. replicase polyproteins (pp1a and pp1b) and structural proteins (spike, membrane, nucleocapsid and envelope), as well as eight accessory proteins. The accessory proteins have been designated as open reading frames (ORF) 3a, 3b, 6, 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b and 9b, and they do not show significant homology to viral proteins of other known coronaviruses. Epidemiological studies have revealed that the part of the viral genome that encodes for ORF8a and ORF8b showed major variations and the animal isolates contain an additional 29-nucleotide sequence which is absent in most of the human isolates. As a result, ORF8a and ORF8b in the human isolates become one ORF, termed ORF8ab. In this chapter, we will discuss the genetic variation in the ORF8 region, expression of ORF8a, ORF8b and ORF8ab during infection, cellular localization and posttranslational modification of ORF8a, ORF8b and ORF8ab, participation of ORF8a, ORF8b and ORF8ab in viral–viral interactions, their effects on other viral proteins and impact on viral replication and/or pathogenesis.

title: A systematic review of pathological findings in COVID-19: a pathophysiological timeline and possible mechanisms of disease progression
abstract: Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, much has been learned regarding its clinical course, prognostic inflammatory markers, disease complications, and mechanical ventilation strategy. Clinically, three stages have been identified based on viral infection, pulmonary involvement with inflammation, and fibrosis. Moreover, low and high elastance phenotypes can be distinguished in mechanically ventilated patients, based on lung mechanics, ventilation-to-perfusion ratio, and CT scans; these two phenotypes have presumed differences in their underlying pathophysiology. Although essential for therapeutic guidance, the pathophysiology of COVID-19 is poorly understood. Here, we systematically reviewed published case reports and case series in order to increase our understanding of COVID-19 pathophysiology by constructing a timeline and correlating histopathological findings with clinical stages of COVID-19. Using PRISMA-IPD guidelines, 42 articles reporting 198 individual cases were included in our analysis. In lung samples (n = 131 cases), we identified three main histological patterns: epithelial (n = 110, 85%), with reactive epithelial changes and DAD; vascular (n = 76, 59%) with microvascular damage, (micro)thrombi, and acute fibrinous and organizing pneumonia; and fibrotic (n = 28, 22%) with interstitial fibrosis. The epithelial and vascular patterns can present in all stages of symptomatic COVID-19, whereas the fibrotic pattern presents starting at ~3 weeks. Moreover, patients can present with more than one pattern, either simultaneously or consecutively. These findings are consistent with knowledge regarding clinical patterns of viral infection, development of hyperinflammation and hypercoagulability, and fibrosis. Close collaboration among medical staff is necessary in order to translate this knowledge and classification of pathophysiological mechanisms into clinical stages of disease in individual patients. Moreover, further research, including histopathological studies, is warranted in order to develop reliable, clinically relevant biomarkers by correlating these pathological findings with laboratory results and radiological findings, thus, increasing our understanding of COVID-19 and facilitating the move to precision medicine for treating patients.

title: Transcriptomic characteristics of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Circulating in China and 158 other countries and areas, the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak has caused devastating mortality and posed a great threat to public health. However, efforts to identify effectively supportive therapeutic drugs and treatments has been hampered by our limited understanding of host immune response for this fatal disease. To characterize the transcriptional signatures of host inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 (HCoV-19) infection, we carried out transcriptome sequencing of the RNAs isolated from the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) specimens of COVID-19 patients. Our results reveal distinct host inflammatory cytokine profiles to SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients, and highlight the association between COVID-19 pathogenesis and excessive cytokine release such as CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL3/MIP-1A, and CCL4/MIP1B. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 induced activation of apoptosis and P53 signalling pathway in lymphocytes may be the cause of patients' lymphopenia. The transcriptome dataset of COVID-19 patients would be a valuable resource for clinical guidance on anti-inflammatory medication and understanding the molecular mechansims of host response.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: is interleukin-6 (IL-6) the 'culprit lesion' of ARDS onset? What is there besides Tocilizumab? SGP130Fc
abstract: Since the outbreak of COVID-19 many studies have been published showing possible therapies, here the author discusses the end of stage disease related drugs, like Tocilizumab which is currently being used in ARDS patients. In some patients, disease progression leads to an enormous secretion of cytokines, known as cytokine storm, among those cytokines IL-6 plays an important role. Here the author shows how IL-6 has both pro and anti-inflammatory properties, depending on the pathway of transduction: soluble (trans-signaling) or membrane-related (classic signaling), and suggests how targeting only the pro-inflammatory pathway, with SGP130Fc, could be a better option then targeting them both. Other possible IL-6 pathway inhibitors such as Ruxolitinib and Baricinitib are then analyzed, underlying how they lack the benefit of targeting only the pro-inflammatory pathway.

title: Molecular mechanisms in the early phase of hemorrhagic shock
abstract: Hemorrhagic shock (HS) results in the initiation of an inflammatory cascade that is critical for survival following successful resuscitation. We identified a complex sequence of molecular events including shock-dependent and reperfusion-dependent responses that offer a new comprehensive approach for consequences of HS. Shock-dependent initializing mechanisms include the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and CD14 and play a catalyzing role for subsequent phenotypic changes following resuscitation. The early immediate response genes iNOS and COX-2 promote the inflammatory response by the rapid and excessive production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandins. The transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) may regulate the induction of iNOS during the ischemic phase of shock. NO is an important signaling molecule which is involved in redox-sensitive mechanisms including the downstream activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB. NO-dependent NF-κB activation promotes the induction of inflammatory cytokine expression during the reperfusion phase. Peroxynitrite-mediated direct toxicity and NO-mediated inflammatory toxicity contribute to organ injury. Patients suffering consequences of severe HS are susceptible to systemic inflammation, organ injury, and mortality if physiologic and therapeutic mechanisms are ineffective in limiting the activation of the inflammatory cascade.

title: New spectrum of COVID-19 manifestations in children: Kawasaki-like syndrome and hyperinflammatory response
abstract: Since late April 2020, data regarding Kawasaki-like syndrome and hyperinflammatory response in children associated with COVID-19 has rapidly emerged. Much remains unknown about the risk factors, pathogenesis, prognosis, and specific therapy for this emerging manifestation of COVID-19 known as Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). MIS-C is rare and early recognition is crucial though no standardized treatment guideline have been established. Worldwide collaboration will be important as more cases are recognized going forward.

title: ACE2 at the centre of COVID-19 from paucisymptomatic infections to severe pneumonia

title: EMERGING SPECTRUM OF CARDIOPULMONARY PATHOLOGY OF THE CORONAVIRUS DISEASE 2019 (COVID-19): REPORT OF THREE AUTOPSIES FROM HOUSTON, TEXAS AND REVIEW OF AUTOPSY FINDINGS FROM OTHER UNITED STATES CITIES
abstract: This paper collates the pathological findings from initial published autopsy reports on 23 patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) from 5 centers in the United States of America, including 3 cases from Houston, Texas. Findings confirm that COVID-19 is a systemic disease with major involvement of the lungs and heart. Acute COVID-19 pneumonia has features of a distinctive acute interstitial pneumonia with: a diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) component, coupled with microvascular involvement with intra- and extra-vascular fibrin deposition and intravascular trapping of neutrophils, and, frequently, with formation of microthombi in arterioles. Major pulmonary thromboemboli with pulmonary infarcts and/or hemorrhage occurred in 5 of the 23 patients. Two of the Houston cases had interstitial pneumonia with DAD pattern. One of the Houston cases had multiple bilateral segmental pulmonary thromboemboli with infarcts and hemorrhages coupled with, in non-hemorrhagic areas, a distinctive interstitial lymphocytic pneumonitis with intra-alveolar fibrin deposits and no hyaline membranes, possibly representing a transition form to acute fibrinous and organizing pneumonia (AFOP). Multifocal acute injury of cardiac myocytes was frequently observed. Lymphocytic myocarditis was reported in 1 case. In addition to major pulmonary pathology, the three Houston cases had evidence of lymphocytic pericarditis, multifocal acute injury of cardiomyocytes without inflammatory cellular infiltrates, depletion of splenic white pulp, focal hepatocellular degeneration and rare glomerular capillary thrombosis. Each had evidence of chronic cardiac disease: hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy (420 gram heart), dilated cardiomyopathy (1070 gram heart), and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (670 gram heart). All three subjects were obese (BMIs of 33.8, 51.65 and 35.2 Kg/m2). Overall, the autopsy findings support the concept that the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 disease involves direct viral-induced injury of multiple organs, including heart and lungs, coupled with the consequences of a procoagulant state with coagulopathy.

title: Zero COVID‐19 infection in inflammatory bowel disease patients: Findings from population‐based inflammatory bowel disease registries in Hong Kong and Taiwan
abstract: It is unsure whether inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a risk factor for novel coronavirus infection (COVID‐19).  IBD patients were identified from population‐based databases in Hong Kong and Taiwan from January 21, 2020, until April 15, 2020.  Total 2954 and 2554 IBD patients were identified in Hong Kong and Taiwan, respectively. None had COVID‐19. Pooled analysis showed that 65.3%, 39.1%, 4.3%, and 12.8% IBD patients in Hong Kong and 75.8 %, 51.4 %, 26.1%, and 52.3 % in Taiwan were on 5‐aminosalicylates, immunomodulators, corticosteroids, and biologics, respectively.  There were no reported cases of COVID‐19 infection amongst IBD patients in Hong Kong and Taiwan. IBD patients should continue their usual medications during the COVID‐19 pandemic.

title: Cytokine Release Syndrome in COVID-19 Patients, A New Scenario for an Old Concern: The Fragile Balance between Infections and Autoimmunity
abstract: On 7 January 2020, researchers isolated and sequenced in China from patients with severe pneumonitis a novel coronavirus, then called SARS-CoV-2, which rapidly spread worldwide, becoming a global health emergency. Typical manifestations consist of flu-like symptoms such as fever, cough, fatigue, and dyspnea. However, in about 20% of patients, the infection progresses to severe interstitial pneumonia and can induce an uncontrolled host-immune response, leading to a life-threatening condition called cytokine release syndrome (CRS). CRS represents an emergency scenario of a frequent challenge, which is the complex and interwoven link between infections and autoimmunity. Indeed, treatment of CRS involves the use of both antivirals to control the underlying infection and immunosuppressive agents to dampen the aberrant pro-inflammatory response of the host. Several trials, evaluating the safety and effectiveness of immunosuppressants commonly used in rheumatic diseases, are ongoing in patients with COVID-19 and CRS, some of which are achieving promising results. However, such a use should follow a multidisciplinary approach, be accompanied by close monitoring, be tailored to patient’s clinical and serological features, and be initiated at the right time to reach the best results. Autoimmune patients receiving immunosuppressants could be prone to SARS-CoV-2 infections; however, suspension of the ongoing therapy is contraindicated to avoid disease flares and a consequent increase in the infection risk.

title: Prevalence and predictive value of hypocalcemia in severe COVID-19 patients
abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the performance and predictive value of hypocalcemia in severe COVID-19 patients.  We retrospectively investigated the clinical and laboratory characteristics of severe COVID-19 patients. 107 patients were divided into hypocalcemia group and normal serum calcium group. The clinical and laboratory data were compared between two groups. The discriminative power of hypocalcemia regarding poor outcome were evaluated by receiver operating curves (ROC) analyze.  patients (62.6%) had hypocalcemia. In hypocalcemia group, leukocytes, c-reactive protein(CRP), procalcitonin(PCT), Interleukin 6(IL-6), and D-dimer levels was higher, while lymphocytes and albumin(ALB) levels was lower. No significant difference was identified in gender, age, signs and symptoms, comorbidities and other laboratory indicators. Serum calcium levels were negatively correlated with leukocytes, CRP, PCT, IL-6 and D-dimer, while positively correlated with lymphocytes and ALB. Patients with hypocalcemia more commonly presented poor outcome (47.8% (32/67) vs 25% (10/40), p =0.02). Median serum calcium levels were significantly lower in the patients with poor outcome (2.01(1.97-2.05) vs 2.10(2.03-2.20), p<0.001), and it could predict the prognosis with an area under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.73(95% confidence interval (CI) 0.63-0.83, p<0.001).  Hypocalcemia commonly occurred in severe COVID-19 patients and it was associated with poor outcome.

title: SARS-CoV-2 Infection with Different Radiological Insights
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel viral infection characterized by several symptoms range from mild to severe clinical conditions that could lead to death. We report two different radiological findings on computed tomography (CT) in two patients affected by SARS-CoV-2: a lung acute embolism (APE) in the first case and a radiological picture of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in the second case. This is an important issue to be identified in order to provide more specific therapy earlier, including both antiviral and anti-inflammatory drugs associated with anti anticoagulant therapy.

title: Covid-19: Cases of inflammatory syndrome in children surge after urgent alert.

title: TNFα inhibitor may be effective for severe COVID-19: learning from toxic epidermal necrolysis
abstract: Increased inflammatory cytokines [such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF&#945;) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] are observed in COVID-19 patients, especially in the severe group. The phenomenon of a cytokine storm may be the central inducer of apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells, which leads to rapid progression in severe group patients. Given the similarities of clinical features and pathogenesis between toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and COVID-19, we hypothesize that the application of etanercept, an inhibitor of TNF&#945;, could attenuate disease progression in severe group COVID-19 patients by suppressing systemic auto-inflammatory responses. The reviews of this paper are available via the supplemental material section.

title: The amount of cytokine-release defines different shades of Sars-Cov2 infection.
abstract: The recent outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID 19), spreading from China all around the world in early 2020, has led scientists to investigate the immuno-mediated mechanisms underlying the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) infection. Depending on the amount of cytokines released as the result of the immunological activation induced by SARS-CoV2, three major clinical phenotypes can be identified: "mild",symbolized as a "drizzle" of cytokines, severe as a "storm", and critical as a "hurricane". In patients with mild symptoms, the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines is balanced to obtain a defense response against the virus which is often self-limiting and overcomes without tissue damage. In severe phenotype, resembling a "cytokine-release syndrome", SARS-CoV2 causes the lysis of the immune-mediators leading to a cytokine storm able to induce lung epithelium damage and acute respiratory distress syndrome. In critical patients, the immune response may become uncontrolled, thus the cytokine burst resembles a form of secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis which may result in a multi organ failure. In addition to the standard of care, an immune-modulatory therapy tailored to each one of the different phenotypes should be used in order to prevent or reduce the release of cytokines responsible for organ damage and disease progression.

title: Vitamin D Receptor stimulation to reduce Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) in patients with Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infections: Revised Ms SBMB 2020_166
abstract: Coronavirus infection is a serious health problem awaiting an effective vaccine and/or antiviral treatment. The major complication of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the Acute Respiratory Distress syndrome (ARDS), is due to a variety of mechanisms including cytokine storm, dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin system, neutrophil activation and increased (micro)coagulation. Based on many preclinical studies and observational data in humans, ARDS may be aggravated by vitamin D deficiency and tapered down by activation of the vitamin D receptor. Several randomized clinical trials using either oral vitamin D or oral Calcifediol (25OHD) are ongoing. Based on a pilot study, oral calcifediol may be the most promising approach. These studies are expected to provide guidelines within a few months.

title: Relative antioxidant activities of quercetin and its structurally related substances and their effects on NF-κB/CRE/AP-1 signaling in murine macrophages
abstract: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) produced by the oxidative burst in activated macrophages and neutrophils cause oxidative stressimplicated diseases. Quercetin is flavonoid that occurs naturally in plants and is widely used as a nutritional supplement due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we investigated antioxidant activities and mechanisms of action in zymosan-induced macrophages of quercetin and quercetin-related flavonoids such as quercitrin, isoquercitrin, quercetin 3-O-β-(2″-galloyl)-rhamnopyranoside (QGR) and quercetin 3-O-β-(2″-galloyl)-glucopyranoside (QGG) as well as gallic acid, a building moiety of QGR and QGG. QGR and QGG exhibited stronger antioxidant activities compared with quercetin, whereas quercitrin, isoquercitrin and gallic acid exhibited weak-tono antioxidant activities, assessed by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, superoxide production, superoxide scavenging, nitric oxide (NO) production, peroxynitrite (ONOO(−)) scavenging and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. Regarding mechanisms, the quercetincontaining flavonoids QGR and QGG differentially targeted compared with quercetin in the NF-κB signaling pathway that inhibited the DNA binding activity of the NF-κB complex without affecting the degradation and phosphorylation of IκBα and NF-κB phosphorylation. In addition, QGR and QGG inhibited CRE and activator protein (AP-1) transcriptional activity and JNK phosphorylation by inhibiting the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling in a different manner than quercetin. Our results showed that although QGR and QGG exhibited stronger antioxidant activities than querce-tin in macrophages, their mechanisms of action in terms of the NF-κB, PKA and PKC signaling pathways were different.

title: COVID-19 and heart failure: from infection to inflammation and angiotensin II stimulation. Searching for evidence from a new disease
abstract: Patients with cardiovascular disease and, namely, heart failure are more susceptible to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and have a more severe clinical course once infected. Heart failure and myocardial damage, shown by increased troponin plasma levels, occur in at least 10% of patients hospitalized for COVID-19 with higher percentages, 25% to 35% or more, when patients critically ill or with concomitant cardiac disease are considered. Myocardial injury may be elicited by multiple mechanisms, including those occurring with all severe infections, such as fever, tachycardia, adrenergic stimulation, as well as those caused by an exaggerated inflammatory response, endotheliitis and, in some cases, myocarditis that have been shown in patients with COVID-19. A key role may be that of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infects human cells binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), an enzyme responsible for the cleavage of angiotensin II into angiotensin 1-7, which has vasodilating and anti-inflammatory effects. Virus-mediated down-regulation of ACE2 may increase angiotensin II stimulation and contribute to the deleterious hyper-inflammatory reaction of COVID-19. On the other hand, ACE2 may be up-regulated in patients with cardiac disease and treated with ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers. ACE2 up-regulation may increase the susceptibility to COVID-19 but may be also protective vs. angiotensin II-mediated vasoconstriction and inflammatory activation. Recent data show the lack of untoward effects of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers for COVID-19 infection and severity. Prospective trials are needed to ascertain whether these drugs may have protective effects.

title: The first case of COVID-19 treated with the complement C3 inhibitor AMY-101
abstract: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a devastating clinical manifestation of COVID-19 pneumonia and is mainly based on an immune-driven pathology. Mounting evidence suggests that COVID-19 is fueled by a maladaptive host inflammatory response that involves excessive activation of innate immune pathways. While a "cytokine storm" involving IL-6 and other cytokines has been documented, complement C3 activation has been implicated as an initial effector mechanism that exacerbates lung injury in preclinical models of SARS-CoV infection. C3-targeted intervention may provide broader therapeutic control of complement-mediated inflammatory damage in COVID-19 patients. Herein, we report the clinical course of a patient with severe ARDS due to COVID-19 pneumonia who was safely and successfully treated with the compstatin-based complement C3 inhibitor AMY-101.

title: Conservation of polyamine regulation by translational frameshifting from yeast to mammals
abstract: Regulation of ornithine decarboxylase in vertebrates involves a negative feedback mechanism requiring the protein antizyme. Here we show that a similar mechanism exists in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The expression of mammalian antizyme genes requires a specific +1 translational frameshift. The efficiency of the frameshift event reflects cellular polyamine levels creating the autoregulatory feedback loop. As shown here, the yeast antizyme gene and several newly identified antizyme genes from different nematodes also require a ribosomal frameshift event for their expression. Twelve nucleotides around the frameshift site are identical between S.pombe and the mammalian counterparts. The core element for this frameshifting is likely to have been present in the last common ancestor of yeast, nematodes and mammals.

title: Redefining Pathways into Acute Rehabilitation during the COVID‐19 Crisis
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic has necessitated drastic changes across the spectrum of health care, all of which have occurred with unprecedented rapidity. The need to accommodate change on such a large scale has required ingenuity and decisive thinking. The field of physical medicine and rehabilitation has been faced with many of these challenges. Healthcare practitioners in New York City, the epicenter of the pandemic in the United States, were among the first to encounter many of these challenges. One of the largest lessons included learning how to streamline admissions and transfer process into an acute rehabilitation hospital as part of a concerted effort to make acute care hospital beds available as quickly as possible.

title: Antiviral activity of glycyrrhizic acid derivatives against SARS-coronavirus.
abstract: Glycyrrhizin (GL) was shown to inhibit SARS-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) replication in vitro. Here the anti-SARS-CoV activity of 15 GL derivatives was tested. The introduction of 2-acetamido-beta-d-glucopyranosylamine into the glycoside chain of GL resulted in 10-fold increased anti-SARS-CoV activity compared to GL. Amides of GL and conjugates of GL with two amino acid residues and a free 30-COOH function presented up to 70-fold increased activity against SARS-CoV but also increased cytotoxicity resulting in decreased selectivity index.

title: [A study of pulmonary inflammatory reaction induced by N-protein of SARS-CoV in rat models and effects of glucocorticoids on it].
abstract: To study the pulmonary inflammatory reaction induced by N-protein of SARS-CoV in rat models and the effects of glucocorticoids on the inflammatory reaction.  The pulmonary inflammatory reaction in rat models were induced by intratracheal instillation of N-protein of SARS-CoV with a dose of 0.2 mg/kg. The rats were randomly divided into four groups: normal saline control group (Nc group), N-protein group 1 (P1 group, 6 h), N-protein group 2 (P2 group, 24 h), and N-protein + dexamethasone group (P + D group, dexamethasone 10 mg/kg intraperitoneally). The blood samples, bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissue were collected after challenge. The cytological and histopathologic changes of lung tissues were observed and the wet/dry ratios (W/D) of lung tissue were determined. The interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) of serum and BALF were measured by ELISA.  Compared with the percentage of peripheral blood lymphocytes in Nc group [(68.42 +/- 13.07)%], that in P2 group [(50.50 +/- 14.36)%] was significantly decreased (P < 0.05); compared with Nc group and P2 group, that in P + D group was furthermore significantly decreased (P < 0.01). Compared with the total WBC of peripheral blood in Nc group [(5.86 +/- 2.25) x 10(9)] and P2 group [(4.83 +/- 1.49) x 10(9)], that in P + D group [(1.96 +/- 1.30) x 10(9)] was significantly decreased (P < 0.01). (2) Compared with the total WBC of BALF in Nc group [(95 +/- 29) x 10(7)], that in P2 group [(160 +/- 60) x 10(7)] was significantly increased (P < 0.05); but compared with P2 group, that in P + D group [(62 +/- 23) x 10(7)] was significantly decreased (P < 0.05). Analysis of BALF differential cell counts showed that the majority of cells were alveolar macrophages in all groups. (3) The W/D ratios of lung tissue in both P1 and P2 group [(5.18 +/- 0.29) and (5.19 +/- 0.34), respectively] after N-protein challenge were significantly increased than that in Nc groups [(4.77 +/- 0.27), P < 0.05]; the W/D ratio in P + D group (4.70 +/- 0.18) was significantly decreased than that in P2 group (P < 0.01). (4) Compared with Nc group, the levels of IL-6, IL-10, TGF-beta1 in both serum and BALF of P1 group were significantly increased (P < 0.01), and the levels of these cytokines in P2 group were significantly higher than those in P1 group (P < 0.01), but significantly lower in P + D group compared with P2 group (P < 0.01).  The N-protein of SARS-CoV had pathogenicity and could induce obvious pulmonary inflammatory reaction and acute lung injury, which were related to the increase and imbalance of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Glucocorticoids could effectively alleviate the pulmonary inflammatory reaction induced by N-protein of SARS-CoV.

title: Nuclear factor k B: a pivotal role in the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and new target for therapy

title: The unleashing of the immune system in COVID-19 and sepsis: the calm before the storm?
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is sorely testing health care systems and economies around the world and is rightly considered as the major health emergency in a century. Despite the course of the disease appearing to be mild in many cases, a significant proportion of symptomatic patients develop pneumonia requiring hospitalisation or progress to manifest respiratory complications leading to intensive care treatment. Potential interventions for SARS-CoV2-associated pneumonia are being tested, some of which holding promise, but as of today none of these has yet demonstrated outstanding efficacy in treating COVID-19. In this article, we discuss fresh perspectives and insights into the potential role of immune dysregulation in COVID-19 as well as similarities with systemic inflammatory response in sepsis and the rationale for exploring novel treatment options affecting host immune response.

title: SARS-CoV-2 disease severity and diabetes: why the connection and what is to be done?
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a novel virus responsible for the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, has infected over 3.5 million people all over the world since the first case was reported from Wuhan, China 5 months ago. As more epidemiological data regarding COVID-19 patients is acquired, factors that increase the severity of the infection are being identified and reported. One of the most consistent co-morbidities associated with worse outcome in COVID-19 patients is diabetes, along with age and cardiovascular disease. Studies on the association of diabetes with other acute respiratory infections, namely SARS, MERS, and Influenza, outline what seems to be an underlying factor in diabetic patients that makes them more susceptible to complications. In this review we summarize what we think may be the factors driving this pattern between diabetes, aging and poor outcomes in respiratory infections. We also review therapeutic considerations and strategies for treatment of COVID-19 in diabetic patients, and how the additional challenge of this co-morbidity requires attention to glucose homeostasis so as to achieve the best outcomes possible for patients.

title: Rationale for targeting Complement in COVID‐19
abstract: A novel coronavirus, SARS‐CoV‐2, has recently emerged in China and spread internationally, posing a health emergency to the global community. COVID‐19 caused by SARS‐CoV‐2 is associated with an acute respiratory illness that varies from mild to the life‐threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The complement system is part of the innate immune arsenal against pathogens, which many viruses can evade or employ to mediate cell entry. The immunopathology and acute lung injury orchestrated through the influx of pro‐inflammatory macrophages and neutrophils can be directly activated by complement components to prime an overzealous cytokine storm. The manifestations of severe COVID‐19 such as the ARDS, sepsis and multiorgan failure have an established relationship with activation of the complement cascade. We have collected evidence from all the current studies we are aware of on SARS‐CoV‐2 immunopathogenesis and the preceding literature on SARS‐CoV‐1 and MERS‐CoV infection linking severe COVID‐19 disease directly with dysfunction of the complement pathways. This information lends support for a therapeutic anti‐inflammatory strategy against complement, where a number of clinically ready potential therapeutic agents are available.

title: Corticosteroid therapy for patients with CoVID-19 pneumonia: a before-after study
abstract: Anti-inflammatory drugs such as corticosteroids may beneficially modulate the host inflammatory response to CoVID-19 pneumonia.  To evaluate the impact of addition of corticosteroids to the hospital protocol for treatment of suspected or confirmed CoVID-19 pneumonia on rates of death or intensive care unit (ICU) admission.  A before-after study was performed to evaluate the effect of addition of corticosteroids to our institution's COVID-19 treatment protocol on hospital mortality.  Between March 3rd and April 14th 2020, 257 patients with CoVID-19 diagnosis were included. As corticosteroids were wide used since 27 March 2020, two periods were considered for the purposes of our study: the before period from March 3rd to 20th (n= 85) and the "after period" (n=172) from March 26th to April 14th 2020. The "after" period was associated with a lower risk of death (HR 0.47; 95% CI, 0.23 - 0.97; p=0.04), and a lower risk of intensive care admission or death before ICU admission (HR 0.37 95% CI 0.21 - 0.64; p=0.0005) by multivariate analysis adjusted for age, National Early Warning score and institutionalization status.  In the "after period", the addition of corticosteroids to our institution's CoVID-19 treatment protocol was associated with a significant reduction in hospital mortality.

title: Specific EEG Encephalopathy Pattern in SARS-CoV-2 Patients
abstract: We used quantified electroencephalography (qEEG) to define the features of encephalopathy in patients released from the intensive care unit after severe illness from COVID-19. Artifact-free 120–300 s epoch lengths were visually identified and divided into 1 s windows with 10% overlap. Differential channels were grouped by frontal, parieto-occipital, and temporal lobes. For every channel and window, the power spectrum was calculated and used to compute the area for delta (0–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), and beta (13–30 Hz) bands. Furthermore, Shannon’s spectral entropy (SSE) and synchronization by Pearson’s correlation coefficient (ρ) were computed; cases of patients diagnosed with either infectious toxic encephalopathy (ENC) or post-cardiorespiratory arrest (CRA) encephalopathy were used for comparison. Visual inspection of EEGs of COVID patients showed a near-physiological pattern with scarce anomalies. The distribution of EEG bands was different for the three groups, with COVID midway between distributions of ENC and CRA; specifically, temporal lobes showed different distribution for EEG bands in COVID patients. Besides, SSE was higher and hemispheric connectivity lower for COVID. We objectively identified some numerical EEG features in severely ill COVID patients that can allow positive diagnosis of this encephalopathy.

title: Immune Thrombocytopenia Purpura Secondary to COVID-19
abstract: A 73-year-old female with past medical history of essential hypertension, hyperlipidemia, seasonal allergies, and chronic back pain presented to the hospital with complaints of headaches, fevers, fatigue, generalized body aches, shortness of breath, and diarrhea. Initial complete blood count was remarkable for leukopenia with an absolute lymph count of 0.60 K/µL and severe thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 3 K/µL). She was tested for COVID-19 via nasopharyngeal swab polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and found positive. Additional labs showed an elevated D-dimer, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and lactate dehydrogenase. Vitamin B12 and folate levels were obtained and found to be normal. Peripheral smear showed no schistocytes or additional hematologic abnormalities apart from thrombocytopenia. The patient was transfused one unit of platelets with no improvement in platelet count. Fibrinogen count was obtained and found in normal range at 458 mg/dL. Prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), and international normalized ratio (INR) were all found to be normal. Immune thrombocytopenia purpura (ITP) was suspected and intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) was administered at a dose of 1 g/kg/day for two doses. By day 4, the patient had marked response to treatment with platelet recovery to 105 K/µL and subsequently discharged by day 5 with complete resolution of symptoms and platelet count of 146 K/µL. Twenty-eight days after discharge, she presented to hematology clinic with platelet count of 8 K/µL. Repeat nasopharyngeal swab PCR COVID testing was negative and she was treated with IVIG and pulse dexamethasone with prompt response, confirming suspicion of underlying, undiagnosed ITP prior to COVID infection.

title: T follicular regulatory cells infiltrate the human airways during the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome and regulate the development of B regulatory cells
abstract: T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cell is a CXCR5(+)Foxp3(+) subset of T regulatory (Treg) cell with critical roles in regulating germinal center responses and modulating the immune environment in the lymph nodes. Studies have shown that the proportion of Tfr cells may increase during acute inflammation. In this study, we investigated the role of Tfr cells in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). We found that Tfr cells were significantly enriched in peripheral blood and in mini-bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) during the onset of ARDS. Notably, Tfr cells represented the majority of Treg cells in the mini-BAL samples. Tfr cells also showed CTLA-4, IL-10, and TGF-β expression, but compared to the non-Tfr Treg cells, the CTLA-4 and IL-10 expression by Tfr cells were slightly reduced. Both Tfr cells and non-Tfr Treg cells suppressed the proliferation of autologous CD4(+)CD25(−) T cells; however, the Tfr cells displayed slightly reduced suppression capacity. Subsequently, B cells were co-incubated with autologous Tfr cells or non-Tfr Treg cells. Interestingly, we found that the frequency of IL-10(+) Breg cells was significantly higher following incubation with Tfr cells than with non-Tfr Treg cells, which suggested that Tfr cells were more potent at inducing IL-10(+) Breg cells. Together, these results demonstrated that Tfr cells were a similar but distinctive subset of Treg cells. Given that Tfr cells were strongly enriched in ARDS patients, especially in the lung infiltrates, they may exert critical ameliorating effects in ARDS.

title: Immunology of COVID-19: current state of the science
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has affected millions of people worldwide, igniting an unprecedented effort from the scientific community to understand the biological underpinning of COVID19 pathophysiology. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge of innate and adaptive immune responses elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection and the immunological pathways that likely contribute to disease severity and death. We also discuss the rationale and clinical outcome of current therapeutic strategies as well as prospective clinical trials to prevent or treat SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Rethinking interleukin-6 blockade for treatment of COVID-19
abstract: Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine with effects in immune regulation, inflammation, and infection. The use of drugs that inhibit IL-6 biological activity has been proposed as a treatment for patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). The rationale for this approach includes commitment to the concept that inflammation is a cause of lung damage in COVID-19 and belief that IL-6 is a pro-inflammatory molecule. Observational data thought to support IL-6 inhibition include elevated circulating IL-6 levels in COVID-19 patients and association between elevated IL-6 and poor clinical outcomes. However, IL-6 has significant anti-inflammatory properties, which calls into question the rationale for employing IL-6 blockade to suppress inflammation-induced tissue injury. Also, studies suggesting a beneficial role for IL-6 in the host response to infection challenge the strategy of using IL-6 blockade to treat COVID-19. In studies of recombinant IL-6 injected into human volunteers, IL-6 levels exceeding those measured in COVID-19 patients have been observed with no pulmonary adverse events or other organ damage. These observations question the role of IL-6 as a contributing factor in COVID-19. Clinical experience with IL-6 receptor antagonists such as tocilizumab demonstrates increase in severe and opportunistic infections, raising concern about using tocilizumab and similar agents to treat COVID-19. Trials of drugs to inhibit IL-6 activity in COVID-19 are ongoing and will shed light on the role of IL-6 in COVID-19 pathogenesis. However, until more information is available, providers should exercise caution in prescribing these therapies given the potential for patient harm.

title: Editorial: low population mortality from COVID-19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees North-supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity. Authors' reply

title: Persistent SARS-CoV-2 infection and the risk for cancer.
abstract: The current SARS-CoV-2 has put significant strain on healthcare services worldwide due to acute COVID-19. However, the potential long-term effects of this infection haven't been extensively discussed. We hypothesize that SARS-CoV-2 may be able to cause persistent infection in some individuals, and should this be the case, that in a few years we may see a rise in cancer incidence due to carcinogenic effects of this coronavirus. Non-retroviral RNA viruses such as Coronaviridae have been shown to cause persistent infection in hosts. Empirical evidence of viral genomic material shedding weeks after apparent clinical and laboratorial resolution of COVID-19 may be an indirect proof for persistent viral infection. Furthermore, tropism towards certain immune-privileged territories may facilitate immune evasion by this virus. Structural homology with SARS-CoV-1 indicates that SARS-CoV-2 may be able to directly impair pRb and p53, which are key gatekeepers with tumor suppressor functions. Additionally, COVID-19 features preeminent inflammatory response with marked oxidative stress, which acts as both as initiator and promotor of carcinogenesis. Should there be a carcinogenic risk associated with SARS-CoV-2, the implications for public health are plenty, as infected patients should be closely watched during long periods of follow-up. Additional investigation to establish or exclude the possibility for persistent infection is paramount to identify and prevent possible complications in the future.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and Cardiac Injury.

title: Sodium chromo-glycate and palmitoylethanolamide: A possible strategy to treat mast cell-induced lung inflammation in COVID-19
abstract: A novel human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (also referred to as CoV-19) that emerged in late 2019 causes Covid-19 disease a respiratory tract infection which provokes about 4 million deaths per year. Unfortunately, to date, there is no specific antiviral treatment for COVID-19. Mast cells (MCs) are immune cells implicated in the pathogenesis of viral infections, where they mediate inflammation. Microbes, including virus, activate MCs through TLR releasing chemical pro-inflammatory compounds and cytokines. Although, in biomedical literature there are only few reports on MCs activation by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by MC viral activation leads to increase pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. Sodium Chromo-Glycate (SCG) described as a MC stabilizer, prevents the release of inflammatory chemical compounds, improve mouse survival and respiratory pathological changes in lung viral infection and suppresses inflammation. Furthermore, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) a nuclear factor agonist, an endogenous fatty acid amide, which exerts a variety of biological effects, related to chronic inflammation and pain, is involved also in MCs homeostasis with an inhibitory and protective effect on the respiratory tract during viral infections. Here, we hypothesize for the first time, that SCG and/or PEA suppress MC activation and pro-inflammatory mediators release, playing an anti-inflammatory therapeutic role in the inflamed lung of patients with COVID-19.

title: Cytokine network in the central nervous system and its roles in growth and differentiation of glial and neuronal cells
abstract: Cells resident within the central nervous system (CNS) can synthesize, secrete and respond to inflammatory cytokines not only contributing to the responses to injury or immunological challenge within the CNS, but also regulating their own growth and differentiation potential. The actions and cell communication via cytokines in the CNS are designated as the CNS cytokine network, in which microglia and astrocytes play the central roles. To further characterize the CNS cytokine network we investigated the differences in roles of these cells, and found that microglia might contribute to the early phase of cytokine production reaction and that astrocytes might contribute the late phase of the reaction. We also investigated roles of inhibitory cytokines such as TGF β, IL-4, and IL-10, and showed that each might play a distinct role in the inhibitory regulation in the CNS. We summarized our previous report about cellular distribution of cytokine receptors in the CNS cells and discussed their roles in the CNS cytokine network. Finally, we investigated that expression of IL-6 and IL-2 receptors in neuronal and oligodendrocytic differentiation, respectively. From these results, we discussed the features of the CNS cytokine network.

title: Stopping Clinical Trials in Inflammatory Bowel Disease During the COVID-19 Pandemic is not a Responsible Act
abstract: The intense competition for resources to combat COVID-19 has greatly reduced access to health care for patients with other diseases. After the disastrous overrun of hospitals through COVID-19 patients in some jurisdictions, availability of resources for “elective” medical procedures including care for the chronically ill have been greatly reduced in many places as a pre-emptive measure before or during the blooming of infection clusters. Pharmaceutical companies have either stopped recruitment or even cancelled ongoing clinical trials in chronic diseases. Pre-emptive triage and its impact on medical ethics is discussed in the framework of care for inflammatory bowel disease.

title: The inhibition of IL-2/IL-2R gives rise to CD8(+) T cell and lymphocyte decrease through JAK1-STAT5 in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia
abstract: Although most patients with COVID-19 pneumonia have a good prognosis, some patients develop to severe or critical illness, and the mortality of critical cases is up to 61.5%. However, specific molecular information about immune response in critical patients with COVID-19 is poorly understood. A total of 54 patients were enrolled and divided into three groups, among which 34 were common, 14 were severe, and 6 were critical. The constitution of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in patients was analyzed by CyTOF. The profile of cytokines was examined in plasma of patients using luminex. The IL-2 signaling pathway was investigated in the PBMC of patients by qRT-PCR. The count and percentage of lymphocytes were significantly decreased in critical patients compared to common and severe patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. The count of T cells, B cells, and NK cells was remarkably decreased in critical patients compared to normal controls. The percentage of CD8(+) T cells was significantly lower in critical patients than that in common and severe patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. The expression of IL-2R, JAK1, and STAT5 decreased in PBMC of common, severe, and critical patients, but IL-2 level was elevated in severe patients and decreased in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. The decrease of CD8(+) T cells in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia may be related to the IL-2 signaling pathway. The inhibition of IL-2/IL-2R gives rise to CD8(+) T cell and lymphocyte decrease through JAK1-STAT5 in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.

title: COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics
abstract: The novel coronavirus infection (COVID-19 or Coronavirus disease 2019) that emerged from Wuhan, Hubei province of China has spread to many countries worldwide. Efforts have been made to develop vaccines against human coronavirus (CoV) infections such as MERS and SARS in the past decades. However, to date, no licensed antiviral treatment or vaccine exists for MERS and SARS. Most of the efforts for developing CoV vaccines and drugs target the spike glycoprotein or S protein, the major inducer of neutralizing antibodies. Although a few candidates have shown efficacy in in vitro studies, not many have progressed to randomized animal or human trials, hence may have limited use to counter COVID-19 infection. This article highlights ongoing advances in designing vaccines and therapeutics to counter COVID-19 while also focusing on such experiences and advances as made with earlier SARS- and MERS-CoVs, which together could enable efforts to halt this emerging virus infection.

title: Circulating Levels of IL‐2, IL‐4, TNF‐α, IFN‐γ and C reactive protein Are Not Associated with Severity of COVID‐19 Symptoms
abstract: As of May 5, 2020, the total number of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) cases had reached over 3.5 million worldwide. The outbreak of COVID‐19 has been officially declared as a pandemic by the World Health Organization because of global spread and severity. Accumulating evidence has been showed that patients with severe COVID‐19 have a cytokine storm syndrome. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: An Ultrasensitive Mechanism Regulates Influenza Virus-Induced Inflammation
abstract: Influenza viruses present major challenges to public health, evident by the 2009 influenza pandemic. Highly pathogenic influenza virus infections generally coincide with early, high levels of inflammatory cytokines that some studies have suggested may be regulated in a strain-dependent manner. However, a comprehensive characterization of the complex dynamics of the inflammatory response induced by virulent influenza strains is lacking. Here, we applied gene co-expression and nonlinear regression analysis to time-course, microarray data developed from influenza-infected mouse lung to create mathematical models of the host inflammatory response. We found that the dynamics of inflammation-associated gene expression are regulated by an ultrasensitive-like mechanism in which low levels of virus induce minimal gene expression but expression is strongly induced once a threshold virus titer is exceeded. Cytokine assays confirmed that the production of several key inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin 6 and monocyte chemotactic protein 1, exhibit ultrasensitive behavior. A systematic exploration of the pathways regulating the inflammatory-associated gene response suggests that the molecular origins of this ultrasensitive response mechanism lie within the branch of the Toll-like receptor pathway that regulates STAT1 phosphorylation. This study provides the first evidence of an ultrasensitive mechanism regulating influenza virus-induced inflammation in whole lungs and provides insight into how different virus strains can induce distinct temporal inflammation response profiles. The approach developed here should facilitate the construction of gene regulatory models of other infectious diseases.

title: Increased lung inflammation with oxygen supplementation in tracheotomized spontaneously breathing rabbits: an experimental prospective randomized study.
abstract: Mechanical ventilation is a well-known trigger for lung inflammation. Research focuses on tidal volume reduction to prevent ventilator-induced lung injury. Mechanical ventilation is usually applied with higher than physiological oxygen fractions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the after effect of oxygen supplementation during a spontaneous ventilation set up, in order to avoid the inflammatory response linked to mechanical ventilation.  A prospective randomised study using New Zealand rabbits in a university research laboratory was carried out. Rabbits (n = 20) were randomly assigned to 4 groups (n = 5 each group). Groups 1 and 2 were submitted to 0.5 L/min oxygen supplementation, for 20 or 75 minutes, respectively; groups 3 and 4 were left at room air for 20 or 75 minutes. Ketamine/xylazine was administered for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia. Lungs were obtained for histological examination in light microscopy.  All animals survived the complete experiment. Procedure duration did not influence the degree of inflammatory response. The hyperoxic environment was confirmed by blood gas analyses in animals that were subjected to oxygen supplementation, and was accompanied with lower mean respiratory rates. The non-oxygen supplemented group had lower mean oxygen arterial partial pressures and higher mean respiratory rates during the procedure. All animals showed some inflammatory lung response. However, rabbits submitted to oxygen supplementation showed significant more lung inflammation (Odds ratio = 16), characterized by more infiltrates and with higher cell counts; the acute inflammatory response cells was mainly constituted by eosinophils and neutrophils, with a relative proportion of 80 to 20% respectively. This cellular observation in lung tissue did not correlate with a similar increase in peripheral blood analysis.  Oxygen supplementation in spontaneous breathing is associated with an increased inflammatory response when compared to breathing normal room air. This inflammatory response was mainly constituted with polymorphonuclear cells (eosinophils and neutrophils). As confirmed in all animals by peripheral blood analyses, the eosinophilic inflammatory response was a local organ event.

title: Tocilizumab for severe COVID-19: a promising intervention affecting inflammation and coagulation

title: Systemic Immunobiological, Immunosuppressant and Oncologic Agents for the Treatment of Dermatologic Diseases during the SARS‐Cov‐2 (COVID19) Pandemic Emergency: a Quick Review for a Quick Consultation
abstract: The Precision Medicine Era has helped to better manage patients with immunological and oncological disease, improving the quality of life of this class of patients. Regarding the management of these patients and positivity to SARS‐Cov2, currently, limited data is available and information is evolving. In this quick review we have analyzed the mechanisms of action and related infective risk of drugs used for the treatment of immune‐mediated and oncologic skin conditions during the daily clinical practice. In general immunosuppressant and antineoplastic agents for dermatologic treatments do not require suspension and do not require special measures, if not those commonly observed. In the case of a COVID19 patient with complication (such as pneumonia, respiratory failure), treatment suspension should always be considered after taking into account the general condition of the patient, the risk‐benefit ratio and the pathophysiology of COVID19 infection. The COVID19 emergency pandemic does not imply an under‐treatment of existing skin conditions, which together with the SARS‐Cov2 infection may jeopardize the patient's life. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Merits and culprits of immunotherapies for neurological diseases in times of COVID-19
abstract: Immunosuppression and immunomodulation are valuable therapeutic approaches for managing neuroimmunological diseases. In times of the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, clinicians must deal with the question of whether immunotherapy should currently be initiated or discontinued in neurological patients. Uncertainty exists especially because different national medical associations publish different recommendations on the extent to which immunotherapies must be continued, monitored, or possibly switched during the current pandemic. Based on the most recently available data both about the novel coronavirus and the approved immunotherapies for neurological diseases, we provide an updated overview that includes current treatment strategies and the associated COVID-19 risk, but also the potential of immunotherapies to treat COVID-19.

title: Use of the Endoscopic Healing Index (EHI) for Monitoring of Disease Activity in Crohn’s Disease Patients in the COVID Era
abstract: Management of Crohn’s disease (CD) during COVID-19 is challenging when colonoscopy is not feasible. This study describes a blood-based test that has been validated against colonoscopy in CD patients as an alternative even in patients with high inflammation from infections.

title: The Doctor's Dilemma: lessons from GB Shaw in a modern pandemic COVID-19
abstract: In the current COVID 19 pandemic, the only treatments are supportive as no definitive pharmacological intervention is available. The heterogeneity of the immune response in different patient groups is clear with less severe illness in children. Understanding these disparities is particularly important as severely affected patients with COVID19 cannot always be predicted before they experience a cytokine storm and multiorgan dysfunction. Over 100 years ago, the concept of individualised immunotherapy was introduced by Sir Almroth Wright and immortalised in GB Shaw's play The Doctor's Dilemma. Shaw's play The Doctor's Dilemma explores the issues of private medical practice, equality of health care delivery, rationing of scarce resources (intensive care) and high-risk therapies. The play also describes the dilemma of rationing of resources and selecting the correct patient for new experimental therapies. Immunological theories of the time are now reflected in current understanding of inflammatory responses in sepsis and immunomodulation during the COVID19 pandemic.

title: Cytokine Storm in COVID-19 patients transforms to a Cytokine Super Cyclone in patients with risk factors
abstract: The seventh human coronavirus SARS-CoV2 belongs to the cluster of extremely pathogenic coronaviruses like SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, which are established to cause lower respiratory tract infection. The viral infection can be fatal as the disease advances to pneumonia followed by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Increasingly higher cytokine concentration on account of over-stimulated immune response against the virus, or the ‘cytokine storm’, is the reason behind the manifestation of lethal clinical symptoms. In this article, we discuss the immune pathogenesis of cytokine storm and its relation with SARS-CoV2/COVID-19 risk factors. People with underlying risk factors are more susceptible to fatal complications of COVID-19 infection leading to poor clinical outcome. The increased pro-inflammatory immune status in patients with risk factors (diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, COPD) exacerbates the Cytokine-storm of COVID-19 to a Cytokine Super Cyclone. We also overviewed antiviral immune response provided by BCG vaccine involving the IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α secretion via ‘trained monocytes’, which confers early protection against SARS-CoV2.

title: Considerations for Statin Therapy in Patients with COVID-19

title: Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 Regulates Acute Inflammatory Lung Injury Mediated by Influenza Virus Infection
abstract: The acute inflammatory lung injury is an important cause of death due to influenza A virus (IAV) infection. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) played an important role in the regulation of inflammation in the immune system. To investigate the role of IGF1 in IAV-mediated acute inflammatory lung injury, the expression of IGF1 and inflammatory cytokines was tested after IAV A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (H1N1; abbreviated as PR8) infection in A549 cells. Then, a BALB/c mouse model of PR8 infection was established. On days 3, 5, 7, and 9 post-infection, the mice lung tissue was collected to detect the expression changes in IGF1 mRNA and protein. The mice were divided into four groups: (1) PBS (abbreviation of phosphate buffered saline); (2) PR8 + PBS; (3) PR8 + IGF1; and (4) PR8 + PPP (abbreviation of picropodophyllin, the IGF1 receptor inhibitor). The body weight and survival rate of the mice were monitored daily, and the clinical symptoms of the mice were recorded. On day 5 post-infection, the mice were sacrificed to obtain the serum and lung tissues. The expression of inflammatory cytokines in the serum was detected by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay; lung injury was observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining; the viral proliferation in the lung was detected by real-time quantitative PCR; and the protein expression of the main molecules in the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinases/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways was detected by Western blot. It was found that IGF1 expression is upregulated in A549 cells and BALB/c mice infected with PR8, whereas IGF1 regulated the expression of inflammatory cytokines induced by PR8 infection. Overexpression of IGF1 aggravated the IAV-mediated inflammatory response, whereas the inhibition of IGF1 receptor reduced such inflammatory response. The phosphorylation of IGF1 receptor triggered the PI3K/AKT and MAPK signaling pathways to induce an inflammatory response after IAV infection. Therefore, IGF1 plays an important immune function in IAV-mediated acute inflammatory lung injury. IGF1 may provide a therapeutic target for humans in response to an influenza outbreak, and inhibition of IGF1 or IGF1 receptor may represent a novel approach to influenza treatment.

title: GTS-21, an α7nAChR agonist, suppressed the production of key inflammatory mediators by PBMCs that are elevated in COPD patients and associated with impaired lung function
abstract: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung inflammatory disease characterized by progressive airflow limitation, chronic respiratory symptoms and frequent exacerbations. There is an unmet need to identify novel therapeutic alternatives beside bronchodilators that prevent disease progression. Levels of both Nitric Oxide (NO) and IL-6 were significantly increased in the plasma of patients in the exacerbation phase (ECOPD, n = 13) when compared to patients in the stable phase (SCOPD, n = 38). Levels of both NO and IL-6 were also found to inversely correlate with impaired lung function (%FEV1 predicted). In addition, there was a strong positive correlation between levels of IL-6 and NO found in the plasma of patients and those spontaneously produced by their peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), identifying these cells as a major source of these key inflammatory mediators in COPD. GTS-21, an agonist for the alpha 7 nicotinic receptors (α7nAChR), was found to exert immune-modulatory actions in PBMCs of COPD patients by suppressing the production of IL-6 and NO. This study provides the first evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of α7nAChR agonists in COPD due to their ability to suppress with the production of key inflammatory markers associated with disease severity.

title: Can steroids reverse the severe COVID-19 induced 'cytokine storm'?
abstract: Severe COVID-19 is characterized by an excessive pro-inflammatory cytokine storm, resulting in acute lung injury and development of ARDS. The role of corticosteroids is controversial in severe COVID-19 pneumonia and associated hyper-inflammatory syndrome. We reported a case series of six consecutive COVID-19 patients with severe pneumonia, ARDS and laboratory indices of hyper-inflammatory syndrome. All patients were treated early with a short course of corticosteroids, and clinical outcomes were compared before and after corticosteroids administration. All patients evaded intubation and intensive care admission, ARDS resolved within 11.8 days (median), viral clearance was achieved in 4 patients within 17.2 days (median), and all patients were discharged from the hospital in 16.8 days (median). Early administration of short course corticosteroids improves clinical outcome of patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia and evidence of immune hyper-reactivity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Cardiovascular Complications in Patients with COVID-19: Consequences of Viral Toxicities and Host Immune Response
abstract: Coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) is a cause of significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. While cardiac injury has been demonstrated in critically ill COVID-19 patients, the mechanism of injury remains unclear. Here, we review our current knowledge of the biology of SARS-CoV-2 and the potential mechanisms of myocardial injury due to viral toxicities and host immune responses.  A number of studies have reported an epidemiological association between history of cardiac disease and worsened outcome during COVID infection. Development of new onset myocardial injury during COVID-19 also increases mortality. While limited data exist, potential mechanisms of cardiac injury include direct viral entry through the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and toxicity in host cells, hypoxia-related myocyte injury, and immune-mediated cytokine release syndrome. Potential treatments for reducing viral infection and excessive immune responses are also discussed. COVID patients with cardiac disease history or acquire new cardiac injury are at an increased risk for in-hospital morbidity and mortality. More studies are needed to address the mechanism of cardiotoxicity and the treatments that can minimize permanent damage to the cardiovascular system.

title: The management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19)
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus causing severe acute respiratory disease occurred in Wuhan, China. It is an emerging infectious disease with widespread and rapid infectiousness. The World Health Organization declared the coronavirus outbreak to be a public health emergency of international concern on 31 January 2020. Severe COVID‐19 patients should be managed and treated in a critical care unit. Performing a chest X‐ray/CT can judge the severity of the disease. The management of COVID‐19 patients includes epidemiological risk and patient isolation; treatment entails general supportive care, respiratory support, symptomatic treatment, nutritional support, psychological intervention, etc. The prognosis of the patients depends upon the severity of the disease, the patient's age, the underlying diseases of the patients, and the patient's overall medical condition. The management of COVID‐19 should focus on early diagnosis, immediate isolation, general and optimized supportive care, and infection prevention and control.

title: Tocilizumab, an anti-IL6 receptor antibody, to treat Covid-19-related respiratory failure: a case report

title: Acute encephalopathy with elevated CSF inflammatory markers as the initial presentation of COVID-19.
abstract: COVID-19 is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus SARS-CoV-2. It is widely recognized as a respiratory pathogen, but neurologic complications can be the presenting manifestation in a subset of infected patients.  We describe a 78-year old immunocompromised woman who presented with altered mental status after witnessed seizure-like activity at home. She was found to have SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated neuroinflammation. In this case, we undertake the first detailed analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokines during COVID-19 infection and find a unique pattern of inflammation in CSF, but no evidence of viral neuroinvasion.  Our findings suggest that neurologic symptoms such as encephalopathy and seizures may be the initial presentation of COVID-19. Central nervous system inflammation may associate with neurologic manifestations of disease.

title: Can we use interleukin-6 (IL-6) blockade for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-induced cytokine release syndrome (CRS)?
abstract: The emergent outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a global pandemic. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiorgan dysfunction are among the leading causes of death in critically ill patients with COVID-19. The elevated inflammatory cytokines suggest that a cytokine storm, also known as cytokine release syndrome (CRS), may play a major role in the pathology of COVID-19. However, the efficacy of corticosteroids, commonly utilized antiinflammatory agents, to treat COVID-19-induced CRS is controversial. There is an urgent need for novel therapies to treat COVID-19-induced CRS. Here, we discuss the pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-induced CRS, compare the CRS in COVID-19 with that in SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and summarize the existing therapies for CRS. We propose to utilize interleukin-6 (IL-6) blockade to manage COVID-19-induced CRS and discuss several factors that should be taken into consideration for its clinical application.

title: Characteristics of inflammatory factors and lymphocyte subsets in patients with severe COVID-19
abstract: To investigate the inflammatory factors and lymphocyte subsets which play an important role in the course of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). A total of 27 patients with severe COVID-19 who were admitted to Tongji Hospital in Wuhan from 1 to 21 February 2020 were recruited to the study. The characteristics of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-2 receptor (IL-2R), IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF)-&#945;, C-reactive protein (CRP), serum ferritin and procalcitonin (PCT), and lymphocyte subsets of these patients were retrospectively compared before and after treatment. Before treatment, there was no significant difference in most inflammatory factors (IL-1ß, IL-2R, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, CRP, and serum ferritin) between male and female patients. Levels of IL-2R, IL-6, TNF-&#945;, and CRP decreased significantly after treatment, followed by IL-8, IL-10, and PCT. Serum ferritin was increased in all patients before treatment but did not decrease significantly after treatment. IL-1ß was normal in most patients before treatment. Lymphopenia was common among these patients with severe COVID-19. Analysis of lymphocyte subsets showed that CD4+ and particularly CD8+ T lymphocytes increased significantly after treatment. However, B lymphocytes and natural killer cells showed no significant changes after treatment. A pro-inflammatory response and decreased level of T lymphocytes were associated with severe COVID-19.

title: COVID-19: pathogenesis, genetic polymorphism, clinical features and laboratory findings
abstract: COVID-19 caused by a novel agent SARS-CoV-2 progressed to a pandemic condition and resulted in a major public health concern worldwide, leading to social and economic issues at the same time. The pathogenesis of COVID-19 starts with the bonding of the virus to ACE2 receptors expressed in many tissues, and the triggered excessive immune response plays a critical role in the course of the disease. The cytokine storm that occurs upon excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines is considered responsible for the severe progression of the disease and the organ damage. However, the accurate pathophysiological mechanism of the disease, which progresses with various clinical presentations, is still substantially unknown. While various studies have been conducted on the effect of genetic polymorphism on the course and severity of the disease, the presence of a significant effect has not been proven yet. The clinical course of the disease is variable, with clinical representation ranging from 81% mild course to 14% severe course along with 5% critical course in patients. Asymptomatic course is considered to be higher than expected, although its frequency is not known exactly. Older adults and those with comorbidities are exposed to a more severe disease course. The disease progress with various symptoms, such as fever, cough, dyspnea, malaise, myalgia, taste and smell dysfunctions, diarrhea, and headache. A range of complications (acute respiratory distress syndrome, thromboembolic conditions, arrhythmia and cardiac events, secondary infections) could be seen during the course of the disease. Varied laboratory tests are vital to determine these verity and prognosis of the disease, along with the condition and exposure of the affected systems during thecourse of COVID-19.

title: A Novel Combination of Vitamin C, Curcumin and Glycyrrhizic Acid Potentially Regulates Immune and Inflammatory Response Associated with Coronavirus Infections: A Perspective from System Biology Analysis
abstract: Novel coronaviruses (CoV) have emerged periodically around the world in recent years. The recurrent spreading of CoVs imposes an ongoing threat to global health and the economy. Since no specific therapy for these CoVs is available, any beneficial approach (including nutritional and dietary approach) is worth investigation. Based on recent advances in nutrients and phytonutrients research, a novel combination of vitamin C, curcumin and glycyrrhizic acid (VCG Plus) was developed that has potential against CoV infection. System biology tools were applied to explore the potential of VCG Plus in modulating targets and pathways relevant to immune and inflammation responses. Gene target acquisition, gene ontology and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment were conducted consecutively along with network analysis. The results show that VCG Plus can act on 88 hub targets which are closely connected and associated with immune and inflammatory responses. Specifically, VCG Plus has the potential to regulate innate immune response by acting on NOD-like and Toll-like signaling pathways to promote interferons production, activate and balance T-cells, and regulate the inflammatory response by inhibiting PI3K/AKT, NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. All these biological processes and pathways have been well documented in CoV infections studies. Therefore, our findings suggest that VCG Plus may be helpful in regulating immune response to combat CoV infections and inhibit excessive inflammatory responses to prevent the onset of cytokine storm. However, further in vitro and in vivo experiments are warranted to validate the current findings with system biology tools. Our current approach provides a new strategy in predicting formulation rationale when developing new dietary supplements.

title: Immune mechanisms of pulmonary intravascular coagulopathy in COVID-19 pneumonia
abstract: The lung pathology seen in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) shows marked microvascular thrombosis and haemorrhage linked to extensive alveolar and interstitial inflammation that shares features with macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). We have termed the lung-restricted vascular immunopathology associated with COVID-19 as diffuse pulmonary intravascular coagulopathy, which in its early stages is distinct from disseminated intravascular coagulation. Increased circulating D-dimer concentrations (reflecting pulmonary vascular bed thrombosis with fibrinolysis) and elevated cardiac enzyme concentrations (reflecting emergent ventricular stress induced by pulmonary hypertension) in the face of normal fibrinogen and platelet levels are key early features of severe pulmonary intravascular coagulopathy related to COVID-19. Extensive immunothrombosis over a wide pulmonary vascular territory without confirmation of COVID-19 viraemia in early disease best explains the adverse impact of male sex, hypertension, obesity, and diabetes on the prognosis of patients with COVID-19. The immune mechanism underlying diffuse alveolar and pulmonary interstitial inflammation in COVID-19 involves a MAS-like state that triggers extensive immunothrombosis, which might unmask subclinical cardiovascular disease and is distinct from the MAS and disseminated intravascular coagulation that is more familiar to rheumatologists.

title: Novel SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19: Origin, pathogenesis, genes and genetic variations, immune responses and phylogenetic analysis
abstract: In this review, we focused on the origins of the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), origin, pathogenesis, immune responses, genes and genetic variations, phylogenetic analyses, and potential therapeutic strategies to summarize approaches for developing broadly effective preventions and vaccines to cope COVID-19. Towards the end of 2019, SARS-CoV-2 has emerged in association with the SARS, later was named COVID-19 caused an environment of chaos worldwide and infected a massive number of lives. Since these epidemics or pandemics had spread to 210 countries and territories around the world and 2 international conveyances with 6,467,229 confirmed cases, including, 382,766 deaths, as of June 03, 2020 (https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/), hence the World Health Organization declared it as a global Public Health Emergency. There are no clinically approved vaccines or antiviral drugs available for either of new or old corona infections; thus, the development of effective therapeutic and preventive strategies that can be readily available to cope with these strains.

title: The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The Perspectives of clinical immunologists from China
abstract: The pandemic outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is rapidly spreading all over the world. Reports from China showed that about 20% of patients developed severe disease, resulting in a fatality of 4%. In the past two months, we clinical immunologists participated in multi-rounds of MDT (multidiscipline team) discussion on the anti-inflammation management of critical COVID-19 patients, with our colleagues dispatched from Chinese leading PUMC Hospital to Wuhan to admit and treat the most severe patients. Here, from the perspective of clinical immunologists, we will discuss the clinical and immunological characteristics of severe patients, and summarize the current evidence and share our experience in anti-inflammation treatment, including glucocorticoids, IL-6 antagonist, JAK inhibitors and choloroquine/hydrocholoroquine, of patients with severe COVID-19 that may have an impaired immune system.

title: The CoV-2 outbreak: how hematologists could help to fight Covid-19
abstract: COVID-19 is a medical emergency, with 20 % of patients presenting with severe clinical manifestations. From the pathogenetic point of view, COVID-19 mimics two other well-known diseases characterized by cytokine storm and hyper-activation of the immune response, with consequent organ damage: acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). Hematologists are confident with these situations requiring a prompt therapeutic approach for switching off the uncontrolled cytokine release; here, we discuss pros and cons of drugs that are already employed in hematology in the light of their possible application in COVID-19. The most promising drugs might be: Ruxolitinib, a JAK1/2 inhibitor, with a rapid and powerful anti-cytokine effect, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), with their good anti-inflammatory properties, and perhaps the anti-Cd26 antibody Begelomab. We also present immunological data from gene expression experiments where TKIs resulted effective anti-inflammatory and pro-immune drugs. A possible combined treatment algorithm for COVID-19 is here proposed.

title: Differential Redistribution of Activated Monocyte and Dendritic Cell Subsets to the Lung Associates with Severity of COVID-19
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 is responsible for the pandemic COVID-19 in infected individuals, who can either exhibit mild symptoms or progress towards a life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). It is known that exacerbated inflammation and dysregulated immune responses involving T and myeloid cells occur in COVID-19 patients with severe clinical progression. However, the differential contribution of specific subsets of dendritic cells and monocytes to ARDS is still poorly understood. In addition, the role of CD8+ T cells present in the lung of COVID-19 patients and relevant for viral control has not been characterized. With the aim to improve the knowledge in this area, we developed a cross-sectional study, in which we have studied the frequencies and activation profiles of dendritic cells and monocytes present in the blood of COVID-19 patients with different clinical severity in comparison with healthy control individuals. Furthermore, these subpopulations and their association with antiviral effector CD8+ T cell subsets were also characterized in lung infiltrates from critical COVID-19 patients. Collectively, our results suggest that inflammatory transitional and non-classical monocytes preferentially migrate from blood to lungs in patients with severe COVID-19. CD1c+ conventional dendritic cells also followed this pattern, whereas CD141+ conventional and CD123hi plasmacytoid dendritic cells were depleted from blood but were absent in the lungs. Thus, this study increases the knowledge on the pathogenesis of COVID-19 disease and could be useful for the design of therapeutic strategies to fight SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: The Association between Obesity and Poor Outcome after COVID-19 Indicates a Potential Therapeutic Role for Montelukast
abstract: It is widely believed that infection with the SARS-CoV2 virus triggers a disproportionate immune response which causes a devastating systemic injury, particularly in individuals with obesity, itself a chronic, multi-organ inflammatory disease. Immune cells accumulate in visceral adipose tissue and together with paracrine adipocytes release a wide range of biologically active cytokines (including IL-1β, IL5, IL6 and IL8) that can result in both local, pulmonary and systemic inflammation. A more intense ‘cytokine storm’ is postulated as the mechanism behind the extreme immune response seen in severe COVID-19. It is striking how dangerous the combination of obesity and COVID-19 is, resulting in a greater risk of ICU admission and a higher mortality. Furthermore, patients from a BAME background appear to have increased mortality after SARS-CoV2 infection; they also have a higher prevalence of central obesity and its metabolic complications. In the absence of an effective vaccine, the therapeutic potential of immune-modulating drugs is a priority, but the development of new drugs is expensive and time-consuming. A more pragmatic solution would be to seek to repurpose existing drugs, particularly those that might suppress the heightened cytokine activity seen in obesity, the major risk factor for a poor prognosis in COVID-19. Montelukast is a cysteinyl leukotriene receptor antagonist licensed to treat asthma and allergic rhinitis. It has been shown to diminish pulmonary response to antigen, tissue eosinophilia and IL-5 expression in inflammatory cells. It has also been shown to decrease elevated levels of IL-1β and IL8 in humans with viral upper respiratory tract infections compared with placebo-treated patients. In addition, in silico studies have demonstrated a high binding affinity of the montelukast molecule to the terminal site of the virus’s main protease enzyme which is needed for virus RNA synthesis and replication. Montelukast, which is cheap, safe and widely available would appear to have the potential to be an ideal candidate drug for clinical trials, particularly in early stage disease before irreparable tissue damage has already occurred.  Through a direct anti-viral effect, or by suppression of heightened cytokine release in response to SARS-CoV2, montelukast will reduce the severity of immune-mediated multiorgan damage resulting from COVID-19, particularly in patients with central obesity and metabolic syndrome.

title: TNFα inhibitor may be effective for severe COVID-19: learning from toxic epidermal necrolysis
abstract: Increased inflammatory cytokines [such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF&#945;) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] are observed in COVID-19 patients, especially in the severe group. The phenomenon of a cytokine storm may be the central inducer of apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells, which leads to rapid progression in severe group patients. Given the similarities of clinical features and pathogenesis between toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and COVID-19, we hypothesize that the application of etanercept, an inhibitor of TNF&#945;, could attenuate disease progression in severe group COVID-19 patients by suppressing systemic auto-inflammatory responses. The reviews of this paper are available via the supplemental material section.

title: Bioinformatic analysis and identification of single-stranded RNA sequences recognized by TLR7/8 in the SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV genomes
abstract: During virus infection, host toll-like receptors (TLRs) can recognize different pathogen-associated molecular patterns and trigger the innate immune response. TLR7/8 can identify the single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) of the virus. This study aimed to search ssRNA sequences recognized by TLR7/8 from the SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV whole genomes by a bioinformatic technique. The immunoinformatic approach showed that the SARS-CoV-2 genome has more ssRNA fragments that could be recognized by TLR7/8 than the SARS-CoV genome. These findings suggest innate immune hyperactivation by SARS-CoV-2. This activity is possibly able to provoke a robust proinflammatory response via TLR7/8 recognition and cause acute lung injury.

title: COVID‐19 and psoriasis: Should we fear for patients treated with biologics?
abstract: The new coronavirus pandemic poses question and challenges for dermatologists. One of question is if psoriasis patients treated with immunomodulating and immunosuppressive drugs have to discontinue their treatment in the midst of fears for the infection and its consequences. One of the challenges is how can we support our patients in this critical time. Previous coronaviruses outbreaks reports, current published evidences on pathogenesis and on clinical reports of COVID infection in immunosuppressed patients are used to make a scientifically based decision.

title: TREM2 in Neurodegenerative Diseases
abstract: TREM2 variants have been identified as risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Because TREM2 encodes a receptor exclusively expressed on immune cells, identification of these variants conclusively demonstrates that the immune response can play an active role in the pathogenesis of NDDs. These TREM2 variants also confer the highest risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease of any risk factor identified in nearly two decades, suggesting that understanding more about TREM2 function could provide key insights into NDD pathology and provide avenues for novel immune-related NDD biomarkers and therapeutics. The expression, signaling and function of TREM2 in NDDs have been extensively investigated in an effort to understand the role of immune function in disease pathogenesis and progression. We provide a comprehensive review of our current understanding of TREM2 biology, including new insights into the regulation of TREM2 expression, and TREM2 signaling and function across NDDs. While many open questions remain, the current body of literature provides clarity on several issues. While it is still often cited that TREM2 expression is decreased by pro-inflammatory stimuli, it is now clear that this is true in vitro, but inflammatory stimuli in vivo almost universally increase TREM2 expression. Likewise, while TREM2 function is classically described as promoting an anti-inflammatory phenotype, more than half of published studies demonstrate a pro-inflammatory role for TREM2, suggesting that its role in inflammation is much more complex. Finally, these components of TREM2 biology are applied to a discussion of how TREM2 impacts NDD pathologies and the latest assessment of how these findings might be applied to immune-directed clinical biomarkers and therapeutics.

title: Cholesterol-modifying drugs in COVID-19
abstract: Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is more likely to lead to poor outcomes in the elderly and those with cardiovascular disease, obesity or metabolic syndrome. Here we consider mechanisms by which dyslipidemia and the use of cholesterol-modifying drugs could influence the virus-host relationship. Cholesterol is essential for the assembly, replication and infectivity of enveloped virus particles; we highlight several cholesterol-modifying drugs with the potential to alter the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle that could be tested in in vitro and in vivo models. Although cholesterol is an essential component of immune cell membranes, excess levels can dysregulate protective immunity and promote exaggerated pulmonary and systemic inflammatory responses. Statins block the production of multiple sterols, oxysterols and isoprenoids, resulting in a pleotropic range of context-dependent effects on virus infectivity, immunity and inflammation. We highlight antiviral, immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of cholesterol-modifying drugs that merit further consideration in the management of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Functional Role of Dietary Intervention to Improve the Outcome of COVID-19: A Hypothesis of Work
abstract: On the 31 December 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) was informed of a cluster of cases of pneumonia of unknown origin detected in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China. The infection spread first in China and then in the rest of the world, and on the 11th of March, the WHO declared that COVID-19 was a pandemic. Taking into consideration the mortality rate of COVID-19, about 5–7%, and the percentage of positive patients admitted to intensive care units being 9–11%, it should be mandatory to consider and take all necessary measures to contain the COVID-19 infection. Moreover, given the recent evidence in different hospitals suggesting IL-6 and TNF-α inhibitor drugs as a possible therapy for COVID-19, we aimed to highlight that a dietary intervention could be useful to prevent the infection and/or to ameliorate the outcomes during therapy. Considering that the COVID-19 infection can generate a mild or highly acute respiratory syndrome with a consequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and TNF-α, a dietary regimen modification in order to improve the levels of adiponectin could be very useful both to prevent the infection and to take care of patients, improving their outcomes.

title: Neutrophils and Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Drive Necroinflammation in COVID-19.
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic is progressing worldwide with an alarming death toll. There is an urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies to combat potentially fatal complications. Distinctive clinical features of severe COVID-19 include acute respiratory distress syndrome, neutrophilia, and cytokine storm, along with severe inflammatory response syndrome or sepsis. Here, we propose the putative role of enhanced neutrophil infiltration and the release of neutrophil extracellular traps, complement activation and vascular thrombosis during necroinflammation in COVID-19. Furthermore, we discuss how neutrophilic inflammation contributes to the higher mortality of COVID-19 in patients with underlying co-morbidities such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. This perspective highlights neutrophils as a putative target for the immunopathologic complications of severely ill COVID-19 patients. Development of the novel therapeutic strategies targeting neutrophils may help reduce the overall disease fatality rate of COVID-19.

title: Potential therapeutic targets for combating SARS-CoV-2: Drug repurposing, clinical trials and recent advancements
abstract: The present pandemic of SARS-CoV-2 has been a tough task for the whole world to deal with. With the absence of specific drugs or vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, the situation is very difficult to control. Apart from the absence of specific therapies, the lack of knowledge about potential therapeutic targets and individual perception is adding to the complications. The present review describes the novel SARS-CoV-2 structure, surface proteins, asymptomatic and symptomatic transmission in addition to the genotype and phenotype of SARS-CoV-2 along with genetic strains and similarity between SARS, MERS and SARS-CoV-2. Therapeutic strategies such as inhibition of the endocytic pathway and suppressing RNA polymerase activity by metal ions, which could be quite beneficial for controlling COVID-19, are outlined. The drug repurposing for SARS-CoV-2 is discussed in detail along with therapeutic classes such as antivirals, antibiotics, and amino quinolones and their probable role in suppressing SARS-CoV-2 with reference to case studies. The ongoing clinical trials both with respect to drug repurposing and vaccines are summarized along with a brief description. The recent advancements and future perspective of ongoing research for therapy and detection of SARS-CoV-2 are provided. The review, in brief, summarizes epidemiology, therapy and the current scenario for combating SARS-CoV-2.

title: Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Related to COVID-19: A New York City Experience
abstract: In December 2019, the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) first emerged in Wuhan, China. This has now spread worldwide and was declared a pandemic by March 2020. Initially, the pediatric population was described as low risk for severe COVID-19. However, reports have emerged recently of cases of COVID-19 in children with a systemic inflammatory disease, with features that overlap with Kawasaki Disease (KD). We describe the first 15 cases with multi-system inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), temporally related to COVID-19, who presented for care to a tertiary pediatric referral center in New York City. We discuss the disproportionate burden of disease among Hispanic/Latino and black/African-American ancestry, the distinct cytokine signature across the disease spectrum (IL-1/IL-6), and the potential role and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 in this new clinical entity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Coronavirus as silent killer: recent advancement to pathogenesis, therapeutic strategy and future perspectives
abstract: The present outbreak associated with corona virus [CoVs] in China which is believed to be one of the massive eruptions towards mankind in 2019–2020. In the present scenario CoVs has been transmitted to the European and American regions through the travellers from wide spread countries like China and Japan. The viral disease is spreading through the contact in any form by the infected persons or patients and creating huge risk of mortality. CoVs are a single positive-sense RNA virus; mutation rates are higher than DNA viruses and indicate a more effective survival adaption mechanism. Human CoVs can cause common cold and influenza-like illness and a variety of severe acute respiratory disease such as pneumonia. Early in infection, CoVs infects epithelial cells, macrophages, T-cells, dendritic cells and also can affect the development and implantation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. It mainly produces the melanoma differentiation associated with protein-5, retinoic acid inducible gene-1 and endosomal toll-like receptor 3. How CoVs affects the function of the immune system is still unclear due to lack of this knowledge. No Food and Drug Administration approved treatment is available till date. In this review, we are tried to explore the epidemiology, pathogenesis and current treatment of CoVs infection. The promising therapeutics molecules against CoVs and future prospective have been also discussed which will be helpful for researchers to find out the new molecules for the treatment of CoVs disease.

title: Dysregulation of the immune response affects the outcome of critical COVID‐19 patients
abstract: Critical cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) are associated with a high risk of mortality. It remains unclear why patients with the same critical condition have different outcomes. We aimed to explore relevant factors that may affect the prognosis of critical COVID‐19 patients.  Six critical COVID‐19 inpatients were included in our study. The 6 patients were divided into two groups based on whether they had a good or poor prognosis. We collected peripheral blood samples at admission and the time point of exacerbation to compare differences in the phenotypes and functions of major populations of immune cells between the groups.  On admission, compared to patients with poor prognoses, those with good prognoses had significantly higher counts of monocytes (p < 0.05), macrophages (p < 0.05), higher frequency of CD3(+)CD4(+)CD45RO(+)CXCR3(+) subsets (p < 0.05), higher frequency of CD14(+)CD11C(+)HLA‐DR(+) subset of dendritic cells (DCs) (p < 0.05), and a lower count of neutrophils (p < 0.05). At the time point of exacerbation, the proportions of naïve CD4(+) T cells (p < 0.05), Tregs, and Th2 cells in the poor prognosis group were relatively higher than those in the good prognosis group, and CD4(+) memory T cells were relatively lower (p < 0.05).  According to our results, the poor prognosis group showed a worse immune response than the good prognosis group at the time of admission and at exacerbation. Dysregulation of the immune response affects the outcome of critical COVID‐19 patients. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Prevalence of Hospital PCR Confirmed Covid-19 Cases in Patients with Chronic Inflammatory and Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases
abstract: The susceptibility of patients with rheumatic diseases, and the risks or benefits of immunosuppressive therapies for COVID-19 are unknown.  We performed a retrospective study with patients under follow-up in rheumatology departments from seven hospitals in Spain. We matched updated databases of rheumatology patients with SARS-CoV-2 positive PCR tests performed in the hospital to the same reference populations. Incidences of PCR+ confirmed COVID-19 were compared among groups.  Patients with chronic inflammatory diseases had 1.32-fold higher prevalence of hospital PCR+ COVID-19 than the reference population (0.76% vs 0.58%). Systemic autoimmune or immune mediated diseases (AI/IMID) patients showed a significant increase, whereas inflammatory arthritis (IA) or systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients did not. COVID-19 cases in some but not all diagnostic groups had older ages than cases in the reference population. IA patients on targeted-synthetic or biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (ts/bDMARD), but not those on conventional-synthetic (csDMARD), had a greater prevalence despite a similar age distribution.  Patients with AI/IMID show a variable risk of hospital diagnosed COVID-19. Interplay of aging, therapies, and disease specific factors seem to contribute. These data provide a basis to improve preventive recommendations to rheumatic patients and to analyze the specific factors involved in COVID-19 susceptibility.

title: Letter: Covid‐19, and vitamin D
abstract: LINKED CONTENT This article is linked to Tian et al and Tian and Rong papers. To view these articles, visit https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15731 and https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15764.

title: Differential Requirements for Toll‐Like Receptor Signalling for Induction of Chemokine Expression by Herpes Simplex Virus and Sendai Virus
abstract: Toll‐like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system, which recognize molecular structures on pathogens or cellular stress‐associated molecules. TLR–ligand interactions trigger activation of inflammatory signal transduction and expression of genes involved in host defense. In this study, we have examined the requirement for different TLR adaptor molecules in virus‐induced chemokine expression and are currently trying to identify the TLR involved. We have found that both a herpesvirus [herpes simplex virus (HSV)] and a paramyxovirus (Sendai virus) require a functional genome to induce expression or proinflammatory chemokines in human and murine monocytic cell lines. For both viruses, this is independent of the TLR adaptor molecules TRIF and Mal. However, overexpression of the Vaccinia virus‐encoded inhibitor of TLR‐signalling A52R or dominant‐negative MyD88 totally inhibited HSV‐induced RANTES expression but only partially prevented Sendai virus from inducing this chemokine. This suggests that HSV‐induced RANTES expression occurs via a TLR pathways, whereas Sendai virus utilizes both TLR‐dependent and ‐independent pathways to stimulate expression of RANTES. We are currently trying to identify the TLRs involved. Data from these studies will also be presented at the meeting.

title: Could Autism Spectrum Disorders be a Risk Factor for COVID-19?
abstract: The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 pandemia is infecting millions of people and some studies relate conditions that might increase the risk of developing a fatal course for the disease, such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and obesity. In COVID-19 physiopathology, one of the main inflammation mechanisms is the “cytokine storm”, causing a pro-inflammatory state, related to cardiac and pulmonary damage. There is also a less effective role of lymphocyte B and T in the humoral immunity due to the reduction of their proliferative response. The physiopathology of ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) involves several modifications at the genetic and at the immune level, such as the increase of inflammatory cytokines and abnormal immune response in several levels. We hypothesize that ASD could be a risk-factor as the other conditions are.

title: A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19
abstract: There is an urgent need to better understand the pathophysiology of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, which has infected more than three million people worldwide1. Approximately 20% of patients with COVID-19 develop severe disease and 5% of patients require intensive care2. Severe disease has been associated with changes in peripheral immune activity, including increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines3,4 that may be produced by a subset of inflammatory monocytes5,6, lymphopenia7,8 and T cell exhaustion9,10. To elucidate pathways in peripheral immune cells that might lead to immunopathology or protective immunity in severe COVID-19, we applied single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to profile peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from seven patients hospitalized for COVID-19, four of whom had acute respiratory distress syndrome, and six healthy controls. We identify reconfiguration of peripheral immune cell phenotype in COVID-19, including a heterogeneous interferon-stimulated gene signature, HLA class II downregulation and a developing neutrophil population that appears closely related to plasmablasts appearing in patients with acute respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation. Importantly, we found that peripheral monocytes and lymphocytes do not express substantial amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Collectively, we provide a cell atlas of the peripheral immune response to severe COVID-19.

title: Cytokine and Chemokine Profiles in Lung Tissues from Fatal Cases of 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) Role of the Host Immune Response in Pathogenesis
abstract: Pathological studies on fatal cases caused by 2009 pandemic influenza H1N1 virus (2009 pH1N1) reported extensive diffuse alveolar damage and virus infection predominantly in the lung parenchyma. However, the host immune response after severe 2009 pH1N1 infection is poorly understood. Herein, we investigated viral load, the immune response, and apoptosis in lung tissues from 50 fatal cases with 2009 pH1N1 virus infection. The results suggested that 7 of the 27 cytokines/chemokines showed remarkably high expression, including IL-1 receptor antagonist protein, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein 1-β, and interferon-inducible protein-10 in lung tissues of 2009 pH1N1 fatal cases. Viral load, which showed the highest level on day 7 of illness onset and persisted until day 17 of illness, was positively correlated with mRNA levels of IL-1 receptor antagonist protein, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein 1-β, interferon-inducible protein-10, and regulated on activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted. Apoptosis was evident in lung tissues stained by the TUNEL assay. Decreased Fas and elevated FasL mRNA levels were present in lung tissues, and cleaved caspase-3 was frequently seen in pneumocytes, submucosal glands, and lymphoid tissues. The pathogenesis of the 2009 pH1N1 virus infection is associated with viral replication and production of proinflammatory mediators. FasL and caspase-3 are involved in the pathway of 2009 pH1N1 virus-induced apoptosis in lung tissues, and the disequilibrium between the Fas and FasL level in lung tissues could contribute to delayed clearance of the virus and subsequent pathological damages.

title: Inflammatory Bowel Disease at the Intersection of Autophagy and Immunity: Insights from Human Genetics
abstract: Studies using human genetics have identified more than 160 loci that affect the risk of developing inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Several of these genes have been found to play key roles in the process of autophagy, a lysosome-based degradation pathway. Although historically considered to be a relatively nonselective process of degradation of cytosolic contents, autophagy has recently been revealed to have several selective and immune-specific functions that are relevant to the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis, including xenophagy, mitophagy, antigen presentation, secretion, and inflammasome regulation. In this chapter, we review the evidence that links autophagy-related genes, their immune-specific functions, and possible mechanisms of IBD pathogenesis. We summarize the basic molecular events underlying general and selective autophagy, and present evidence suggesting possible pathogenic mechanisms revealed by studies of IBD-associated risk alleles of ATG16L1 and IRGM. Finally, we review chemical biology-based experimental approaches for identifying autophagy regulatory pathways that may have implications for the development of therapeutics.

title: Possible Cause of Inflammatory Storm and Septic Shock in Patients Diagnosed with (COVID-19)
abstract: The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection which has been known as Coronavirus diseases 2019 COVID-19 has become an endemic emergent situation by the World Health Organization. So far, no successful specific treatment has been found for this disease. As has been reported, most of non-survivor patients with COVID-19 (70%) had septic shock which was significantly higher than survived ones. Although the exact pathophysiology of septic shock in these patients is still unclear, it seems to be possible that part of it would be due to the administration of empiric antibiotics with inflammatory properties especially in the absence of bacterial infection. Herein, we have reviewed possible molecular pathways of septic shock in the patients who have received antibiotics with inflammatory properties which mainly is release of interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor &#945; (TNF- &#945;) through different routes. Altogether, we highly recommend clinicians to look after those antibiotics with anti-inflammatory activity for both empiric antibiotic therapy and reducing the inflammation to prevent septic shock in patients with diagnosed COVID-19.

title: Mechanism of inflammatory response in associated comorbidities in COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, causes a respiratory disease and individuals with pre-existing cardiometabolic disorders display worse prognosis through the infection course. The aim of this minireview is to present epidemiological data related to metabolic comorbidities in association with the SARS-CoV-2.  This is a narrative mini-review with Pubmed search until April 23, 2020 using the keywords COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, treatment of coronavirus and following terms: diabetes mellitus, obesity, arterial hypertension, ACE-inhibitors, cytokine storm, immune response and vitamin D.  Studies indicate that obese individuals are more likely to develop infections, and that adipose tissue serves as a pathogen reservoir. In diabetic individuals higher rate of inflammatory processes is seen due to constant glucose recognition by C type lectin receptors. Hypertensive individuals, usually grouped with other conditions, are treated with drugs to reduce blood pressure mostly through ACEi and ARB, that leads to increased ACE2 expression, used by SARS-CoV-2 for human's cell entry. Until now, the studies have shown that individuals with those conditions and affected by COVID-19 present an uncontrolled release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and an unbalanced immune response, leading to the cytokine storm phenomenon. Vitamin D is highlighted as a potential therapeutic target, because in addition to acting on the immune system, it plays an important role in the control of cardiometabolic diseases.  Currently, since there is no proven and effective antiviral therapy for SARS-CoV-2, the efforts should focus on controlling inflammatory response and reduce the risks of associated complications.

title: Treatment of Paraquat-Induced Lung Injury With an Anti-C5a Antibody: Potential Clinical Application*
abstract: Complement activation product C5a plays a critical role in systemic inflammatory response syndrome induced by viruses, bacteria, and toxic agents including paraquat poisoning. This study is to explore the efficiency of anti-C5a–based intervention on systemic inflammatory responses induced by paraquat poisoning.  Study of cynomolgus macaque model and plasma from paraquat-poisoning patients.  Laboratory investigation.  Cynomolgus macaque (n = 12) and samples of plasma from patients (n = 16).  The neutralizing antihuman C5a antibody (IFX-1) was administered to investigate the new treatment strategy for paraquat-induced systemic inflammatory responses in cynomolgus macaque model. In addition, C5a activation in plasma of paraquat patients was blocked by IFX-1 to investigate the blockade role of anti-C5a antibody in activation of inflammatory cells.  Dysregulated complement activation and the subsequent cytokine storm were found in patients with acute lung injury and in a primate model of paraquat poisoning. Targeted inhibition of C5a by IFX-1 led to marked alleviation of systemic inflammatory responses and multiple organ damage in the primate model. In addition, blockade of C5a activity in plasma from patients completely inhibited activation of CD11b on blood granulocytes from normal donors, suggesting that IFX-1 may alleviate the excessive activation of inflammatory responses and have clinical utility for patients with acute lung injury.  Anti-C5a antibodies such as IFX-1 may be used as effective therapeutics for treatment of those suffering from systemic inflammatory responses induced by chemical poisoning like paraquat.

title: Fighting the Host Reaction to SARS-COv-2 in Critically Ill Patients: The Possible Contribution of Off-Label Drugs
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COv-2) is the etiologic agent of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID19). The majority of infected people presents flu like symptoms and among them 15–20% develops a severe interstitial pneumonitis (IP) that may eventually evolve in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). IP is caused by the viral glycoprotein spike (S) binding to the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) expressed on the surface of alveolar pneumocytes. The virus is recognized by the “pattern recognition receptors” (PRR) of the immune cells that release cytokines activating more immune cells that produce a large number of pro-inflammatory cytokines, tissue factors and vasoactive peptides. Affected patients might develop the “cytokine storm syndrome,” a fulminant and fatal hypercytokinaemia with multiorgan failure. In patients infected by SARS-COv-2 increase in T-helper 2 (TH2) cytokines (IL-4 and IL10) are reported in addition to the T-helper 1 (TH1) cytokines (IL1B, IFNγ, IP10, and MCP1) previously detected in other coronavirus infections. Cytokines and other molecules involved in immune response and inflammation are conceivable therapeutic targets for IP and ARDS, improving symptoms and decreasing intensive care unit admissions. To this aim off label drugs may be used taking into consideration the window timing for immunosuppressive drugs in virus infected patients. Some off label therapeutic options and preclinical evidence drugs are herein considered.

title: SARS-CoV-2–A Tough Opponent for the Immune System
abstract: Coronaviruses recently returned with a new one, SARS-CoV-2, related to a potentially severe respiratory disease-called the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Research shows that the SARS-CoV-2 can be clustered with the Bat SARS-like coronavirus. Bats possess an additional, innate ability for antiviral defense, and, on the other hand, the potential to go hand-in-hand with the virus to generate variability. Besides the high potential of the novel coronavirus in compromising the respiratory system, its rapid transmission and ability to engage many hosts in severe forms of infections or immunopathological complications make it a tough opponent for the immune system. The interactions between SARS-CoV2 and the host immune system result in unleashing tremendous amounts of cytokines, and these cytokines make a storm that would determine the outcome (recovery or death) of the lungs of the patient.

title: Vitamin D: A simpler alternative to tocilizumab for trial in COVID-19?
abstract: There is anecdotal evidence that tocilizumab, an immunosuppressant drug, may be a potential therapeutic option for patients with severe manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Like tocilizumab, Vitamin D appears to modulate the activity of an interleukin (IL-6), which may explain the seasonal variation in prevalence of influenza. While most cases of COVID-19 have, thus far, occurred in the Northern Hemisphere winter, limiting the ability to assess seasonal variation, there remains substantial variation in the severity of this condition that has yet to be explained. A retrospective comparison of Vitamin D levels in previously obtained blood samples between survivors and confirmed fatalities could establish a rationale for implementation of widespread Vitamin D supplementation. This would be far cheaper and simpler than tocilizumab as a therapeutic option to trial.

title: Could autism spectrum disorders be a risk factor for COVID-19?
abstract: The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 pandemia is infecting millions of people and some studies relate conditions that might increase the risk of developing a fatal course for the disease, such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and obesity. In COVID-19 physiopathology, one of the main inflammation mechanisms is the "cytokine storm", causing a pro-inflammatory state, related to cardiac and pulmonary damage. There is also a less effective role of lymphocyte B and T in the humoral immunity due to the reduction of their proliferative response. The physiopathology of ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) involves several modifications at the genetic and at the immune level, such as the increase of inflammatory cytokines and abnormal immune response in several levels. We hypothesize that ASD could be a risk-factor as the other conditions are.

title: COVID-19 as an Acute Inflammatory Disease.
abstract: The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by the virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has created an unprecedented global crisis for the infrastructure sectors, including economic, political, healthcare, education, and research systems. Although over 90% of infected individuals are asymptomatic or manifest noncritical symptoms and will recover from the infection, those individuals presenting with critical symptoms are in urgent need of effective treatment options. Emerging data related to mechanism of severity and potential therapies for patients presenting with severe symptoms are scattered and therefore require a comprehensive analysis to focus research on developing effective therapeutics. A critical literature review suggests that the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with dysregulation of inflammatory immune responses, which in turn inhibits the development of protective immunity to the infection. Therefore, the use of therapeutics that modulate inflammation without compromising the adaptive immune response could be the most effective therapeutic strategy.

title: Surgical decision-making and prioritization for cancer patients at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic: A multidisciplinary approach
abstract: In the midst of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, governmental agencies, state medical boards, and healthcare organizations have called for restricting “elective” operations to mitigate the risk of transmission of the virus amongst patients and healthcare providers and to preserve essential resources for potential regional surges of COVID patients. While the fear of delaying surgical care for many of our patients is deeply challenging for us as cancer care providers, we must balance our personal commitment to providing timely and appropriate oncologic care to our cancer patients with our societal responsibility to protect our patients (including those on whom we are operating), co-workers, trainees, families, and community, from undue risks of contracting and propagating COVID-19. Herein, we present guidelines for surgical decision-making and case prioritization developed among all adult disease specialties in the MD Anderson Cancer Center Departments of Surgical Oncology and Breast Surgical Oncology in Houston, Texas.

title: Human Isolates of Lactic Acid Bacteria Differentially Affect Maturation and Cytokine Production by Human Dendritic Cells
abstract: The intestinal micro flora is indispensable in developing and maintaining homeostasis of the gut‐associated immune system. Evidence indicates that lactic acid bacteria (LAB), e.g. lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, have beneficial effects on the host. Established health effects include increased gut maturation, antagonisms towards pathogens and immune modulation. The objective of this study is to evaluate the immunomodulating properties of a range of LAB of human origin. As dendritic cells (DCs) play a pivotal role in the balance between tolerance and immunity to commensal microorganisms, in vitro‐generated immature DCs serve as a suitable model for studying the immunomodulating effects of lab. Human immature DCs were generated in vitro from monocytes and exposed to lethally UV‐irradiated LAB. The effect of various species of LAB on DCs in direct contact was evaluated. Furthermore, the maturation pattern of DCs separated from the bacteria by an epithelial cell layer (CaCo‐2 cells), which should mimic the intestinal environment, was studied. Cytokine secretion (IL‐12, IL‐10 and TNF‐α) and upregulation of maturation surface markers on DCs (CD83 and CD86) was measured. Different LAB induced diverse cytokine responses. Some strains were strong IL‐12 and TNF‐α inducers and others weak. All strains induced IL‐10. Different LAB also differentially modulated expression of CD83 and CD86 on DCs. Although some variation in the response to LAB of DCs generated from different blood donors was observed, general differences in the effect of the various LAB was revealed. Experiments with the DC CaCo‐2 coculture system are ongoing. Different species of LAB differentially affect DC maturation; this suggets that the gut flora plays a pivotal role in polarization of the immune response.

title: Natural killer cell activation related to clinical outcome of COVID-19
abstract: Understanding innate immune responses in COVID-19 is important for deciphering mechanisms of host responses and interpreting disease pathogenesis. Natural killer (NK) cells are innate effector lymphocytes that respond to acute viral infections, but might also contribute to immune pathology. Here, using 28-color flow cytometry, we describe a state of strong NK cell activation across distinct subsets in peripheral blood of COVID-19 patients, a pattern mirrored in scRNA-seq signatures of lung NK cells. Unsupervised high-dimensional analysis identified distinct immunophenotypes that were linked to disease severity. Hallmarks of these immunophenotypes were high expression of perforin, NKG2C, and Ksp37, reflecting a high presence of adaptive NK cell expansions in circulation of patients with severe disease. Finally, arming of CD56bright NK cells was observed in course of COVID-19 disease states, driven by a defined protein-protein interaction network of inflammatory soluble factors. This provides a detailed map of the NK cell activation-landscape in COVID-19 disease.

title: The spectrum of pathological findings in coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2

title: COVID-19, chronic inflammatory rheumatic disease and anti-rheumatic treatments
abstract: Since December 2019, the pandemic caused by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) raises a real public health problem. COVID-19 appeared in Wuhan (Hubei province) in China. Drugs that have been used in rheumatology for decades seem to be effective in this infection and are for the most part being studied. The rational use of these anti-rheumatic drugs is based on the cytokinic storm (hyperproduction of IL1, IL6, TNF &#945;) in the body by COVID-19 in its severe form. In this review, the authors make the difference between the infectious and auto-inflammatory part of COVID-19; the disease does not seem to be a risk factor for admission to the intensive care unit for patients suffering from inflammatory rheumatism; however, the poverty of studies on this subject should be noted. The authors also review anti-rheumatic drugs while studying COVID-19 treatment.

title: Program and Abstracts for the 2007 Meeting of the Society for Glycobiology

title: Management of the Rheumatoid Arthritis Patient with Interstitial Lung Disease
abstract: The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has undergone considerable changes over the last 15–20 years. With an expansion in the armamentarium of therapies available for RA comes a wider choice in selecting the best treatment in terms of comparative safety in the presence of comorbidities. Clinicians frequently encounter patients with RA-associated interstitial lung disease with uncontrolled joint disease and have to make decisions about the safest treatments in this context with the eventual goal of joint remission. In this chapter, available evidence is reviewed on the comparative pulmonary safety of non-biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (nbDMARDs), biologic DMARDs, biosimilars and targeted synthetic DMARDs in RA-ILD. In addition, the potential role for additional immunosuppression in RA-ILD is reviewed as well as overarching recommendations proposed for patient assessment to guide treatment decisions and management.

title: Expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in patients with severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19)
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is associated with a 3.4% mortality rate in patients with severe disease. The pathogenesis of severe cases remains unknown. We performed an in-depth prospective analysis of immune and inflammation markers in two patients with severe COVID-19 disease from presentation to convalescence. Peripheral blood from 18 SARS-CoV-2-infected patients, 9 with severe and 9 with mild COVID-19 disease, was obtained at admission and analyzed for T-cell activation profile, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and cytokine profiles. MDSC functionality was tested in vitro. In four severe and in four mild patients, a longitudinal analysis was performed daily from the day of admission to the early convalescent phase. Early after admission severe patients showed neutrophilia, lymphopenia, increase in effector T cells, a persisting higher expression of CD95 on T cells, higher serum concentration of IL-6 and TGF-β, and a cytotoxic profile of NK and T cells compared with mild patients, suggesting a highly engaged immune response. Massive expansion of MDSCs was observed, up to 90% of total circulating mononuclear cells in patients with severe disease, and up to 25% in the patients with mild disease; the frequency decreasing with recovery. MDSCs suppressed T-cell functions, dampening excessive immune response. MDSCs decline at convalescent phase was associated to a reduction in TGF-β and to an increase of inflammatory cytokines in plasma samples. Substantial expansion of suppressor cells is seen in patients with severe COVID-19. Further studies are required to define their roles in reducing the excessive activation/inflammation, protection, influencing disease progression, potential to serve as biomarkers of disease severity, and new targets for immune and host-directed therapeutic approaches.

title: International Expert Consensus Statement on Chest Imaging in Pediatric COVID-19 Patient Management: Imaging Findings, Imaging Study Reporting and Imaging Study Recommendations
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has quickly spread since it was first detected in December of 2019 to a global pandemic with over 1.7 million confirmed cases in over 200 countries around the world at the time this document is being prepared. Due to the novel nature of the virus and the rapidly evolving understanding of the disease, there is a great deal of uncertainty surrounding the diagnosis and management of COVID-19 pneumonia in pediatric patients. Chest imaging plays an important role in evaluation of pediatric patients with COVID-19, however there is currently little information available describing imaging manifestations of pediatric COVID-19 and even less discussing utilization of imaging studies in pediatric patients. To specifically address these concerns, a group of international experts in pediatric thoracic imaging from 5 continents convened to create a consensus statement describing the imaging manifestations of COVID-19 in the pediatric population, discussing the potential utility of structured reporting during the coronavirus 2019 pandemic, and generating consensus recommendations for utilization of chest radiographs (CXR) and computed tomography (CT) in the evaluation of pediatric patients with COVID-19. The results were compiled into 2 structured reporting algorithms (one for CXR and one for chest CT) and 8 consensus recommendations for utilization of chest imaging in pediatric COVID-19 infection.

title: The Role of Metalloproteinases in Corona Virus Infection
abstract: Infection with neurotropic strains of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) results in rapid leukocyte infiltration into the central nervous system (CNS). The inflammatory response controls virus replication but fails to mediate sterile clearance. The persistence of viral RNA and inflammatory cells within the CNS is associated with the development of ongoing demyelination. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of proteases involved in degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). During inflammatory responses MMPs are thought to play a significant role in breaking down the basement membrane surrounding blood vessels as well as parenchymal ECM thereby facilitating leukocyte infiltration. MMPs have also been associated with activation of chemokines and perhaps more significantly the degradation of myelin proteins and generation of autoantigens. Recent examination of MMP expression during MHV infection suggests that MMP-3, -9 and -12 are involved in the inflammatory response. The proinflammatory effects of these MMPs are likely tempered by induction of tissue inhibiter of metalloproteinase-1 expression.

title: The possible pathophysiology mechanism of cytokine storm in elderly adults with COVID-19 infection: the contribution of “inflame-aging”
abstract: Novel Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is an acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which is emerged in Wuhan, and recently become worldwide pandemic. Strangely, ample evidences have been shown that the severity of COVID-19 infections varies widely from children (asymptomatic), adults (mild infection), as well as elderly adults (deadly critical). It has proven that COVID-19 infection in some elderly critical adults leads to a cytokine storm, which is characterized by severe systemic elevation of several pro-inflammatory cytokines. Then, a cytokine storm can induce edematous, ARDS, pneumonia, as well as multiple organ failure in aged patients. It is far from clear till now why cytokine storm induces in only COVID-19 elderly patients, and not in young patients. However, it seems that aging is associated with mild elevated levels of local and systemic pro-inflammatory cytokines, which is characterized by “inflamm-aging”. It is highly likely that “inflamm-aging” is correlated to increased risk of a cytokine storm in some critical elderly patients with COVID-19 infection.  A systematic search in the literature was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, as well as Google Scholar pre-print database using all available MeSH terms for COVID-19, Coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, senescent cell, cytokine storm, inflame-aging, ACE2 receptor, autophagy, and Vitamin D. Electronic database searches combined and duplicates were removed.  The aim of the present review was to summarize experimental data and clinical observations that linked the pathophysiology mechanisms of “inflamm-aging”, mild-grade inflammation, and cytokine storm in some elderly adults with severe COVID-19 infection.

title: Exploring the SARS-CoV-2 virus-host-drug interactome for drug repurposing
abstract: Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It was first identified in Wuhan, China, and has since spread causing a global pandemic. Various studies have been performed to understand the molecular mechanisms of viral infection for predicting drug repurposing candidates. However, such information is spread across many publications and it is very time-consuming to access, integrate, explore, and exploit. We developed CoVex, the first interactive online platform for SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1 host interactome exploration and drug (target) identification. CoVex integrates 1) experimentally validated virus-human protein interactions, 2) human protein-protein interactions and 3) drug-target interactions. The web interface allows user-friendly visual exploration of the virus-host interactome and implements systems medicine algorithms for network-based prediction of drugs. Thus, CoVex is an important resource, not only to understand the molecular mechanisms involved in SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-1 pathogenicity, but also in clinical research for the identification and prioritization of candidate therapeutics. We apply CoVex to investigate recent hypotheses on a systems biology level and to systematically explore the molecular mechanisms driving the virus life cycle. Furthermore, we extract and discuss drug repurposing candidates involved in these mechanisms. CoVex renders COVID-19 drug research systems-medicine-ready by giving the scientific community direct access to network medicine algorithms integrating virus-host-drug interactions. It is available at https://exbio.wzw.tum.de/covex/.

title: Influenza and obesity: its odd relationship and the lessons for COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: Analyze the relationship between obesity and influenza.  Basal hormone milieu, defective response of both innate and adaptive immune system and sedentariness are major determinants in the severity of influenza viral infection in obese patients. Being overweight not only increases the risk of infection and of complications for the single obese person, but a large prevalence of obese individuals within the population might increase the chance of appearance of more virulent viral strain, prolongs the virus shedding throughout the total population and eventually might increase overall mortality rate of an influenza pandemic.  Waiting for the development of a vaccination against COVID-19, isolation of positive cases and social distancing are the primary interventions. Nonetheless, evidence from previous influenza pandemics suggests the following interventions aimed at improving immune response: (1) lose weight with a mild caloric restriction; (2) include AMPK activators and PPAR gamma activators in the drug treatment for obesity associated with diabetes; and (3) practice mild-to-moderate physical exercise.  Due to prolonged viral shedding, quarantine in obese subjects should likely be longer than normal weight individuals.

title: COVID-19: risk for cytokine targeting in chronic inflammatory diseases?

title: Hypercytokinemia and Pathogen–Host Interaction in COVID-19
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV)-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel coronavirus identified as the cause of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) that began in Wuhan, China in late 2019 and spread now in 210 countries and territories around the world. Many people are asymptomatic or with mild symptoms. However, in some cases (usually the elderly and those with comorbidities) the disease may progress to pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome and multi-organ dysfunction that can lead to death. Such wide interindividual differences in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection may relate to several pathogen- and host-related factors. These include the different levels of the ubiquitously present human angiotensin I converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors gene expression and its variant alleles, the different binding affinities of ACE2 to the virus spike (S) protein given its L- and S-subtypes and the subsequent extent of innate immunity-related hypercytokinemia. The extensive synthesis of cytokines and chemokines in coronavirus diseases was suggested as a major factor in exacerbating lung damage and other fatal complications. The polymorphisms in genes coding for pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines have been associated with mediating the response and susceptibility to a wide range of infections and their severe outcomes. Understanding the nature of pathogen–host interaction in COVID-19 symptomatology together with the role of hypercytokinemia in disease severity may permit developing new avenues of approach for prevention and treatment and can delineate public health measures to control the spread of the disease.

title: Inflammatory Response Cells During Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

title: COVID-19 and homelessness in England: a modelling study of theCOVID-19 pandemic among people experiencing homelessness, and theimpact of a residential intervention to isolate vulnerable people andcare for people with symptoms
abstract: There is an ongoing pandemic of the viral respiratory disease COVID-19. People experiencing homelessness are vulnerable to infection and severe disease. Health and housing authorities in England have developed a residential intervention that aims to isolate those vulnerable to severe disease (COVID-PROTECT) and care for people with symptoms (COVID CARE).  We used a discrete-time Markov chain model to forecast COVID-19 infections among people experiencing homelessness, given strong containment measures in the general population and some transmission among 35,817 people living in 1,065 hostels, and 11,748 people sleeping rough (the 'do nothing' scenario). We then estimated demand for beds if those eligible are offered COVID-PROTECT and COVID-CARE. We estimated the reduction in the number of COVID-19 cases, deaths, and hospital admissions that could be achieved by these interventions. We also conducted sensitivity and scenario analyses to identify programme success factors.  In a 'do nothing' scenario, we estimate that 34% of the homeless population could get COVID-19 between March and August 2020, with 364 deaths, 4,074 hospital admissions and 572 critical care admissions. In our 'base intervention' scenario, demand for COVID-PROTECT peaks at 9,934 beds, and demand for COVID-CARE peaks at 1,366 beds. The intervention could reduce transmission by removing symptomatic individuals from the community, and preventing vulnerable individuals from being infected. This could lead to a reduction of 164 deaths, 2,624 hospital admissions, and 248 critical care admissions over this period. Sensitivity analyses showed that the number of deaths is sensitive to transmission of COVID-19 in COVID-PROTECT. If COVID-PROTECT capacity is limited, scenario analyses show the benefit of prioritising people who are vulnerable to severe disease.  Supportive accommodation can mitigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the homeless population of England, and reduce the burden on acute hospitals.

title: An Update on Current Therapeutic Drugs Treating COVID-19
abstract: The current pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has presented unprecedented challenges to the healthcare systems in almost every country around the world. Currently, there are no proven effective vaccines or therapeutic agents against the virus. Current clinical management includes infection prevention and control measures and supportive care including supplemental oxygen and mechanical ventilatory support. Evolving research and clinical data regarding the virologic SARS-CoV-2 suggest a potential list of repurposed drugs with appropriate pharmacological effects and therapeutic efficacies in treating COVID-19 patients. In this review, we will update and summarize the most common and plausible drugs for the treatment of COVID-19 patients. These drugs and therapeutic agents include antiviral agents (remdesivir, hydroxychloroquine, chloroquine, lopinavir, umifenovir, favipiravir, and oseltamivir), and supporting agents (Ascorbic acid, Azithromycin, Corticosteroids, Nitric oxide, IL-6 antagonists), among others. We hope that this review will provide useful and most updated therapeutic drugs to prevent, control, and treat COVID-19 patients until the approval of vaccines and specific drugs targeting SARS-CoV-2.

title: Traditional Chinese medicine for COVID-19 treatment

title: The case for Chronotherapy in COVID‐19 induced Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS).
abstract: COVID‐19, the disease resulting from infection by a novel coronavirus: SARS‐Cov2 that has rapidly spread since November 2019 leading to a global pandemic. SARS‐Cov2 has infected over 4 million people and caused over 290,000 deaths worldwide. Although most cases are mild, a subset of patients develop a severe and atypical presentation of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) that is characterised by a cytokine release storm (CRS). Paradoxically, treatment with anti‐inflammatory agents and immune regulators has been associated with worsening of ARDS. We hypothesize that the intrinsic circadian clock of the lung and the immune system may regulate individual components of CRS and thus chronotherapy may be used to effectively manage ARDS in COVID‐19 patients.

title: COVID-19 update: Covid-19-associated coagulopathy

title: Dupilumab and COVID‐19: What should we expect?
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is a pandemic disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) with high morbidity and mortality. There are very limited data on the interference of immunomodulating drugs on the risk of infection and on the course of the disease. In particular, there are no current clinical data about the interference exerted by dupilumab, a biologic drugs blocking IL‐4 and IL‐13, used for adult atopic dermatitis. The pathogenesis of COVID‐19 is complex, characterized by an immune response mainly Th1/Th17. The hyper‐activation of these cells may cause the release of pro‐inflammatory cytokines that may result in lung impairment. IL‐4 and IL‐13 are Th2 cytokines, thus being part of a pathway not considered implicated in host defense mechanism against viral infections. Indeed, viral infections, including respiratory infections, have not been reported as a significant adverse event in clinical trials. Furthermore, dupilumab has been proved to be efficacious also in exacerbations of asthma, and it is known that viral infections can worsen asthma. Therefore, the current data seem to suggest that treatment with dupilumab should not be stopped during COVID‐19 pandemic. Obviously, a careful assessment is mandatory for each individual patient and further studies are necessary to characterize the immunologic responses in COVID‐19.

title: Kawasaki Disease: Laboratory Findings and an Immunopathogenesis on the Premise of a "Protein Homeostasis System"
abstract: Kawasaki disease (KD) is a self-limited systemic inflammatory illness, and coronary artery lesions (CALs) are a major complication determining the prognosis of the disease. Epidemiologic studies in Asian children suggest that the etiologic agent(s) of KD may be associated with environmental changes. Laboratory findings are useful for the diagnosis of incomplete KD, and they can guide the next-step in treatment of initial intravenous immunoglobulin non-responders. CALs seem to develop in the early stages of the disease before a peak in inflammation. Therefore early treatment, before the peak in inflammation, is mandatory to reduce the risk of CAL progression and severity of CALs. The immunopathogenesis of KD is more likely that of acute rheumatic fever than scarlet fever. A hypothetical pathogenesis of KD is proposed under the premise of a "protein homeostasis system"; where innate and adaptive immune cells control pathogenic proteins that are toxic to host cells at a molecular level. After an infection of unknown KD pathogen(s), the pathogenic proteins produced from an unknown focus, spread and bind to endothelial cells of coronary arteries as main target cells. To control the action of pathogenic proteins and/or substances from the injured cells, immune cells are activated. Initially, non-specific T cells and non-specific antibodies are involved in this reaction, while hyperactivated immune cells produce various cytokines, leading to a cytokine imbalance associated with further endothelial cell injury. After the emergence of specific T cells and specific antibodies against the pathogenic proteins, tissue injury ceases and a repair reaction begins with the immune cells.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Stroke: Clinical Manifestations and Pathophysiological Insights
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a global health threat. Some COVID-19 patients have exhibited widespread neurological manifestations including stroke. Acute ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis have been reported in patients with COVID-19. COVID-19-associated coagulopathy is increasingly recognized as a result of acute infection and is likely caused by inflammation, including inflammatory cytokine storm. Recent studies suggest axonal transport of SARS-CoV-2 to the brain can occur via the cribriform plate adjacent to the olfactory bulb that may lead to symptomatic anosmia. The internalization of SARS-CoV-2 is mediated by the binding of the spike glycoprotein of the virus to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on cellular membranes. ACE2 is expressed in several tissues including lung alveolar cells, gastrointestinal tissue, and brain. The aim of this review is to provide insights into the pathophysiological stroke mechanisms in COVID-19 patients. SARS-CoV-2 can down-regulate ACE2 and, in turn, over-activate the classical renin-angiotensin system (RAS) axis and decrease the activation of the alternative RAS pathway in the brain. The consequent imbalance in vasodilation, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and thrombotic response may contribute to the pathophysiology of stroke during SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: COVID-19, immune system response, hyperinflammation and repurposing antirheumatic drugs
abstract: In the Wuhan Province of China, in December 2019, the novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a severe involvement of the lower respiratory tract leading to an acute respiratory syndrome. Subsequently, coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) provoked a pandemic which is considered a life-threatening disease. The SARS-CoV-2, a family member of betacoronaviruses, possesses single-stranded positive-sense RNA with typical structural proteins, involving the envelope, membrane, nucleocapsid and spike proteins that are responsible for the viral infectivity, and nonstructural proteins. The effectual host immune response including innate and adaptive immunity against SARS-Cov-2 seems crucial to control and resolve the viral infection. However, the severity and outcome of the COVID-19 might be associated with the excessive production of proinflammatory cytokines “cytokine storm” leading to an acute respiratory distress syndrome. Regretfully, the exact pathophysiology and treatment, especially for the severe COVID-19, is still uncertain. The results of preliminary studies have shown that immune-modulatory or immune-suppressive treatments such as hydroxychloroquine, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1 antagonists, commonly used in rheumatology, might be considered as treatment choices for COVID-19, particularly in severe disease. In this review, to gain better information about appropriate anti-inflammatory treatments, mostly used in rheumatology for COVID-19, we have focused the attention on the structural features of SARS-CoV-2, the host immune response against SARS-CoV-2 and its association with the cytokine storm.

title: Adjunct Immunotherapies for the Management of Severely Ill COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It has infected millions, with more than 275,000 fatal cases as of May 8, 2020. Currently, there are no specific COVID-19 therapies. Most patients depend on mechanical ventilation. Current COVID-19 data clearly highlight that cytokine storm and activated immune cell migration to the lungs characterize the early immune response to COVID-19 that causes severe lung damage and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome. In view of uncertainty associated with immunosuppressive treatments, such as corticosteroids and their possible secondary effects, including risks of secondary infections, we suggest immunotherapies as an adjunct therapy in severe COVID-19 cases. Such immunotherapies based on inflammatory cytokine neutralization, immunomodulation, and passive viral neutralization not only reduce inflammation, inflammation-associated lung damage, or viral load but could also prevent intensive care unit hospitalization and dependency on mechanical ventilation, both of which are limited resources.

title: Clinical Features of 69 Cases with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan, China
abstract: From December 2019 to February 2020, 2019 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a serious outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China. Related clinical features are needed.  We reviewed 69 patients who were hospitalized in Union hospital in Wuhan between January 16 to January 29, 2020. All patients were confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 and the final date of follow-up was February 4, 2020.  The median age of 69 enrolled patients was 42.0 years (IQR 35.0-62.0), and 32 patients (46%) were men. The most common symptoms were fever (60[87%]), cough (38[55%]), and fatigue (29[42%]). Most patients received antiviral therapy (66 [98.5%] of 67 patients) and antibiotic therapy (66 [98.5%] of 67 patients). As of February 4, 2020, 18 (26.9%) of 67 patients had been discharged, and five patients had died, with a mortality rate of 7.5%. According to the lowest SpO(2) during admission, cases were divided into the SpO(2)≥90% group (n=55) and the SpO(2)<90% group (n=14). All 5 deaths occurred in the SpO(2)<90% group. Compared with SpO(2)≥90% group, patients of the SpO(2)<90% group were older, and showed more comorbidities and higher plasma levels of IL6, IL10, lactate dehydrogenase, and c reactive protein. Arbidol treatment showed tendency to improve the discharging rate and decrease the mortality rate.  COVID-19 appears to show frequent fever, dry cough, and increase of inflammatory cytokines, and induced a mortality rate of 7.5%. Older patients or those with underlying comorbidities are at higher risk of death.

title: Capacity of AE to Modulate Nitric Oxide Production Depended on Intercellular Contact
abstract: Aloe emodin (AE) is a naturally occurring compound with wide spectrum of biological properties, including antimicrobial, vasorelaxant, immunosuppressive and anticancer actions. This anthraquinone induces apoptosis in several tumour cell lines with special affinity to tumours of neuroectodermal origin. High amounts of nitric oxide (NO) released by activated macrophages induce tumour cell death. Therefore, we explored the capacity of AE to modulate NO‐mediated antitumour response in vitro. Interestingly, while AE markedly suppressed NO release from macrophages alone, it significantly potentiated NO production in cocultures of macrophages and C6 cells, after 48 h of cultivation. Accordingly, the viability of C6 cells cocultivated with macrophages was reduced in the presence of AE. Moreover, the observed AE‐imposed potentiation of NO production in macrophages was closely related to macrophage culture cell density. According to these data, we proposed that NO modulator capacity of AE strongly depended on intercellular contact, indicating that macrophage antitumour response was not compromised but even potentiated by AE.

title: [Novel coronavirus infection (COVID-19) and cytokine storms - treatment options based on inflammatory processes]

title: The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Alongside investigations into the virology of SARS-CoV-2, understanding the fundamental physiological and immunological processes underlying the clinical manifestations of COVID-19 is vital for the identification and rational design of effective therapies. Here, we provide an overview of the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We describe the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with the immune system and the subsequent contribution of dysfunctional immune responses to disease progression. From nascent reports describing SARS-CoV-2, we make inferences on the basis of the parallel pathophysiological and immunological features of the other human coronaviruses targeting the lower respiratory tract - severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Finally, we highlight the implications of these approaches for potential therapeutic interventions that target viral infection and/or immunoregulation.

title: Deregulated cellular circuits driving immunoglobulins and complement consumption associate with the severity of COVID-19
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 infection causes an abrupt response by the host immune system, which is largely responsible for the pathogenesis and outcome of COVID-19. We aimed to investigate which specific responses from either cellular or humoral immunity associate to severity and progression of COVID-19.  A cohort of 276 patients classified in mild, moderate and severe, was studied. Peripheral blood lymphocyte subpopulations were quantified by flow cytometry, and immunoglobulins and complement proteins by nephelometry.  At admission, dramatic lymphopenia of T, B and NK cells associated to severity. However, only the proportion of B cells increased, while T and NK cells appeared unaffected. Accordingly, the number of plasma cells and circulating follicular helper T cells (cTfh) increased, but levels of IgM, IgA and IgG were unaffected. When degrees of severity were considered, IgG was lower in severe patients, suggesting an IgG consumption by complement activation or antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Activated CD56-CD16+ NK-cells, which mediate ADCC, were increased. Regarding complement, C3 and C4 protein levels were higher in mild and moderate, but not in severe patients, compared to healthy donors. Moreover, IgG and C4 decreased from day 0 to day 10 in patients who were hospitalized for more than two weeks, but not in patients who were discharged earlier.  Our study provides important clues to understand the immune response observed in COVID-19 patients, which is probably related to viral clearance, but also underlies its pathogenesis and severity. This study associates for the first time COVID-19 severity with an imbalanced humoral immune response characterized by excessive consumption of IgG and C4, identifying new targets for therapeutic intervention.

title: The old but new: Can unfractioned heparin and low molecular weight heparins inhibit proteolytic activation and cellular internalization of SARS-CoV2 by inhibition of host cell proteases?
abstract: Currently, our world is facing the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak and tremendous efforts are made for developing drugs to treat and vaccines to prevent the disease. At present, there is no specific antiviral drug or vaccine for COVID-19. The pathogenic infectivity of the virus requires the S1 subunit of the spike (S) protein to bind the host cell receptor, angiontensin converting enzyme (ACE2). While the binding to host cell receptor is the first step of infection, the entrance of the virus into the cell needs the cleavage of S1–S2 subunits to expose S2 for fusion to cell membrane via host proteases including cathepsins, cell surface transmembrane protease/serine (TMPRSS) proteases, furin, trypsin and factor Xa. Previous in vitro studies have shown that factor Xa inhibition can decrease viral infectivity. We suppose that host cell proteases including furin (as expressed highly in lungs), factor Xa and cathepsin are possible targets to decrease viral burden, therefore unfractioned heparin and low molecular weight heparin-LMWH (specifically dalteparin and tinzaparin for their anti inflammatory action) can be potential inhibitors of multiple endoproteases involved in virus infectivity. Our hypothesis needs to be tested in in vitro and clinical studies, however as we are in an urgent situation as the burden of SARS-CoV2 is increasing all around the world, we recommend the usage of unfractioned heparin or LMWH in intensive care unit (ICU) and non-ICU hospitalized patients with the risk–benefit judgement of the clinician. Whether our hypothesis is clinically applicable and successful in decreasing viral infection will be evaluated for further studies.

title: Anti-inflammatory and Antimicrobial Effects of Heat-clearing Chinese Herbs: A Current Review
abstract: Inflammation is a normal immune response; but if the body’s regulation of inflammation is dysfunctional, then it will have an adverse effect on the body. Although use of modern drugs for inflammation has a relieving effect, it is still unsatisfactory. Moreover, the emergence of drug-resistant strains and even new kinds of microorganisms is causing significant morbidity and mortality. Recently, more attention has been focused on herbal medicine to treat various diseases because of the ability of the herbs to affect multiple target signaling pathways and their multiple mechanisms of action. Thus, a large number of studies have reported on the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects of the traditional Chinese herbs. Literature survey was performed by conducting systematic electronic search in PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and in books. This review has listed 11 heat-clearing Chinese herbs (HCCHs) including Scutellaria baicalensis (黃芩 Huáng Qín), Coptis chinensis (黃連 Huáng Lián), Flos Lonicerae (金銀花 Jīn Yín Hūa), Forsythia suspensa (連翹 Lián Qiào), Isatidis Folium (大青葉 Dà Qīn Yè), Radix Isatidis (板藍根 Bǎn Lán Gēn), Viola yedoensis (紫花地丁 Zǐ Huā Dì Dīn), Pulsatilla Radix (白頭翁 Bái Tóu Wēn), Andrographis paniculata (穿心蓮 Chuān Xīn Lián), Houttuynia cordata (魚腥草 Yú Xīng Cǎo), and Patrinia Herba (敗醬草 Bài Jiàn Cǎo), which have anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects, and has described their effects through different mechanisms of action and multiple targets. Their ability to affect multiple target signaling pathways and their potential mechanisms of action contributing to their anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity may be related to their action of removing heat and counteracting toxicity. Further studies are needed on the collection of HCCHs to know the detailed mechanism of action of herbs in this group for the assessment of effective drug.

title: Could Chloroquine /Hydroxychloroquine Be Harmful in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment?

title: An update on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 with particular reference to its clinical pathology, pathogenesis, immunopathology and mitigation strategies
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), emerged in early December 2019 in China and became a pandemic situation worldwide by its rapid spread to nearly 190 countries. Bats are considered as the reservoir host, and the search of a probable intermediate host is still going on. The severe form of the infection is associated with death is mainly reported in older and immune-compromised patients with pre-existing disease history. Death in severe cases is attributed to respiratory failure associated with hyperinflammation. Cytokine storm syndrome associated with inflammation in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is considered as the leading cause of mortality in COVID-19 patients. COVID-19 patients have thus higher levels of many proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. The blood lab profile of the COVID-19 patients exhibits lymphopenia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and RNAaemia, along with increased levels of aspartate aminotransferase. SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnant women does not lead to fetus mortality, unlike other zoonotic coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, and there is, to date, no evidence of intrauterine transmission to neonates. Rapid diagnostics have been developed, and significant efforts are being made to develop effective vaccines and therapeutics. In the absence of any virus-specific therapy, internationally, health care authorities are recommending the adoption of effective community mitigation measures to counter and contain this pandemic virus. This paper is an overview of this virus and the disease with a particular focus on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 clinical pathology, pathogenesis, and immunopathology, along with recent research developments.

title: COVID-19 and Cancer: a Comprehensive Review
abstract: The outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has emerged to be the biggest global health threat worldwide, which has now infected over 1.7 million people and claimed more than 100,000 lives around the world. Under these unprecedented circumstances, there are no well-established guidelines for cancer patients.  The risk for serious disease and death in COVID-19 cases increases with advancing age and presence of comorbid health conditions. Since the emergence of the first case in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, tremendous research efforts have been underway to understand the mechanisms of infectivity and transmissibility of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), a fatal virus responsible for abysmal survival outcomes. To minimize the mortality rate, it becomes prudent to identify symptoms promptly and employ treatments appropriately. Even though no cure has been established, multiple clinical trials are underway to determine the most optimal strategy. Managing cancer patients under these circumstances is rather challenging, given their vulnerable status and the aggressive nature of their underlying disease.  In this comprehensive review, we discuss the impact of COVID-19 on health and the immune system of those affected, reviewing the latest treatment approaches and ongoing clinical trials. Additionally, we discuss challenges faced while treating cancer patients and propose potential approaches to manage this vulnerable population during this pandemic.

title: Protein Coding and Long Noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Transcriptional Landscape in SARS-CoV-2 Infected Bronchial Epithelial Cells Highlight a Role for Interferon and Inflammatory Response
abstract: The global spread of COVID-19, caused by pathogenic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) underscores the need for an imminent response from medical research communities to better understand this rapidly spreading infection. Employing multiple bioinformatics and computational pipelines on transcriptome data from primary normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE) during SARS-CoV-2 infection revealed activation of several mechanistic networks, including those involved in immunoglobulin G (IgG) and interferon lambda (IFNL) in host cells. Induction of acute inflammatory response and activation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) was prominent in SARS-CoV-2 infected NHBE cells. Additionally, disease and functional analysis employing ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) revealed activation of functional categories related to cell death, while those associated with viral infection and replication were suppressed. Several interferon (IFN) responsive gene targets (IRF9, IFIT1, IFIT2, IFIT3, IFITM1, MX1, OAS2, OAS3, IFI44 and IFI44L) were highly upregulated in SARS-CoV-2 infected NBHE cell, implying activation of antiviral IFN innate response. Gene ontology and functional annotation of differently expressed genes in patient lung tissues with COVID-19 revealed activation of antiviral response as the hallmark. Mechanistic network analysis in IPA identified 14 common activated, and 9 common suppressed networks in patient tissue, as well as in the NHBE cell model, suggesting a plausible role for these upstream regulator networks in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Our data revealed expression of several viral proteins in vitro and in patient-derived tissue, while several host-derived long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) were identified. Our data highlights activation of IFN response as the main hallmark associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro and in human, and identified several differentially expressed lncRNAs during the course of infection, which could serve as disease biomarkers, while their precise role in the host response to SARS-CoV-2 remains to be investigated.

title: Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab
abstract: After analyzing the immune characteristics of patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), we have identified that pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes with large amount of interleukin 6 secreting may incite the inflammatory storm, which may potentially be curbed through monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 pathways. Here, we aimed to assess the efficacy of tocilizumab in severe patients with COVID-19 and seek a therapeutic strategy. The patients diagnosed as severe or critical COVID-19 in The First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China (Anhui Provincial Hospital) and Anhui Fuyang Second People’s Hospital were given tocilizumab in addition to routine therapy between 5 and 14 February 2020. The changes of clinical manifestations, computerized tomography (CT) scan image, and laboratory examinations were retrospectively analyzed. Fever returned to normal on the first day, and other symptoms improved remarkably within a few days. Within 5 d after tocilizumab, 15 of the 20 patients (75.0%) had lowered their oxygen intake, and 1 patient needed no oxygen therapy. CT scans manifested that the lung lesion opacity absorbed in 19 patients (90.5%). The percentage of lymphocytes in peripheral blood, which decreased in 85.0% of patients (17/20) before treatment (mean, 15.52 ± 8.89%), returned to normal in 52.6% of patients (10/19) on the fifth day after treatment. Abnormally elevated C-reactive protein decreased significantly in 84.2% of patients (16/19). No obvious adverse reactions were observed. All patients have been discharged on average 15.1 d after giving tocilizumab. Preliminary data show that tocilizumab, which improved the clinical outcome immediately in severe and critical COVID-19 patients, is an effective treatment to reduce mortality.

title: The vascular endothelium: the cornerstone of organ dysfunction in severe SARS-CoV-2 infection
abstract: In severe SARS-CoV-2 infections, emerging data including recent histopathological studies have emphasized the crucial role of endothelial cells (ECs) in vascular dysfunction, immunothrombosis, and inflammation. Histopathological studies have evidenced direct viral infection of ECs, endotheliitis with diffuse endothelial inflammation, and micro- and macrovascular thrombosis both in the venous and arterial circulations. Venous thrombotic events, particularly pulmonary embolism, with elevated D-dimer and coagulation activation are highly prevalent in COVID-19 patients. The pro-inflammatory cytokine storm, with elevated levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-2 receptor, and tumor necrosis factor-α, could also participate in endothelial dysfunction and leukocyte recruitment in the microvasculature. COVID-19-induced endotheliitis may explain the systemic impaired microcirculatory function in different organs in COVID-19 patients. Ongoing trials directly and indirectly target COVID-19-related endothelial dysfunctions: i.e., a virus-cell entry using recombinant angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS-2) blockade, coagulation activation, and immunomodulatory therapies, such as anti-IL-6 strategies. Studies focusing on endothelial dysfunction in COVID-19 patients are warranted as to decipher their precise role in severe SARS-CoV-2 infection and organ dysfunction and to identify targets for further interventions.

title: Hyperinflammation and derangement of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in COVID-19: A novel hypothesis for clinically suspected hypercoagulopathy and microvascular immunothrombosis
abstract: Early clinical evidence suggests that severe cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), are frequently characterized by hyperinflammation, imbalance of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and a particular form of vasculopathy, thrombotic microangiopathy, and intravascular coagulopathy. In this paper, we present an immunothrombosis model of COVID-19. We discuss the underlying pathogenesis and the interaction between multiple systems, resulting in propagation of immunothrombosis, which through investigation in the coming weeks, may lead to both an improved understanding of COVID-19 pathophysiology and identification of innovative and efficient therapeutic targets to reverse the otherwise unfavorable clinical outcome of many of these patients.

title: JAK inhibitors in COVID-19: need for vigilance regarding increased inherent thrombotic risk
abstract: There is accumulating evidence that COVID-19 is a hypercoagulable state. Reports of thrombotic events and autopsy findings of pulmonary thrombotic microangiopathy  in patients with COVID-19 are rising. Bompard et al. recently reported a cohort study of 137 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia, in which retrospective review of computed tomography pulmonary angiography (CTPA) scans demonstrated a cumulative incidence of pulmonary emboli (PE) of 24% overall and 50% in intensive care . Although it was initially thought that insidious venous thromboembolic events (VTE) were mainly confined to ventilated patients , we now understand thrombotic risk to be a wider problem in COVID-19. An overexuberant host inflammatory response, in selected patients with severe COVID-19, may contribute to the high mortality. We recently recommended screening for virally-driven hyperinflammation in COVID-19 and proposed that immunomodulation in this subgroup of patients, may improve outcomes . There are several ongoing, randomised controlled trials evaluating the therapeutic potential of Janus Kinase inhibitors (JAKi) in severe COVID-19 (table 1). JAKi have a purported advantage over other immunomodulatory strategies in COVID-19, as they may exert dual anti-inflammatory (blockade of multiple, pro-inflammatory cytokines simultaneously) and anti-viral effects (impeding cellular viral endocytosis [5, 6]) and have convenient oral administration, with relatively short half-lives. JAKi may interrupt the signalling of several pro-inflammatory cytokines implicated in the pathogenesis of hyperinflammation, including interleukin (IL)-6, which has been the focus of several clinical trials in COVID-19. JAKi may also inhibit the entry of the SARS-CoV-2 virus into the AT2 alveolar epithelial cells; baricitinib (a JAK1/2 inhibitor), is a numb-associated kinase (NAK) inhibitor, with a particularly high affinity for AP2-associated protein kinase 1 (AAK1), a pivotal regulator of clathrin-mediated viral endocytosis . We recommend vigilance to the potentially increased thrombotic risk associated with JAKi, given the hypercoagulability of COVID-19 and our recent thromboprophylaxis recommendations for all hospitalised patients with COVID-19 .

title: Smoking prevalence and COVID-19 in Europe
abstract: This ecological study investigates the association between smoking prevalence and COVID-19 occurrence and mortality in 38 European nations as of 30(th) May 2020.  Data were collected from Our World in Data. Regression analysis was conducted to adjust for potential confounding factors such as economic activity (GDP), the rate of COVID-19 testing, and the stringency of COVID-19 control policies.  There was a statistically significant negative association between smoking prevalence and the prevalence of COVID-19 across the 38 European nations after controlling for confounding factors (p = 0.001). A strong association was found between the prevalence of COVID-19 per million people and economic activity (p = 0.002) and the rate of COVID-19 testing (p = 0.0006). Nations with stricter policy enactment showed fewer COVID-19 cases per million people, but the association was not significant (p = 0.122). Delaying policy enactment was associated with a greater prevalence of COVID-19 (p = 0.0535). Evidence of a direct association between smoking prevalence and COVID-19 mortality was not found (p = 0.626). There was a strong positive association between COVID-19 mortality rate and the prevalence of COVID-19 cases (p < 0.0001) as well as the proportion of the population over 65 years of age (p = 0.0034) and a negative association with the rate of COVID-19 testing (p = 0.0023).  We found a negative association between smoking prevalence and COVID-19 occurrence at the population level in 38 European countries. This association may not imply a true or causal relationship, and smoking is not advocated as a prevention or treatment of COVID-19.

title: No Clear Benefit to the Use of Corticosteroid as Treatment in Adult Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 : A Retrospective Cohort Study
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is becoming an increasing global health issue which has spread across the globe. We aimed to study the effect of corticosteroids in the treatment of adult inpatients with COVID-19.  A retrospective cohort of 115 consecutive adult COVID-19 patients admitted to The Third Peoples Hospital of Hubei Province between Jan 18, 2020, and Feb 28, 2020 was analysed to study the effectiveness of corticosteroid. They were categorized according to whether or not corticosteroid therapy was given, and compared in terms of demographic characteristics, clinical features, laboratory indicators and clinical outcomes. The primary endpoint was defined as either mortality or intensive care unit (ICU) admission. Known adverse prognostic factors were used as covariates in multiple logistic regressions to adjust for their confounding effects on outcomes.  Among 115 patients, 73 patients (63.5%) received corticosteroid. The levels of age, C-reactive protein, D-dimer and albumin were similar in both groups. The corticosteroid group had more adverse outcomes (32.9% vs. 11.9%) and statistically significant differences were observed (p=0.013). In multivariate analysis, corticosteroid treatment was associated with a 2.155-fold increase in risk of either mortality or ICU admission, although not statistically significant.  No evidence suggests that adult patients with COVID-19 will benefit from corticosteroids, and they might be more likely to be harmed with such treatment.

title: Complement associated microvascular injury and thrombosis in the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 infection: A report of five cases
abstract: Acute respiratory failure and a systemic coagulopathy are critical aspects of the morbidity and mortality characterizing infection with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome-associated coronavirus-2, the etiologic agent of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We examined skin and lung tissues from 5 patients with severe COVID-19 characterized by respiratory failure (n= 5) and purpuric skin rash (nâ¯=â¯3). COVID-19 pneumonitis was predominantly a pauci-inflammatory septal capillary injury with significant septal capillary mural and luminal fibrin deposition and permeation of the interalveolar septa by neutrophils. No viral cytopathic changes were observed and the diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) with hyaline membranes, inflammation, and type II pneumocyte hyperplasia, hallmarks of classic acute respiratory distress syndrome, were not prominent. These pulmonary findings were accompanied by significant deposits of terminal complement components C5b-9 (membrane attack complex), C4d, and mannose binding lectin (MBL)-associated serine protease (MASP)2, in the microvasculature, consistent with sustained, systemic activation of the complement pathways. The purpuric skin lesions similarly showed a pauci-inflammatory thrombogenic vasculopathy, with deposition of C5b-9 and C4d in both grossly involved and normally-appearing skin. In addition, there was co-localization of COVID-19 spike glycoproteins with C4d and C5b-9 in the interalveolar septa and the cutaneous microvasculature of 2 cases examined. In conclusion, at least a subset of sustained, severe COVID-19 may define a type of catastrophic microvascular injury syndrome mediated by activation of complement pathways and an associated procoagulant state. It provides a foundation for further exploration of the pathophysiologic importance of complement in COVID-19, and could suggest targets for specific intervention.

title: COVID-19 cytokine storm: The anger of inflammation
abstract: Patients with COVID-19 who require ICU admission might have the cytokine storm. It is a state of out-of-control release of a variety of inflammatory cytokines. The molecular mechanism of the cytokine storm has not been explored extensively yet. The attachment of SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), as its cellular receptor, triggers complex molecular events that leads to hyperinflammation. Four molecular axes that may be involved in SARS-CoV-2 driven inflammatory cytokine overproduction are addressed in this work. The virus-mediated down-regulation of ACE2 causes a burst of inflammatory cytokine release through dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (ACE/angiotensin II/AT1R axis), attenuation of Mas receptor (ACE2/MasR axis), increased activation of [des-Arg9]-bradykinin (ACE2/bradykinin B1R/DABK axis), and activation of the complement system including C5a and C5b-9 components. The molecular clarification of these axes will elucidate an array of therapeutic strategies to confront the cytokine storm in order to prevent and treat COVID-19 associated acute respiratory distress syndrome.

title: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, pharmacology, and COVID-19 infection
abstract: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have an optional prescription status that has resulted in frequent use, in particular for the symptomatic treatment of fever and non-rheumatic pain. In 2019, a multi-source analysis of complementary pharmacological data showed that using NSAIDs in these indications (potentially indicative of an underlying infection) increases the risk of a severe bacterial complication, in particular in the case of lung infections. First, the clinical observations of the French Pharmacovigilance Network showed that severe bacterial infections can occur even after a short NSAID treatment, and even if the NSAID is associated with an antibiotic. Second, pharmacoepidemiological studies, some of which minimized the protopathic bias, all converged and confirmed the risk. Third, experimental in vitro and in vivo animal studies suggest several biological mechanisms, which strengthens a causal link beyond the well-known risk of delaying the care of the infection (immunomodulatory effects, effects on Streptococcus pyogenes infections, and reduced antibiotics efficacy). Therefore, in case of infection, symptomatic treatment with NSAIDs for non-severe symptoms (fever, pain, or myalgia) is not to be recommended, given a range of clinical and scientific arguments supporting an increased risk of severe bacterial complication. Besides, the existence of a safer drug alternative, with paracetamol at recommended doses, makes this recommendation of precaution and common sense even more legitimate. In 2020, such recommendation is more topical than ever with the emergence of COVID-19, especially since it results in fever, headaches, muscular pain, and cough, and is further complicated with pneumopathy, and given experimental data suggesting a link between ibuprofen and the level of expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.

title: The lethal sex gap: COVID-19
abstract: While Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is disrupting lives across the globe for everyone, it has a more devastating impact on the health of older adults, especially that of older men. This pandemic has highlighted the crucial importance of considering an individual’s age and biological sex in the clinic in addition to other confounding diseases (Kuchel, G.A,  2019, Tannenbaum, C.,  2009) As an interdisciplinary team of scientists in immunology, hematology, genomics, bioinformatics, and geriatrics, we have been studying how age and sex shape the human immune system. Herein we reflect on how our recent findings on the alterations of the immune system in aging might contribute to our current understanding of COVID-19 infection rate and disease risk.

title: Treatment of COVID-19-exacerbated asthma: should systemic corticosteroids be used?
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is a new rapidly spreading infectious disease. Current guidance from the World Health Organization (WHO) highlights asthmatics as a high-risk group for severe illness from COVID-19. Viruses are common triggers of asthma exacerbations and the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic raises several questions regarding the optimum management strategies. Here, we discuss the contentious issue of whether the mainstay therapy systemic corticosteroids should be used in the routine management of COVID-19-associated asthma exacerbations. Recent guidance from the WHO has advised against the use of corticosteroids if COVID-19 is suspected due to concerns that these agents may impair protective innate antiviral immune responses. This may not be appropriate in the unique case of asthma exacerbation, a syndrome associated with augmented type 2 inflammation, a disease feature that is known to directly inhibit antiviral immunity. Corticosteroids, through their suppressive effects on type 2 inflammation, are thus likely to restore impaired antiviral immunity in asthma and, in contrast to non-asthmatic subjects, have beneficial clinical effects in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: COVID-19 and coronaviral hepatitis: evidence of collateral damage

title: The ACE2‐deficient mouse: A model for a cytokine storm‐driven inflammation
abstract: Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) plays an important role in inflammation, which is attributable at least, in part, to the conversion of the pro‐inflammatory angiotensin (Ang) II peptide into angiotensin 1‐7 (Ang 1‐7), a peptide which opposes the actions of AngII. ACE2 and AngII are present in many tissues but information on the cornea is lacking. We observed that mice deficient in the Ace2 gene (Ace2(−/−)), developed a cloudy cornea phenotype as they aged. Haze occupied the central cornea, accompanied by corneal edema and neovascularization. In severe cases with marked chronic inflammation, a cell‐fate switch from a transparent corneal epithelium to a keratinized, stratified squamous, psoriasiform‐like epidermis was observed. The stroma contained a large number of CD11c, CD68, and CD3 positive cells. Corneal epithelial debridement experiments in young ACE2‐deficient mice showed normal appearing corneas, devoid of haze. We hypothesized, however, that these mice are “primed” for a corneal inflammatory response, which once initiated, would persist. In vitro studies reveal that interleukins (IL‐1a, IL‐1b), chemokines (CCL2, CXCL8), and TNF‐α, are all significantly elevated, resulting in a cytokine storm‐like phenotype. This phenotype could be partially rescued by treatment with the AngII type 1 receptor (AT1R) antagonist, losartan, suggesting that the observed effect was mediated by AngII acting on its main receptor. Since the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) utilizes human ACE2 as the receptor for entry with subsequent downregulation of ACE2, corneal inflammation in Ace2(−/−) mice may have a similar mechanism with that in COVID‐19 patients. Thus the Ace2(−/−) cornea, because of easy accessibility, may provide an attractive model to explore the molecular mechanisms, immunological changes, and treatment modalities in patients with COVID‐19.

title: Pediatric Crohn's Disease and Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) and COVID-19 Treated with Infliximab
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) may lead to a severe inflammatory response referred to as a cytokine storm. We describe a case of severe COVID-19 infection in a recently diagnosed pediatric Crohn's disease patient successfully treated with Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;) blockade. The patient presented with five days of fever, an erythematous maculopapular facial rash, and abdominal pain without respiratory symptoms. SARS-CoV-2 PCR was positive. Despite inpatient treatment for COVID-19 and a perianal abscess, the patient acutely decompensated, with worsening fever, tachycardia, fluid-refractory hypotension, elevation of liver enzymes, and transformation of the rash into purpura extending from the face to the trunk, upper and lower extremities, including the palmar and plantar surfaces of the hands and feet. Cytokine profile revealed rising levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and TNF-&#945;, higher than those described in either inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or severe COVID-19 alone. The patient was treated with infliximab for TNF-&#945; blockade to address both moderately to severely active Crohn's disease and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) temporally related to COVID-19. Within hours of infliximab treatment, fever, tachycardia and hypotension resolved. Cytokine profile improved with normalization of TNF-&#945;, a decrease in IL-6, and IL-8 concentrations. This case supports a role for blockade of TNF-&#945; in the treatment of COVID-19 inflammatory cascade. The role of anti-TNF agents in patients with MIS-C temporally related to COVID-19 requires further investigation.

title: Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 and the Resolution of Inflammation: In Support of Continuation of Prescribed Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin-Receptor Blockers

title: Comparative replication and immune activation profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in human lungs: an ex vivo study with implications for the pathogenesis of COVID-19
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an emerging coronavirus that has resulted in nearly 1,000,000 laboratory-confirmed cases including over 50,000 deaths. Although SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV share a number of common clinical manifestations, SARS-CoV-2 appears to be highly efficient in person-to-person transmission and frequently cause asymptomatic infections. However, the underlying mechanism that confers these viral characteristics on high transmissibility and asymptomatic infection remain incompletely understood.  We comprehensively investigated the replication, cell tropism, and immune activation profile of SARS-CoV-2 infection in human lung tissues with SARS-CoV included as a comparison.  SARS-CoV-2 infected and replicated in human lung tissues more efficiently than that of SARS-CoV. Within the 48-hour interval, SARS-CoV-2 generated 3.20 folds more infectious virus particles than that of SARS-CoV from the infected lung tissues (P<0.024). SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV were similar in cell tropism, with both targeting types I and II pneumocytes, and alveolar macrophages. Importantly, despite the more efficient virus replication, SARS-CoV-2 did not significantly induce types I, II, or III interferons in the infected human lung tissues. In addition, while SARS-CoV infection upregulated the expression of 11 out of 13 (84.62%) representative pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines, SARS-CoV-2 infection only upregulated 5 of these 13 (38.46%) key inflammatory mediators despite replicating more efficiently.  Our study provided the first quantitative data on the comparative replication capacity and immune activation profile of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV infection in human lung tissues. Our results provided important insights on the pathogenesis, high transmissibility, and asymptomatic infection of SARS-CoV-2.

title: Covid-19 in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases - Case Series from New York

title: The Complex Role of STAT3 in Viral Infections
abstract: Signal transducer and activators of transcription-3 (STAT3) regulates diverse biological functions including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. In addition, STAT3 plays a key role in regulating host immune and inflammatory responses and in the pathogenesis of many cancers. Several studies reported differential regulation of STAT3 in a range of viral infections. Interestingly, STAT3 appears to direct seemingly contradictory responses and both pro- and antiviral roles of STAT3 have been described. This review summarized the currently known functions of STAT3 in the regulation of viral replication and pathogenesis of viral infections. Some of the key unanswered questions and the gap in our current understanding of the role of STAT3 in viral pathogenesis are discussed.

title: Immune Cell Profiling of COVID-19 Patients in the Recovery Stage by Single-Cell Sequencing
abstract: COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 has recently affected over 200,000 people and killed more than 8000. Immune system dysregulation such as lymphopenia and inflammatory cytokine storm has been observed in COVID-19 patients, but it remains unclear for the change of key immune cell subsets and their states during COVID-19. Here, we applied single-cell technology to comprehensively characterize transcriptional changes of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in ten patients recovered from COVID-19. Compared with healthy control, COVID-19 induced a unique signature of immune cells in humans, especially in the early recovery stage (ERS). In ERS patients, T cells were decreased remarkably, while monocytes were increased. A detailed analysis of monocytes showed that there was an increased ratio of classical CD14++ monocytes with highly inflammatory genes expression, as well as a greater abundance of CD14++IL1B+ monocytes. For nature killer (NK) cells and T cells, CD4+ T cells were significantly decreased and expressed high level of inflammatory markers, while NK cells were increased. In addition, T cells were highly expanded clone, especially in CD4+ T memory cells and CD8+ T cells. Among B cells, plasma cells were increased remarkably, and naïve B cells were reduced. Our study also identified several novel B cell receptor (BCR) changes (such as IGHV1-8 and IGHV3-7), and confirmed isotypes (IGKV3-11 and IGHV3-21) previously used for virus vaccine development. The strongest pairing frequencies, IGHV3-23+IGHJ4, indicated a monoclonal state associated with SARS-CoV-2 specificity. Furthermore, integrated analysis predicated that IL-1B and M-CSF may be novel candidate target gene for inflammatory storm, and TNFSF13, IL-18 and IL-4 may be benefit for the recovery of COVID-19 patients. Our study provides the first evidence of inflammatory immune signature in early recovery stage, suggesting that the COVID-19 patients are still vulnerable after hospital discharge. Our identification of novel BCR signaling may lead to the development of vaccine and antibodies for the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) Current Status and Future Perspectives: A Narrative Review
abstract: At the end of 2019 a novel virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing severe acute respiratory syndrome expanded globally from Wuhan, China. In March 2020 the World Health Organization declared the SARS-Cov-2 virus a global pandemic. We performed a narrative review to describe existing literature with regard to Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, management and future perspective. MEDLINE, EMBASE and Scopus databases were searched for relevant articles. Although only when the pandemic ends it will be possible to assess the full health, social and economic impact of this global disaster, this review represents a picture of the current state of the art. In particular, we focus on public health impact, pathophysiology and clinical manifestations, diagnosis, case management, emergency response and preparedness.

title: COVID-19 treatment: Combining anti-inflammatory and antiviral therapeutics using a network-based approach.
abstract: To date, there are no effective antiviral medications for COVID-19. Drug repurposing, a strategy that uses existing drugs, offers potential prevention and treatment options for COVID-19. We discuss one treatment strategy that combines anti-inflammatory (melatonin) and antiviral (toremifene) agents for patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 from network medicine-based findings. We also describe the pathobiology and immunologic characteristics of COVID-19 and highlight the rationale of combination drug treatment to rescue the pulmonary and cardiovascular conditions resulting from COVID-19. A preliminary analysis reveals a high potential for the synergistic effects of melatonin and toremifene to reduce viral infection and replication, and the aberrant host inflammatory responses, offering strong biologic plausibility as an effective therapy for COVID-19.

title: Targeting the Immune System for Pulmonary Inflammation and Cardiovascular Complications in COVID-19 Patients
abstract: In December 2019, following a cluster of pneumonia cases in China caused by a novel coronavirus (CoV), named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the infection disseminated worldwide and, on March 11th, 2020, the World Health Organization officially declared the pandemic of the relevant disease named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In Europe, Italy was the first country facing a true health policy emergency, and, as at 6.00 p.m. on May 2nd, 2020, there have been more than 209,300 confirmed cases of COVID-19. Due to the increasing number of patients experiencing a severe outcome, global scientific efforts are ongoing to find the most appropriate treatment. The usefulness of specific anti-rheumatic drugs came out as a promising treatment option together with antiviral drugs, anticoagulants, and symptomatic and respiratory support. For this reason, we feel a duty to share our experience and our knowledge on the use of these drugs in the immune-rheumatologic field, providing in this review the rationale for their use in the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Effects of Internal Border Control on Spread of Pandemic Influenza
abstract: We investigated the capacity of internal border control to limit influenza spread in an emergent pandemic in the context of Australia, a country with a low-population density and geopolitical boundaries that may facilitate restrictions. Mathematical models were used to study the time delay between epidemics in 2 population centers when travel restrictions were imposed. The models demonstrated that population size, travel rates, and places where travelers reside can strongly influence delay. The model simulations suggested that moderate delays in geographic spread may be possible with stringent restrictions and a low reproduction number, but results will be sensitive to the reproduction number and timing of restrictions. Model limitations include the absence of further importations and additional control measures. Internal border control may have a role in protecting domestic centers early in a pandemic, when importations are sparse. Our results may be useful for policymakers.

title: Molecules inhibit the enzyme activity of 3-chymotrypsin-like cysteine protease of SARS-CoV-2 virus: the experimental and theory studies
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 has emerged as a world public health threat. Herein, we report that the clinical approved auranofin could perfectly inhibit the activity of 3-chymotrypsin-like cysteine protease (Mpro or 3CLpro) of SARS-CoV-2. Gold cluster could significantly inhibit 3CLpro of SARS-COV-2. Phenyl isothiocyanate and Vitamin K3 could well suppress the activity of 3CLpro. For Mpro inhibition, IC50 of auranofin, Vitamin K3, phenyl isothiocyanate, gold cluster are about 0.51μM, 7.96μM, 10.13μM, 1.61μM, respectively. These compounds may be with potentials for treatment SARS-CoV-2 virus replication. Especially for FDA approved auranofin, it is an anti-inflammation drug in clinic, thus it may with strong potential to inhibit virus replication and suppress the inflammation damage in COVID-19 patients. Gold cluster is with better safety index and well anti-inflammation in vitro/vivo, therefore it is with potential to inhibit virus replication and suppress the inflammation damage caused by COVID-19 virus. As Au(I) ion is active metabolism specie derived from gold compounds or gold clusters in vivo, further computational studies revealed Au ion could tightly bind thiol group of Cys145 residue of 3CLpro thus inhibit enzyme activity. Also, phenyl isothiocyanate and Vitamin K3 may interact with thiol group of Cys145 via Michael addition reaction, molecular dynamic (MD) theory studied are applied to confirmed these small molecules are stable in the pocket and inhibit Mpro activity.

title: Is Hesperidin Essential for Prophylaxis and Treatment of COVID-19 Infection?
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19 is representing the major global burden that implicated more than 4.7 million infected cases and 310 thousand deaths worldwide in less than 6 months. The prevalence of this pandemic disease is expected to rise every day. The challenge is to control its rapid spread meanwhile looking for a specific treatment to improve patient outcomes. Hesperidin is a classical herbal medicine used worldwide for a long time with an excellent safety profile. Hesperidin is a well-known herbal medication used as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Available shreds of evidence support the promising use of hesperidin in prophylaxis and treatment of COVID 19. Herein, we discuss the possible prophylactic and treatment mechanisms of hesperidin based on previous and recent findings. Hesperidin can block coronavirus from entering host cells through ACE2 receptors which can prevent the infection. Anti-viral activity of hesperidin might constitute a treatment option for COVID- 19 through improving host cellular immunity against infection and its good anti-inflammatory activity may help in controlling cytokine storm. Hesperidin mixture with diosmin co-administrated with heparin protect against venous thromboembolism which may prevent disease progression. Based on that, hesperidin might be used as a meaningful prophylactic agent and a promising adjuvant treatment option against SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Systemic inflammatory response after hernia repair: a systematic review.
abstract: All surgical procedures elicit a complex systemic inflammatory response effectuated and modulated by cytokines. The purpose of this systematic review was to present an overview of the inflammatory response and the serum markers associated with hernia repair and to compare the response between patients treated with and without mesh.  The review was conducted in line with PRISMA guidelines. The outcomes of interest were serum concentration of leukocytes, cytokines, and acute phase proteins before and after hernia repair with or without mesh reinforcement. The risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane ROBINS-I tool for non-randomized studies of intervention.  A total of 31 studies were included in the systematic review including 1326 patients with a mean age ranging from 33 to 67 years. The studies predominantly included males (95.0% males, 5.0% female) with inguinal hernias (98.5% inguinal hernias, 1.5% incisional hernias). The inflammatory response after hernia repair was characterized by an increase in CRP, IL-6, leukocytes, neutrophils, IL-1, IL-10, fibrinogen, and α1-antitrypsin and a decrease in lymphocytes and albumin within the first 24 postoperative hours. The systemic inflammatory response was normalized before or on the seventh postoperative day. A higher CRP and IL-6 serum concentration was found in patients treated with mesh compared with sutured repairs.  Hernia repair elicits a systemic inflammatory response characterized by an increase in CRP, IL-6, leukocytes, neutrophils, IL-1, IL-10, fibrinogen, and α1-antitrypsin and a decrease in lymphocytes and albumin. A higher inflammatory response was found after mesh repair compared with non-mesh repair and after open mesh repair compared with laparoscopic mesh repair.

title: Clinical value of immune-inflammatory parameters to assess the severity of coronavirus disease 2019
abstract: To explore the clinical value of immune-inflammatory markers to assess the severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).  127 consecutive hospitalized patients with confirmed COVID-19 were enrolled in this study, and classified into non-severe and severe groups. Demographics, symptoms, underlying diseases and laboratory data were collected and assessed for predictive value.  Of 127 COVID-19 patients, 16 cases (12.60%) were classified into the severe group. High level of interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reaction protein (CRP) and hypertension were independent risk factors for the severity of COVID-19. The risk model based on IL-6, CRP and hypertension had the highest area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUROC). Additionally, the baseline IL-6 was positively correlated with other immune-inflammatory parameters and the dynamic change of IL-6 in the severe cases were parallel to the amelioration of the disease.  Our study showed that high level of IL-6, CRP and hypertension were independent risk factors for assessing the severity of COVID-19. The risk model established upon IL-6, CRP and hypertension had the highest predictability in this study. Besides, IL-6 played a pivotal role in the severity of COVID-19 and had a potential value for monitoring the process of severe cases.

title: Pharmaco-invasive Therapy for STEMI in a Patient with COVID-19: A Case Report
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic that started in the Wuhan province of China in December 2019. It is associated with increased morbidity and mortality mainly due to severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 (SARS-Cov-2). Cardiac manifestations related to COVID-19 include demand ischemia, fulminant myocarditis, myocardial infarction and arrhythmias. In this report, we present a case of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) in a 68-year-old man with COVID-19 who initially presented with chest pain and shortness of breath. Patient’s STEMI was managed with pharmaco-invasive strategy with tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA). He then developed acute hypoxic respiratory failure that was managed in the intensive care unit (ICU), together with multi-organ failure from which the patient died 2 days after presentation. Although the pathophysiologic mechanisms of STEMI in COVID-19 patients has not been clearly established, we hypothesize that interrelated pathogenetic factors, that we highlight in this report, can play a role in the development of STEMI, including plaque rupture secondary to systemic inflammation, increased pro-coagulants, endothelial dysfunction, impaired fibrinolysis and impaired oxygen utilization leading to demand/supply mismatch and myocardial ischemia.

title: Perspective: Vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 severity - plausibly linked by latitude, ethnicity, impacts on cytokines, ACE2, and thrombosis (R1)
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus infection ranges from asymptomatic through to fatal COVID-19 characterised by a "cytokine storm" and lung failure. Vitamin D deficiency has been postulated as a determinant of severity.  To review the evidence relevant to vitamin D and COVID-19   Regression modelling shows that more northerly countries in the Northern Hemisphere are currently (May 2020) showing relatively high COVID-19 mortality, with an estimated 4.4% increase in mortality for each 1 degree latitude north of 28 degrees North (P=0.031) after adjustment for age of population. This supports a role for ultraviolet B acting via vitamin D synthesis. Factors associated with worse COVID-19 prognosis include old age, ethnicity, male sex, obesity, diabetes and hypertension and these also associate with deficiency of vitamin D or its response. Vitamin D deficiency is also linked to severity of childhood respiratory illness. Experimentally, vitamin D increases the ratio of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to ACE, thus increasing angiotensin II hydrolysis and reducing subsequent inflammatory cytokine response to pathogens and lung injury.  Substantial evidence supports a link between vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 severity but it is all indirect. Community-based placebo-controlled trials of vitamin D supplementation may be difficult. Further evidence could come from study of COVID-19 outcomes in large cohorts with information on prescribing data for vitamin D supplementation or assay of serum unbound 25(OH) vitamin D levels. Meanwhile vitamin D supplementation should be strongly advised for people likely to be deficient.

title: Pharmacological (or Synthetic) and Nutritional Agonists of PPAR-Î³ as Candidates for Cytokine Storm Modulation in COVID-19 Disease
abstract: The cytokine storm is an abnormal production of inflammatory cytokines, due to the over-activation of the innate immune response. This mechanism has been recognized as a critical mediator of influenza-induced lung disease, and it could be pivotal for COVID-19 infections. Thus, an immunomodulatory approach targeting the over-production of cytokines could be proposed for viral aggressive pulmonary disease treatment. In this regard, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-Î³, a member of the PPAR transcription factor family, could represent a potential target. Beside the well-known regulatory role on lipid and glucose metabolism, PPAR-Î³ also represses the inflammatory process. Similarly, the PPAR-Î³ agonist thiazolidinediones (TZDs), like pioglitazone, are anti-inflammatory drugs with ameliorating effects on severe viral pneumonia. In addition to the pharmacological agonists, also nutritional ligands of PPAR-Î³, like curcuma, lemongrass, and pomegranate, possess anti-inflammatory properties through PPAR-Î³ activation. Here, we review the main synthetic and nutritional PPAR-Î³ ligands, proposing a dual approach based on the strengthening of the immune system using pharmacological and dietary strategies as an attempt to prevent/treat cytokine storm in the case of coronavirus infection.

title: Potential mechanisms of cardiac injury and common pathways of inflammation in patients with COVID-19
abstract: Due to the lack of prospective, randomized, controlled clinical studies on inflammation and cardiovascular involvement, the exact mechanism of cardiac injury among patients with COVID-19 still remains uncertain. It was demonstrated that there is a high and significantly positive linear correlation between troponin T and plasma high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels, biomarkers of cardiac injury and systemic inflammation, respectively. Cardiac injury and inflammation is a relatively common association among patients hospitalized with COVID-19, and it is related to higher risk of in-hospital mortality. In our literature search, we identified several potential mechanisms of myocardial tissue damage, namely, coronavirus-associated acute myocarditis, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor binding affinity to the virus Spike protein, increased cytokine secretion, and hypoxia induced cardiac myocyte apoptosis. Elucidation of the disease pathogenesis and prospective histopathological studies are crucial for future proper treatment in case of renewed outbreaks. Of interest is that with hundred of thousands of bodies available for autopsy studies, no prospective investigation has been reported so far. Strong efforts and continued research of the cardiovascular complications and identification of risk factors for poor prognosis in COVID-19 are steadily needed. The high morbidity and mortality of COVID-19, its monumental economic burden and social impact, the despair of a new pandemic outbreak, and the thread of potential utilization of novel SARS-CoV2 as biologic weapons make it a preponderant necessity to better comprehend the therapeutic management of this lethal disease. Emerging as an acute infectious disease, COVID-19 may become a chronic epidemic because of genetic recombination. Therefore, we should be ready for the reemergence of COVID-19 or other coronaviruses.

title: Role of inflammatory markers in corona virus disease (COVID-19) patients: A review.
abstract: IMPACT STATEMENT In late 2019, a novel virus called SARS-CoV-2, expanded globally from Wuhan, China and was declared a pandemic on 11 March 2020 by the WHO. The mechanism of virus entry inside the host cell depends upon the cellular proteases including cathepsins, HAT, and TMPRSS2, which splits up the spike protein and causes further penetration. MERS coronavirus uses DPP4, while coronavirus HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 employ ACE-2 as the key receptor. Cytokine storm syndrome was analyzed in critically ill nCOVID-19 patients and it is presented with high inflammatory mediators, systemic inflammation, and multiple organ failure. Among various inflammatory mediators, the level of interleukins (IL-2, IL-7, IL-10), G-CSF, MIP1A, MCP1, and TNF-α was reported to be higher in critically ill patients. Understanding this molecular mechanism of ILs, T cells, and dendritic cells will be helpful to design immunotherapy and novel drugs for the treatment of nCOVID-19 infection.

title: Understanding the Role of Macrophages in Lung Inflammation Through Mathematical Modeling
abstract: Respiratory infections, such as the novel coronavirus (SARS-COV-2), and other lung injuries infect and damage the pulmonary epithelium. In the most severe cases this leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Due to respiratory failure associated with ARDS, the clinical intervention is the use of mechanical ventilation. Despite the benefits of mechanical ventilators, pro-longed or misuse of these ventilators may lead to ventilation-induced lung injury (VILI). Damage caused to epithelial cells within the alveoli can lead to various types of complications and increased mortality rates. A key component of the immune response is recruitment of macrophages, immune cells that differentiate into phenotypes with unique pro- and/or anti-inflammatory roles based on the surrounding environment. An imbalance in pro- and anti-inflammatory responses can have deleterious effects on the individual’s health. To gain a greater understanding of the mechanisms of the immune response to VILI and post-ventilation outcomes, we develop a mathematical model of interactions between the immune system and site of damage while accounting for macrophage polarization. Through Latin Hypercube Sampling and available data, we generate a virtual cohort of patients with biologically feasible dynamics. We use a variety of methods to analyze the results, including a random forest decision tree algorithm and parameter sensitivity with eFAST. Analysis shows that parameters and properties of transients related to epithelial repair and M1 activation and de-activation best predicted outcome. Using this new information, we hypothesize interventions and use these treatment strategies to modulate damage in select virtual patients.

title: The landscape of lung bronchoalveolar immune cells in COVID-19 revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing
abstract: The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, etiological agent of recently named Coronavirus infected disease (COVID-19) by WHO, has caused more than 2, 000 deaths worldwide since its emergency in Wuhan City, Hubei province, China, in December, 2019. The symptoms of COVID-19 varied from modest, mild to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and the latter of which is generally associated with deregulated immune cytokine production; however, we currently know little as to the interplay between the extent of clinical symptoms and the compositions of lung immune microenvironment. Here, we comprehensively characterized the lung immune microenvironment with the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from 3 severe and 3 mild COVID-19 patients and 8 previously reported healthy lung controls through single-cell RNA sequence (scRNA-seq) combined with TCR-seq. Our data shows that monocyte-derived FCN1+ macrophages, whereas notFABP4+ alveolar macrophages that represent a predominant macrophage subset in BALF from patients with mild diseases, overwhelm in the severely damaged lungs from patients with ARDS. These cells are highly inflammatory and enormous chemokine producers implicated in cytokine storm. Furthermore, the formation of tissue resident, highly expanded clonal CD8+ T cells in the lung microenvironment of mild symptom patients suggests a robust adaptive immune response connected to a better control of COVID-19. This study first reported the cellular atlas of lung bronchoalveolar immune microenvironment in COVID-19 patients at the single-cell resolution, and unveiled the potential immune mechanisms underlying disease progression and protection in COVID-19.

title: Corticosteroids, but not TNF Antagonists, are Associated with Adverse COVID-19 Outcomes in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Results from an International Registry
abstract: The impact of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is unknown. We sought to characterize the clinical course of COVID-19 among IBD patients and evaluate the association between demographics, clinical characteristics, and immunosuppressant treatments on COVID-19 outcomes.  Surveillance Epidemiology of Coronavirus Under Research Exclusion for Inflammatory Bowel Disease (SECURE-IBD) is a large, international registry created to monitor outcomes of IBD patients with confirmed COVID-19. We calculated age-standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) and utilized multivariable logistic regression to identify factors associated with severe COVID-19, defined as intensive care unit admission, ventilator use, and/or death. Results 525 cases from 33 countries were reported (Median age 43 years, 53% men). Thirty-seven patients (7%) had severe COVID-19, 161 (31%) were hospitalized, and 16 patients died (3% case fatality rate). SMRs for IBD patients were 1.8 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.9-2.6), 1.5 (95% CI 0.7-2.2), and 1.7 (95% CI 0.9-2.5) relative to data from China, Italy, and the US, respectively. Risk factors for severe COVID-19 among IBD patients included increasing age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.04, 95% CI 1.01-1.02), ≥2 comorbidities (aOR 2.9, 95% CI 1.1-7.8), systemic corticosteroids (aOR 6.9, 95% CI 2.3-20.5), and sulfasalazine or 5-aminosalicylate use (aOR 3.1, 95% CI 1.3-7.7). TNF antagonist treatment was not associated with severe COVID-19 (aOR 0.9, 95% CI 0.4-2.2).  Increasing age, comorbidities, and corticosteroids are associated with severe COVID-19 among IBD patients, although a causal relationship cannot be definitively established. Notably, TNF antagonists do not appear to be associated with severe COVID-19.

title: The bio-mission of interleukin-6 in the pathogenesis of COVID-19: A brief look at potential therapeutic tactics
abstract: Interleukin-6 (IL-6), known as an inflammatory cytokine, can be involved in many innate and adaptive immune responses. The role of IL-6 in the pathogenesis of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has recently received much more attention due to the spread of the virus and its pandemic potential. Cytokine storm is among the most critical pathological events in patients affected with coronaviruses (CoVs), i.e., severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and COVID-19, causing inflammation-induced lung injury and also occurring as a result of dysregulation of immune responses to the mentioned viruses. IL-6, along with some other inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1 beta (β), IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), as well as inflammatory chemokines, can significantly contribute to, fever, lymphopenia, coagulation, lung injury, and multi-organ failure (MOF). Therefore, researchers are to explore novel approaches to treat the disease through targeting of IL-6 and its receptors based on prior experience of other disorders. In this review article, the latest findings on the role of IL-6 in the pathogenesis of COVID-19, as well as therapeutic perspectives, were summarized and discussed.

title: Baricitinib, a drug with potential effect to prevent SARS-COV-2 from entering target cells and control cytokine storm induced by COVID-19
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) suddenly broke out in China and rapidly spread all over the world. Recently, a cell surface protein, known as angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2), has been identified to be involved in receptor-mediated endocytosis for SARS-CoV-2 entry to the cells. Many studies have reported the clinical characteristics of COVID-19: sudden deterioration of disease around 1-2 weeks after onset; much lower level of lymphocytes, especially natural killer (NK) cells in peripheral blood; extremely high pro-inflammatory cytokines and C reactive protein (CRP). About 15.7% of patients develop severe pneumonia, and cytokine storm is an important factor leading to rapid disease progression. Currently, there are no specific drugs for COVID-19 and the cytokine storm it causes. Baricitinib intracellularly inhibits the proinflammatory signal of several cytokines by suppressing Janus kinase (JAK) JAK1/JAK2. It has been demonstrated clinical benefits for the patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), active systemic lupus erythematosus and atopic dermatitis with good efficacy and safety records. Baricitinib is expected to interrupt the passage and intracellular assembly of SARS-CoV-2 into the target cells mediated by ACE2 receptor, and treat cytokine storm caused by COVID-19. Several clinical trials are currently investigating the drug, and one of which has been completed with encouraging results. In this paper, we will elaborate the role of cytokine storm mediated by JAK-STAT pathway in severe COVID-19, the possible mechanisms of baricitinib on reducing the viral entry into the target cells and cytokine storm, the key points of pharmaceutical care based on the latest research reports, clinical trials progress and drug instruction from the US FDA, so as to provide reference for the treatment of severe COVID-19.

title: Is GSK3ß a molecular target of chloroquine treatment against COVID-19?
abstract: The recent clinical trial reports pertaining to the efficacy of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine against COVID-19 albeit yet to be validated with larger clinical trials, have sparked much interest globally to evaluate whether this anti-malarial drug can be repurposed for the treatment of COVID-19. In addition to its anti-viral activity, the anti-inflammatory activity of chloroquine may also contribute to its efficacy. Based on our data obtained from an animal infection model of melioidosis (a disease caused by the bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei), treatment with chloroquine can result in the phosphorylation and consequent inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK3ß). This serine/threonine protein kinase is now recognised as a point of convergence for host inflammatory response. In view of this, it is plausible that the mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effect of chloroquine against COVID-19 involves inhibition of host GSK3ß.

title: SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Cardiovascular Disease: COVID-19 Heart
abstract: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a serious illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The symptoms of the disease range from asymptomatic to mild respiratory symptoms and even potentially life-threatening cardiovascular and pulmonary complications. Cardiac complications include acute myocardial injury, arrhythmias, cardiogenic shock and even sudden death. Furthermore, drug interactions with COVID-19 therapies may place the patient at risk for arrhythmias, cardiomyopathy and sudden death. In this review, we summarise the cardiac manifestations of COVID-19 infection and propose a simplified algorithm for patient management during the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Mannan‐Binding Lectin, L‐Ficolin and H‐Ficolin Selectively Binds to Different Bacteria
abstract: Mannan‐binding lectin (MBL), L‐ficolin and H‐ficolin are pattern recognition molecules of the innate immune system. We investigated the ability of these molecules to bind to different serotypes and noncapsulated variants of Streptococcus pneumonia and Staphylococcus aureus. We found that MBL binds to noncapsulated S. aureus strain (Wood) but not any of the examined S. pneumoniae serotypes. L‐ficolin binds to some capsulated S. pneumoniae serotypes (11A, 11D and 11F) as well as some capsulated S. aureus serotypes (Type‐1,  ‐9, ‐11 and ‐12). H‐ficolin does not bind to any of the examined S. pneumoniae and S. aureus serotypes included in this study but did bind to a strain of Aerococcus viridans. When bound to bacteria, MBL and H‐ficolin initiated activation of complement factor C4, whereas L‐ficolin did not. During this study, quantitative assays for the three proteins were developed and the concentration in 97 plasma samples were determined and the median values were estimated at 0.8 μg of MBL/ml, 3.3 μg of L‐ficolin/ml and 18.4 μg of H‐ficolin/ml, respectively.

title: The Potential Role of Th17 Immune Responses in Coronavirus Immunopathology and Vaccine-induced Immune Enhancement
abstract: Increasing evidence points to host Th17 inflammatory responses as contributing to the severe lung pathology and mortality of lower respiratory tract infections from coronaviruses. This includes host inflammatory and cytokine responses to COVID-19 caused by the SARS-2 coronavirus (SARS CoV2). From studies conducted in laboratory animals, there are additional concerns about immune enhancement and the role of potential host immunopathology resulting from experimental human COVID-19 vaccines. Here we summarize evidence suggesting there may be partial overlap between the underlying immunopathologic processes linked to both coronavirus infection and vaccination, and a role for Th17 in immune enhancement and eosinophilic pulmonary immunopathology. Such findings help explain the link between viral-vectored coronavirus vaccines and immune enhancement and its reduction through alum adjuvants. Additional research may also clarify links between COVID-19 pulmonary immunopathology and heart disease.

title: Battling COVID-19 Pandemic: Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Analogs as an Adjunctive Therapy?
abstract: With the sudden outbreak of COVID-19 patient worldwide and associated mortality, it is critical to come up with an effective treatment against SARS-CoV-2. Studies suggest that mortality due to COVID 19 is mainly attributed to the hyper inflammatory response leading to cytokine storm and ARDS in infected patients. Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) analogs, AAL-R and RP-002, have earlier provided in-vivo protection from the pathophysiological response during H1N1 influenza infection and improved mortality. Recently, it was shown that the treatment with sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 analog, CYM5442, resulted in the significant dampening of the immune response upon H1N1 challenge in mice and improved survival of H1N1 infected mice in combination with an antiviral drug, oseltamivir. Hence, here we suggest to investigate the possible utility of using S1P analogs to treat COVID-19.

title: Inflammation: A bridge between Diabetes and COVID-19, and possible management with sitagliptin
abstract: Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infections experience lymphopenia and inflammatory cytokine storms in the severe stage of the disease, leading to multi-organ damage. The exact pattern of immune system changes and their condition during the disease process is unclear. The available knowledge has indicated that the NF-kappa-B pathway, which is induced by several mediators, has a significant role in cytokine storm through the various mechanisms. Therefore, identifying the state of the immune cells and the dominant mechanisms for the production of cytokines incorporated in the cytokine storm can be a critical step in the therapeutic approach. On the other hand, some studies identified a higher risk for diabetic patients. Diabetes mellitus exhibits a close association with inflammation and increases the chance of developing COVID-19. Patients with diabetes mellitus have shown to have more virus entry, impaired immunity response, less viral elimination, and dysregulated inflammatory cytokines. The parallel analysis of COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus pathogenesis has proposed that the control of the inflammation through the interfering with the critical points of major signaling pathways may provide the new therapeutic approaches. In recent years, the role of Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 (DPP4) in chronic inflammation has been proved. Numerous immune cells express the DPP4 protein. DPP4 regulates antibody production, cytokine secretion, and immunoglobulin class switching. DPP4 inhibitors like sitagliptin reduce inflammation intensity in different states. Following the accumulating data, we hypothesize that sitagliptin might reduce COVID-19 severity. Sitagliptin, an available DPP4 inhibitor drug, showed multidimensional anti-inflammatory effects among diabetic patients. It reduces the inflammation mostly by affecting on NF-kappa-B signaling pathway. Under the fact that inflammatory mediators are active in individuals with COVID-19, blocking the predominant pathway could be helpful.

title: Follow-up studies in COVID-19 recovered patients - is it mandatory?
abstract: The novel Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an illness caused due to Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared this outbreak a global health emergency and as on April 24, 2020, it has spread to 213 countries, with 25,91,015 confirmed cases and 742,855 cases have been recovered from COVID-19. In this dreadful situation our team has already published an article in the Science of the Total Environment, which elaborates the various aspects of the SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this situation, it is imperative to understand the possible outcome of COVID-19 recovered patients and determine if they have any other detrimental illnesses by longitudinal analysis to safeguard their life in future. It is necessary to follow-up these recovered patients and performs comprehensive assessments for detection and appropriate management towards their psychological, physical, and social realm. This urges us to suggest that it is highly important to provide counselling, moral support as well as a few recommended guidelines to the recovered patients and society to restore to normalcy. Epidemiological, clinical and immunological studies from COVID-19 recovered patients are particularly important to understand the disease and to prepare better for potential outbreaks in the future. Longitudinal studies on a larger cohort would help us to understand the in-depth prognosis as well as the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Also, follow-up studies will help us provide more information for the development of vaccines and drugs for these kinds of pandemics in the future. Hence, we recommend more studies are required to unravel the possible mechanism of COVID-19 infection and the after-effects of it to understand the characteristics of the virus and to develop the necessary precautionary measures to prevent it.

title: Coagulation dysfunction: A hallmark in COVID-19
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Coagulation dysfunction is a hallmark in patients with COVID-19. Fulminant thrombotic complications emerge as critical issues in patients with severe COVID-19.  To present a review of the literature and discuss the mechanisms of COVID-19 underlying coagulation activation and the implications for anticoagulant and thrombolytic treatment in the management of COVID-19.  We performed a systemic review of scientific papers on the topic of COVID-19, online available via the PubMed NCBI, medRxiv, and Preprints as of May 15, 2020. We also shared our experience on the management of thrombotic events in patients with COVID-19.  COVID-19-associated coagulopathy ranges from mild laboratory alterations to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) with a predominant phenotype of thrombotic/multiple organ failure. Characteristically, high D-dimer levels on admission and/or continuously increasing concentrations of D-dimer is associated with disease progression and poor overall survival. SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers the immune-hemostatic response. Drastic inflammatory responses including, but not limited to, cytokine storm, vasculopathy, and NETosis may contribute to an overwhelming activation of coagulation. Hypercoagulability and systemic thrombotic complications necessitate anticoagulant and thrombolytic interventions, which provide opportunities to prevent or reduce "excessive" thrombin generation, while preserving "adaptive" hemostasis and bring additional benefit via their anti-inflammatory effect in the setting of COVID-19.

title: Pulmonary post-mortem findings in a large series of COVID-19 cases from Northern Italy
abstract: The analysis of lung tissues of patients with COVID-19 may help understand pathogenesis and clinical outcomes in this life-threatening respiratory illness.  To determine the histological patterns in lung tissue of patients with severe COVID-19.  Lungs tissues of 38 cases who died for COVID-19 in two hospital of Northern Italy were systematically analysed. Hematoxylin-eosin staining, immunohistochemistry for the inflammatory infiltrate and cellular components, electron microscopy were performed.  The features of the exudative and proliferative phases of Diffuse Alveolar Disease (DAD) were found: capillary congestion, necrosis of pneumocytes, hyaline membrane, interstitial oedema, pneumocyte hyperplasia and reactive atypia, platelet-fibrin thrombi. The inflammatory infiltrate was composed by macrophages in alveolar lumens and lymphocytes mainly in the interstitium. Electron microscopy revealed viral particles within cytoplasmic vacuoles of pneumocytes.  The predominant pattern of lung lesions in COVID-19 patients is DAD, as described for the other two coronavirus that infect humans, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. Hyaline membrane formation and pneumocyte atypical hyperplasia are frequently found. The main relevant finding is the presence of platelet-fibrin thrombi in small arterial vessels; this important observation fits into the clinical context of coagulopathy which dominates in these patients and which is one of the main targets of therapy.

title: Suppressive myeloid cells are a hallmark of severe COVID-19
abstract: 'Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome - Coronavirus-2' (SARS-CoV-2) infection causes Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), a mild to moderate respiratory tract infection in the majority of patients. A subset of patients, however, progresses to severe disease and respiratory failure with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Severe COVID-19 has been associated with increased neutrophil counts and dysregulated immune responses. The mechanisms of protective immunity in mild forms and the pathogenesis of dysregulated inflammation in severe courses of COVID-19 remain largely unclear. Here, we combined two single-cell RNA-sequencing technologies and single-cell proteomics in whole blood and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to determine changes in immune cell composition and activation in two independent dual-center patient cohorts (n=46 + n=54 COVID-19 samples), each with mild and severe cases of COVID-19. We observed a specific increase of HLA-DR high CD11c high inflammatory monocytes that displayed a strong interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene signature in patients with mild COVID-19, which was absent in severe disease. Instead, we found evidence of emergency myelopoiesis, marked by the occurrence of immunosuppressive pre-neutrophils and immature neutrophils and populations of dysfunctional and suppressive mature neutrophils, as well as suppressive HLA-DR low monocytes in severe COVID-19. Our study provides detailed insights into systemic immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and it reveals profound alterations in the peripheral myeloid cell compartment associated with severe courses of COVID-19.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019: Understanding Immunopathogenesis Is the “Holy Grail” to Explain Why Children Have Less Severe Acute Disease

title: Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Receptors as a Means for Reducing Infectivity and Improving Antiviral and Immune Response: An Algorithm-based Method For Overcoming Resistance To Antiviral Agents.
abstract: The ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates, and it has created a pressing global need for effective antiviral therapies against it. COVID-19 disease pathogenesis is characterized by an initial virus-mediated phase, followed by inappropriate hyperactivation of the immune system leading to organ damage. Targeting of the SARS-CoV-2 viral receptors is being explored as a therapeutic option for these patients. In this paper, we summarize several potential receptors associated with the infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 and discuss their association with the immune-mediated inflammatory response. The potential for the development of resistance towards antiviral drugs is also presented. An algorithm-based platform to improve the efficacy of and overcome resistance to viral receptor blockers through the introduction of personalized variability is described. This method is designed to ensure sustained antiviral effectiveness when using SARS-CoV-2 receptor blockers.

title: Nano Research for COVID-19

title: COVID-19 and Asthma: Reflection During the Pandemic
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), and abnormal, overactivated innate immunity and "cytokine storms" have been proposed as potential pathological mechanisms for rapid COVID-19 progression. Theoretically, asthmatic patients should have increased susceptibility and severity for SARS-CoV-2 infection due to a deficient antiviral immune response and the tendency for exacerbation elicited by common respiratory viruses. However, existing studies have not shown an expected prevalence of asthmatic individuals among COVID-19 patients. Certain aspects of type 2 immune response, including type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-13, etc.) and accumulation of eosinophils, might provide potential protective effects against COVID-19. Furthermore, conventional therapeutics for asthma, including inhaled corticosteroids, allergen immunotherapy (AIT), and anti-IgE monoclonal antibody, might also reduce the risks of asthmatics suffering infection of the virus through alleviating inflammation or enhancing antiviral defense. The interactions between COVID-19 and asthma deserve further attention and clarification.

title: Inflammatory responses to infection: The Dutch contribution
abstract: At any given moment, our body is under attack by a large variety of pathogens, which aim to enter and use our body to propagate and disseminate. The extensive cellular and molecular complexity of our immune system enables us to efficiently eliminate invading pathogens or at least develop a condition in which propagation of the microorganism is reduced to a minimum. Yet, the evolutionary pressure on pathogens to circumvent our immune defense mechanisms is immense, which continuously leads to the development of novel pathogenic strains that challenge the health of mankind. Understanding this battle between pathogen and the immune system has been a fruitful area of immunological research over the last century and will continue to do so for many years. In this review, which has been written on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Dutch Society for Immunology, we provide an overview of the major contributions that Dutch immunologists and infection biologists have made in the last decades on the inflammatory response to viral, bacterial, fungal or parasitic infections. We focus on those studies that have addressed both the host and the pathogen, as these are most interesting from an immunological point of view. Although it is not possible to completely cover this comprehensive research field, this review does provide an interesting overview of Dutch research on inflammatory responses to infection.

title: Naringenin, a flavanone with antiviral and anti‐inflammatory effects: A promising treatment strategy against COVID‐19
abstract: At the end of 2019, a novel flu‐like coronavirus named COVID‐19 (coronavirus disease 2019) was recognized by World Health Organization. No specific treatments exist for COVID‐19 at this time. New evidence suggests that therapeutic options focusing on antiviral agents may alleviate COVID‐19 symptoms as well as those that lead to the decrease in the inflammatory responses. Flavonoids, as phenolic compounds, have attracted considerable attention due to their various biological properties. In this review, the promising effects and possible mechanisms of action of naringenin, a citrus‐derived flavonoid, against COVID‐19 were discussed. We searched PubMed/Medline, Science direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases up to March 2020 using the definitive keywords. The evidence reviewed here indicates that naringenin might exert therapeutic effects against COVID‐19 through the inhibition of COVID‐19 main protease, 3‐chymotrypsin‐like protease (3CLpro), and reduction of angiotensin converting enzyme receptors activity. One of the other mechanisms by which naringenin might exert therapeutic effects against COVID‐19 is, at least partly, by attenuating inflammatory responses. The antiviral activity of the flavanone naringenin against some viruses has also been reported. On the whole, the favorable effects of naringenin lead to a conclusion that naringenin may be a promising treatment strategy against COVID‐19.

title: The Immunology of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children with COVID-19
abstract: SARS-CoV2 infection is typically very mild and often asymptomatic in children. A complication is the rare Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) associated with COVID-19, presenting 4-6 weeks after infection as high fever and organ dysfunction and strongly elevated markers of inflammation. The pathogenesis is unclear but has overlapping features with Kawasaki disease suggestive of vasculitis and a likely autoimmune etiology. We apply systems-level analyses of blood immune cells, cytokines and autoantibodies in healthy children, children with Kawasaki disease enrolled prior to COVID-19, children infected with SARS-CoV2 and children presenting with MIS-C. We find that the inflammatory response in MIS-C differs from the cytokine storm of severe acute COVID-19, is more similar to Kawasaki disease, but also differ from this with respect to T-cell subsets, IL-17A and biomarkers associated with arterial damage. Finally, autoantibody profiling suggests endoglin, an endothelial glycoprotein as one of several candidate targets of autoantibodies in MIS-C.

title: Cytokine Storm: is it the only major death factor in COVID-19 patients? Coagulation role

title: The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway alleviates acute lung injury
abstract: The ubiquiotous nuclear protein HMGB1 is extracellularly released by dying cells or activated innate immunity cells to promote inflammation. Extracellular HMGB1 plays a prominent role in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury of infectious as well as sterile origin including hyperoxia. Excessive amounts of systemic HMGB1 and HMGB1-partner molecule complexes can be retained in the pulmonary circulation indicated by a substantial reduction of HMGB1 plasma levels in arterial versus venous blood. The cholinergic antiinflammatory mechanism ameliorates pulmonary inflammation by inhibiting HMGB1 release and HMGB1 receptor expression. This comprehension was recently reinforced by results reported in Molecular Medicine by Sitapara and coworkers demonstrating that administration of an &#945;7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist attenuated hyperoxia-induced acute inflammatory lung injury by alleviating the accumulation of HMGB1 in the airways and the circulation. Activating the cholinergic antiinflammatory path might be considered to alleviate severe COVID-19 with or without concurrent oxygen-induced lung injury.

title: SARS-CoV-2 infection: the role of cytokines in COVID-19 disease
abstract: COVID-19 disease, caused by infection with SARS-CoV-2, is related to a series of physiopathological mechanisms that mobilize a wide variety of biomolecules, mainly immunological in nature. In the most severe cases, the prognosis can be markedly worsened by the hyperproduction of mainly proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, IFN-γ, and TNF-α, preferentially targeting lung tissue. This study reviews published data on alterations in the expression of different cytokines in patients with COVID-19 who require admission to an intensive care unit. Data on the implication of cytokines in this disease and their effect on outcomes will support the design of more effective approaches to the management of COVID-19.

title: Achievements and highlights for Infection, Disease and Health

title: Glycyrrhizin inhibits highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza A virus-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine expression in human macrophages
abstract: Hypercytokinaemia is thought to contribute to highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza A virus disease. Glycyrrhizin is known to exert immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects and therefore a candidate drug for the control of H5N1-induced pro-inflammatory gene expression. Here, the effects of an approved parenteral glycyrrhizin preparation were investigated on H5N1 virus replication, H5N1-induced pro-inflammatory responses, and H5N1-induced apoptosis in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Glycyrrhizin 100 μg/ml, a therapeutically achievable concentration, impaired H5N1-induced production of CXCL10, interleukin 6, and CCL5 and inhibited H5N1-induced apoptosis but did not interfere with H5N1 replication. Global inhibition of immune responses may result in the loss of control of virus replication by cytotoxic immune cells including natural killer cells and cytotoxic CD8(+) T-lymphocytes. Notably, glycyrrhizin concentrations that inhibited H5N1-induced pro-inflammatory gene expression did not affect cytolytic activity of natural killer cells. Since H5N1-induced hypercytokinaemia is considered to play an important role within H5N1 pathogenesis, glycyrrhizin may complement the arsenal of potential drugs for the treatment of H5N1 disease.

title: Prediction of bifurcations by varying critical parameters of COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 is a recent strong challenge for the world. In this paper, an epidemiology model is investigated as a model for the development of COVID-19. The propagation of COVID-19 through various sub-groups of society is studied. Some critical parameters, such as the background of mortality without considering the disease state and the speed of moving people from infected to resistance, affect the conditions of society. In this paper, early warning indicators are used to predict the bifurcation points in the system. In the interaction of various sub-groups of society, each sub-group can have various parameters. Six cases of the sub-groups interactions are studied. By coupling these sub-groups, various dynamics of the whole society are investigated.

title: The course of Covid 19 in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: protective role of TNF antagonists Response to: Corticosteroids, but not TNF Antagonists, are Associated with Adverse COVID-19 Outcomes in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Results from an International Registry.

title: The biology and pathogenesis of coronaviruses.

title: Cerebrovascular Disease in Patients with COVID-19: A Review of the Literature and Case Series
abstract: COVID-19 has been associated with a hypercoagulable state causing cardiovascular and neurovascular complications. To further characterize cerebrovascular disease (CVD) in COVID-19, we review the current literature of published cases and additionally report the clinical presentation, laboratory and diagnostic testing results of 12 cases with COVID-19 infection and concurrent CVD from two academic medical centers in Houston, TX, USA, between March 1 and May 10, 2020. To date, there are 12 case studies reporting 47 cases of CVD in COVID-19. However, only 4 small case series have described the clinical and laboratory findings in patients with COVID-19 and concurrent stroke. Viral neurotropism, endothelial dysfunction, coagulopathy and inflammation are plausible proposed mechanisms of CVD in COVID-19 patients. In our case series of 12 patients, 10 patients had an ischemic stroke, of which 1 suffered hemorrhagic transformation and two had intracerebral hemorrhage. Etiology was determined to be embolic without a clear cause identified in 6 ischemic stroke patients, while the remaining had an identifiable source of stroke. The majority of the patients had elevated inflammatory markers such as D-dimer and interleukin-6. In patients with embolic stroke of unclear etiology, COVID-19 may have played a direct or indirect role in the processes that eventually led to the strokes while in the remaining cases, it is unclear if infection contributed partially or was an incidental finding.

title: Inflammatory monocytes and the pathogenesis of viral encephalitis
abstract: Monocytes are a heterogeneous population of bone marrow-derived cells that are recruited to sites of infection and inflammation in many models of human diseases, including those of the central nervous system (CNS). Ly6C(hi)/CCR2(hi) inflammatory monocytes have been identified as the circulating precursors of brain macrophages, dendritic cells and arguably microglia in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; Alzheimer’s disease; stroke; and more recently in CNS infection caused by Herpes simplex virus, murine hepatitis virus, Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus and West Nile virus. The precise differentiation pathways and functions of inflammatory monocyte-derived populations in the inflamed CNS remains a contentious issue, especially in regard to the existence of monocyte-derived microglia. Furthermore, the contributions of monocyte-derived subsets to viral clearance and immunopathology are not well-defined. Thus, understanding the pathways through which inflammatory monocytes migrate to the brain and their functional capacity within the CNS is critical to inform future therapeutic strategies. This review discusses some of the key aspects of inflammatory monocyte trafficking to the brain and addresses the role of these cells in viral encephalitis.

title: Weathering the COVID-19 storm: Lessons from hematologic cytokine syndromes
abstract: A subset of patients with severe COVID-19 develop profound inflammation and multi-organ dysfunction consistent with a “Cytokine Storm Syndrome” (CSS). In this review we compare the clinical features, diagnosis, and pathogenesis of COVID-CSS with other hematological CSS, namely secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH), idiopathic multicentric Castleman disease (iMCD), and CAR-T cell therapy associated Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS). Novel therapeutics targeting cytokines or inhibiting cell signaling pathways have now become the mainstay of treatment in these CSS. We review the evidence for cytokine blockade and attenuation in these known CSS as well as the emerging literature and clinical trials pertaining to COVID-CSS. Established markers of inflammation as well as cytokine levels are compared and contrasted between these four entities in order to establish a foundation for future diagnostic criteria of COVID-CSS.

title: Effectiveness and Safety of Glucocorticoids to Treat COVID-19: A Rapid Review and Meta-Analysis
abstract: Glucocorticoids are widely used in the treatment of various pulmonary inflammatory diseases, but they are also often accompanied by significant adverse reactions. Published guidelines point out that low dose and short duration systemic glucocorticoid therapy may be considered for patients with rapidly progressing COVID-19 while the evidence is still limited.  We comprehensively searched electronic databases and supplemented the screening by conducting a manual search. We included RCTs and cohort studies evaluating the effectiveness and safety of glucocorticoids in children and adults with COVID-19, SARS and MERS, and conducted meta-analyses of the main indicators that were identified in the studies.  Our search retrieved 23 studies, including one RCT and 22 cohort studies, with a total of 13,815 patients. In adults with COVID-19, the use of systemic glucocorticoid did not reduce mortality (RR=2.00, 95% CI: 0.69 to 5.75, I 2=90.9%) or the duration of lung inflammation (WMD=-1 days, 95% CI: -2.91 to 0.91), while a significant reduction was found in the duration of fever (WMD=-3.23 days, 95% CI: -3.56 to -2.90). In patients with SARS, glucocorticoids also did not reduce the mortality (RR=1.52, 95% CI: 0.89 to 2.60, I2=84.6%), duration of fever (WMD=0.82 days, 95% CI: -2.88 to 4.52, I2=97.9%) or duration of lung inflammation absorption (WMD=0.95 days, 95% CI: -7.57 to 9.48, I2=94.6%). The use of systemic glucocorticoid therapy prolonged the duration of hospital stay in all patients (COVID-19, SARS and MERS).  Glucocorticoid therapy was found to reduce the duration of fever, but not mortality, duration of hospitalization or lung inflammation absorption. Long-term use of high-dose glucocorticoids increased the risk of adverse reactions such as coinfections, so routine use of systemic glucocorticoids for patients with COVID-19 cannot be recommend.  COVID-19; glucocorticoids; meta-analysis; rapid review

title: H5N1 Virus Hemagglutinin Inhibition of cAMP-Dependent CFTR via TLR4-Mediated Janus Tyrosine Kinase 3 Activation Exacerbates Lung Inflammation
abstract: The host tolerance mechanisms to avian influenza virus (H5N1) infection that limit tissue injury remain unknown. Emerging evidence indicates that cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a cAMP-dependent Cl(−) channel, modulates airway inflammation. Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK) 3, a JAK family member that plays a central role in inflammatory responses, prominently contributes to the dysregulated innate immune response upon H5N1 attachment; therefore, this study aims to elucidate whether JAK3 activation induced by H5N1 hemagglutinin (HA) inhibits cAMP-dependent CFTR channels. We performed short-circuit current, immunohistochemistry and molecular analyses of the airway epithelium in Jak3(+/+) and Jak3(+/−) mice. We demonstrate that H5N1 HA attachment inhibits cAMP-dependent CFTR Cl(−) channels via JAK3-mediated adenylyl cyclase (AC) suppression, which reduces cAMP production. This inhibition leads to increased nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling and inflammatory responses. H5N1 HA is detected by TLR4 expressed on respiratory epithelial cells, facilitating JAK3 activation. This activation induces the interaction between TLR4 and Gαi protein, which blocks ACs. Our findings provide novel insight into the pathogenesis of acute lung injury via the inhibition of cAMP-dependent CFTR channels, indicating that the administration of cAMP-elevating agents and targeting JAK3 may activate host tolerance to infection for the management of influenza virus–induced fatal pneumonia.

title: Nonantibiotic Adjunctive Therapies for Community-Acquired Pneumonia (Corticosteroids and Beyond): Where Are We with Them?
abstract: Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a leading cause of hospitalization, morbidity, and mortality. Despite advances in antibiotic treatments, mortality among patients with CAP is still high. For this reason, interest has been focused on nonantibiotic therapeutic measures directed to the host response rather than the microorganism. The development of an efficacious adjunctive treatment has important implications for reducing mortality in CAP. Some clinical studies performed in the last decade have shown a clinically beneficial effect of corticosteroids, possibly by diminishing local and systemic inflammatory host response. Recent meta-analyses showed faster resolution of symptoms, shorter time to clinically stability, reduction of mechanical ventilation needed, and reduction of mortality in the most severe population, although some methodological limitations must be taken into account. In addition, some studies using statins also suggested improved outcomes due to its anti-inflammatory effect in CAP, although this requires further research. Other adjunctive therapies such as immunoglobulins and stem cells are being explored, but are not yet in the stage of clinical trials. In summary, the use of corticosteroids and other adjuvant treatments are promising in CAP, but more studies are needed to determine their impact on mortality.

title: A fatal case of COVID-19 due to metabolic acidosis following dysregulate inflammatory response (cytokine storm)
abstract: The ongoing outbreak of COVID-19 has been expanding worldwide. As of 17 April 2020, the death toll stands at a sobering 147,027 and over two million cases, this has been straining the health care systems all over. Respiratory failure has been cited as the major cause of death but here we present a case about a patient who instead succumbed to severe metabolic acidosis with multiple organ failure.

title: Innate immunity in coronavirus infection/ ВРОЖДЕННЫЙ ИММУНИТЕТ ПРИ КОРОНАВИРУСНОЙ ИНФЕКЦИИ
abstract: Coronaviruses (CoVs) comprise a polymorphic group of respiratory viruses causing acute inflammatory diseases in domestic and agricultural animals (chicken, pig, buffalo, cat, dog). Until recently, this infection in humans was mainly observed during the autumn-winter period and characterized by a mild, often asymptomatic, course. The situation changed dramatically in 2003, when SARS outbreak caused by pathogenic CoV (SARS-CoV) was recorded in China. A decade later, a new CoV outbreak occurred in the form of the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV), whereas in December 2019, SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) cases were recorded, which transformed within the first months of 2020 into the pandemic. In all three cases, CoV disease led to severe bronchopulmonary lesions, varying from dry, debilitating cough to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). At the same time, multiple changes in innate immunity were noted most often manifested as a pronounced inflammatory reaction in the lower respiratory tract, featured by damaged type II pneumocytes, apoptosis, hyalinization of alveolar membranes, focal or generalized pulmonary edema. Destructive processes in the respiratory tract were accompanied by migration of monocytes/macrophages and granulocyte neutrophils to the inflammatory focus. Such events were accompanied by production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which magnitude could ascend up to a cytokine storm. SARS-CoV is characterized by symptoms of secondary immunosuppression, manifested by the late onset of interferon production and activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes – the key inflammatory factor. The reason for such reaction may be accounted for by CoV arsenal containing extensive set of structural and non-structural proteins exerting pro-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. Delayed IFN production allowed CoV to replicate actively and freely, and when type I IFN synthesis was eventually triggered, its activity was detrimental and accompanied by an aggravated infection course. Thus, SARS can surely be referred to immune-dependent infections with a marked immunopathological component. The purpose of this review was to describe some mechanisms underlying formation of innate immune response to infection caused by pathogenic coronaviruses SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19).

title: Systemic inflammatory response syndrome as a predictor of anastomotic leakage after esophagectomy.
abstract: Esophageal anastomotic leakage is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality after esophagectomy. We conducted this study to elucidate how anastomotic leakage affects the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria.  The subjects of this retrospective study were 61 patients who underwent esophagectomy. We evaluated their preoperative status, the surgical procedures, and postoperative systemic response, including white blood cell count, heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature, and laboratory data up to postoperative day (POD) 4.  Anastomotic leakage developed in nine patients (14.8%) and was found on POD 7 on average. These patients had a significantly longer hospital stay than those without leakage. Although no difference was observed in postoperative changes of any of the SIRS criteria, the postoperative incidence of SIRS was significantly higher in the patients with anastomotic leakage on POD 4. The number of positive criteria for SIRS was also significantly higher in patients with anastomotic leakage than in those without leakage on PODs 3 and 4.  The SIRS scoring system is valuable for evaluating the severity of systemic inflammatory response caused by anastomosis leakage, and may serve as an indicator for prompt management.

title: Potential mechanisms of hemorrhagic stroke in elderly COVID-19 patients
abstract: The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019, a new human infectious disease. While fever, cough, and respiratory distress are typical first symptoms, a fraction of those affected present instead with neurological symptoms suggestive of central nervous system compromise. This review summarizes the potential contribution of coronavirus disease 2019 to hemorrhagic stroke in the elderly and proposes possible mechanisms. Reports show that the most affected patients have underlying chronic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes, which are two key risk factors for hemorrhagic stroke. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is the main host cell surface receptor interacting with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 spike glycoprotein to allow viral entry and infection. We speculate that ensuing downregulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 expression may compound the risk conferred by pre-existing comorbidities and critically influence the pathogenesis of hemorrhagic stroke by elevating blood pressure and impairing cerebrovascular endothelial function. Additionally, both age- and/or disease-related immune dysfunction and enhanced catecholamine release secondary to anxiety and stress may also aggravate central nervous system symptoms of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. Thus, assessment of systemic inflammatory biomarkers and tight control of hemodynamic parameters upon admission are crucial to minimize mortality and morbidity in coronavirus disease 2019 patients with central nervous system symptoms suggestive of incipient stroke.

title: Development of a risk assessment tool for contact tracing people after contact with infectious patients while travelling by bus or other public ground transport: a Delphi consensus approach
abstract: Tracing persons who have been in contact with an infectious patient may be very effective in preventing the spread of communicable diseases. However, criteria to decide when to conduct contact tracing are not well established. We have investigated the available evidence for contact tracing with a focus on public ground transport aiming to give guidance in what situations contact tracing should be considered.  Relevant infectious diseases suitable for contact tracing in ground transport and a set of disease-specific epidemiological criteria were defined through literature search and structured multistep expert consultations. We developed continuous scales for each criterion to be rated for its relevance to contact tracing in ground transport. We used the Delphi method with an international expert panel to position the values of criteria on the respective scales.  The study led to the development of the ‘Contact Tracing-Risk Assessment Profile’ (CT-RAP), a decision-making instrument, taking into account pathogen-specific as well as situation-specific criteria. This report describes the methodology of this instrument and presents two examples of ready-to-use CT-RAP for tuberculosis and for meningococcal disease in public ground transport.  The systematic and transparent use of the CT-RAP for tuberculosis and meningococcal disease is likely to facilitate reasonable, efficient and user-friendly decisions with respect to contact tracing. New CT-RAPs for additional pathogens and different settings such as schools and kindergartens are being planned.

title: Potential Role of Nrf2 Activators with Dual Antiviral and Anti-Inflammatory Properties in the Management of Viral Pneumonia
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has already caused a huge burden to the global healthcare system, with the death toll reached tens of thousands. Although some antiviral agents were identified and used to inhibit viral replication, the management of cytokine storm is also a critical issue. In this article, we reviewed the literature on drug candidates for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-1) and provided a brief overview of a class of drugs that exert antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects. These molecules mitigated inflammatory cytokine cascades induced by viral infections via Nrf2 activating capacity and might have additional anti-fibrotic and anti-remodeling properties. Besides, their effects on the regulation of scavenger receptors expression by macrophages may offer some benefits to the pulmonary antibacterial defense system after viral infection. The potential roles of these agents assessed on the basis of the pathophysiology of viral pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome were also discussed. Further research is needed to ascertain whether Nrf2 activators are useful in the management of viral pneumonia.

title: Host susceptibility to severe COVID-19 and establishment of a host risk score: findings of 487 cases outside Wuhan

title: Pharmacological Agents Targeting Thromboinflammation in COVID-19: Review and Implications for Future Research.
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), currently a worldwide pandemic, is a viral illness caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The suspected contribution of thrombotic events to morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 patients has prompted a search for novel potential options for preventing COVID-19-associated thrombotic disease. In this article by the Global COVID-19 Thrombosis Collaborative Group, we describe novel dosing approaches for commonly used antithrombotic agents (especially heparin-based regimens) and the potential use of less widely used antithrombotic drugs in the absence of confirmed thrombosis. Although these therapies may have direct antithrombotic effects, other mechanisms of action, including anti-inflammatory or antiviral effects, have been postulated. Based on survey results from this group of authors, we suggest research priorities for specific agents and subgroups of patients with COVID-19. Further, we review other agents, including immunomodulators, that may have antithrombotic properties. It is our hope that the present document will encourage and stimulate future prospective studies and randomized trials to study the safety, efficacy, and optimal use of these agents for prevention or management of thrombosis in COVID-19.

title: Protective role of Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitors in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and COVID-19

title: The cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system
abstract: In 2019-2020 a new coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2 was identified as the causative agent of a several acute respiratory infection named COVID-19, which is causing a worldwide pandemic. There are still many unresolved questions regarding the pathogenesis of this disease and especially the reasons underlying the extremely different clinical course, ranging from asymptomatic forms to severe manifestations, including the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS). SARS-CoV-2 showed phylogenetic similarities to both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses, and some of the clinical features are shared between COVID-19 and previously identified beta-coronavirus infections. Available evidence indicate that the so called "cytokine storm" an uncontrolled over-production of soluble markers of inflammation which, in turn, sustain an aberrant systemic inflammatory response, is a major responsible for the occurrence of ARDS. Chemokines are low molecular weight proteins with powerful chemoattractant activity which play a role in the immune cell recruitment during inflammation. This review will be aimed at providing an overview of the current knowledge on the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system in the cytokine storm related to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Basic and clinical evidences obtained from previous SARS and MERS epidemics and available data from COVID-19 will be taken into account.

title: Outbreak of SARS-CoV2: Pathogenesis of infection and cardiovascular involvement
abstract: Since the new coronavirus SARS (SARS-CoV2) has emerged from china, the infection (COVID-19) has affected many countries and led to many deaths worldwide. Like SARS-CoV, ACE2 as a functional receptor for SARS-CoV2 is essential for virus to entry to the cell. ACE2 is a part of RAS which is expressed in several organs that opposes the AngII functions by converting Ang II to Ang (1-7), the one with vasodilation effects. The death rate of COVID-19 is estimated about 3.4%, however, some comorbid conditions like underlying cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and diabetes increase the risk of mortality. In addition, cardiovascular involvement by SARS-CoV2 could be direct through either ACE2 receptors which are expressed tremendously in heart, or by the surge of different cytokines or by ARDS-induced hypoxia. Traditional risk factors could aggravate the process of COVID-19 infection that urges the triage of these high risk patients for SARS-CoV2. Currently, there is no effective, proven treatment or vaccination for COVID-19, but many investigators are struggling to find a treatment strategy as soon as possible. Some potential medications like chloroquine by itself or in combination with azithromycin, and some protease inhibitors used for the treatment of COVID-19 have cardiovascular adverse effects that should be kept in mind in order to close monitor of the patients receiving these medications.

title: Inflammatory markers in Covid-19 Patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
abstract: Diagnosis of COVID-19 is based on clinical manifestation, history of exposure, positive findings on chest CT and laboratory tests. It has been shown that inflammation plays a role in pathogenesis of COVID-19.  We used the necessary transformations to convert the median and IQR to mean and SD Random-effect model using Der Simonian, and Laird methods was used if heterogeneity between studies was significant, the homogeneity among studies was assessed with I2 Statistic, values above 50%, and for the chi-square test, P-values <0.1 was supposed statistically significant Results Twelve studies were included in the analysis that all of which were conducted in China in the year 2020. The result of combining 12 articles with 772 participants showed that the pooled estimate of the mean of lymphocyte with 95% CI was (Mean: 1.01; 95% CI (0.76-1.26); p-value<0.001). About WBC the pooled result of 9 studies with 402 participants was (Mean: 5.11; 95% CI (3.90-6.32); p-value<0.001) Also the pooled mean estimate of 9 studies with 513 patients for the ratio of Neutrophil/lymphocyte was (Mean: 3.62; 95% CI (1.48-5.77); p-value=0.001). The pooled mean from the combination of 7 studies with 521 patients on CRP was (Mean: 28.75; 95% CI (8.04-49.46).  Inflammatory Markers increase in patients with Covid-19, which can be a good indicator to find patients.

title: Blood transfusion utilization in hospitalized COVID‐19 patients
abstract: The acute respiratory illness designated coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) was first reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 and caused a worldwide pandemic. Concerns arose about the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on blood donations and potential significant blood transfusion needs in severely ill COVID‐19 patients. Data on blood usage in hospitalized COVID‐19 patients are scarce.  We performed a retrospective observational study of blood component transfusions in the first 4 weeks of COVID‐19 ward admissions. The study period began 14 days before the first COVID‐19 cohort wards opened in our hospital in March 2020 and ended 28 days afterward. The number of patients and blood components transfused in the COVID‐19 wards was tabulated. Transfusion rates of each blood component were compared in COVID‐19 wards versus all other inpatient wards.  COVID‐19 wards opened with seven suspected patients and after 4 weeks had 305 cumulative COVID‐19 admissions. Forty‐one of 305 hospitalized COVID‐19 patients (13.4%) received transfusions with 11.1% receiving red blood cells (RBCs), 1.6% platelets (PLTs), 1.0% plasma, and 1.0% cryoprecipitate (cryo). COVID‐19 wards had significantly lower transfusion rates compared to non‐COVID wards for RBCs (0.03 vs 0.08 units/patient‐day), PLTs (0.003 vs 0.033), and plasma (0.002 vs 0.018; all p < 0.0001). Cryo rates were similar (0.008 vs 0.009, p = 0.6).  Hospitalized COVID‐19 patients required many fewer blood transfusions than other hospitalized patients. COVID‐19 transfusion data will inform planning and preparation of blood resource utilization during the pandemic.

title: Influence of COVID-19 on Cerebrovascular Disease and its Possible Mechanism
abstract: The global spread of COVID-19 has caused a substantial societal burden and become a major global public health issue. The COVID-19 elderly population with hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular diseases are at risk. Mortality rates are highest in these individuals if infected with COVID-19. Although the lungs are the main organs involved in acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by COVID-19 infection, COVID-19 triggers inflammatory and immune mechanisms, inducing a “cytokine storm” that aggravates disease progression and may lead to death. Presently, effective drugs are lacking, although current studies have confirmed that drugs with therapeutic potential include redaciclovir, lopinavir/ritonavir combined with interferon-β, convalescent plasma, and monoclonal antibodies. Currently, the most reasonable and effective way to prevent COVID-19 is to control the source of infection, terminate routes of transmission, and protect susceptible populations. With the rise of COVID-19 in China and worldwide, further prevention, diagnosis, and treatment measures are a critical unmet need. Cerebrovascular disease has high incidence, disability rate, and fatality rate. COVID-19 patient outcomes may also be complicated with acute stroke. This paper summarizes the influence of COVID-19 on cerebrovascular disease and discusses possible pathophysiological mechanisms to provide new angles for the prevention and diagnosis of this disease.

title: Safety Guidelines for Sterility of Face Shields During COVID 19 Pandemic
abstract: Face shields are personal protective equipment devices that are to be used by many health care workers during COVID 19 pandemic for protection of the facial area and associated mucous membranes (eyes, nose, mouth) from droplet spread of infection. Face shields are generally not used alone, but in conjunction with other protective equipment like cap, mask, goggle, and are therefore classified as adjunctive personal protective equipment. In the wake of scarcity of face shields during the COVID 19 Pandemic, consideration of innovating newer methods of manufacturing must be considered to overcome the present day scarcity without jeopardising the safety of front line Heath care workers. All initial fast innovations comes with advantages and disadvantages, hence we thought of putting down simple guidelines for new emerged face shield use.

title: Systemic Capillary Leak Syndrome secondary to Covid-19
abstract: Systemic capillary leak syndrome is a rare disorder characterized by dysfunctional inflammatory response, endothelial dysfunction, and extravasation of fluid from the vascular space to the interstitial space leading to shock, hemoconcentration, hypoalbuminemia and subsequent organ failure. The condition may be idiopathic or secondary to an underlying cause, which can include viral infections. Here we describe a patient with acute COVID-19 infection who presented with hemoconcentration, shock and hypoalbuminemia. The patient subsequently developed rhabdomyolysis and compartment syndrome of all four extremities requiring fasciotomies. This is the first reported case of systemic capillary leak syndrome associated with COVID-19 infection. This case adds to the evolving spectrum of inflammatory effects associated with this viral infection.

title: COVID-19: Melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment
abstract: This article summarizes the likely benefits of melatonin in the attenuation of COVID-19 based on its putative pathogenesis. The recent outbreak of COVID-19 has become a pandemic with tens of thousands of infected patients. Based on clinical features, pathology, the pathogenesis of acute respiratory disorder induced by either highly homogenous coronaviruses or other pathogens, the evidence suggests that excessive inflammation, oxidation, and an exaggerated immune response very likely contribute to COVID-19 pathology. This leads to a cytokine storm and subsequent progression to acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and often death. Melatonin, a well-known anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative molecule, is protective against ALI/ARDS caused by viral and other pathogens. Melatonin is effective in critical care patients by reducing vessel permeability, anxiety, sedation use, and improving sleeping quality, which might also be beneficial for better clinical outcomes for COVID-19 patients. Notably, melatonin has a high safety profile. There is significant data showing that melatonin limits virus-related diseases and would also likely be beneficial in COVID-19 patients. Additional experiments and clinical studies are required to confirm this speculation.

title: Pericyte-specific vascular expression of SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 – implications for microvascular inflammation and hypercoagulopathy in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Accumulating clinical observations suggest pathogenesis beyond viral pneumonia and its secondary consequences in COVID-19 patients. In particular, many patients develop profound hyperinflammation and hypercoagulopathy with disseminated thrombogenesis and thromboembolism, which we observe also in a Swedish COVID-19 intensive care patient cohort. To understand these vascular manifestations, it is important to establish the potential vascular entry point(s) of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, i.e. which vascular cell types express the SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2. We present data that ACE2 is specifically and highly expressed in microvascular pericytes, but absent from endothelial cells, perivascular macrophages and fibroblasts. Mice with pericyte ablation show increased expression and release of Von Willebrand Factor from microvascular endothelial cells, suggesting that pericytes orchestrate thrombogenic responses in neighboring endothelial cells. Identifying pericytes rather than endothelial cells as the ACE2-expressing cells in the vasculature may explain why hypertension, diabetes and obesity are risk factors for severe COVID-19 patients, as these conditions are characterized by an impaired endothelial barrier function, allowing SARS-CoV-2 to reach and infect the pericytes that are normally shielded from the blood behind an intact endothelial barrier. This novel COVID-19-pericyte hypothesis is testable, offers explanations for some of the most enigmatic and lethal aspects of COVID-19 and calls for further investigations into the possible benefits of preventive anticoagulant therapy.

title: Comprehensive Transcriptomic Analysis of COVID-19 Blood, Lung, and Airway
abstract: SARS-CoV2 is a previously uncharacterized coronavirus and causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. The host response to SARS-CoV2 has not yet been fully delineated, hampering a precise approach to therapy. To address this, we carried out a comprehensive analysis of gene expression data from the blood, lung, and airway of COVID-19 patients. Our results indicate that COVID-19 pathogenesis is driven by populations of myeloid-lineage cells with highly inflammatory but distinct transcriptional signatures in each compartment. The relative absence of cytotoxic cells in the lung suggests a model in which delayed clearance of the virus may permit exaggerated myeloid cell activation that contributes to disease pathogenesis by the production of inflammatory mediators. The gene expression profiles also identify potential therapeutic targets that could be modified with available drugs. The data suggest that transcriptomic profiling can provide an understanding of the pathogenesis of COVID-19 in individual patients.

title: Thrombus in Transit and Impending Pulmonary Embolism Detected on POCUS in a Patient with COVID-19 Pneumonia
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic that started in China in December 2019 and carries a high risk of morbidity and mortality. To-date (4-22-2020) it affected over 2.6 million people and resulted in nearly 200,000 death worldwide mainly due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-Cov-2). Among the major underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms in COVID 19 is hypercoagulability, leading to increased risk for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism that contribute to increased morbidity and mortality. In this report, we present the case of a 55-year-old man who presented with COVID-19 pneumonia, and was found to have a thrombus in transit by routine point of care ultrasound (POCUS). While computer tomography (CT) angiography is the test of choice, the utilization of point of care ultrasound (POCUS) has gained traction as an adjunctive means of surveillance for the development of VTE in patients with COVID-19. In this report, we discuss the clinical utility of POCUS in diagnosing thrombus in transit in COVID 19 populations.

title: Oral cancer and periodontal disease increase the risk of COVID 19? A mechanism mediated through furin and cathepsin overexpression

title: Hypothesis for potential pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection–a review of immune changes in patients with viral pneumonia
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) with droplets and contact as the main means of transmission. Since the first case appeared in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, the outbreak has gradually spread nationwide. Up to now, according to official data released by the Chinese health commission, the number of newly diagnosed patients has been declining, and the epidemic is gradually being controlled. Although most patients have mild symptoms and good prognosis after infection, some patients developed severe and die from multiple organ complications. The pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans remains unclear. Immune function is a strong defense against invasive pathogens and there is currently no specific antiviral drug against the virus. This article reviews the immunological changes of coronaviruses like SARS, MERS and other viral pneumonia similar to SARS-CoV-2. Combined with the published literature, the potential pathogenesis of COVID-19 is inferred, and the treatment recommendations for giving high-doses intravenous immunoglobulin and low-molecular-weight heparin anticoagulant therapy to severe type patients are proposed.

title: A new threat from an old enemy: Re-emergence of coronavirus (Review)
abstract: The new outbreak of coronavirus from December 2019 has brought attention to an old viral enemy and has raised concerns as to the ability of current protection measures and the healthcare system to handle such a threat. It has been known since the 1960s that coronaviruses can cause respiratory infections in humans; however, their epidemic potential was understood only during the past two decades. In the present review, we address current knowledge on coronaviruses from a short history to epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestation of the disease, as well as treatment and prevention strategies. Although a great amount of research and efforts have been made worldwide to prevent further outbreaks of coronavirus-associated disease, the spread and lethality of the 2019 outbreak (COVID-19) is proving to be higher than previous epidemics on account of international travel density and immune naivety of the population. Only strong, joint and coordinated efforts of worldwide healthcare systems, researchers, and pharmaceutical companies and receptive national leaders will succeed in suppressing an outbreak of this scale.

title: Possible Cause of Inflammatory Storm and Septic Shock in Patients Diagnosed with (COVID-19)
abstract: The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection which has been known as Coronavirus diseases 2019 COVID-19 has become an endemic emergent situation by the World Health Organization. So far, no successful specific treatment has been found for this disease. As has been reported, most of non-survivor patients with COVID-19 (70%) had septic shock which was significantly higher than survived ones. Although the exact pathophysiology of septic shock in these patients is still unclear, it seems to be possible that part of it would be due to the administration of empiric antibiotics with inflammatory properties especially in the absence of bacterial infection. Herein, we have reviewed possible molecular pathways of septic shock in the patients who have received antibiotics with inflammatory properties which mainly is release of interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor &#945; (TNF- &#945;) through different routes. Altogether, we highly recommend clinicians to look after those antibiotics with anti-inflammatory activity for both empiric antibiotic therapy and reducing the inflammation to prevent septic shock in patients with diagnosed COVID-19.

title: Clinical and biochemical indexes from 2019-nCoV infected patients linked to viral loads and lung injury
abstract: The outbreak of the 2019-nCoV infection began in December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei province, and rapidly spread to many provinces in China as well as other countries. Here we report the epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics, as well as potential biomarkers for predicting disease severity in 2019-nCoV-infected patients in Shenzhen, China. All 12 cases of the 2019-nCoV-infected patients developed pneumonia and half of them developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The most common laboratory abnormalities were hypoalbuminemia, lymphopenia, decreased percentage of lymphocytes (LYM) and neutrophils (NEU), elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and decreased CD8 count. The viral load of 2019-nCoV detected from patient respiratory tracts was positively linked to lung disease severity. ALB, LYM, LYM (%), LDH, NEU (%), and CRP were highly correlated to the acute lung injury. Age, viral load, lung injury score, and blood biochemistry indexes, albumin (ALB), CRP, LDH, LYM (%), LYM, and NEU (%), may be predictors of disease severity. Moreover, the Angiotensin II level in the plasma sample from 2019-nCoV infected patients was markedly elevated and linearly associated to viral load and lung injury. Our results suggest a number of potential diagnosis biomarkers and angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) drugs for potential repurposing treatment of 2019-nCoV infection.

title: Immune-Inflammatory Parameters in COVID-19 Cases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
abstract: The recent outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been rapidly spreading on a global scale and poses a great threat to human health. Acute respiratory distress syndrome, characterized by a rapid onset of generalized inflammation, is the leading cause of mortality in patients with COVID-19. We thus aimed to explore the effect of risk factors on the severity of the disease, focusing on immune-inflammatory parameters, which represent the immune status of patients.  A comprehensive systematic search for relevant studies published up to April 2020 was performed by using the PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, and China National Knowledge Internet (CNKI) databases. After extracting all available data of immune-inflammatory indicators, we statistically analyzed the risk factors of severe and non-severe COVID-19 patients with a meta-analysis.  A total of 4,911 patients from 29 studies were included in the final meta-analysis. The results demonstrated that severe patients tend to present with increased white blood cell (WBC) and neutrophil counts, neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), procalcitonin (PCT), C-reaction protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and a decreased number of total lymphocyte and lymphocyte subtypes, such as CD4+ T lymphocyte and CD8+ T lymphocyte, compared to the non-severe patients. In addition, the WBC count>10 × 10(9)/L, lymphocyte count<1 × 10(9)/L, PCT>0.5 ng/mL, and CRP>10 mg/L were risk factors for disease progression in patients with COVID-19 (WBC count>10 × 10(9)/L: OR = 2.92, 95% CI: 1.96–4.35; lymphocyte count<1 × 10(9)/L: OR = 4.97, 95% CI: 3.53–6.99; PCT>0.5 ng/mL: OR = 6.33, 95% CI: 3.97–10.10; CRP>10 mg/L: OR = 3.51, 95% CI: 2.38–5.16). Furthermore, we found that NLR, as a novel marker of systemic inflammatory response, can also help predict clinical severity in patients with COVID-19 (OR = 2.50, 95% CI: 2.04–3.06).  Immune-inflammatory parameters, such as WBC, lymphocyte, PCT, CRP, and NLR, could imply the progression of COVID-19. NLR has taken both the levels of neutrophil and lymphocyte into account, indicating a more complete, accurate, and reliable inspection efficiency; surveillance of NLR may help clinicians identify high-risk COVID-19 patients at an early stage.

title: COVID-19 Hyperinflammation: What about Neutrophils?
abstract: COVID-19 is often related to hyperinflammation that drives lung or multiorgan injury. The immunopathological mechanisms that cause excessive inflammation are under investigation and constantly updated. Here, a gene network approach was used on recently published data sets to identify possible COVID-19 inflammatory mechanisms and bioactive genes. First, network analysis of putative SARS-CoV-2 cellular receptors led to the mining of a neutrophil-response signature and relevant inflammatory genes. Second, analysis of RNA-seq data sets of lung cells infected with SARS-CoV-2 revealed that infected cells expressed neutrophil-attracting chemokines. Third, analysis of RNA-seq data sets of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cells from COVID-19 patients identified upregulation of neutrophil genes and chemokines. Different inflammatory genes mined here, including TNFR, IL-8, CXCR1, CXCR2, ADAM10, GPR84, MME, ANPEP, and LAP3, might be druggable targets in efforts to limit SARS-CoV-2 inflammation in severe clinical cases. The possible role of neutrophils in COVID-19 inflammation needs to be studied further.

title: Association of Cardiovascular Manifestations with In-hospital Outcomes in Patients with COVID-19: A Hospital Staff Data
abstract: The outbreaks of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) remain a huge threat to the public health worldwide. Clinical data is limited up to now regarding the risk factors in favor of severe conversion of non-severe case with COVID-19.  This study analyzed a hospital staff data to figure out general clinical features of COVID-19 in terms of the association of cardiovascular manifestations (CVMs) with in-hospital outcomes of COVID-19 cases.  Retrospective, single-center case series of 41 consecutive hospitalized health staff with confirmed COVID-19 were collected at the Central Hospital of Wuhan in Wuhan, China, from January 15 to January 24, 2020. Epidemiological, demographic, clinical, laboratory, radiological, treatment data and in-hospital adverse events were collected and analyzed. Final date of follow-up was March 3, 2020. A comparative study was applied between cases with CVMs and those without CVMs.  Of all, clinicians and clinical nurses accounted for 80.5%, while 87.8% of all had history of patient contact. The population was presented with a mean age of 39.1 +- 9.2 and less comorbidities than community population. The three most frequent symptoms of COVID-19 cases analyzed were fever (82.9%), myalgia or fatigue (80.5%) and cough (63.4%). While, the three most frequent initial symptoms were myalgia or fatigue (80.5%), fever (73.2%) and cough (41.5%). There were 95.1% cases featured as non-severe course of disease according to the official standard in China. Patients with CVMs and those without CVMs accounted for 58.5% and 41.5%, respectively. Compared with cases without CVMs, patients with CVMs were presented with lower baseline lymphocyte count (0.99 +- 0.43 and 1.55 +- 0.61, P<0.001), more who had at least once positive nucleic acid detection of throat swab during admission (50.0% and 11.8%, P=0.011), and more received oxygen support (79.2% and 23.5%, P<0.001). The rate of in-hospital adverse events was significantly higher in patients with CVMs group (75.0% and 23.5%, P=0.001). Multivariable logistic regression model indicated that, coexisting with CVMs in COVID-19 patients was not independently associated with in-hospital adverse events.  Most of hospital staff with COVID-19 had history of patient contact, featured non-severe course of disease. Cases with CVMs suffered from more in-hospital adverse events than those without CVMs. But concomitant CVMs were not independently associated with in-hospital adverse events in COVID-19 patients.

title: Therapeutic Development and Drugs for the Treatment of COVID-19
abstract: SARS-CoV-2/novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) is a new strain that has recently been confirmed in Wuhan City, Hubei Province of China, and spreads to more than 165 countries of the world including India. The virus infection leads to 245,922 confirmed cases and 10,048 deaths worldwide as of March 20, 2020. Coronaviruses (CoVs) are lethal zoonotic viruses, highly pathogenic in nature, and responsible for diseases ranging from common cold to severe illness such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in humans for the past 15 years. Considering the severity of the current and previous outbreaks, no approved antiviral agent or effective vaccines are present for the prevention and treatment of infection during the epidemics. Although, various molecules have been shown to be effective against coronaviruses both in vitro and in vivo, but the antiviral activities of these molecules are not well established in humans. Therefore, this chapter is planned to provide information about available treatment and preventive measures for the coronavirus infections during outbreaks. This chapter also discusses the possible role of supportive therapy, repurposing drugs, and complementary and alternative medicines for the management of coronaviruses including COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 and NSAIDS: A Narrative Review of Knowns and Unknowns
abstract: Concern about the appropriate role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in COVID-19 speculate that NSAIDs, in particular ibuprofen, may upregulate the entry point for the virus, the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) 2 receptors and increase susceptibility to the virus or worsen symptoms in existing disease. Adverse outcomes with COVID-19 have been linked to cytokine storm but the most effective way to address exaggerated inflammatory response is complex and unclear. The Expert Working Group on the Commission of Human Medicines in the UK and other organizations have stated that there is insufficient evidence to establish a link between ibuprofen and susceptibility to or exacerbation of COVID-19. NSAID use must also be categorized by whether the drugs are relatively low-dose over-the-counter oral products taken occasionally versus higher-dose or parenteral NSAIDs. Even if evidence emerged arguing for or against NSAIDs in this setting, it is unclear if this evidence would apply to all NSAIDs at all doses in all dosing regimens. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) has been proposed as an alternative to NSAIDs but there are issues with liver toxicity at high doses. There are clearly COVID-19 cases where NSAIDs should not be used, but there is no strong evidence that NSAIDs must be avoided in all patients with COVID-19; clinicians must weigh these choices on an individual basis.

title: Can pioglitazone be potentially useful therapeutically in treating patients with covid-19?
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a pandemic disease (COVID-19) that has spread globally causing more than 30,000 deaths. Despite the immense and ongoing global effort, no efficacious drugs to fight this plague have been identified and patients admitted to the intensive care units (ICU), for respiratory distress, are managed mostly by means of supportive care based on oxygen maintenance. Several authors have reported that the prevalence of hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases comorbidities were indeed frequent among patients with COVID-19, which suggests that these conditions are likely to aggravate and complicate the prognosis. What the aforementioned diseases have in common is a latent chronic inflammatory state that may be associated with the alteration of laboratory parameters that are typical of the metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance. In severe COVID-19 patients laboratory markers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, IL-6, D-dimer, serum ferritin and lactate dehydrogenase are elevated in many patients; assessed since the 4th-6th day of illness onset, such increases seem to be predictive of an adverse prognosis. Our hypothesis is that drugs belonging to the family of thiazolidinediones (TZD) such as pioglitazone or rosiglitazone, approved for treating the condition of insulin resistance and the accompanying inflammation, could ameliorate the prognosis of those COVID-19 patients with diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disorders comorbidities. TZD are PPARγ agonists that act on nuclear receptors, thereby triggering certain transcription factors. TZD were widely used for type-2 diabetes in the first decade of this century and although concerns have been raised for possible side effects associated with long-term treatment, their use has been recently revaluated for their anti-inflammatory properties in numerous medical conditions.

title: Mild COVID-19 Symptoms in an Infliximab-Treated Ulcerative Colitis Patient: Can Ongoing Anti-TNF Therapy Protect against the Viral Hyperinflammatory Response and Avoid Aggravated Outcomes?
abstract: The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, represents a potentially major challenge to patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases who are treated with immunomodulatory therapies. We report the case of an 18-year-old ulcerative colitis patient in sustained clinical remission who 4 days after application of her ongoing therapy with the anti-TNF antibody infliximab developed mild respiratory and abdominal symptoms. The patient was subsequently diagnosed with COVID-19 but did not need hospitalization. The clinical symptoms completely resolved within 1 week after onset and there was no change in ulcerative colitis activity. The recently applied anti-TNF therapy did not lead to exacerbation of the infectious symptoms. Current recommendations strongly favor continuation of effective maintenance anti-TNF therapy in inflammatory bowel disease patients, as there is no evidence for aggravated CO­VID-19 upon infection. It is unclear whether anti-TNF treatment might even have assisted in preventing worsening of COVID-19 and improving outcome. Further data in the group of immune-mediated inflammatory disease patients under anti-TNF therapy are urgently needed.

title: An inflammatory cytokine signature helps predict COVID-19 severity and death
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic caused by infection with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has led to more than 100,000 deaths in the United States. Several studies have revealed that the hyper-inflammatory response induced by SARS-CoV-2 is a major cause of disease severity and death in infected patients. However, predictive biomarkers of pathogenic inflammation to help guide targetable immune pathways are critically lacking. We implemented a rapid multiplex cytokine assay to measure serum IL-6, IL-8, TNF-, and IL-1{beta} in hospitalized COVID-19 patients upon admission to the Mount Sinai Health System in New York. Patients (n=1484) were followed up to 41 days (median 8 days) and clinical information, laboratory test results and patient outcomes were collected. In 244 patients, cytokine measurements were repeated over time, and effect of drugs could be assessed. Kaplan-Meier methods were used to compare survival by cytokine strata, followed by Cox regression models to evaluate the independent predictive value of baseline cytokines. We found that high serum IL-6, IL-8, and TNF- levels at the time of hospitalization were strong and independent predictors of patient survival. Importantly, when adjusting for disease severity score, common laboratory inflammation markers, hypoxia and other vitals, demographics, and a range of comorbidities, IL-6 and TNF- serum levels remained independent and significant predictors of disease severity and death. We propose that serum IL-6 and TNF- levels should be considered in the management and treatment of COVID-19 patients to stratify prospective clinical trials, guide resource allocation and inform therapeutic options. We also propose that patients with high IL-6 and TNF- levels should be assessed for combinatorial blockade of pathogenic inflammation in this disease.

title: Higher level of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte is associated with severe COVID-19
abstract: In December 2019, cases of severe coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) infection rapidly progressed to acute respiratory failure. This study aims to assess the association between the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and the incidence of severe COVID-19 infection. A retrospective cohort study was conducted on 210 patients with COVID-19 infection who were admitted to the Central Hospital of Wuhan from 27 January 2020 to 9 March 2020. Peripheral blood samples were collected and examined for lymphocyte subsets by flow cytometry. Associations between tertiles of NLR and the incidence of severe illness were analysed by logistic regression. Of the 210 patients with COVID-19, 87 were diagnosed as severe cases. The mean NLR of the severe group was higher than that of the mild group (6.6 vs. 3.3, P < 0.001). The highest tertile of NLR (5.1–19.7) exhibited a 5.9-fold (95% CI 1.3–28.5) increased incidence of severity relative to that of the lowest tertile (0.6–2.5) after adjustments for age, diabetes, hypertension and other confounders. The number of T cells significantly decreased in the severe group (0.5 vs. 0.9, P < 0.001). COVID-19 might mainly act on lymphocytes, particularly T lymphocytes. NLR was identified as an early risk factor for severe COVID-19 illness. Patients with increased NLR should be admitted to an isolation ward with respiratory monitoring and supportive care.

title: Reduced expression of COVID-19 host receptor, ACE2 is associated with small bowel inflammation, more severe disease, and response to anti-TNF therapy in Crohn’s disease
abstract: Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been identified as the host receptor for SARS-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which has infected millions world-wide and likely caused hundreds of thousands of deaths. Utilizing transcriptomic data from four cohorts taken from Crohn’s disease (CD) and non-inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) subjects, we observed evidence of increased ACE2 mRNA in ileum with demographic features that have been associated with poor outcomes in COVID-19 including age and raised BMI. ACE2 was downregulated in CD compared to controls in independent cohorts. Within CD, ACE2 expression was reduced in inflamed ileal tissue and also remarkably, from un-involved tissue in patients with a worse prognosis in both adult and pediatric cohorts. In active CD, small bowel ACE2 expression was restored by anti-TNF therapy particularly in anti-TNF responders. Collectively our data suggest that ACE2 downregulation is associated with inflammation and worse outcomes in CD.

title: Combating COVID-19 with Mesenchymal Stem Cell therapy
abstract: The COVID-19 disease is caused by a positive stranded RNA virus called SARS-CoV-2. The virus mainly targets the pulmonary epithelial cells as it’s initial site of infection by letting its surface spike protein interact and bind to the host ACE2 receptor. The internalization and gradual replication of the virus results in an exaggerated immune response triggering release of many pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. This immune storm is responsible for multiple health hazards in the host ultimately leading to multiple organ failure. Mesenchymal stem cell therapy offers a promising approach towards mitigating the delirious effects of the infection in the COVID-19 patients. This therapy has shown to reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as repair of damaged tissues in COVID-19 patients. This review has been organized to put forward the positive aruments and implications in support of mesenchymal stem cell therapy as a necessary approach for treating COVID-19 patients.

title: Coronaviruses pathogenesis, comorbidities and multi-organ damage – A review
abstract: Human coronaviruses, especially COVID-19, is an emerging pandemic infectious disease with high morbidity and mortality. Coronaviruses are associated with comorbidities, along with the symptoms of it. SARS-CoV-2 is one of the highly pathogenic coronaviruses that causes a high death rate compared to the SARS-CoV and MERS. In this review, we focused on the mechanism of coronavirus with comorbidities and impairment in multi-organ function. The main dysfunction upon coronavirus infection is damage to alveolar and acute respiratory failure. It is associated with the other organ damage such as cardiovascular risk via an increased level of hypertension through ACE2, gastrointestinal dysfunction, chronic kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, liver dysfunction, lung injury, CNS risk, ocular risks such as chemosis, conjunctivitis, and conjunctival hyperemia, cancer risk, venous thromboembolism, tuberculosis, aging, and cardiovascular dysfunction and reproductive risk. Along with this, we have discussed the immunopathology and coronaviruses at a molecular level and therapeutic approaches for the coronavirus infection. The comorbidities and multi-organ failure of COVID-19 have been explained at a molecular level along with the base of the SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. This review would help us to understand the comorbidities associated with the coronaviruses with multi-organ damage.

title: COVID-19: combining antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatments

title: The Association of Cardiovascular Diseases and Diabetes Mellitus with COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) and Their Possible Mechanisms
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global concern and public health issue due to its higher infection and mortality rate; particularly, the risk is very higher among the patients who have cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and/or diabetes mellitus (DM). In this review, we analyzed the recently published literature on CVD and DM associated with COVD-19 infections and highlight their association with potential mechanisms. The findings revealed that without any previous history of CVD, the COVID-19 patients have developed some CVD complications like myocardial injury, cardiomyopathy, and venous thromboembolism after being infected with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and required for those patients an emergency clinical support to be aware to manage those complications. Though the association between DM and COVID-19-induced severe complications is still unclear, the limited data predict that different markers like interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, C-reactive protein, and D-dimer linked with the severity of COVID-19 infection in diabetic individuals. Further studies on a large scale are urgently needed to explore the underlying mechanisms between CVD, DM, and COVID-19 for better treatment.

title: Immunologic aspects of characteristics, diagnosis, and treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
abstract: On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the worldwide spread of the infectious disease COVID-19, caused by a new strain of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, as a pandemic. Like in all other infectious diseases, the host immune system plays a key role in our defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, viruses are able to evade the immune attack and proliferate and, in susceptible individuals, cause severe inflammatory response known as cytokine storm, particularly in the lungs. The advancement in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the host immune responses promises to facilitate the development of approaches for prevention or treatment of diseases. Components of immune system, such as antibodies, can also be used to develop sensitive and specific diagnostic methods as well as novel therapeutic agents. In this review, we summarize our knowledge about how the host mounts immune responses to infection by SARS-CoV-2. We also describe the diagnostic methods being used for COVID-19 identification and summarize the current status of various therapeutic strategies, including vaccination, being considered for treatment of the disease.

title: Targeting the immunology of coronavirus disease-19: synchronization creates symphony

title: COVID-19 infection and rheumatoid arthritis: Faraway, so close!
abstract: The outbreak of the new coronavirus infections COVID-19 in December 2019 in China has quickly become a global health emergency. Given the lack of specific anti-viral therapies, the current management of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-2) is mainly supportive, even though several compounds are now under investigation for the treatment of this life-threatening disease. COVID-19 pandemic is certainly conditioning the treatment strategy of a complex disorder as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), whose infectious risk is increased compared to the general population because of an overall impairment of immune system typical of autoimmune diseases combined with the iatrogenic effect generated by corticosteroids and immunosuppressive drugs. However, the increasing knowledge about the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection is leading to consider some anti-rheumatic drugs as potential treatment options for the management of COVID-19. In this review we will critically analyse the evidences on either positive or negative effect of drugs commonly used to treat RA in this particular scenario, in order to optimize the current approach to RA patients.

title: Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths
abstract: The world is in the grip of the COVID-19 pandemic. Public health measures that can reduce the risk of infection and death in addition to quarantines are desperately needed. This article reviews the roles of vitamin D in reducing the risk of respiratory tract infections, knowledge about the epidemiology of influenza and COVID-19, and how vitamin D supplementation might be a useful measure to reduce risk. Through several mechanisms, vitamin D can reduce risk of infections. Those mechanisms include inducing cathelicidins and defensins that can lower viral replication rates and reducing concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines that produce the inflammation that injures the lining of the lungs, leading to pneumonia, as well as increasing concentrations of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Several observational studies and clinical trials reported that vitamin D supplementation reduced the risk of influenza, whereas others did not. Evidence supporting the role of vitamin D in reducing risk of COVID-19 includes that the outbreak occurred in winter, a time when 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations are lowest; that the number of cases in the Southern Hemisphere near the end of summer are low; that vitamin D deficiency has been found to contribute to acute respiratory distress syndrome; and that case-fatality rates increase with age and with chronic disease comorbidity, both of which are associated with lower 25(OH)D concentration. To reduce the risk of infection, it is recommended that people at risk of influenza and/or COVID-19 consider taking 10,000 IU/d of vitamin D3 for a few weeks to rapidly raise 25(OH)D concentrations, followed by 5000 IU/d. The goal should be to raise 25(OH)D concentrations above 40-60 ng/mL (100-150 nmol/L). For treatment of people who become infected with COVID-19, higher vitamin D3 doses might be useful. Randomized controlled trials and large population studies should be conducted to evaluate these recommendations.

title: Diacerein: a potential multi-target therapeutic drug for COVID-19
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), was declared pandemic by the World Health Organization in March 2020. SARS-CoV-2 binds its host cell receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), through the viral spike (S) protein. The mortality related to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multi-organ failure in COVID-19 patients has been suggested to be connected with cytokine storm syndrome (CSS), an excessive immune response that severely damages healthy lung tissue. In addition, cardiac symptoms, including fulminant myocarditis, are frequent in patients in a severe state of illness. Diacerein (DAR) is an anthraquinone derivative drug whose active metabolite is rhein. Different studies have shown that this compound inhibits the IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IL-18, TNF-α, NF-κB and NALP3 inflammasome pathways. The antiviral activity of rhein has also been documented. This metabolite prevents hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication and influenza A virus (IAV) adsorption and replication through mechanisms involving regulation of oxidative stress and alterations of the TLR4, Akt, MAPK, and NF-κB signalling pathways. Importantly, rhein inhibits the interaction between the SARS-CoV S protein and ACE2 in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting rhein as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of SARS-CoV infection. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that DAR is a multi-target drug useful for COVID-19 treatment. This anthraquinone may control hyperinflammatory conditions by multi-faceted cytokine inhibition and by reducing viral infection.

title: A close-up on COVID-19 and cardiovascular diseases
abstract: To analyze the potential mechanism of cardiovascular dysfunctions induced by Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and to evaluate more effective therapeutic pathways for patients with cardiovascular diseases.  COVID-19 mainly invades the lungs, causing its serious damage. Studies found that COVID-19 induced the renin-angiotensin system imbalance, inflammatory storm, hypoxemia, stress response, and so on; all contributed to hypertension and serious myocardial damage in the process of virus pathogenesis, even increasing mortality in COVID-19 patients.  In the process of management of COVID-19 infections, close attention should be paid on both lung and cardiovascular damage, especially on those with only symptoms of cardiovascular diseases. Early identification, timely and effective treatments, and maintenance of hemodynamics and electrophysiological stability are of great significance on effective treatment and long-term prognosis.

title: Longitudinal characteristics of lymphocyte responses and cytokine profiles in the peripheral blood of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients
abstract: The dynamic changes of lymphocyte subsets and cytokines profiles of patients with novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and their correlation with the disease severity remain unclear.  Peripheral blood samples were longitudinally collected from 40 confirmed COVID-19 patients and examined for lymphocyte subsets by flow cytometry and cytokine profiles by specific immunoassays.  Of the 40 COVID-19 patients enrolled, 13 severe cases showed significant and sustained decreases in lymphocyte counts but increases in neutrophil counts than 27 mild cases. Further analysis demonstrated significant decreases in the counts of T cells, especially CD8 + T cells, as well as increases in IL-6, IL-10, IL-2 and IFN-γ levels in the peripheral blood in the severe cases compared to those in the mild cases. T cell counts and cytokine levels in severe COVID-19 patients who survived the disease gradually recovered at later time points to levels that were comparable to those of the mild cases. Moreover, the neutrophil-to-CD8+ T cell ratio (N8R) were identified as the most powerful prognostic factor affecting the prognosis for severe COVID-19.  The degree of lymphopenia and a proinflammatory cytokine storm is higher in severe COVID-19 patients than in mild cases, and is associated with the disease severity. N8R may serve as a useful prognostic factor for early identification of severe COVID-19 cases.

title: Natural antiviral compound silvestrol modulates human monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells
abstract: Outbreaks of infections with viruses like Sars-CoV-2, Ebola virus and Zika virus lead to major global health and economic problems because of limited treatment options. Therefore, new antiviral drug candidates are urgently needed. The promising new antiviral drug candidate silvestrol effectively inhibited replication of Corona-, Ebola-, Zika-, Picorna-, Hepatis E and Chikungunya viruses. Besides a direct impact on pathogens, modulation of the host immune system provides an additional facet to antiviral drug development because suitable immune modulation can boost innate defence mechanisms against the pathogens. In the present study, silvestrol down-regulated several pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, CCL2, CCL18) and increased TNF-&#945; during differentiation and activation of M1-macrophages, suggesting that the effects of silvestrol might cancel each other out. However, silvestrol amplified the anti-inflammatory potential of M2-macrophages by increasing expression of anti-inflammatory surface markers CD206, TREM2 and reducing release of pro-inflammatory IL-8 and CCL2. The differentiation of dendritic cells in the presence of silvestrol is characterized by down-regulation of several surface markers and cytokines indicating that differentiation is impaired by silvestrol. In conclusion, silvestrol influences the inflammatory status of immune cells depending on the cell type and activation status.

title: The endotoxin-induced pulmonary inflammatory response is enhanced during the acute phase of influenza infection
abstract: Influenza infections are often complicated by secondary infections, which are associated with high morbidity and mortality, suggesting that influenza profoundly influences the immune response towards a subsequent pathogenic challenge. However, data on the immunological interplay between influenza and secondary infections are equivocal, with some studies reporting influenza-induced augmentation of the immune response, whereas others demonstrate that influenza suppresses the immune response towards a subsequent challenge. These contrasting results may be due to the use of various types of live bacteria as secondary challenges, which impedes clear interpretation of causal relations, and to differences in timing of the secondary challenge relative to influenza infection. Herein, we investigated whether influenza infection results in an enhanced or suppressed innate immune response upon a secondary challenge with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in either the acute or the recovery phase of infection.  Male C57BL/6J mice were intranasally inoculated with 5 × 10(3) PFU influenza virus (pH1N1, strain A/Netherlands/602/2009) or mock treated. After 4 (acute phase) or 10 (recovery phase) days, 5 mg/kg LPS or saline was administered intravenously, and mice were sacrificed 90 min later. Cytokine levels in plasma and lung tissue, and lung myeloperoxidase (MPO) content were determined.  LPS administration 4 days after influenza infection resulted in a synergistic increase in TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 concentrations in lung tissue, but not in plasma. This effect was also observed 10 days after influenza infection, albeit to a lesser extent. LPS-induced plasma levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 were enhanced 4 days after influenza infection, whereas a trend towards increased pulmonary IL-10 concentrations was found. LPS-induced increases in pulmonary MPO content tended to be enhanced as well, but only at 4 days post-infection.  An LPS challenge in the acute phase of influenza infection results in an enhanced pulmonary pro-inflammatory innate immune response. These data increase our insight on influenza-bacterial interplay. Combing data of the present study with previous findings, it appears that this enhanced response is not beneficial in terms of protection against secondary infections, but rather damaging by increasing immunopathology.

title: Transverse Myelitis
abstract: Transverse myelitis (TM) includes a pathobiologically heterogeneous syndrome characterized by acute or subacute spinal cord dysfunction resulting in paresis, a sensory level, and autonomic (bladder, bowel, and sexual) impairment below the level of the lesion. Etiologies for TM can be broadly classified as parainfectious, paraneoplastic, drug/toxin-induced, systemic autoimmune disorders, and acquired demyelinating diseases. We discuss the clinical evaluation, workup, and acute and long-term management of patients with TM. Additionally, we briefly discuss various disease entities that may cause TM and their salient distinguishing features, as well as disorders that may mimic TM.

title: THE PATHOGENESIS OF THROMBOEMBOLIC DISEASE IN COVID-19 PATIENTS: COULD BE A CATASTROPHIC ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME?
abstract: The most severely COVID-19 patients need intensive care and show increased risk of thromboembolic events. Although some patients meet the diagnostic criteria for the Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation, the pathogenesis of the diffuse thrombotic status remains unclear. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) in sera of deceased patients with autoptic proven thrombotic microangiopathy to evaluate if some patients may have developed Catastrophic Antiphospholipid Syndrome (CAPS).  Thirty-five patients were enrolled. The available medical history, comorbidities, therapies, laboratory and autopsy findings were collected post-mortem from clinical records. IgA, IgG and IgM anti cardiolipin (ACA) and anti {beta}2 glycoprotein 1 ({beta}2GP1) antibodies, IgG and IgM anti phosphatidylserine/prothrombin (PS/PT) antibodies were tested for all the patients.  3/35 (8.6%) patients were slightly positive for aPL: one for ACA IgG and two for ACA IgM but values were low (< 3X the cut off). No patients tested positive for ACA IgA neither for {beta}2GP1 isotypes. 3/35 (8.6%) patients were positive for PS/PT, one for IgG and two for IgM, but values were less than 2X the cut off. No patients showed simultaneous positivity for ACA and PS/ PT.  It is difficult to categorize the vascular events into a conventional disease: we did not find significant association with anti-phospholipid antibodies. It is most likely that several factors contribute to trigger the hypercoagulability status and the thromboembolism but, on the basis our results, CAPS is probably not involved into the pathogenesis of these phenomena.

title: Targeting the NO-cGMP-PDE5 pathway in COVID-19 infection. The DEDALO project
abstract: A pandemic outbreak of COVID-19 has been sweeping the world since December. It begins as a respiratory infection that, mainly in men with diabetes or renal impairment, evolves into a systemic disease, with SARDS, progressive endothelial cell damage, abnormal clotting and impaired cardiovascular and liver function. Some clinical trials are testing biological drugs to limit the immune system dysregulation, "cytokines storm," that causes the systemic complications of COVID-19. The contraindications of these drugs and their cost raise concerns over the implications of their widespread availability.  Numerous clinical and experimental studies have revealed a role for the nitric oxide (NO)-cyclic GMP-phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) pathway in modulating low-grade inflammation in patients with metabolic diseases, offering cardiovascular protection. PDE5 inhibition favors an anti-inflammatory response by modulating activated T cells, reducing cytokine release, lowering fibrosis, increasing oxygen diffusion, stimulating vascular repair. PDE5 is highly expressed in the lungs, where its inhibition improves pulmonary fibrosis, a complication of severe COVID-19 disease.  We performed a systematic review of all evidence documenting any involvement of the NO-cGMP-PDE5 axis in the pathophysiology of COVID-19, presenting the ongoing clinical trials aimed at modulating this axis, including our own "silDEnafil administration in DiAbetic and dysmetaboLic patients with COVID-19 (DEDALO trial)."  The reviewed evidence suggests that PDE5 inhibitors could offer a new strategy in managing COVID-19 by (i) counteracting the Ang-II-mediated downregulation of AT-1 receptor; (ii) acting on monocyte switching, thus reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines, interstitial infiltration and the vessel damage responsible for alveolar hemorrhage-necrosis; (iii) inhibiting the transition of endothelial and smooth muscle cells to mesenchymal cells in the pulmonary artery, preventing clotting and thrombotic complications.  If the ongoing trials presented herein should provide positive findings, the low cost, wide availability and temperature stability of PDE5 inhibitors could make them a major resource to combat COVID-19 in developing countries.

title: [From SARS to COVID-19: pathogens, receptor, pathogenesis and principles of the treatment]
abstract: COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by 2019-nCoV and characterizes as an atypical pneumonia. Since 2019-nCoV is a newly emerging virus, the pathogenesis of COVID-19 is not well known. Most patients had a self-limited course, and some became severe even death. In this review, the authors compared two coronavirus outbreaks during the past two decades: the SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV. Among the biological nature of the pathogens, viral receptor distribution on the human cells, and the pathological findings in the targeted organs and clinical features of the patients with the diseases, found similarities and differences between the two diseases had been found. Due to the shared receptor ACE2 and the pathological similarities of the SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV diseases,authors proposed a pathogenesis model for COVID-19. Like the SARS-CoV disease, COVID-19 is a systematic disease and targets the lungs, vasculatures, and the immune system. The basic pathogenesis involves two interlinked processes: a severe lung inflammation and immune deficiency, both of which were related to an inappropriate immune response and over-production of cytokines. Thus, treatment approaches should include antiviral and anti-proinflammatory cytokines, anti-infectious and life support therapies, especially in patients with severe diseases.

title: COVID-19 severity correlates with airway epithelium-immune cell interactions identified by single-cell analysis
abstract: To investigate the immune response and mechanisms associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), we performed single-cell RNA sequencing on nasopharyngeal and bronchial samples from 19 clinically well-characterized patients with moderate or critical disease and from five healthy controls. We identified airway epithelial cell types and states vulnerable to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In patients with COVID-19, epithelial cells showed an average three-fold increase in expression of the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2, which correlated with interferon signals by immune cells. Compared to moderate cases, critical cases exhibited stronger interactions between epithelial and immune cells, as indicated by ligand-receptor expression profiles, and activated immune cells, including inflammatory macrophages expressing CCL2, CCL3, CCL20, CXCL1, CXCL3, CXCL10, IL8, IL1B and TNF. The transcriptional differences in critical cases compared to moderate cases likely contribute to clinical observations of heightened inflammatory tissue damage, lung injury and respiratory failure. Our data suggest that pharmacologic inhibition of the CCR1 and/or CCR5 pathways might suppress immune hyperactivation in critical COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 patients with hypertension have more severe disease: a multicenter retrospective observational study
abstract: This study aims to explore the effect of hypertension on disease progression and prognosis in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). A total of 310 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 were studied. A comparison was made between two groups of patients, those with hypertension and those without hypertension. Their demographic data, clinical manifestations, laboratory indicators, and treatment methods were collected and analyzed. A total of 310 patients, including 113 patients with hypertension and 197 patients without hypertension, were included in the analysis. Compared with patients without hypertension, patients with hypertension were older, were more likely to have diabetes and cerebrovascular disease, and were more likely to be transferred to the intensive care unit. The neutrophil count and lactate dehydrogenase, fibrinogen, and D-dimer levels in hypertensive patients were significantly higher than those in nonhypertensive patients (P < 0.05). However, multivariate analysis (adjusted for age and sex) failed to show that hypertension was an independent risk factor for COVID-19 mortality or severity. COVID-19 patients with hypertension were more likely than patients without hypertension to have severe pneumonia, excessive inflammatory reactions, organ and tissue damage, and deterioration of the disease. Patients with hypertension should be given additional attention to prevent worsening of their condition.

title: TNFα inhibitor may be effective for severe COVID-19: learning from toxic epidermal necrolysis
abstract: Increased inflammatory cytokines [such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] are observed in COVID-19 patients, especially in the severe group. The phenomenon of a cytokine storm may be the central inducer of apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells, which leads to rapid progression in severe group patients. Given the similarities of clinical features and pathogenesis between toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and COVID-19, we hypothesize that the application of etanercept, an inhibitor of TNFα, could attenuate disease progression in severe group COVID-19 patients by suppressing systemic auto-inflammatory responses. The reviews of this paper are available via the supplemental material section.

title: Ruxolitinib for tocilizumab‐refractory severe COVID‐19 infection
abstract: Whilst the majority of patients with COVID‐19 infection have mild self‐limiting symptoms, for some the SARS‐CoV2 virus can trigger a severe hyperinflammatory syndrome which is life threatening. Anti‐IL6 therapy has shown promise in restraining the hyperinflammatory syndrome and while IL‐6 is a pleiotropic mediatory of the inflammatory response, redundancy within inflammatory pathways means that the use of such targeted monoclonal therapy may have too restricted a repertoire in some patients. We present the case of a 53‐year‐old haematopoetic stem cell transplant recipient who developed a severe COVID‐19 that was refractory to anti‐IL6 therapy, but responded to Jak‐Stat inhibition with ruxolitinib, demonstrating its safety and efficacy in this setting.

title: Mechanisms of Virus-Induced Airway Immunity Dysfunction in the Pathogenesis of COPD Disease, Progression, and Exacerbation
abstract: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the integrated form of chronic obstructive bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema, characterized by persistent small airway inflammation and progressive irreversible airflow limitation. COPD is characterized by acute pulmonary exacerbations and associated accelerated lung function decline, hospitalization, readmission and an increased risk of mortality, leading to huge social-economic burdens. Recent evidence suggests ~50% of COPD acute exacerbations are connected with a range of respiratory viral infections. Nevertheless, respiratory viral infections have been linked to the severity and frequency of exacerbations and virus-induced secondary bacterial infections often result in a synergistic decline of lung function and longer hospitalization. Here, we review current advances in understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of COPD and the increased susceptibility to virus-induced exacerbations and associated immune dysfunction in patients with COPD. The multiple immune regulators and inflammatory signaling pathways known to be involved in host-virus responses are discussed. As respiratory viruses primarily target airway epithelial cells, virus-induced inflammatory responses in airway epithelium are of particular focus. Targeting virus-induced inflammatory pathways in airway epithelial cells such as Toll like receptors (TLRs), interferons, inflammasomes, or direct blockade of virus entry and replication may represent attractive future therapeutic targets with improved efficacy. Elucidation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of virus infections in COPD pathogenesis will undoubtedly facilitate the development of these potential novel therapies that may attenuate the relentless progression of this heterogeneous and complex disease and reduce morbidity and mortality.

title: Pulmonary Delivery of Fenretinide: A Possible Adjuvant Treatment in COVID-19
abstract: At present, there is no vaccine or effective standard treatment for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection (or coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)), which frequently leads to lethal pulmonary inflammatory responses. COVID-19 pathology is characterized by extreme inflammation and amplified immune response with activation of a cytokine storm. A subsequent progression to acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) can take place, which is often followed by death. The causes of these strong inflammatory responses in SARS-CoV-2 infection are still unknown. As uncontrolled pulmonary inflammation is likely the main cause of death in SARS-CoV-2 infection, anti-inflammatory therapeutic interventions are particularly important. Fenretinide N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide is a bioactive molecule characterized by poly-pharmacological properties and a low toxicity profile. Fenretinide is endowed with antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulating properties other than efficacy in obesity/diabetic pathologies. Its anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities, in particular, could likely have utility in multimodal therapies for the treatment of ALI/ARDS in COVID-19 patients. Moreover, fenretinide administration by pulmonary delivery systems could further increase its therapeutic value by carrying high drug concentrations to the lungs and triggering a rapid onset of activity. This is particularly important in SARS-CoV-2 infection, where only a narrow time window exists for therapeutic intervention.

title: Humoral Immune Responses in COVID-19 Patients: A Window on the State of the Art
abstract: The novel SARS-CoV-2 is a recently emerging virus causing a human pandemic. A great variety of symptoms associated with COVID-19 disease, ranging from mild to severe symptoms, eventually leading to death. Specific SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR is the standard method to screen symptomatic people; however, asymptomatic subjects and subjects with undetectable viral load escape from the screening, contributing to viral spread. Currently, the lock down imposed by many governments is an important measure to contain the spread, as there is no specific antiviral therapy or a vaccine and the main treatments are supportive. Therefore, there is urgent need to characterize the virus and the viral-mediated responses, in order to develop specific diagnostic and therapeutic tools to prevent viral transmission and efficiently cure COVID-19 patients. Here, we review the current studies on two viral mediated-responses, specifically the cytokine storm occurring in a subset of patients and the antibody response triggered by the infection. Further studies are needed to explore both the dynamics and the mechanisms of the humoral immune response in COVID-19 patients, in order to guide future vaccine design and antibody-based therapies for the management of the disease.

title: Mechanism-Based Treatment Strategies for IBD: Cytokines, Cell Adhesion Molecules, JAK Inhibitors, Gut Flora, and More.
abstract: Although TNF inhibitors revolutionized the therapy of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), we have been reaching a point where other therapies with different mechanisms of action are necessary. A rising number of elderly IBD patients with contraindications to established therapies and a growing group of patients losing response to anti-TNF therapy compel us to find safer, better-tolerated, and, ideally, personalized treatment options. However, in order to choose the right drug to fit a patient, it is indispensable to understand the pathomechanism involved in IBD.  The aim of this review is to explain the inflammatory signaling pathways in IBD and how to inhibit them with current and future therapeutic approaches. Next to biologic agents targeting inflammatory cytokines (anti-TNF agents, anti-IL-12/-23 agents, and specific inhibitors of IL-23), biologics blocking leukocyte trafficking to the gut (anti-integrin antibodies) are available nowadays. More recently, small molecules inhibiting the JAK-STAT pathway (JAK inhibitors) or preventing lymphocyte trafficking (sphingosine-1-phosphate modulators) have been approved or are under investigation. Furthermore, modifying the microbiota has potential therapeutic effects on IBD, and autologous hematopoietic or mesenchymal stem cell transplantation may be considered for a highly selected group of IBD patients. Key Message Physicians should understand the different mechanisms of action of the potential therapies for IBD to select the right drug for the right patient.

title: Crosstalk between endoplasmic reticulum stress and anti-viral activities: A novel therapeutic target for COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 caused by 2019-nCov/SARS-CoV-2 has become a pandemic with an urgent need for understanding the mechanisms and identifying a treatment. Viral infections including SARS-CoV are associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species, disturbances of Ca++ caused by unfolded protein response (UPR) mediated by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and is due to the exploitation of virus's own protein i.e., viroporins into the host cells. Several clinical trials are on-going including testing Remdesivir (anti-viral), Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine derivatives (anti-malarial drugs) etc. Unfortunately, each drug has specific limitations. Herein, we review the viral protein involvement to activate ER stress transducers (IRE-1, PERK, ATF-6) and their downstream signals; and evaluate combination therapies for COVID-19 mediated ER stress alterations. Melatonin is an immunoregulator, anti-pyretic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and ER stress modulator during viral infections. It enhances protective mechanisms for respiratory tract disorders. Andrographolide, isolated from Andrographis paniculata, has versatile biological activities including immunomodulation and determining SARS-CoV-2 binding site. Considering the properties of both compounds in terms of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-pyrogenic, anti-viral and ER stress modulation and computational approaches revealing andrographolide docks with the SARS-CoV2 binding site, we predict that this combination therapy may have potential utility against COVID-19.

title: Use of DAMPs and SAMPs as Therapeutic Targets or Therapeutics: A Note of Caution
abstract: This opinion article discusses the increasing attention paid to the role of activating damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in initiation of inflammatory diseases and suppressing/inhibiting DAMPs (SAMPs) in resolution of inflammatory diseases and, consequently, to the future roles of these novel biomarkers as therapeutic targets and therapeutics. Since controlled production of DAMPs and SAMPs is needed to achieve full homeostatic restoration and repair from tissue injury, only their pathological, not their homeostatic, concentrations should be therapeutically tackled. Therefore, distinct caveats are proposed regarding choosing DAMPs and SAMPs for therapeutic purposes. For example, we discuss the need to a priori identify and define a context-dependent “homeostatic DAMP:SAMP ratio” in each case and a “homeostatic window” of DAMP and SAMP concentrations to guarantee a safe treatment modality to patients. Finally, a few clinical examples of how DAMPs and SAMPs might be used as therapeutic targets or therapeutics in the future are discussed, including inhibition of DAMPs in hyperinflammatory processes (e.g., systemic inflammatory response syndrome, as currently observed in Covid-19), administration of SAMPs in chronic inflammatory diseases, inhibition of SAMPs in hyperresolving processes (e.g., compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome), and administration/induction of DAMPs in vaccination procedures and anti-cancer therapy.

title: Survival of covid-19 patients requires precise immune regulation: the hypothetical immunoprotective role of nicotinic agonists
abstract: recent studies have provided novel evidence regarding the effect of nicotine agonists on the prevention or modulation of cytokines storm and reduction of infection. In this study we tried to attempt to address these issues from a therapeutic perspective of nicotine agonists in this manner and we describe one of the most challenging theories of immunotherapy in coronavirus-19 (COV-19). The analysis of the proposed mechanism goes beyond the physiological consequences of a way to design new strategies to provide anti-inflammatory drugs.

title: Pharmacological agents under investigation in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 and the importance of melatonin
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a life-threatening infectious respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 pandemic causing morbidities and even deaths worldwide revealed that there is urgent need to find pharmacological agents or vaccines. Although there are a lot of agents under investigation, there is no approved agent for the prevention or treatment of the COVID-19 yet. Treatment of patients remains mainly supportive as well as compassionate use of the agents under investigation. It is well established that excessive inflammatory and immune response as well as oxidative injury play a critical role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. In this review, we aimed to update knowledge about pathogenesis, clinical features and pharmacological treatment of COVID-19 and review the potential beneficial effects of ancient antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory molecule melatonin for prevention and treatment of COVID-19.

title: British Society of Gastroenterology guidance for management of inflammatory bowel disease during the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic is putting unprecedented pressures on healthcare systems globally. Early insights have been made possible by rapid sharing of data from China and Italy. In the UK, we have rapidly mobilised inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) centres in order that preparations can be made to protect our patients and the clinical services they rely on. This is a novel coronavirus; much is unknown as to how it will affect people with IBD. We also lack information about the impact of different immunosuppressive medications. To address this uncertainty, the British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) COVID-19 IBD Working Group has used the best available data and expert opinion to generate a risk grid that groups patients into highest, moderate and lowest risk categories. This grid allows patients to be instructed to follow the UK government’s advice for shielding, stringent and standard advice regarding social distancing, respectively. Further considerations are given to service provision, medical and surgical therapy, endoscopy, imaging and clinical trials.

title: Severe Acute Lung Injury Related to COVID‐19 Infection: A Review and the Possible Role for Escin
abstract: Acute lung injury (ALI) represents the most severe form of the viral infection sustained by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Today, it is a pandemic infection, and even if several compounds are used as curative or supportive treatment, there is not a definitive treatment. In particular, antiviral treatment used for the treatment of several viral infections (eg, hepatitis C, HIV, Ebola, severe acute respiratory syndrome–coronavirus) are today used with a mild or moderate effect on the lung injury. In fact, ALI seems to be related to the inflammatory burst and release of proinflammatory mediators that induce intra‐alveolar fibrin accumulation that reduces the gas exchange. Therefore, an add‐on therapy with drugs able to reduce inflammation, edema, and cell activation has been proposed as well as a treatment with interferon, corticosteroids or monoclonal antibodies (eg, tocilizumab). In this article reviewing literature data related to the use of escin, an agent having potent anti‐inflammatory and anti‐viral effects in lung injury, we suggest that it could represent a therapeutic opportunity as add‐on therapy in ALI related to COVID‐19 infection.

title: n−3 Fatty acids, inflammation, and immunity— Relevance to postsurgical and critically III patients
abstract: Excessive or inappropriate inflammation and immunosuppression are components of the response to surgery, trauma, injury, and infection in some individuals and these can lead, progressively, to sepsis and septic shock. The hyperinflammation is characterized by the production of inflammatory cytokines, arachidonic acid-derived eicosanoids, and other inflammatory mediators, while the immunosuppression is characterized by impairment of antigen presentation and of T helper cell type-1 responses. Long-chain n−3 FA from fish oil decrease the production of inflammatory cytokines and eicosanoids. They act both directly (by replacing arachidonic acid as an eicosanoid substrate and by inhibiting arachidonic acid metabolism) and indirectly (by altering the expression of inflammatory genes through effects on transcription factor activation). Thus, long-chain n−3 FA are potentially useful anti-inflammatory agents and may be of benefit in patients at risk of developing sepsis. As such, an emerging application of n−3 FA is in surgical or critically ill patients where they may be added to parenteral or enteral formulas. Parenteral or enteral nutrition including n−3 FA appears to preserve immune function better than standard formulas and appears to partly prevent some aspects of the inflammatory response. Studies to date are suggestive of clinical benefits from these approaches, especially in postsurgical patients.

title: Hazardous Postoperative Outcomes of Unexpected COVID-19 Infected Patients: A Call for Global Consideration of Sampling all Asymptomatic Patients Before Surgical Treatment
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus was identified as the cause of many pneumonia cases in China and eventually declared as a pandemic as the virus spread globally. Few reports were published on the outcome of surgical procedures in diagnosed COVID-19 patients and even fewer on the surgical outcomes of asymptomatic undiagnosed COVID-19 surgical patients. We aimed to review all published data regarding surgical outcomes of preoperatively asymptomatic untested coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients.  This report is a review on the perioperative period in COVID-19 patients who were preoperatively asymptomatic and not tested for COVID-19. Searches were conducted in PubMed April 4th, 2020. All publications, of any design, were considered for inclusion.  Four reports were identified through our literature search, comprising 64 COVID-19 carriers, of them 51 were diagnosed only in the postoperative period. Synthesis of these reports, concerning the postoperative outcomes of patients diagnosed with COVID-19 during the perioperative period, suggested a 14/51 (27.5%) postoperative mortality rate and severe mostly pulmonic complications, as well as medical staff exposure and transmission.  COVID-19 may have potential hazardous implications on the perioperative course. Our review presents results of unacceptable mortality rate and a high rate of severe complications. These observations warrant further well-designed studies, yet we believe it is time for a global consideration of sampling all asymptomatic patients before surgical treatment.

title: What next for the coronavirus response?

title: Inhibition of metalloproteinases in therapy for severe lung injury due to COVID-19
abstract: Since its first appearance in December 2019 in the Chinese province of Wuhan, COVID-19 has spread rapidly throughout the world and poses a serious threat to public health. Acute respiratory failure due to widespread lung inflammation progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with an altered pulmonary and alveolar function that can lead to disability, prolong hospitalizations, and adverse outcomes. While there is no specific treatment for severe acute lung injury (ALI) and ARDS due to the COVID-19 and the management is mostly supportive, it is very important to better understand the pathophysiological processes activated by the inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and metalloproteinases with the aim of their subsequent inhibition in the course of the complex treatment. Herein, we will discuss the pathophysiological mechanisms of ALI/ARDS, with a focus on the pivotal role played by matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and the kinin-kallikrein system (KKS), and the effects of the possible pharmacological interventions. Aprotinin is a nonspecific protease inhibitor especially of trypsin, chymotrypsin, plasmin, and kallikrein, and it is many years in clinical use. Aprotinin inhibits the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and involved in the process of glycoprotein homeostasis. Experimental data support the hypothesis that the use of aprotinin to inhibit MMPs and KKS may be a new potential approach to the treatment of ALI / ARDS.

title: Aberrant pathogenic GM-CSF+ T cells and inflammatory CD14+CD16+ monocytes in severe pulmonary syndrome patients of a new coronavirus
abstract: Pathogenic human coronavirus infections, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV), cause high morbidity and mortality 1,2. Recently, a severe pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome caused by a new coronavirus was reported at December 2019 (2019-nCoV) in the city Wuhan, Hubei province, China3–5, which was also named as pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome (PARS)6. Up to 9th of February 2020, at least 37, 251 cases have been reported with 812 fatal cases according to the report from China CDC. However, the immune mechanism that potential orchestrated acute mortality from patients of 2019-nCoV is still unknown. Here we show that after the 2019-nCoV infection, CD4+T lymphocytes are rapidly activated to become pathogenic T helper (Th) 1 cells and generate GM-CSF etc. The cytokines environment induces inflammatory CD14+CD16+ monocytes with high expression of IL-6 and accelerates the inflammation. These aberrant and excessive immune cells may enter the pulmonary circulation in huge numbers and play an immune damaging role to causing lung functional disability and quick mortality. Our results demonstrate that excessive non-effective host immune responses by pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes may associate with severe lung pathology. Therefore, we suggest that monoclonal antibody that targets the GM-CSF or interleukin 6 receptor may potentially curb immunopathology caused by 2019-nCoV and consequently win more time for virus clearance.

title: Metabolic Syndrome and COVID 19: Endocrine-Immune-Vascular Interactions Shapes Clinical Course
abstract: The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is caused by the novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Individuals with metabolic syndrome are at increased risk for poor disease outcomes and mortality from COVID-19. The pathophysiologic mechanisms for these observations have not been fully elucidated. A critical interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) facilitates viral entry into the host cell. ACE2 is expressed in pancreatic islets, vascular endothelium, and adipose tissue, and the SARS-CoV-2 -ACE2 interaction in these tissues, along with other factors, govern the spectrum and the severity of clinical manifestations among COVID-19 patients with metabolic syndrome. Moreover, the pro-inflammatory milieu observed in patients with metabolic syndrome may contribute towards COVID-19-mediated host immune dysregulation, including sub-optimal immune responses, hyper-inflammation, microvascular dysfunction, and thrombosis. This review describes the spectrum of clinical features, the likely pathophysiologic mechanisms and potential implications for the management of metabolic syndrome in COVID-19 patients.

title: COVID-19 revisiting inflammatory pathways of arthritis
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, which predominantly affects the lungs and, under certain circumstances, leads to an excessive or uncontrolled immune activation and cytokine response in alveolar structures. The pattern of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced in COVID-19 has similarities to those targeted in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Several clinical studies are underway that test the effects of inhibiting IL-6, IL-1β or TNF or targeting cytokine signalling via Janus kinase inhibition in the treatment of COVID-19. Despite these similarities, COVID-19 and other zoonotic coronavirus-mediated diseases do not induce clinical arthritis, suggesting that a local inflammatory niche develops in alveolar structures and drives the disease process. COVID-19 constitutes a challenge for patients with inflammatory arthritis for several reasons, in particular, the safety of immune interventions during the pandemic. Preliminary data, however, do not suggest that patients with inflammatory arthritis are at increased risk of COVID-19.

title: Database on the taxonomical characterisation and potential toxigenic capacities of microorganisms used for the industrial production of food enzymes and feed additives, which do not have a recommendation for Qualified Presumption of Safety

title: Glycyrrhizin Exerts Antioxidative Effects in H5N1 Influenza A Virus-Infected Cells and Inhibits Virus Replication and Pro-Inflammatory Gene Expression
abstract: Glycyrrhizin is known to exert antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects. Here, the effects of an approved parenteral glycyrrhizin preparation (Stronger Neo-Minophafen C) were investigated on highly pathogenic influenza A H5N1 virus replication, H5N1-induced apoptosis, and H5N1-induced pro-inflammatory responses in lung epithelial (A549) cells. Therapeutic glycyrrhizin concentrations substantially inhibited H5N1-induced expression of the pro-inflammatory molecules CXCL10, interleukin 6, CCL2, and CCL5 (effective glycyrrhizin concentrations 25 to 50 µg/ml) but interfered with H5N1 replication and H5N1-induced apoptosis to a lesser extent (effective glycyrrhizin concentrations 100 µg/ml or higher). Glycyrrhizin also diminished monocyte migration towards supernatants of H5N1-infected A549 cells. The mechanism by which glycyrrhizin interferes with H5N1 replication and H5N1-induced pro-inflammatory gene expression includes inhibition of H5N1-induced formation of reactive oxygen species and (in turn) reduced activation of NFκB, JNK, and p38, redox-sensitive signalling events known to be relevant for influenza A virus replication. Therefore, glycyrrhizin may complement the arsenal of potential drugs for the treatment of H5N1 disease.

title: The Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer perspective on regulation of interleukin-6 signaling in COVID-19-related systemic inflammatory response
abstract: The pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has placed an unprecedented burden on healthcare systems around the world. In patients who experience severe disease, acute respiratory distress is often accompanied by a pathological immune reaction, sometimes referred to as 'cytokine storm'. One hallmark feature of the profound inflammatory state seen in patients with COVID-19 who succumb to pneumonia and hypoxia is marked elevation of serum cytokines, especially interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 17 (IL-17), interleukin 8 (IL-8) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Initial experience from the outbreaks in Italy, China and the USA has anecdotally demonstrated improved outcomes for critically ill patients with COVID-19 with the administration of cytokine-modulatory therapies, especially anti-IL-6 agents. Although ongoing trials are investigating anti-IL-6 therapies, access to these therapies is a concern, especially as the numbers of cases worldwide continue to climb. An immunology-informed approach may help identify alternative agents to modulate the pathological inflammation seen in patients with COVID-19. Drawing on extensive experience administering these and other immune-modulating therapies, the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer offers this perspective on potential alternatives to anti-IL-6 that may also warrant consideration for management of the systemic inflammatory response and pulmonary compromise that can be seen in patients with severe COVID-19.

title: Pentraxin-3 modulates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response and attenuates liver injury.
abstract: Acute-on-chronic liver injury is characterized by an important inflammatory response frequently associated with endotoxemia. In this context, acute-phase proteins such as Pentraxin-3 (PTX3) are released; however, little is known about their role in chronic liver disease. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of PTX3 in liver injury. The role of PTX3 was evaluated in cultured human cells, liver tissue slices, and mice with acute-on-chronic liver injury. PTX3 expression was assessed in tissue and serum samples from 54 patients with alcoholic hepatitis. PTX3 expression was up-regulated in animal models of liver injury and strongly induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Liver cell fractionation showed that macrophages and activated hepatic stellate cells were the main cell types expressing PTX3 in liver injury. Ex vivo and in vivo studies showed that PTX3 treatment attenuated LPS-induced liver injury, inflammation, and cell recruitment. Mechanistically, PTX3 mediated the hepatic stellate cell wound-healing response. Moreover, PTX3 modulated LPS-induced inflammation in human primary liver macrophages and peripheral monocytes by enhancing a TIR domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-dependent response and favoring a macrophage interleukin-10-like phenotype. Additionally, hepatic and plasma PTX3 levels were increased in patients with alcoholic hepatitis, a prototypic acute-on-chronic condition; and its expression correlated with disease severity scores, endotoxemia, infections, and short-term mortality, thus suggesting that expression of PTX3 found in patients could be a counterregulatory response to injury.  Experimental and human evidence suggests that, in addition to being a potential biomarker for alcoholic hepatitis, PTX3 participates in the wound-healing response and attenuates LPS-induced liver injury and inflammation; therefore, administration of PTX3 could be a promising therapeutic strategy in acute-on-chronic conditions, particularly those associated with endotoxemia. (Hepatology 2017;66:953-968).

title: Targeting the Linear Ubiquitin Assembly Complex to Modulate the Host Response and Improve Influenza A Virus Induced Lung Injury
abstract: Influenza virus infection is characterized by symptoms ranging from mild congestion and body aches to severe pulmonary edema and respiratory failure. While the majority of those exposed have minor symptoms and recover with little morbidity, an estimated 500,000 people succumb to IAV-related complications each year worldwide. In these severe cases, an exaggerated inflammatory response, known as "cytokine storm", occurs which results in damage to the respiratory epithelial barrier and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Data from retrospective human studies as well as experimental animal models of influenza virus infection highlight the fine line between an excessive and an inadequate immune response, where the host response must balance viral clearance with exuberant inflammation. Current pharmacological modulators of inflammation, including corticosteroids and statins, have not been successful in improving outcomes during influenza virus infection. We have reported that the amplitude of the inflammatory response is regulated by Linear Ubiquitin Assembly Complex (LUBAC) activity and that dampening of LUBAC activity is protective during severe influenza virus infection. Therapeutic modulation of LUBAC activity may be crucial to improve outcomes during severe influenza virus infection, as it functions as a molecular rheostat of the host response. Here we review the evidence for modulating inflammation to ameliorate influenza virus infection-induced lung injury, data on current anti-inflammatory strategies, and potential new avenues to target viral inflammation and improve outcomes.

title: Expanded Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells (UC-MSCs) as a Therapeutic Strategy in Managing Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients: The Case for Compassionate Use
abstract: COVID-19 has affected the United States leading to a national emergency with health care and economic impact, propelling the country into a recession with disrupted lifestyles not seen in recent history. COVID-19 is a serious illness leading to multiple deaths in various countries including the United States. Several million Americans satisfy the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria for being high risk. Unfortunately, the available supply of medical beds and equipment for mechanical ventilation are much less than is projected to be needed. The World Health Organization (WHO) and multiple agencies led by the CDC in the United States have attempted to organize intensive outbreak investigation programs utilizing appropriate preventive measures, evaluation, and treatment. The clinical spectrum of COVID-19 varies from asymptomatic forms to conditions encompassing multiorgan and systemic manifestations in terms of septic shock, and multiple organ dysfunction (MOD) syndromes. The presently approved treatments are supportive but not curative for the disease. There are multiple treatments being studied. These include vaccines, medications Remdesivir and hydroxychloroquine and potentially combination therapy. Finally, expanded umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells or (UC-MSCs) may have a role and are being studied. The cure of COVID-19 is essentially dependent on the patients' own immune system. When the immune system is over activated in an attempt to kill the virus, this can lead to the production of a large number of inflammatory factors, resulting in severe cytokine storm. The cytokine storm may induce organ damage followed by the edema, dysfunction of air exchange, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute cardiac injury, and secondary infection, which may lead to death. Thus, at this point, the avoidance of the cytokine storm may be the key for the treatment of HCOV-19 infected patients.In China, where there was limited availability of effective modalities to manage COVID-19 several patients were treated with expanded UC-MSCs. Additionally, the Italian College of Anesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care have reported guidelines to treat coronavirus patients with stem cells in the hope of decreasing the number of patients going to the ICU, and, also relatively quickly getting them out of ICU. In this manuscript, we describe the urgent need for various solutions, pathogenesis of coronavirus and the clinical evidence for treatment of COVID-19 with stem cells. The limited but emerging evidence regarding UC MSC in managing COVID-19 suggests that it might be considered for compassionate use in critically ill patients to reduce morbidity and mortality in the United States. The administration and Coronavirus Task Force might wish to approach the potential of expanded UC-MSCs as an evolutionary therapeutic strategy in managing COVID-19 illness with a 3-pronged approach: If proven safe and effective on a specific and limited basis 1. Minimize regulatory burden by all agencies so that critically ill COVID-19 patients will have access regardless of their financial circumstance.2. Institute appropriate safeguards to avoid negative consequences from unscrupulous actors.3. With proper informed consent from patients or proxy when necessary, and subject to accumulation of data in that cohort, allow the procedure to be initiated in critically ill patients who are not responding to conventional therapies. Coronavirus, COVID-19, cytokine storm, multiorgan failure, expanded umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells.

title: A new pharmacological approach based on remdesivir aerosolized administration on SARS-CoV-2 pulmonary inflammation: A possible and rational therapeutic application
abstract: The new zoonotic coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) responsible for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a new strain of coronavirus not previously seen in humans and which appears to come from bat species. It originated in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, and spread rapidly throughout the world, causing over 5,569,679 global cases and 351,866 deaths in almost every country in the world, including Europe, particularly Italy. In general, based on existing data published to date, 80.9% of patients infected with the virus develop mild infection; 13.8% severe pneumonia; 4.7% respiratory failure, septic shock or multi-organ failure; 3% of these cases are fatal. Critical patients have been shown to develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and hospitalization in intensive care units. The average age of patients admitted to hospital is 57-79 years, with one third half with an underlying disease. Asymptomatic infections have also been described, but their frequency is not known. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is mainly airborne from one person to another via droplets. The data available so far seem to indicate that SARS-CoV-2 is capable of producing an excessive immune reaction in the host. The virus attacks type II pneumocytes in the lower bronchi through the binding of the Spike protein (S protein) to viral receptors, of which the angiotensin 2 conversion enzyme (ACE2) receptor is the most important. ACE2 receptor is widely expressed in numerous tissues, including the oropharynx and conjunctiva, but mostly distributed in ciliated bronchial epithelial cells and type II pneumocytes in the lower bronchi. The arrival of SARS-CoV-2 in the lungs causes severe primary interstitial viral pneumonia that can lead to the "cytokine storm syndrome", a deadly uncontrolled systemic inflammatory response triggered by the activation of interleukin 6 (IL-6), whose effect is extensive lung tissue damage and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), that are life-threatening for patients with COVID-19. In the absence of a therapy of proven efficacy, current management consists of off-label or compassionate use therapies based on antivirals, antiparasitic agents in both oral and parenteral formulation, anti-inflammatory drugs, oxygen therapy and heparin support and convalescent plasma. Like most respiratory viruses can function and replicate at low temperatures (i.e. 34-35 °C) and assuming viral thermolability of SARS-CoV-2, local instillation or aerosol of antiviral (i.e. remdesivir) in humid heat vaporization (40°-41 °C) in the first phase of infection (phenotype I, before admission), both in asymptomatic but nasopharyngeal swab positive patients, together with antiseptic-antiviral oral gargles and povidone-iodine eye drops for conjunctiva (0,8-5% conjunctival congestion), would attack the virus directly through the receptors to which it binds, significantly decreasing viral replication, risk of evolution to phenotypes IV and V, reducing hospitalization and therefore death.

title: The Inhibitory Effect of Curcumin on Virus-Induced Cytokine Storm and Its Potential Use in the Associated Severe Pneumonia
abstract: Coronavirus infection, including SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV2, causes daunting diseases that can be fatal because of lung failure and systemic cytokine storm. The development of coronavirus-evoked pneumonia is associated with excessive inflammatory responses in the lung, known as “cytokine storms,” which results in pulmonary edema, atelectasis, and acute lung injury (ALI) or fatal acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). No drugs are available to suppress overly immune response-mediated lung injury effectively. In light of the low toxicity and its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral activity, it is plausible to speculate that curcumin could be used as a therapeutic drug for viral pneumonia and ALI/ARDS. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the mounting evidence obtained from preclinical studies using animal models of lethal pneumonia where curcumin exerts protective effects by regulating the expression of both pro- and anti-inflammatory factors such as IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and COX-2, promoting the apoptosis of PMN cells, and scavenging the reactive oxygen species (ROS), which exacerbates the inflammatory response. These studies provide a rationale that curcumin can be used as a therapeutic agent against pneumonia and ALI/ARDS in humans resulting from coronaviral infection.

title: A tertiary center experience of multiple myeloma patients with COVID-19: lessons learned and the path forward
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus, has resulted in over 100,000 deaths in the United States. Our institution has treated over 2,000 COVID-19 patients during the pandemic in New York City. The pandemic directly impacts cancer patients and the organization of cancer care. Mount Sinai Hospital has a large and diverse multiple myeloma population. Here, we report the characteristics of COVID-19 infection and serological response in multiple myeloma (MM) patients in a large tertiary care institution in New York.  We performed a retrospective study of a cohort of 58 patients with a plasma cell disorder (54 MM, 4 smoldering MM) who developed COVID-19 between March 1, 2020 and April 30, 2020. We report epidemiological, clinical and laboratory characteristics including persistence of viral detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody testing, treatments initiated, and outcomes.  Of the 58 patients diagnosed with COVID-19, 36 were hospitalized and 22 were managed at home. The median age was 67 years; 52% of patients were male and 63% were non-white. Hypertension (64%), hyperlipidemia (62%), obesity (37%), diabetes mellitus (28%), chronic kidney disease (CKD, 24%) and lung disease (21%) were the most common comorbidities. In the total cohort, 14 patients (24%) died. Older age (>70 years), male sex and cardiovascular risk were significantly (p<0.05) associated with hospitalization. Among hospitalized patients, laboratory findings demonstrated elevation of traditional inflammatory markers (CRP, ferritin, D-dimer) and a significant (p<0.05) association between elevated inflammatory markers, severe hypogammaglobulinemia, non-white race, and mortality. Ninety-six percent (22/23) of patients developed antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 at a median of 32 days after initial diagnosis. Median time to PCR negativity was 43 (range 19-68) days from initial positive PCR.  Drug exposure and MM disease status at the time of contracting COVID-19 had no bearing on patient outcome. Mounting a severe inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2, and severe hypogammaglobulinemia were associated with higher mortality. These findings pave a path to identification of vulnerable patients who need early intervention to improve outcome of myeloma patients in future outbreaks of COVID-19. The majority of myeloma patients mounted a specific antibody response to SARS-CoV-2.

title: Rationale for Evaluating PDE4 Inhibition for Mitigating against Severe Inflammation in COVID-19 Pneumonia and Beyond
abstract: In the absence of definitive anti-viral therapy, there is considerable interest in mitigating against severe inflammatory reactions in coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia to improve survival. These reactions are sometimes termed cytokine storm. PDE4 inhibitors (PDE4i) have anti-inflammatory properties with approved indications in inflammatory skin and joint diseases as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Furthermore, multiple animal models demonstrate strong anti-inflammatory effects of PDE4i in respiratory models of viral and bacterial infection and also after chemically mediated lung injury. The rationale for PDE4i use in COVID-19 patients comes from the multimodal mechanism of action with cytokine, chemokine, and other key pathway inhibition all achieved with an excellent safety profile. We highlight how PDE4i could be an overlooked treatment from the rheumatologic and respiratory armamentarium, which has potential beneficial immune-modulation for treating severe COVID-19 pneumonia associated with cytokine storms. The proposed use of PDE4i is also supported by age-related immune changes in inflammation severity in PDE4i modifiable pathways in primate coronavirus disease. In conclusion, over-exuberant anti-viral immune responses in older patients with COVID-19 may pose a substantial risk to patient survival and mitigation against such hyper-inflammation with PDE4i, especially with anti-viral agents, is a strategy that need to be pursed, especially in older patients.

title: Could SARS-CoV-2-Induced Hyperinflammation Magnify the Severity of Coronavirus Disease (CoViD-19) Leading to Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome?

title: Part I. SARS-CoV-2 triggered ‘PANIC’ attack in severe COVID-19()
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has produced a world-wide collapse of social and economic infrastructure, as well as constraining our freedom of movement. This respiratory tract infection is unprecedented in that it targets the most distal and highly vulnerable aspect of the human bronchopulmonary tree, specifically, the alveoli that are responsible for the loading of oxygen upon red cell hemoglobin for use by all of the body's tissues. In most symptomatic individuals, the reaction is a productive and mild immune-mediated syndrome, with limited damage to the lung tissues. About 20% of those affected experience a virus capable of producing what can only be described as a cataclysmic set of immune activation responses that can culminate in the diffuse and irreversible obliteration of the distal alveoli, that then leads to a virtual collapse of the gas-exchange apparatus. Here, in Part I of a duology on the characterization and potential treatment for COVID-19, we define severe COVID-19 as a consequence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus' ability to trigger what we now designate for the first time, as a ‘Prolific Activation of a Network-Immune-Inflammatory Crisis’, or ‘PANIC’ Attack, in the alveolar tree. In Part II we describe an immunotherapeutic hypothesis worthy of the organization of a randomized clinical trial in order to ascertain whether a repurposed, generic, inexpensive, and widely available agent is capable of abolishing ‘PANIC’; thereby preventing or mitigating severe COVID-19, with monumental ramifications for world health, and the global pandemic that continues to threaten it.

title: COVID-19 Comes 40 Years After AIDS - Any Lesson?
abstract: The pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has hit health-care systems and societies in an unprecedented manner. In 1981, the first cases of AIDS were reported and wide diagnostic testing helped to characterize high-risk groups and the global burden of the epidemic. With Coronavirus Disease (COVID)-19, everything has happened too fast and both cases and fatalities are huge but still uncertain in most places. Diagnostic testing of active and past SARS-CoV-2 infections needs to expand rapidly, ideally using rapid tests. COVID-19 deaths are highly concentrated in the elderly population, with a large proportion of fatalities being "with" rather than "by" SARS-CoV-2 infection. They are often the result of inadequate health care due to overwhelming demands. To date, there is no specific therapy for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several antivirals are being tested clinically, including remdesivir, at this time the most promising. For others such as lopinavir/ritonavir, neither significant virological nor clinical benefit has been shown. Given the characteristic pulmonary cytokine storm underlying the pathogenic mechanism of severe COVID-19 pneumonia and acute respiratory distress, antiinflammatory agents are being investigated. The benefit of orticosteroids, hydroxychloroquine, etc., is limited. Monoclonal antibodies targeting different pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tocilizumab, an anti-interleukin 6 agent, are being tried with encouraging results. Ultimately a protective vaccine will be the best response for controlling the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Metabolic disturbances and inflammatory dysfunction predict severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a retrospective study
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is spreading worldwide with 16,558 deaths till date. Serum albumin, high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C), and C-reactive protein have been known to be associated with the severity and mortality of community-acquired pneumonia. However, the characteristics and role of metabolic and inflammatory indicators in COVID-19 is unclear.  We included 97 hospitalized patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19. Epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory indices; radiological features; and treatment were analysed. The differences in the clinical and laboratory parameters between mild and severe COVID-19 patients and the role of these indicators in severity prediction of COVID-19 were investigated.  All were Wuhan residents with contact with confirmed COVID-19 cases. The median age was 39 years (IQR: 30-59). The most common presenting symptoms were fever (58.8%), cough (55.7%), and fatigue (33%). Other features were lymphopenia, impaired fasting glucose, hypoproteinaemia, hypoalbuminemia, low high-density lipoproteinemia. Decrease in lymphocyte count, serum total protein, serum albumin, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), ApoA1, CD3+T%, and CD8+T% were found to be valuable in predicting the transition of COVID-19 from mild to severe illness. Chest computed tomography (CT) images showed that the absorption of bilateral lung lesions synchronized with the recovery of metabolic and inflammatory indicators.  Hypoproteinaemia, hypoalbuminemia, low high-density lipoproteinemia, and decreased ApoA1, CD3+T%, and CD8+T% could predict severity of COVID-19. Lymphocyte count, total serum protein, and HDL-C may be potentially useful for the evaluation of COVID-19.

title: The 20th Conference of the Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver Poster Presentation

title: SARS-CoV-2-IgG response is different in COVID-19 outpatients and asymptomatic contact persons
abstract: Commercially available immunoassays have been developed for sensitive and specific detection of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. While a fast and reliable IgG response has been reported for samples from hospitalized COVID-19 patients, less is known about ambulatory patients. We evaluated the SARS-CoV-2-IgG response by the Anti-SARS-CoV-2-ELISA IgG (Euroimmun) in a defined cohort of SARS-CoV-2-PCR-confirmed outpatients and asymptomatic contact persons including 137 serum samples from PCR-confirmed outpatients (n = 111) and asymptomatic but PCR-positive contact persons (n = 26) sent to our laboratory as part of routine diagnostics for determination of SARS-CoV-2-IgG. Overall positivity rate for SARS-CoV-2-IgG was 81.1% in outpatients (irrespective of sampling before or after day 21 after onset of symptoms) but significantly lower in asymptomatic contact persons (15.4%, p < 0.0001). In contact persons without symptoms the ct values of the PCR assays were significantly higher (5 to 7 threshold cycles) than in outpatients, and ct values were significantly negative correlated to the SARS-CoV-2-IgG ratio, suggesting a lower viral load as a possible explanation for lower rate of seropositivity. In summary, our study shows that serological response to SARS-CoV-2 in outpatients including asymptomatic persons is less pronounced than in hospitalized patients. Further controlled studies are urgently needed to determine serological response in outpatients and asymptomatic persons since this is the main target population for seroepidemiological investigations.

title: Nothing will ever be as before. Reflections on the COVID-19 epidemics by nephrologists in eleven countries

title: Intravenous Thrombolysis for stroke in a COVID-19 Positive Filipino Patient, A Case Report
abstract: The 2019 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which was first reported in Wuhan, China last December 2019, has been declared an emergency by the World Health Organization but eventually progressed to become a Pandemic. To date, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has affected at least 100,000 individuals worldwide, reaching thousands of mortalities[1], . In the Philippines, the number of COVID-19 confirmed positive cases is over 636 and is expected to rise.[8] Respiratory infections alongside their comorbidities can induce acute myocardial infarction and acute ischemic stroke.[3] These may further bring challenges in the management and administration of Intravenous (IV) Alteplase in eligible patients. Currently, there are no case reports in the administration IV Altepase in ischemic stroke patients who are COVID-19 positive. We present a case of a 62-year old female who was admitted due to cough, colds and shortness of breath of 2 weeks duration and was tested to be COVD-19 positive. She suffered from an ischemic stroke while in the Medical Intensive Care Unit and was given Intravenous thrombolysis.

title: COVID-19 pandemic: an overview of epidemiology, parthenogenesis, diagnostics and potential vaccines and therapeutics
abstract: At the time of writing this review, severe acute respiratory coronavirus syndrome-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has infected more than 2,355,853 patients and resulted in more than 164,656 deaths worldwide (as of 20 April 2020). This review highlights the preventive measures, available clinical therapies and the potential of vaccine development against SARS-CoV-2 by taking into consideration the strong genetic similarities of the 2003 epidemic SARS-CoV. Recent studies are investigating the repurposing of US FDA-approved drugs as there is no available vaccine yet with many attempts under clinical evaluation. Several antivirals, antimalarials and immunomodulators that have shown activity against SARS-CoV and Middle East coronavirus respiratory syndromes are being evaluated. In particular, hydroxychloroquine, remdesivir, favipiravir, arbidol, tocilizumab and bevacizumab have shown promising results. The main aim of this review is to provide an overview of this pandemic and where we currently stand.

title: The role of infection in the aetiology of inflammatory bowel disease
abstract: We have greatly increased our understanding of the genetics of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in the last decade; however, migrant studies highlight the importance of environment in disease risk. The possibility that IBD is an infection has been debated since the first description of Crohn’s disease. Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis was the first organism to be suggested as an IBD pathogen, and it has been argued that it fulfils Koch’s postulates and could be designated the cause of Crohn’s disease. Other organisms have been postulated as possible IBD pathogens, including various Helicobacter species, one of which has been identified in primate colitis; others are widely used in animal models of IBD. Adherent-invasive Escherichia coli appear specific to ileal Crohn’s disease and have been shown to induce the release of TNF-α, a key cytokine in IBD inflammation. The aim of this article is to give a concise overview of the infections postulated as being relevant to the onset of IBD. We will also briefly cover the immunology underpinning IBD, in addition to reviewing current knowledge regarding other microorganisms that are associated with modifying the risk of developing IBD. It may be that infectious organisms have an orchestrator role in the development of dysbiosis and subsequently IBD.

title: Zinc and respiratory tract infections: Perspectives for COVID-19 (Review)
abstract: In view of the emerging COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus, the search for potential protective and therapeutic antiviral strategies is of particular and urgent interest. Zinc is known to modulate antiviral and antibacterial immunity and regulate inflammatory response. Despite the lack of clinical data, certain indications suggest that modulation of zinc status may be beneficial in COVID-19. In vitro experiments demonstrate that Zn(2+) possesses antiviral activity through inhibition of SARS-CoV RNA polymerase. This effect may underlie therapeutic efficiency of chloroquine known to act as zinc ionophore. Indirect evidence also indicates that Zn(2+) may decrease the activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), known to be the receptor for SARS-CoV-2. Improved antiviral immunity by zinc may also occur through up-regulation of interferon α production and increasing its antiviral activity. Zinc possesses anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting NF-κB signaling and modulation of regulatory T-cell functions that may limit the cytokine storm in COVID-19. Improved Zn status may also reduce the risk of bacterial co-infection by improving mucociliary clearance and barrier function of the respiratory epithelium, as well as direct antibacterial effects against S. pneumoniae. Zinc status is also tightly associated with risk factors for severe COVID-19 including ageing, immune deficiency, obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis, since these are known risk groups for zinc deficiency. Therefore, Zn may possess protective effect as preventive and adjuvant therapy of COVID-19 through reducing inflammation, improvement of mucociliary clearance, prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury, modulation of antiviral and antibacterial immunity. However, further clinical and experimental studies are required.

title: Understanding SARS-CoV-2-Mediated Inflammatory Responses: From Mechanisms to Potential Therapeutic Tools
abstract: Currently there is no effective antiviral therapy for SARS-CoV-2 infection, which frequently leads to fatal inflammatory responses and acute lung injury. Here, we discuss the various mechanisms of SARS-CoV-mediated inflammation. We also assume that SARS-CoV-2 likely shares similar inflammatory responses. Potential therapeutic tools to reduce SARS-CoV-2-induced inflammatory responses include various methods to block FcR activation. In the absence of a proven clinical FcR blocker, the use of intravenous immunoglobulin to block FcR activation may be a viable option for the urgent treatment of pulmonary inflammation to prevent severe lung injury. Such treatment may also be combined with systemic anti-inflammatory drugs or corticosteroids. However, these strategies, as proposed here, remain to be clinically tested for effectiveness.

title: Potential mechanisms of hemorrhagic stroke in elderly COVID-19 patients
abstract: The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019, a new human infectious disease. While fever, cough, and respiratory distress are typical first symptoms, a fraction of those affected present instead with neurological symptoms suggestive of central nervous system compromise. This review summarizes the potential contribution of coronavirus disease 2019 to hemorrhagic stroke in the elderly and proposes possible mechanisms. Reports show that the most affected patients have underlying chronic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes, which are two key risk factors for hemorrhagic stroke. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is the main host cell surface receptor interacting with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 spike glycoprotein to allow viral entry and infection. We speculate that ensuing downregulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 expression may compound the risk conferred by pre-existing comorbidities and critically influence the pathogenesis of hemorrhagic stroke by elevating blood pressure and impairing cerebrovascular endothelial function. Additionally, both age- and/or disease-related immune dysfunction and enhanced catecholamine release secondary to anxiety and stress may also aggravate central nervous system symptoms of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. Thus, assessment of systemic inflammatory biomarkers and tight control of hemodynamic parameters upon admission are crucial to minimize mortality and morbidity in coronavirus disease 2019 patients with central nervous system symptoms suggestive of incipient stroke.

title: Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19–SARS-CoV-2) and Nutrition: Is Infection in Italy Suggesting a Connection?
abstract: Novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was declared a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. The outbreak first occurred in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019 and hit Italy heavily in February 2020. Several countries are adopting complete or partial lockdown to contain the growth of COVID-19 infection. These measures may affect people's mental health and well-being but are necessary to avoid spreading the pandemic. There has been a gradual increase in studies exploring prevention and control measures, and we recommend paying close attention to nutrition, which may contribute to modulating some important consequences of COVID-19 infection, as such pro-inflammatory cytokine storm.

title: Delirium in COVID-19: A case series and exploration of potential mechanisms for central nervous system involvement
abstract: Neuropsychiatric manifestations of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been described, including anosmia, ageusia, headache, paresthesia, encephalitis and encephalopathy. Little is known about the mechanisms by which the virus causes central nervous system (CNS) symptoms, and therefore little guidance is available regarding potential workup or management options.  We present a series of four consecutive cases, seen by our psychiatry consultation service over a one-week period, each of which manifested delirium as a result of infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2).  The four cases highlighted here all occurred in older patients with premorbid evidence of cognitive decline. Unique features seen in multiple cases included rigidity, alogia, abulia, and elevated inflammatory markers. In all four cases, a change in mental status was the presenting symptom, and three of the four cases lacked significant respiratory symptoms. In addition to discussing unique features of the cases, we discuss possible pathophysiologic explanations for COVID-19 delirium.  Delirium should be recognized as a potential feature of infection with SARS-CoV-2 and may be the only presenting symptom. Based on the high rates of delirium demonstrated in prior studies, hospitals should consider adding mental status changes to the list of testing criteria. Further research is needed to determine if delirium in COVID-19 represents a primary encephalopathy heralding invasion of the CNS by the virus, or a secondary encephalopathy related to systemic inflammatory response or other factors.

title: Cytokine storm in COVID-19 and parthenolide: Preclinical evidence
abstract: A group of patients with pneumonia caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) were reported from China in December 2019. Although several antiviral drugs are widely tested, none of them has been approved as specific antiviral therapy for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Accumulating evidence established a hyperinflammatory states or cytokine storm in COVID-19. Among these cytokines, IL-6 plays a key role in cytokine storm and can predict the adverse clinical outcomes and fatality in these patients. Based on the evidence of the significant role of IL-6 in cytokine storm, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases as principal comorbidities, it seems that anti-cytokine therapy may be useful in patients with severe COVID-19 to reduce mortality. Recent studies demonstrated that herbal-derived natural products had immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties and exhibited exceptional act on mediators of inflammation. Parthenolide is the principal sesquiterpene lactones and the main biologically active constituent Tanacetum parthenium (commonly known as feverfew) which has could significantly reduce IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-&#945; production pathways established in several human cell line models in vitro and in vivo studies. Therefore, parthenolide may be one of the herbal candidates for clinical evaluation.

title: 2019 novel coronavirus disease in hemodialysis (HD) patients: Report from one HD center in Wuhan, China
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 originated in Wuhan has become a global epidemic of contagious diseases, which poses a serious threat to human life and health, especially for those with underlined diseases. However, Impacts of COVID-19 epidemic on HD center and HD patients are still unknown. In this report, we reviewed the whole course of the epidemic emerged in the HD center of Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University from January 14, 2020, the day the first case was confirmed, to February 17, 2020, the day the epidemic extinction. There are totally 37 cases among 230 HD patients and 4 cases among 33 staff being diagnosed with COVID-19. The epidemiology, clinical presentation and immune profile of dialysis patients contracted COVID-19 were further studied. We found that the two key measures we took in response to the epidemic, one was upgrading level of prevention and protection on January 21 and the other one starting universal screening, isolating, and distributing the infected cases on February 4, were effective in the epidemic control. No new COVID-19 case had been diagnosed since February 13. During the epidemic, 7 HD patients died, including 6 with COVID-19 and 1 without COVID-19. The presumed causes of death were not directly related to pneumonia, but due to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, hyperkalemia, etc. Most of the leukocytes in the peripheral blood of the HD patients infected with COVID-19 decreased, and the CT images of the chest mostly showed the ground glass like changes on the right side. The symptoms of most of the patients were mild, and there were no cases admitted to ICU. The frequency of lymphocytes in PBMCs and the serum level of inflammatory cytokines were assessed in HD patients contracted COVID-19 or not, non-HD COVID-19 patients, as well as healthy volunteers. The results showed that lymphocytes of T cell, Th cells, killer T cells, as well as NK cells in PBMCs of HD patients decreased significantly than other groups. HD patients with COVID-19 also displayed remarkable lower serum level of inflammatory cytokines than other COVID-19 patients. Our study indicates that HD patients are the highly susceptible population and HD centers are high risk area in the outbreak of COVID-19 epidemic. Measures of prevention, protection, screening, isolation, and distribution are essential in the epidemic management and should be taken in the early stage. HD Patients with COVID-19 are mostly clinical mild and unlikely progress to severe pneumonia due to the impaired cellular immune function and incapability of mounting cytokines storm. More attention should be paid to prevent cardiovascular events, which may be the collateral impacts of COVID-19 epidemic on HD patients.

title: Longitudinal characteristics of lymphocyte responses and cytokine profiles in the peripheral blood of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients
abstract: The dynamic changes of lymphocyte subsets and cytokines profiles of patients with novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and their correlation with the disease severity remain unclear.  Peripheral blood samples were longitudinally collected from 40 confirmed COVID-19 patients and examined for lymphocyte subsets by flow cytometry and cytokine profiles by specific immunoassays.  Of the 40 COVID-19 patients enrolled, 13 severe cases showed significant and sustained decreases in lymphocyte counts [0•6 (0•6-0•8)] but increases in neutrophil counts [4•7 (3•6-5•8)] than 27 mild cases [1.1 (0•8-1•4); 2•0 (1•5-2•9)]. Further analysis demonstrated significant decreases in the counts of T cells, especially CD8+ T cells, as well as increases in IL-6, IL-10, IL-2 and IFN-γ levels in the peripheral blood in the severe cases compared to those in the mild cases. T cell counts and cytokine levels in severe COVID-19 patients who survived the disease gradually recovered at later time points to levels that were comparable to those of the mild cases. Moreover, the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) (AUC=0•93) and neutrophil-to-CD8+ T cell ratio (N8R) (AUC =0•94) were identified as powerful prognostic factors affecting the prognosis for severe COVID-19.  The degree of lymphopenia and a proinflammatory cytokine storm is higher in severe COVID-19 patients than in mild cases, and is associated with the disease severity. N8R and NLR may serve as a useful prognostic factor for early identification of severe COVID-19 cases.

title: COVID-19: Melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment
abstract: This article summarizes the likely benefits of melatonin in the attenuation of COVID-19 based on its putative pathogenesis. The recent outbreak of COVID-19 has become a pandemic with tens of thousands of infected patients. Based on clinical features, pathology, the pathogenesis of acute respiratory disorder induced by either highly homogenous coronaviruses or other pathogens, the evidence suggests that excessive inflammation, oxidation, and an exaggerated immune response very likely contribute to COVID-19 pathology. This leads to a cytokine storm and subsequent progression to acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and often death. Melatonin, a well-known anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative molecule, is protective against ALI/ARDS caused by viral and other pathogens. Melatonin is effective in critical care patients by reducing vessel permeability, anxiety, sedation use, and improving sleeping quality, which might also be beneficial for better clinical outcomes for COVID-19 patients. Notably, melatonin has a high safety profile. There is significant data showing that melatonin limits virus-related diseases and would also likely be beneficial in COVID-19 patients. Additional experiments and clinical studies are required to confirm this speculation.

title: Trials of anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy for COVID-19 are urgently needed

title: African American children are at higher risk for COVID‐19 infection
abstract: Infection by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), the viral etiology of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), was first reported in Wuhan, China in late 2019. Peculiarly, the virus has not caused significant impact on pediatric populations, unlike other coronaviruses (1). Children comprise only 1.7% of COVID‐19 positive cases in the United States (2). Furthermore, children are noted to have a milder disease course (3, 4). However, much is unknown about the age, gender and race risk factors of COVID‐19 among children. There has been recent evidence suggestive of higher rates of COVID‐19 and related fatality rates in African American adult communities around the United States(5). However, there is limited data, to our knowledge, whether any race or ethnicity group is at higher risk for COVID‐19 infection in children.

title: Studying the pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 - a protocol for the Berlin prospective COVID-19 patient cohort (Pa- COVID-19)
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread worldwide causing a global health emergency. Pa-COVID-19 aims to provide comprehensive data on clinical course, pathophysiology, immunology and outcome of COVID-19, in order to identify prognostic biomarkers, clinical scores, and therapeutic targets for improved clinical management and preventive interventions.  Pa-COVID-19 is a prospective observational cohort study of patients with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection treated at Charite - Universitaetsmedizin Berlin. We collect data on epidemiology, demography, medical history, symptoms, clinical course, pathogen testing and treatment. Systematic, serial blood sampling will allow deep molecular and immunological phenotyping, transcriptomic profiling, and comprehensive biobanking. Longitudinal data and sample collection during hospitalization will be supplemented by long-term follow-up.  Outcome measures include the WHO clinical ordinal scale on day 15 and clinical, functional and health-related quality of life assessments at discharge and during follow-up. We developed a scalable dataset to (i) suit national standards of care (ii) facilitate comprehensive data collection in medical care facilities with varying resources and (iii) allow for rapid implementation of interventional trials based on the standardized study design and data collection. We propose this scalable protocol as blueprint for harmonized data collection and deep phenotyping in COVID-19 in Germany.  We established a basic platform for harmonized, scalable data collection, pathophysiological analysis, and deep phenotyping of COVID-19, which enables rapid generation of evidence for improved medical care and identification of candidate therapeutic and preventive strategies. The electronic database accredited for interventional trials allows fast trial implementation for candidate therapeutic agents.

title: A Novel Indicator Predicts 2019 Novel Coronavirus Infection in Subjects with Diabetes
abstract: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The disease severity in 2019 novel coronavirus (Covid 19) infection has varied from mild self-limiting flu-like illness to fulminant pneumonia, respiratory failure and death. Since DM and Covid 19 infection are closely associated with inflammatory status, mean platelet volume (MPV) was suggested to be useful in predicting Covid infection onset. This study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic role of MPV in Covid patients with diabetes.  A total of 640 subjects (160 Covid patients with type 2 diabetes, 160 healthy controls, 160 patients with non-spesific infections and 160 Covid patients without type 2 diabetes) enrolled in the study.  MPV was significantly higher (11.21 ± 0.61 fL) as compared to the results from the last routine visits of the the same individuals with diabetes (10.59 ± 0.96 fL) (p = 0.000).  MPV could be used as a simple and cost-effective tool to predict the Covid infection in subjects with diabetes in primary care.

title: Characteristics and Therapeutic Options of the Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: is a new type of pneumonia caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection. COVID-19 is affecting millions of patients and the infected number keeps increasing. SARS-CoV-2 is highly infectious, has a long incubation period, and causes a relatively high death rate, resulting in severe health problem all over the world. Currently there is no effective proven drugs for the treatment of COVID-19, therefore, development of effective therapeutic drugs to suppress SARS-CoV-2 infection is urgently needed. In this review, we first summarize the structure and genome features of SARS-CoV-2, and introduce its infection and replication process. Then we review the clinical symptoms, diagnosis and treatment options of COVID-19 patients. We further discuss the potential molecular targets and drug development strategies for treatment of the emerging COVID-19. Finally, we summarize clinical trials of some potential therapeutic drugs and the results of vaccine development. This review provides some insights for the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Lethal concentration of perfluoroisobutylene induces acute lung injury in mice mediated via cytokine storm, oxidative stress and apoptosis.
abstract: Perfluoroisobutylene (PFIB) is a highly toxic gas that targets the lungs. Low-level inhalation of the gas can lead to acute lung injury (ALI), pulmonary edema and even death. No specific anti-PFIB drugs are currently available and the pathogenesis of PFIB-induced ALI is not fully understood. Early direct oxidative injury and a secondary hyper-inflammatory response are recognized as the primary mechanisms of PFIB-induced ALI. In the present study, our data demonstrate for the first time that a cytokine storm is associated with PFIB-induced ALI. Levels of 10 pro-inflammatory cytokines and one anti-inflammatory cytokine were significantly increased in lung tissues of PFIB-exposed mice. PFIB inhalation additionally led to significant oxidative stress in lung tissue. Inflammation-associated CD11b+Ly6G+Ly6Cint neutrophils and CD11b+Ly6G-Ly6Chi monocytes were significantly increased in blood in association with PFIB-induced ALI. Bcl-2/Bax-mediated lung cell apoptosis was significantly increased at 1 h, followed by a sustained decrease after 1 h, which was significant at 4-8 h in PFIB-exposed mice. This suppression of apoptosis is possibly associated with the Akt-signaling pathway.

title: Allogeneic cardiosphere-derived cells (CAP-1002) in critically ill COVID-19 patients: compassionate-use case series
abstract: There are no definitive therapies for patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies are needed to improve clinical outcomes, particularly in patients with severe disease. This case series explores the safety and effectiveness of intravenous allogeneic cardiosphere-derived cells (CDCs), formulated as CAP-1002, in critically ill patients with confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Adverse reactions to CAP-1002, clinical status on the World Health Organization (WHO) ordinal scale, and changes in pro-inflammatory biomarkers and leukocyte counts were analyzed. All patients (n = 6; age range 19–75 years, 1 female) required ventilatory support (invasive mechanical ventilation, n = 5) with PaO(2)/FiO(2) ranging from 69 to 198. No adverse events related to CAP-1002 administration were observed. Four patients (67%) were weaned from respiratory support and discharged from the hospital. One patient remains mechanically ventilated as of April 28th, 2020; all survive. A contemporaneous control group of critically ill COVID-19 patients (n = 34) at our institution showed 18% overall mortality at a similar stage of hospitalization. Ferritin was elevated in all patients at baseline (range of all patients 605.43–2991.52 ng/ml) and decreased in 5/6 patients (range of all patients 252.89–1029.90 ng/ml). Absolute lymphocyte counts were low in 5/6 patients at baseline (range 0.26–0.82 × 10(3)/µl) but had increased in three of these five patients at last follow-up (range 0.23–1.02 × 10(3)/µl). In this series of six critically ill COVID-19 patients, intravenous infusion of CAP-1002 was well tolerated and associated with resolution of critical illness in 4 patients. This series demonstrates the apparent safety of CAP-1002 in COVID-19. While this initial experience is promising, efficacy will need to be further assessed in a randomized controlled trial.

title: Identification and Analysis of Shared Risk Factors in Sepsis and High Mortality Risk COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a novel coronavirus strain disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The disease is highly transmissible and severe disease including viral sepsis has been reported in up to 16% of hospitalized cases. The admission characteristics associated with increased odds of hospital mortality among confirmed cases of COVID-19 include severe hypoxia, low platelet count, elevated bilirubin, hypoalbuminemia and reduced glomerular filtration rate. These symptoms correlate highly with severe sepsis cases. The diseases also share similar co-morbidity risks including dementia, type 2 diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, hypertension and chronic renal failure. Sepsis has been observed in up to 59% of hospitalized COVID-19 patients. It is highly desirable to identify risk factors and novel therapy/drug repurposing avenues for late-stage severe COVID-19 patients. This would enable better protection of at-risk populations and clinical stratification of COVID-19 patients according to their risk for developing life threatening disease.  As there is currently insufficient data available for confirmed COVID-19 patients correlating their genomic profile, disease severity and outcome, co-morbidities and treatments as well as epidemiological risk factors (such as ethnicity, blood group, smoking, BMI etc.), a direct study of the impact of host genomics on disease severity and outcomes is not yet possible. We therefore ran a study on the UK Biobank sepsis cohort as a surrogate to identify sepsis associated signatures and genes, and correlated these with COVID-19 patients. Sepsis is itself a life-threatening inflammatory health condition with a mortality rate of approximately 20%. Like the initial studies for COVID-19 patients, standard genome wide association studies (GWAS) have previously failed to identify more than a handful of genetic variants that predispose individuals to developing sepsis.  We used a combinatorial association approach to analyze a sepsis population derived from UK Biobank. We identified 70 sepsis risk-associated genes, which provide insights into the disease mechanisms underlying sepsis pathogenesis. Many of these targets can be grouped by common mechanisms of action such as endothelial cell dysfunction, PI3K/mTOR pathway signaling, immune response regulation, aberrant GABA and neurogenic signaling.  This study has identified 70 sepsis related genes, many of them for the first time, that can reasonably be considered to be potentially relevant to severe COVID-19 patients. We have further identified 59 drug repurposing candidates for 13 of these targets that can be used for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to increase the survival rate of patients who develop sepsis and potentially severe COVID-19.

title: COVID-19-driven endothelial damage: complement, HIF-1, and ABL2 are potential pathways of damage and targets for cure
abstract: COVID-19 pandemia is a major health emergency causing hundreds of deaths worldwide. The high reported morbidity has been related to hypoxia and inflammation leading to endothelial dysfunction and aberrant coagulation in small and large vessels. This review addresses some of the pathways leading to endothelial derangement, such as complement, HIF-1α, and ABL tyrosine kinases. This review also highlights potential targets for prevention and therapy of COVID-19-related organ damage and discusses the role of marketed drugs, such as eculizumab and imatinib, as suitable candidates for clinical trials.

title: Hyperglycemia, hydroxychloroquine, and the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) infection and its severity can be explained by the concentration of glycosylated severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral particles in the lung epithelium, the concentration of glycosylated angiotensin-converting enzyme receptor 2 (ACE2) in the lung epithelium, and the degree and control of the pulmonary immune response to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein at approximately day 8 to 10 after symptom onset, which may be related to both. Binding of ACE2 by SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 also suggests that prolonged uncontrolled hyperglycemia, and not just a history of diabetes mellitus, may be important in the pathogenesis of the disease. It is tempting to consider that the same mechanism acts in COVID-19 as in SARS, where an overactive macrophage M1 inflammatory response, as neutralizing antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein form at day 7 to 10, results in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in susceptible patients. It also allows consideration of agents, such as hydroxychloroquine, which may interfere with this overly brisk macrophage inflammatory response and perhaps influence the course of the disease, in particular, those that blunt but do not completely abrogate the M1 to M2 balance in macrophage polarization, as well as viral load, which in SARS appears to be temporally related to the onset of ARDS.

title: Potential Effects of Coronaviruses on the Cardiovascular System: A Review.
abstract: Importance Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has reached a pandemic level. Coronaviruses are known to affect the cardiovascular system. We review the basics of coronaviruses, with a focus on COVID-19, along with their effects on the cardiovascular system. Observations Coronavirus disease 2019 can cause a viral pneumonia with additional extrapulmonary manifestations and complications. A large proportion of patients have underlying cardiovascular disease and/or cardiac risk factors. Factors associated with mortality include male sex, advanced age, and presence of comorbidities including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and cerebrovascular diseases. Acute cardiac injury determined by elevated high-sensitivity troponin levels is commonly observed in severe cases and is strongly associated with mortality. Acute respiratory distress syndrome is also strongly associated with mortality.  2019 is associated with a high inflammatory burden that can induce vascular inflammation, myocarditis, and cardiac arrhythmias. Extensive efforts are underway to find specific vaccines and antivirals against SARS-CoV-2. Meanwhile, cardiovascular risk factors and conditions should be judiciously controlled per evidence-based guidelines.

title: Hepatic involvement in COVID-19 patients: Pathology, pathogenesis, and clinical implications
abstract: During the clinical course of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), it has been observed that hepatic injury occurs in a significant proportion of patients, particularly in those with severe or critical illness. Mild increase in sinusoidal lymphocytic infiltration, sinusoidal dilatation, steatosis and multifocal hepatic necrosis are the pathologic changes reported. Direct viral-induced cellular injuries and potential hepatotoxicity from therapeutic drugs are two likely underlying mechanisms. In addition, the pre-existing chronic liver disease exacerbated during COVID-19, and COVID-19-related hyperinflammatory reactions may contribute to liver injury as well. Further studies of additional autopsy cases will help clarifying these possibilities.

title: A new normal for hypertension medicine with coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): proposal from the president of the Japanese Society of Hypertension

title: Potential pathophysiological mechanisms leading to increased COVID-19 susceptibility and severity in obesity
abstract: As we are facing worldwide pandemic of COVID-19, we aimed to identify potential pathophysiological mechanisms leading to increased COVID-19 susceptibility and severity in obesity. Special emphasis will be given on increased susceptibility to infections due to obesity-related low-grade chronic inflammation, higher expression of angiotensin converting enzyme-2 and pathway-associated components, as well as decreased vitamin D bioavailability, since all of them provide easier ways for the virus to enter into host cells, replicate and stunt adequate immune responses.

title: Diffuse pneumonitis from coronavirus HKU1 on checkpoint inhibitor therapy
abstract: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) can produce specific immune-related adverse events including pneumonitis. The impact of ICI therapy on the severity of acute coronavirus infection symptomatology warrants further exploration.  We report a 65-year-old man diagnosed with stage IV melanoma who developed pulmonary and brain metastases and was treated with bilateral craniotomies followed by combined nivolumab and ipilimumab immunotherapy. He developed early-onset severe dyspnea associated with acute coronavirus HKU1 (non-COVID-19) infection, with diffuse pneumonitis evidenced by ground glass opacification on CT scan. He was treated with steroids leading to resolution of pneumonitis on repeat imaging, suggesting an exacerbated immune-mediated toxicity.  We report the first case of a patient with melanoma with severe and reversible diffuse pneumonitis in association with coronavirus HKU1 following combined nivolumab and ipilimumab immunotherapy. Although we do not have data on the impact of ICI therapy on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) symptomatology, a possible interaction should be considered when deciding on dosing in patients with possible SARS-CoV-2 exposure or when evaluating patients with presumed ICI-related pneumonitis during the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: RAGE receptor: May be a potential inflammatory mediator for SARS-COV-2 infection?

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019-related dyspnea cases difficult to interpret using chest computed tomography
abstract: Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) often have clinical characteristics, such as chest tightness and dyspnea. Continuous, unresolved dyspnea often indicates the progression of lung lesions. The mechanism that underlies the chest distress and dyspnea in patients with COVID-19 is still unclear. Chest CT has a higher sensitivity and can play an essential role in the diagnosis and treatment of the disease. However, our clinical observations showed that although some patients had significant chest distress and dyspnea, the lesions that were observed in the lungs during computed tomography were milder and not completely consistent with clinical symptoms. We analyzed the clinical characteristics, laboratory test results, and imaging findings of these patients. We found that extensive inflammation of the bilateral and respiratory bronchioles in patients with COVID-19 due to excessive activation of proinflammatory cytokines and chemotactic aggregation of T-lymphocytes at the site of inflammation are possible mechanisms underlying chest distress and dyspnea in patients with COVID-19. Short-time and lose-dose use of corticosteroid may be helpful to treat chest tightness and dyspnea in mild COVID-19 patients. Through this study, we aimed to improve our understanding of the pathogenesis of COVID-19.

title: Thalidomide modulates macrophage-mediated inflammatory innate immune response during Klebsiella pneumoniae B5055 infection in BALB/c mice

title: A Comprehensive Review of Manifestations of Novel Coronaviruses in the Context of Deadly COVID-19 Global Pandemic
abstract: Since December 2019, the global pandemic caused by the highly infectious novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV (COVID-19) has been rapidly spreading. As of April 2020, the outbreak has spread to over 210 countries, with over 2,400,000 confirmed cases and over 170,000 deaths . COVID-19 causes a severe pneumonia characterized by fever, cough, and shortness of breath. Similar coronavirus outbreaks have occurred in the past causing severe pneumonia like COVID-19, most recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). However, over time, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV were shown to cause extra-pulmonary signs and symptoms including hepatitis, acute renal failure, encephalitis, myositis, and gastroenteritis. Similarly, sporadic reports of COVID-19 related extrapulmonary manifestations emerge. Unfortunately, there is no comprehensive summary of the multi-organ manifestations of COVID-19, making it difficult for clinicians to quickly educate themselves about this highly contagious and deadly pathogen. What's more, is that SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV are the closest humanity has come to combating something similar to COVID-19, however, there exists no comparison between the manifestations of any of these novel coronaviruses. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the manifestations of the novel coronaviruses SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and COVID-19, with a particular focus on the latter, and highlight their differences and similarities.

title: COVID‐19—Associated dyslipidemia: Implications for mechanism of impaired resolution and novel therapeutic approaches
abstract: The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic presents a global challenge for managing acutely ill patients and complications from viral infection. Systemic inflammation accompanied by a “cytokine storm,” hemostasis alterations and severe vasculitis have all been reported to occur with COVID‐19, and emerging evidence suggests that dysregulation of lipid transport may contribute to some of these complications. Here, we aim to summarize the current understanding of the potential mechanisms related to COVID‐19 dyslipidemia and propose possible adjunctive type therapeutic approaches that modulate lipids and lipoproteins. Specifically, we hypothesize that changes in the quantity and composition of high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) that occurs with COVID‐19 can significantly decrease the anti‐inflammatory and anti‐oxidative functions of HDL and could contribute to pulmonary inflammation. Furthermore, we propose that lipoproteins with oxidized phospholipids and fatty acids could lead to virus‐associated organ damage via overactivation of innate immune scavenger receptors. Restoring lipoprotein function with ApoA‐I raising agents or blocking relevant scavenger receptors with neutralizing antibodies could, therefore, be of value in the treatment of COVID‐19. Finally, we discuss the role of omega‐3 fatty acids transported by lipoproteins in generating specialized proresolving mediators and how together with anti‐inflammatory drugs, they could decrease inflammation and thrombotic complications associated with COVID‐19.

title: Targeting hub genes and pathways of innate immune response in COVID-19: A network biology perspective
abstract: The current pandemic of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by a novel virus strain, 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2 have posed a serious threat to global public health and economy. It is largely unknown how the human immune system responds to this infection. A better understanding of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 will be important to develop therapeutics against COVID-19. Here, we have used transcriptomic profile of human alveolar adenocarcinoma cells (A549) infected with SARS-CoV-2 and employed a network biology approach to generate human-virus interactome. Network topological analysis discovers 15 SARS-CoV-2 targets, which belongs to a subset of interferon (IFN) stimulated genes (ISGs). These ISGs (IFIT1, IFITM1, IRF7, ISG15, MX1, and OAS2) can be considered as potential candidates for drug targets in the treatments of COVID-19. We have identified significant interaction between ISGs and TLR3 agonists, like poly I: C, and imiquimod, and suggests that TLR3 agonists can be considered as a potential drug for drug repurposing in COVID-19. Our network centric analysis suggests that moderating the innate immune response is a valuable approach to target COVID-19.

title: The Central Role of Clinical Nutrition in COVID-19 Patients During and After Hospitalization in Intensive Care Unit
abstract: The COVID-19-positive patient who is subject to a hyperinflammatory condition associated with lung injury with the development of pneumonia is hospitalized in the intensive care unit. Before resolving and overcoming the “cytokine storm,” with overexpression of pro-inflammatory interleukins (IL-, Il-6), this patient will be intubated for more than 48 h and therefore needs adequate nutrition. Malnutrition can lead to sarcopenia with a decrease in lean body mass and worsening of the inflammatory state underway. In addition, severe debilitation, if not corrected with adequate nutrition, can greatly lengthen rehabilitation times with prolonged hospitalization, increased costs, and reduced turn over already in crisis due to the health emergency caused by coronavirus. The aim of this study is to focus attention on the nutritional importance that must be provided in case of COVID-19 together with pharmacological treatments to lower the number of circulating proinflammatory cytokines. Oral, enteral, and parenteral nutrition should always be carried out according to the patient’s condition and, in the case of a hyperinflammatory patient, such as the one affected by COVID-19, it has been shown that the supplementation of amino acids helps to lower the inflammatory state and promotes normal physiological recovery.

title: COVID-19: Transmission, prevention, and potential therapeutic opportunities
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), remains a global challenge. Despite intense research efforts worldwide, an effective vaccine and viable treatment options have eluded investigators. Therefore, infection prevention, early viral detection and identification of successful treatment protocols provide the best approach in controlling disease spread. In this review, current therapeutic options, preventive methods and transmission routes of COVID-19 are discussed.

title: Exploring the adoption of telemedicine and virtual software for care of outpatients during and after COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: As the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) continues to spread across countries, the need for innovative measures to provide high-quality patient care and manage its spread has become more imperative. Software-based systems such as medical software applications could provide valuable suggestion on health-related information to physicians towards improving quality of life, especially for outpatients (e.g., elderly, immunosuppressed, pregnant women). The use of telemedicine and virtual software offers promising potential in the fight against COVID-19. Accordingly, by means of expedited literature and document review, this paper provides implication on the opportunities, application, and challenges of telemedicine and existing virtual software currently adopted as suitable initiatives for reducing the spread of COVID-19. More importantly, findings present factors that impact adoption of telemedicine. The findings suggest that telemedicine and virtual software are capable of decreasing emergency room visits, safeguarding healthcare resources, and lessening the spread of COVID-19 by remotely treating patients during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: N-Acetylcysteine: A potential therapeutic agent for SARS-CoV-2
abstract: COVID-19, a respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), continues to spread across the globe. Predisposing factors such as age, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and lowered immune function increase the risk of disease severity. T cell exhaustion, high viral load, and high levels of TNF-É, IL1ß, IL6, IL10 have been associated with severe SARS-CoV-2. Cytokine and antigen overstimulation are potentially responsible for poor humoral response to the virus. Lower cellular redox status, which leads to pro-inflammatory states mediated by TNF-É is also potentially implicated. In vivo, in vitro, and human clinical trials have demonstrated N-acetylcysteine (NAC) as an effective method of improving redox status, especially when under oxidative stress. In human clinical trials, NAC has been used to replenish glutathione stores and increase the proliferative response of T cells. NAC has also been shown to inhibit the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway (IL1ß and IL18) in vitro, and decrease plasma TNF-É in human clinical trials. Mediation of the viral load could occur through NAC's ability to increase cellular redox status via maximizing the rate limiting step of glutathione synthesis, and thereby potentially decreasing the effects of virally induced oxidative stress and cell death. We hypothesize that NAC could act as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of COVID-19 through a variety of potential mechanisms, including increasing glutathione, improving T cell response, and modulating inflammation. In this article, we present evidence to support the use of NAC as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Delayed Elimination of the LCM Virus from Acid Sphingomyelinase‐Deficient Mice due to Reduced Expansion of Virus‐Specific CD8(+) T Lymphocytes
abstract: The phagolysosomally localized acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) activated by proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF and IFN‐γ generates the signalling molecule ceramide which in turn results in the activation of proteases like cathepsin D. These characteristics of ASMase suggest a possible role of this molecule in the phagocytotic uptake and phagosomal degradation processes of antigens or in antigen presentation. We show here that ASMase(–/–) mice fail to eliminate the noncytopathic lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) virus as rapidly as littermate wildtype mice. Investigation of the immune response revealed a reduced expansion of CD8(+) T cells. The secretion of IFN‐γ in response to contact with target cells as well as the cytolytic activity of virus‐specific CD8(+) T cells was severely impaired. Additionally, both phases of the LCM virus‐specific DTH response, mediated by CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells consecutively, were diminished in ASMase(–/–) mice. However, the secondary memory response of virus‐specific CTL was not altered, and the virus was effectively controlled for at least 3 months by ASMase(–/–) mice. In conclusion, the results of this study suggest an involvement of the ASMase in the activation, expansion or maturation of virus‐specific CD8(+) T cells during the acute infection of mice with the LCM virus.

title: Mapping Systemic Inflammation and Antibody Responses in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
abstract: Initially, the global outbreak of COVID-19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spared children from severe disease. However, after the initial wave of infections, clusters of a novel hyperinflammatory disease have been reported in regions with ongoing SARS-CoV-2 epidemics. While the characteristic clinical features are becoming clear, the pathophysiology remains unknown. Herein, we report on the immune profiles of eight Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) cases. We document that all MIS-C patients had evidence of prior SARS-CoV-2 exposure, mounting an antibody response with normal isotype-switching and neutralization capability. We further profiled the secreted immune response by high-dimensional cytokine assays, which identified elevated signatures of inflammation (IL-18 and IL-6), lymphocytic and myeloid chemotaxis and activation (CCL3, CCL4, and CDCP1) and mucosal immune dysregulation (IL-17A, CCL20, CCL28). Mass cytometry immunophenotyping of peripheral blood revealed reductions of mDC1 and non-classical monocytes, as well as both NK- and T- lymphocytes, suggesting extravasation to affected tissues. Markers of activated myeloid function were also evident, including upregulation of ICAM1 and FcR1 in neutrophil and non-classical monocytes, well-documented markers in autoinflammation and autoimmunity that indicate enhanced antigen presentation and Fc-mediated responses. Finally, to assess the role for autoimmunity secondary to infection, we profiled the auto-antigen reactivity of MIS-C plasma, which revealed both known disease-associated autoantibodies (anti-La) and novel candidates that recognize endothelial, gastrointestinal and immune-cell antigens. All patients were treated with anti- IL6R antibody or IVIG, which led to rapid disease resolution tracking with normalization of inflammatory markers.

title: Psycho-Neuroendocrine-Immune Interactions in COVID-19: Potential Impacts on Mental Health
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The impacts of the disease may be beyond the respiratory system, also affecting mental health. Several factors may be involved in the association between COVID-19 and psychiatric outcomes, such as fear inherent in the pandemic, adverse effects of treatments, as well as financial stress, and social isolation. Herein we discuss the growing evidence suggesting that the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 and host may also trigger changes in brain and behavior. Based on the similarity of SARS-CoV-2 with other coronaviruses, it is conceivable that changes in endocrine and immune response in the periphery or in the central nervous system may be involved in the association between SARS-CoV-2 infection and impaired mental health. This is likely to be further enhanced, since millions of people worldwide are isolated in quarantine to minimize the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and social isolation can also lead to neuroendocrine-immune changes. Accordingly, we highlight here the hypothesis that neuroendocrine-immune interactions may be involved in negative impacts of SARS-CoV-2 infection and social isolation on psychiatric issues.

title: Immune Response in COVID-19: A Review
abstract: The immune system protects us from viruses and diseases. It produces an antibody to kill pathogen. This review shows a brief picture about the immune system to protect us from COVID-19. It illustrates the process of the immune system, how it works, and mechanism of the immune system to fight virus. It also provides information on recent COVID-19 treatment and experimental data. Various types of potential challenges are also discussed for the immunes system. At the end, some foods have been suggested and some are discouraged. Physical exercise is also encouraged. This article can be used as a state of the art at this critical moment to the globe for a promising alternative solutions related to the survival of people from coronavirus.

title: The association between obesity and poor outcome after COVID-19 indicates a potential therapeutic role for montelukast
abstract: It is widely believed that infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus triggers a disproportionate immune response which causes a devastating systemic injury, particularly in individuals with obesity, itself a chronic, multi-organ inflammatory disease. Immune cells accumulate in visceral adipose tissue and together with paracrine adipocytes release a wide range of biologically active cytokines (including IL-1ß, IL5, IL6 and IL8) that can result in both local, pulmonary and systemic inflammation. A more intense 'cytokine storm' is postulated as the mechanism behind the extreme immune response seen in severe COVID-19. It is striking how dangerous the combination of obesity and COVID-19 is, resulting in a greater risk of ICU admission and a higher mortality. Furthermore, patients from a BAME background appear to have increased mortality after SARS-CoV-2 infection; they also have a higher prevalence of central obesity and its metabolic complications. In the absence of an effective vaccine, the therapeutic potential of immune-modulating drugs is a priority, but the development of new drugs is expensive and time-consuming. A more pragmatic solution would be to seek to repurpose existing drugs, particularly those that might suppress the heightened cytokine activity seen in obesity, the major risk factor for a poor prognosis in COVID-19. Montelukast is a cysteinyl leukotriene receptor antagonist licensed to treat asthma and allergic rhinitis. It has been shown to diminish pulmonary response to antigen, tissue eosinophilia and IL-5 expression in inflammatory cells. It has also been shown to decrease elevated levels of IL-1ß and IL8 in humans with viral upper respiratory tract infections compared with placebo-treated patients. In addition, in silico studies have demonstrated a high binding affinity of the montelukast molecule to the terminal site of the virus's main protease enzyme which is needed for virus RNA synthesis and replication. Montelukast, which is cheap, safe and widely available would appear to have the potential to be an ideal candidate drug for clinical trials, particularly in early stage disease before irreparable tissue damage has already occurred.  Through a direct anti-viral effect, or by suppression of heightened cytokine release in response to SARS-CoV-2, montelukast will reduce the severity of immune-mediated multiorgan damage resulting from COVID-19, particularly in patients with central obesity and metabolic syndrome.

title: Immunophenotyping of COVID-19 and influenza highlights the role of type I interferons in development of severe COVID-19.
abstract: Although most SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals experience mild coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), some patients suffer from severe COVID-19, which is accompanied by acute respiratory distress syndrome and systemic inflammation. To identify factors driving severe progression of COVID-19, we performed single-cell RNA-seq using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from healthy donors, patients with mild or severe COVID-19, and patients with severe influenza. Patients with COVID-19 exhibited hyper-inflammatory signatures across all types of cells among PBMCs, particularly up-regulation of the TNF/IL-1β-driven inflammatory response as compared to severe influenza. In classical monocytes from patients with severe COVID-19, type I IFN response co-existed with the TNF/IL-1β-driven inflammation, and this was not seen in patients with milder COVID-19. Interestingly, we documented type I IFN-driven inflammatory features in patients with severe influenza as well. Based on this, we propose that the type I IFN response plays a pivotal role in exacerbating inflammation in severe COVID-19.

title: Commentary: Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors as potential adjunct treatment targeting the cytokine storm in COVID-19
abstract: The most severe presentation of COVID-19 is characterized by a hyperinflammatory state attributed to the massive pro-inflammatory cytokine release, called “cytokine storm”. Several specific anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressive agents are being evaluated by ongoing clinical trials; however, there is currently insufficient evidence for their efficacy and safety in COVID-19 treatment. Given the role of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE) 4 and cyclic adenosine monophosphate in the inflammatory response, we hypothesize that selective PDE4 inhibition may attenuate the cytokine storm in COVID-19, through the upstream inhibition of pro-inflammatory molecules, particularly TNF-α, and the regulation of the pro-inflammatory/anti-inflammatory balance. Conversely, other anti-cytokine agents lead to the downstream inhibition of specific targets, such as IL-1, IL-6 or TNF-α, and may not be efficient in blocking the cytokine storm, once it has been triggered. Due to their mechanism of action targeting an early stage of the inflammatory response and ameliorating lung inflammation, we believe that selective PDE4 inhibitors may represent a promising treatment option for the early phase of COVID-19 pneumonia before the cytokine storm and severe multiorgan dysfunction take place. Furthermore, PDE4 inhibitors present several advantages including an excellent safety profile; the oral route of administration; the convenient dosing; and beneficial metabolic properties. Interestingly, obesity and diabetes mellitus type 2 have been reported to be risk factors for the severity of COVID-19. Therefore, randomized clinical trials of PDE4 inhibitors are necessary to explore their potential therapeutic effect as an adjunct to supportive measures and other therapeutic regiments.

title: Clinical and immunologic features in severe and moderate forms of Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: Since late December, 2019, an outbreak of pneumonia cases caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in Wuhan, and continued to spread throughout China and across the globe. To date, few data on immunologic features of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been reported.  In this single-centre retrospective study, a total of 21 patients with pneumonia who were laboratory-confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan Tongji hospital were included from Dec 19, 2019 to Jan 27, 2020. The immunologic characteristics as well as their clinical, laboratory, radiological features were compared between 11 severe cases and 10 moderate cases.  Of the 21 patients with COVID-19, only 4 (19%) had a history of exposure to the Huanan seafood market. 7 (33.3%) patients had underlying conditions. The average age of severe and moderate cases was 63.9 and 51.4 years, 10 (90.9%) severe cases and 7 (70.0%) moderate cases were male. Common clinical manifestations including fever (100%, 100%), cough (70%, 90%), fatigue (100%, 70%) and myalgia (50%, 30%) in severe cases and moderate cases. PaO2/FiO2 ratio was significantly lower in severe cases (122.9) than moderate cases (366.2). Lymphocyte counts were significantly lower in severe cases (7000 million/L) than moderate cases (11000 million/L). Alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase levels, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and ferritin were significantly higher in severe cases (41.4 U/L, 567.2 U/L, 135.2 mg/L and 1734.4 ug/L) than moderate cases (17.6 U/L, 234.4 U/L, 51.4 mg/L and 880.2 ug /L). IL-2R, TNF-α and IL-10 concentrations on admission were significantly higher in severe cases (1202.4 pg/mL, 10.9 pg/mL and 10.9 pg/mL) than moderate cases (441.7 pg/mL, 7.5 pg/mL and 6.6 pg/mL). Absolute number of total T lymphocytes, CD4+T cells and CD8+T cells decreased in nearly all the patients, and were significantly lower in severe cases (332.5, 185.6 and 124.3 million/L) than moderate cases (676.5, 359.2 and 272.0 million/L). The expressions of IFN-γ by CD4+T cells tended to be lower in severe cases (14.6%) than moderate cases (23.6%).  The SARS-CoV-2 infection may affect primarily T lymphocytes, particularly CD4+T cells, resulting in significant decrease in number as well as IFN-γ production, which may be associated with disease severity. Together with clinical characteristics, early immunologic indicators including diminished T lymphocytes and elevated cytokines may serve as potential markers for prognosis in COVID-19.

title: Dynamics of a Cytokine Storm
abstract: Six volunteers experienced severe inflammatory response during the Phase I clinical trial of a monoclonal antibody that was designed to stimulate a regulatory T cell response. Soon after the trial began, each volunteer experienced a “cytokine storm”, a dramatic increase in cytokine concentrations. The monoclonal antibody, TGN1412, raised serum concentrations of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines το very hiγh values during the first day, while lymphocyte and monocyte concentrations plummeted. Because the subjects were healthy and had no prior indications of immune deficiency, this event provided an unusual opportunity to study the dynamic interactions of cytokines and other measured parameters. Here, the response histories of nine cytokines have been modeled by a set of linear ordinary differential equations. A general search procedure identifies parameters of the model, whose response fits the data well during the five-day measurement period. The eighteenth-order model reveals plausible cause-and-effect relationships among the cytokines, showing how each cytokine induces or inhibits other cytokines. It suggests that perturbations in IL2, IL8, and IL10 have the most significant inductive effect, while IFN-γ and IL12 have the greatest inhibiting effect on other cytokine concentrations. Although TNF-α is a major pro-inflammatory factor, IFN-γ and three other cytokines have faster initial and median response to TGN1412 infusion. Principal-component analysis of the data reveals three clusters of similar cytokine responses: [TNF-α, IL1, IL10], [IFN-γ, IL2, IL4, IL8, and IL12], and [IL6]. IL1, IL6, IL10, and TNF-α have the highest degree of variability in response to uncertain initial conditions, exogenous effects, and parameter estimates. This study illuminates details of a cytokine storm event, and it demonstrates the value of linear modeling for interpreting complex, coupled biological system dynamics from empirical data.

title: A reappraisal of the role of transthoracic ultrasound in the era of COVID-19. Patient evaluation through new windows

title: Animal models of mechanisms of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection and COVID‐19 pathology
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic caused by SARS‐CoV‐2 infections has led to substantial unmet need for treatments, many of which will require testing in appropriate animal models of this disease. Vaccine trials are already underway, but there remains an urgent need to find other therapeutic approaches to either target SARS‐CoV‐2 or the complications arising from viral infection, particularly the dysregulated immune response and systemic complications which have been associated with progression to severe COVID‐19. At the time of writing, in vivo studies of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection have been described using macaques, cats, ferrets, hamsters, and transgenic mice expressing human angiotensin I converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). These infection models have already been useful for studies of transmission and immunity, but to date only partially model the mechanisms implicated in human severe COVID‐19. There is therefore an urgent need for development of animal models for improved evaluation of efficacy of drugs identified as having potential in the treatment of severe COVID‐19. These models need to recapitulate key mechanisms of COVID‐19 severe acute respiratory distress syndrome and reproduce the immunopathology and systemic sequelae associated with this disease. Here, we review the current models of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection and COVID‐19‐related disease mechanisms and suggest ways in which animal models can be adapted to increase their usefulness in research into COVID‐19 pathogenesis and for assessing potential treatments.

title: SARS-CoV-2 Inflammatory Syndrome. Clinical Features and Rationale for Immunological Treatment
abstract: The current pandemic coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, is a global health emergency because of its highly contagious nature, the great number of patients requiring intensive care therapy, and the high fatality rate. In the absence of specific antiviral drugs, passive prophylaxis, or a vaccine, the treatment aim in these patients is to prevent the potent virus-induced inflammatory stimuli from leading to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which has a severe prognosis. Here, the mechanism of action and the rationale for employing immunological strategies, which range from traditional chemically synthesized drugs, anti-cytokine antibodies, human immunoglobulin for intravenous use, to vaccines, are reviewed.

title: Psychometric Testing of Three COVID-19-Related Scales Among People with Mental Illness
abstract: Fear of novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) may result in psychological health problems among different populations. Moreover, believing COVID-19 information and preventive COVID-19 infection behaviors are relevant constructs associated with fear of COVID-19. Therefore, the present study validated three instruments assessing fear, beliefs, and preventive behaviors related to COVID-19 among individuals with mental illness. Moreover, relationships between the three constructs were examined. Individuals with mental illness (N = 400; 178 females; mean age = 46.91 years) completed the Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S), Believing COVID-19 Information Scale (BCIS), Preventive COVID-19 Infection Behaviors Scale (PCIBS), and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). The FCV-19S, BCIS, and PCIBS demonstrated a single-factor structure with satisfactory fit indices. Moreover, believing COVID-19 information positively and significantly associated with fear of COVID-19, and fear of COVID-19 negatively and significantly associated with preventive behaviors and positively and significantly associated with psychological distress. The FCV-19S, BCIS, and PCIBS may assist healthcare providers in assessing COVID-19-related information among individuals with mental illness. Consequently, relevant programs may be designed to help individuals with mental illness going through the period of crisis.

title: Predictive factors for disease progression in hospitalized patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan, China
abstract: A few studies have revealed the clinical characteristics of hospitalized patients with COVID-19. However, predictive factors for the outcomes remain unclear.  Attempted to determine the predictive factors for the poor outcomes of patients with COVID-19.  This is a single-center, retrospective study. Clinical, laboratory, and treatment data were collected and analyzed from 111 hospitalized patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 in Union Hospital. The gathered data of discharged and deteriorated patients were compared.  Among these 111 patients, 93 patients were discharged and 18 patients were deteriorated. The lymphocyte count (0.56 G/L [0.47-0.63] vs 1.30 G/L [0.95-1.65]) was lower in the deteriorated group than those in the discharged group. The numbers of pulmonary lobe involved (5.00 [5.00–5.00] vs 4.00 [2.00-5.00]), serum C‐reactive protein (CRP, 79.52 mg/L [61.25-102.98] vs 7.93 mg/L [3.14-22.50]), IL-6 (35.72 pg/ml [9.24-85.19] vs 5.09 pg/ml [3.16-9.72]), and IL-10 (5.35 pg/ml [4.48-7.84] vs 3.97 pg/ml [3.34-4.79]) concentrations in deteriorated patients were elevated compared with discharged patients. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that male gender (OR, 24.8 [1.8-342.1]), comorbidity (OR, 52.6 [3.6-776.4]), lymphopenia (OR, 17.3 [1.1-261.8]), and elevated CRP (OR, 96.5 [4.6-2017.6]) were the independent risk factors for the poor prognosis in COVID-19 patients.  This finding would facilitate the early identification of high-risk COVID-19 patients.

title: Host Immune Response and Immunobiology of Human SARS-CoV-2 Infection
abstract: One of the most serious viral outbreaks of the decade, infecting humans, originated from the city of Wuhan, China, by the end of December 2019, has left the world shaken up. It is the successor infection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) named as SARS-CoV-2 causing a disease called as COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease-19). Being one of the most severe diseases in terms of transmission, this disease agitates the immune system of an individual quite disturbingly which at times leads to death, which is why it has become the need of the hour to step forward to extensively involve in understanding the genetics, pathogenesis, and immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 in order to design drugs to treat or to design a vaccine to prevent. In this chapter, we have tried to review and summarize the studies done so far to understand the host–pathogen relationship and the host immune response during COVID-19 infection. One of the recent developments regarding the understanding of SARS-CoV-2 infection is the mechanism of immune evasion involved during the pathogenesis and cytokine storm syndrome during infection in the patient against which a drug called as Hydroxychloroquine has been designed. Comprehensively, we have tried to give an immunological insight into the SARS-CoV-2 infection in order to understand the possible outcome for any therapeutic advancement.

title: Cytokine storm induced by SARS-CoV-2
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the virus designated as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spread widely throughout the world. Despite the strict global outbreak management and quarantine measures that have been implemented, the incidence of COVID-19 continues to rise, resulting in more than 290,000 deaths and representing an extremely serious threat to human life and health. The clinical symptoms of the affected patients are heterogeneous, ranging from mild upper respiratory symptoms to severe pneumonitis and even acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or death. Systemic immune over activation due to SARS-CoV-2 infection causes the cytokine storm, which is especially noteworthy in severely ill patients with COVID-19. Pieces of evidence from current studies have shown that the cytokine storm may be an important factor in disease progression, even leading to multiple organ failure and death. This review provides an overview of the knowledge on the COVID-19 epidemiological profile, the molecular mechanisms of the SARS-CoV-2-induced cytokine storm and immune responses, the pathophysiological changes that occur during infection, the main antiviral compounds used in treatment strategies and the potential drugs for targeting cytokines, this information is presented to provide valuable guidance for further studies and for a therapeutic reduction of this excessive immune response.

title: The Malassezia sympodialis Allergen Mala s 11 with Sequence Similarity to Manganese Superoxide Dismutase Induces Maturation and Production of Inflammatory Cytokines in Human Dendritic Cells
abstract: The chronic inflammatory skin disease atopic eczema (AE) affects almost 15% of the population in many countries today. The pathogenesis of AE is not fully understood. A combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors like microorganisms seems to contribute to the symptoms. The yeast Malassezia sympodialis is part of our normal skin micro flora but can act as an allergen and elicit specific IgE and T‐cell reactivity in patients with AE. Recently, we identified a novel major M. sympodialis allergen, designated Mala s 11 (22.4 kDa), with sequence similarity to the mitochondrial enzyme manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD). Interestingly, Mala s 11 has a high degree of homology to human MnSOD. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of recombinant Mala s 11 on antigen‐presenting dendritic cells. Monocyte‐derived dendritic cells (MDDCs) from healthy blood donors were cultured with or without Mala s 11 for different time periods. It was found that the maturation marker CD83 and the costimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86 were upregulated on the MDDCs exposed to Mala s 11 for 24 h, as demonstrated by flow cytometry. Furthermore, coculture of MDDCs with Mala s 11 for 9 h induced an increased production of the inflammatory cytokines IL‐6 (200‐fold), TNF‐α (100‐fold) and IL‐8 (sixfold), as detected by the cytometric bead array (CBA) analysis. Our results suggest that Mala s 11 affects the immune response through DC maturation and production of inflammatory cytokines. The potential cross‐reactivity with human MnSOD needs to be explored and the exact role of Mala s 11 in the pathogenesis of AE assessed in clinical studies involving skin prick and atopy patch tests.

title: Is macrophages heterogeneity important in determining COVID-19 lethality?
abstract: COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic due to infection with SARS-CoV-2 has led to the death of thousands of adults worldwide. It is now clear that the hyper-inflammatory response triggered by SARS-CoV-2 plays a major role in disease severity and lethality of the infection. Macrophages are innate immune cells that sense and respond to infections by producing a plethora of inflammatory molecules and by interacting with other inflammatory cells. Therefore, macrophages may be diriment on eliminating pathogens and promoting organ repair. However, macrophages can be a major player of the so called cytokine storm and may be damaging to the tissues. It is believed that macrophage activation syndrome is induced by SARS-CoV to be lethal. Surprisingly and fortunately few children die from COVID-19. For instance, in Italy, out of more than 30.000 deaths for COVID-19, three are children. Therefore, we must wonder why? Are macrophages different in children compared to adults? In my opinion they are different. It has been demonstrated that macrophages populate the lung in three “developmental waves”, and it has been suggested that similar waves may be observed in other important organs, such as the heart and kidney. It is most likely that macrophages heterogeneity is involved in determining the severity. There are no doubts that macrophages are important in determining life or death in these patients. Comparing macrophages of children with those of adults with different degrees of disease severity is, therefore, mandatory.

title: Expanded Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells (UC-MSCs) as a Therapeutic Strategy in Managing Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients: The Case for Compassionate Use
abstract: COVID-19 has affected the United States leading to a national emergency with health care and economic impact, propelling the country into a recession with disrupted lifestyles not seen in recent history. COVID-19 is a serious illness leading to multiple deaths in various countries including the United States. Several million Americans satisfy the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria for being high risk. Unfortunately, the available supply of medical beds and equipment for mechanical ventilation are much less than is projected to be needed. The World Health Organization (WHO) and multiple agencies led by the CDC in the United States have attempted to organize intensive outbreak investigation programs utilizing appropriate preventive measures, evaluation, and treatment. The clinical spectrum of COVID-19 varies from asymptomatic forms to conditions encompassing multiorgan and systemic manifestations in terms of septic shock, and multiple organ dysfunction (MOD) syndromes. The presently approved treatments are supportive but not curative for the disease. There are multiple treatments being studied. These include vaccines, medications Remdesivir and hydroxychloroquine and potentially combination therapy. Finally, expanded umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells or (UC-MSCs) may have a role and are being studied. The cure of COVID-19 is essentially dependent on the patients' own immune system. When the immune system is over activated in an attempt to kill the virus, this can lead to the production of a large number of inflammatory factors, resulting in severe cytokine storm. The cytokine storm may induce organ damage followed by the edema, dysfunction of air exchange, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute cardiac injury, and secondary infection, which may lead to death. Thus, at this point, the avoidance of the cytokine storm may be the key for the treatment of HCOV-19 infected patients.In China, where there was limited availability of effective modalities to manage COVID-19 several patients were treated with expanded UC-MSCs. Additionally, the Italian College of Anesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care have reported guidelines to treat coronavirus patients with stem cells in the hope of decreasing the number of patients going to the ICU, and, also relatively quickly getting them out of ICU. In this manuscript, we describe the urgent need for various solutions, pathogenesis of coronavirus and the clinical evidence for treatment of COVID-19 with stem cells. The limited but emerging evidence regarding UC MSC in managing COVID-19 suggests that it might be considered for compassionate use in critically ill patients to reduce morbidity and mortality in the United States. The administration and Coronavirus Task Force might wish to approach the potential of expanded UC-MSCs as an evolutionary therapeutic strategy in managing COVID-19 illness with a 3-pronged approach: If proven safe and effective on a specific and limited basis 1. Minimize regulatory burden by all agencies so that critically ill COVID-19 patients will have access regardless of their financial circumstance.2. Institute appropriate safeguards to avoid negative consequences from unscrupulous actors.3. With proper informed consent from patients or proxy when necessary, and subject to accumulation of data in that cohort, allow the procedure to be initiated in critically ill patients who are not responding to conventional therapies. Coronavirus, COVID-19, cytokine storm, multiorgan failure, expanded umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells.

title: Scoring systems for predicting mortality for severe patients with COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been widely spread and caused tens of thousands of deaths, especially in patients with severe COVID-19. This analysis aimed to explore risk factors for mortality of severe COVID-19, and establish a scoring system to predict in-hospital deaths.  Patients with COVID-19 were retrospectively analyzed and clinical characteristics were compared. LASSO regression as well as multivariable analysis were used to screen variables and establish prediction model.  A total of 2529 patients with COVID-19 was retrospectively analyzed, and 452 eligible severe COVID-19 were used for finally analysis. In training cohort, the median age was 66•0 years while it was 73•0 years in non-survivors. Patients aged 60–75 years accounted for the largest proportion of infected populations and mortality toll. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies were monitored up to 54 days, and IgG levels reached the highest during 20–30 days. No differences were observed of antibody levels between severe and non-severe patients. About 60.2% of severe patients had complications. Among acute myocardial injury (AMI), acute kidney injury (AKI) and acute liver injury (ALI), the heart was the earliest injured organ, whereas the time from AKI to death was the shortest. Age, diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), percentage of lymphocytes (LYM%), procalcitonin (PCT), serum urea, C reactive protein and D-dimer (DD), were identified associated with mortality by LASSO binary logistic regression. Then multivariable analysis was performed to conclude that old age, CHD, LYM%, PCT and DD remained independent risk factors for mortality. Based on the above variables, a scoring system of COVID-19 (CSS) was established to divide patients into low-risk and high-risk groups. This model displayed good discrimination (AUC=0·919) and calibration (P=0·264). Complications in low-risk and high-risk groups were significantly different (P<0·05). Use of corticosteroids in low-risk groups increased hospital stays by 4·5 days (P=0·036) and durations of disease by 7·5 days (P=0·012) compared with no corticosteroids.  Old age, CHD, LYM%, PCT and DD were independently related to mortality. CSS was useful for predicting in-hospital mortality and complications, and it could help clinicians to identify high-risk patients with poor prognosis.  This work was supported by the Key Project for Anti-2019 novel Coronavirus Pneumonia from the Ministry of Science and Technology, China (grant number 2020YFC0845500).

title: Could Sars-coronavirus-2 trigger autoimmune and/or autoinflammatory mechanisms in genetically predisposed subjects?

title: An inflammatory profile correlates with decreased frequency of cytotoxic cells in COVID-19
abstract: Increased production of inflammatory cytokines and myeloid-derived suppressor cells occur in COVID-19 patients. These inversely correlated with perforin-expressing NK and CD3+T-cells. We observed a lower perforin+ NK cells number in intensive care unit (ICU) compared to non-ICU patients, suggesting an impairment of the immune cytotoxic arm as a pathogenic mechanism.

title: Mechanistic inferences from clinical reports of SARS-CoV-2
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 was identified as the causative pathogen in an outbreak of viral pneumonia cases originating in Wuhan, China, with an ensuing rapid global spread that led it to be declared a pandemic by the WHO on March 11, 2020. Given the threat to public health posed by sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the literature surrounding patient presentation in severe and non-severe cases, transmission rates and routes, management strategies, and initial clinical trial results have become available at an unprecedented pace. In this review we collate current clinical and immunologic reports, comparing these to reports of previous coronaviruses to identify mechanisms driving progression to severe disease in some patients. In brief, we propose a model wherein dysregulated type I interferon signalling leads to aberrant recruitment and accumulation of innate immune lineages in the lung, impairing establishment of productive adaptive responses, and permitting a pathologic pro-inflammatory state. Finally, we extend these findings to suggest possible treatment options that may merit investigation in randomized clinical trials.

title: New Insights of an Old Defense System: Structure, Function, and Clinical Relevance of the Complement System
abstract: The complement system was discovered a century ago as a potent defense cascade of innate immunity. After its first description, continuous experimental and clinical research was performed, and three canonical pathways of activation were established. Upon activation by traumatic or surgical tissue damage, complement reveals beneficial functions of pathogen and danger defense by sensing and clearing injured cells. However, the latest research efforts have provided a more distinct insight into the complement system and its clinical subsequences. Complement has been shown to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of various inflammatory processes such as sepsis, multiorgan dysfunction, ischemia/reperfusion, cardiovascular diseases and many others. The three well-known activation pathways of the complement system have been challenged by newer findings that demonstrate direct production of central complement effectors (for example, C5a) by serine proteases of the coagulation cascade. In particular, thrombin is capable of producing C5a, which not only plays a decisive role on pathogens and infected/damaged tissues, but also acts systemically. In the case of uncontrolled complement activation, “friendly fire” is generated, resulting in the destruction of healthy host tissue. Therefore, the traditional research that focuses on a mainly positive-acting cascade has now shifted to the negative effects and how tissue damage originated by the activation of the complement can be contained. In a translational approach including structure-function relations of this ancient defense system, this review provides new insights of complement-mediated clinical relevant diseases and the development of complement modulation strategies and current research aspects.

title: Severe acute respiratory syndrome, a pathological immune response to the new coronavirus--implications for understanding of pathogenesis, therapy, design of vaccines, and epidemiology.
abstract: Findings coming from autopsies and serum of SARS patients suggest an important immune-inflammatory implication in the evolution to respiratory distress. Conditions such as HIV infection or treatment with immunosuppressors (in cancer or autoimmune diseases) are not among the bad prognosis factors for development of distress. To date, there have been no reported case fatalities in children, probably due to their more immature immune system. Our conclusions follow: (1) The milder form of SARS in children and the apparent protective factor that immunosupression represent rules out a significant viral cytopathic effect (they would be the most affected). (2) The evidence for immune implication in distress strongly supports immunomodulators for therapy: phosphodiesterase inhibitors (due to their down-modulating activity on proinflammatory cytokines); inhaled corticoids (aimed at producing a local immunomodulation); teophylline or nedocromil sodium (which prevents inflammatory cell recruitment into the airway wall). (3) An early immunomodulatory therapy, based on the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and clinical parameters to evaluate the respiratory function such as arterial oxygen saturation, could prevent the occurrence of distress. (4) Vaccine design should consider the immune origin of distress. (5) Physicians should be aware of mildly symptomatic patients (children, immuno-compromised hosts) to avoid transmission to immunocompetent adults.

title: COVID-19 and Mesenchymal Stem Cell Treatment; Mystery or Not.
abstract: On December 31, 2019, novel SARS-CoV2 spread from Wuhan China to more than 200 territories around world and the World Health Organization declared a COVID-19 pandemic on January 30, 2020. At this time there is no particular therapy, drug or vaccine available to deal with COVID-19. Today actual data indicates that about 17% of closed COVID-19 cases died. Health care professionals, ministry of health in countries and the public are trying to read the runes to see when the COVID-19 pandemic will be over. Although mild cases of COVID-19 can be controlled with antiviral, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory treatment, severe cases may need intensive care unit support and ventilation. Cytokine storms cause high inflammatory responses and pneumonia in severe cases. Mesenchymal stem cells are immunomodulatory and they have regenerative capacity. In this sense, mesenchymal stem cells may improve the patient's clinical and immunological response to COVID-19.

title: Origin, Potential Therapeutic Targets and Treatment for Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)
abstract: The ongoing episode of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) has imposed a serious threat to global health and the world economy. The disease has rapidly acquired a pandemic status affecting almost all populated areas of the planet. The causative agent of COVID-19 is a novel coronavirus known as SARS-CoV-2. The virus has an approximate 30 kb single-stranded positive-sense RNA genome, which is 74.5% to 99% identical to that of SARS-CoV, CoV-pangolin, and the coronavirus the from horseshoe bat. According to available information, SARS-CoV-2 is inferred to be a recombinant virus that originated from bats and was transmitted to humans, possibly using the pangolin as the intermediate host. The interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with the human ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) receptor, and its subsequent cleavage by serine protease and fusion, are the main events in the pathophysiology. The serine protease inhibitors, spike protein-based vaccines, or ACE2 blockers may have therapeutic potential in the near future. At present, no vaccine is available against COVID-19. The disease is being treated with antiviral, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, herbal medicines, and active plasma antibodies. In this context, the present review article provides a cumulative account of the recent information regarding the viral characteristics, potential therapeutic targets, treatment options, and prospective research questions.

title: Regional air pollution persistence links to COVID-19 infection zoning

title: Inflammatory Response After Laparoscopic Versus Open Resection of Colorectal Liver Metastases: Data From the Oslo-CoMet Trial.
abstract: Laparoscopic and open liver resection have not been compared in randomized trials. The aim of the current study was to compare the inflammatory response after laparoscopic and open resection of colorectal liver metastases (CLM) in a randomized controlled trial.This was a predefined exploratory substudy within the Oslo CoMet-study. Forty-five patients with CLM were randomized to laparoscopic (n = 23) or open (n = 22) resection. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-plasma samples were collected preoperatively and at defined time points during and after surgery and snap frozen at -80 C. A total of 25 markers were examined using luminex and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay techniques: high-mobility box group 1(HMGB-1), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), cytokines, and terminal C5b-9 complement complex complement activation.Eight inflammatory markers increased significantly from baseline: HMGB-1, cfDNA, interleukin (IL)-6, C-reactive protein, macrophage inflammatory protein -1β, monocyte chemotactic protein -1, IL-10, and terminal C5b-9 complement complex. Peak levels were reached at the end of or shortly after surgery. Five markers, HMGB-1, cfDNA, IL-6, C-reactive protein, and macrophage inflammatory protein -1β, showed significantly higher levels in the open surgery group compared with the laparoscopic surgery group.Laparoscopic resection of CLM reduced the inflammatory response compared with open resection. The lower level of HMGB-1 is interesting because of the known association with oncogenesis.

title: Glycyrrhetinic acid and its derivatives as potential alternative medicine to relieve symptoms in nonhospitalized COVID‐19 patients
abstract: SARS‐CoV‐2 is highly infectious, and infection by this virus results in COVID‐19, manifesting predominantly symptoms in the lower respiratory system. Detection of viral genomic materials by RT‐PCR is the gold standard for diagnosis. Suspected COVID‐19 patients who had a documented history of exposure and exhibited symptoms, but did not have positive PCR test results, were generally self‐quarantined with prescriptions aiming to help attenuate their symptoms. These prescriptions are however neither specific nor highly effective for COVID‐19 treatment. Given the rapidly growing pandemic and the overwhelmed medical system, the number of self‐quarantined patients is increasing. There is an urgent need of alternative medicine to help patients relieve symptoms during self‐quarantine, and to potentially help increase their chances of survival and recovery from the infection. We report here a case of severe COVID‐19 that never had a positive PCR test result during disease progression but was confirmed with antibody test post recovery. This patient was self‐quarantined and received diammonium glycyrrhizinate (DG), a steroid‐like molecule, in combination with vitamin C as alternative medicine. This patient went through severe COVID‐19 but eventually recovered upon the implementation of this treatment regimen, suggesting potential therapeutic effects of DG as alternative medicine to help relieve COVID‐19 symptoms.

title: Supplementation of Vitamin C to Weaner Diets Increases IgM Concentration and Improves the Biological Activity of Vitamin E in Alveolar Macrophages
abstract: Vitamins E and C have been found to increase the cellular and humeral immunity of pigs. Vitamin E deficiency has also been found to predispose pigs to different diseases, E. coli infection is one among them. After weaning, the vitamin E status of pigs often decreases to a critical low level. In this experiment, we studied whether vitamin C supplementation would be a possible feeding strategy to optimize the immune status of weaners. The interaction between vitamin E and C is interesting due to the reported sparing action on vitamin E or synergism between these to vitamins. Piglets were weaned at day 28 of age from sows fed increasing dietary vitamin E during lactation, and piglets were during the following 3 weeks fed either a control diet or this diet supplemented with 500 mg STAY‐C per kg. Blood sampling was obtained weekly from day 28 and until day 49 of age. On the same days, one piglet per dietary treatment was killed and alveolar macrophages (AM) were harvested. Vitamin C supplementation increased the concentration of IgM in serum of piglets throughout the weaning period. Although the vitamin E concentration in AM decreased with increasing age of the piglets, the concentration was numerically higher in piglets of sows fed the high dietary level of vitamin E. However, vitamin C supplementation tended to increase the total AM concentration of vitamin E after weaning and increased the proportion of the biologically most active isomer of vitamin E [RRR‐(α‐tocopherol)] in the AM. The eicosanoid synthesis by AM was not influenced by the vitamin C supplementation, but the synthesis of leukotriene B4 was decreased 2 weeks after weaning compared to other days of AM harvesting. In conclusion, dietary vitamin C supplementation improved the immune responses of piglets after weaning.

title: Iron: Innocent bystander or vicious culprit in COVID-19 pathogenesis?
abstract: The coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic is viciously spreading through the continents with rapidly increasing mortality rates. Current management of COVID-19 is based on the premise that respiratory failure is the leading cause of mortality. However, mounting evidence links accelerated pathogenesis in gravely ill COVID-19 patients to a hyper-inflammatory state involving a cytokine storm. Several components of the heightened inflammatory state were addressed as therapeutic targets. Another key component of the heightened inflammatory state is hyper-ferritinemia which reportedly identifies patients with increased mortality risk. In spite of its strong association with mortality, it is not yet clear if hyper-ferritinemia in COVID-19 patients is merely a systemic marker of disease progression, or a key modulator in disease pathogenesis. Here we address implications of a possible role for hyper-ferritinemia, and altered iron homeostasis in COVID-19 pathogenesis, and potential therapeutic targets in this regard.

title: Targeting innate immunity by blocking CD14: Novel approach to control inflammation and organ dysfunction in COVID-19 illness
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has produced an unprecedented rush to develop new therapies, ranging from immunizations and antivirals to host-directed therapies to dampen potentially deleterious host inflammatory responses. With a sense of urgency, many groups have proposed repurposing approved drugs for other indications that might be deployed rapidly to control the viral infection or improve host responses. However, many of these therapies are based on drug availability rather than on a rational understanding of important steps in pathogenesis, particularly in the lungs, that lead to critical illness and life-threatening acute respiratory failure. Here we propose that the viral infection initially triggers a profound activation of innate immunity in the lungs that generates a self-perpetuating cytokine storm affecting the entire body. Inhibiting key proximal points in innate immunity pathways is feasible and offers a science-based approach to improving outcomes in moderate to severe COVID-19 illness.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Cytokine Storms, Hyper-Inflammatory Phenotypes, and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
abstract: Disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China at the end of 2019. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) represents the most common and serious complication of COVID-19. Cytokine storms are a pathophysiological feature of COVID-19 and play an important role in distinguishing hyper-inflammatory subphenotypes of ARDS. Accordingly, in this review, we focus on hyper-inflammatory host responses in ARDS that play a critical role in the differentiated development of COVID-19. Furthermore, we discuss inflammation-related indicators that have the potential to identify hyper-inflammatory subphenotypes of COVID-19, especially for those with a high risk of ARDS. Finally, we explore the possibility of improving the quality of monitoring and treatment of COVID-19 patients and in reducing the incidence of critical illness and mortality via better distinguishing hyper- and hypo-inflammatory subphenotypes of COVID-19.

title: Differential expression and regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) products in neural and glial cells of the human fetal brain
abstract: The cells of the central nervous system (CNS) have the peculiarity of physiologically expressing very low levels of HLA molecules. In multiple sclerosis (MS), however, as in endocrine autoimmune diseases, there is a marked increase of HLA expression in the tissue (i.e. the plaques) and this is attributable not only to infiltrating cells but also to the astrocytes. To gain an insight into the regulation of HLA in the different cell types in the CNS and to compare it to that observed in the endocrine organs, we have studied the effect of the lympho/monokines interferon (IFN)-α and -γ, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-2 and other agents on this aspect of the biology of human fetal brain cells in culture. A two-colour immunofluorescence technique which combines antibodies to diverse CNS cell markers and monoclonal antibodies (MoAbs) to the non-polymorphic region of HLA molecules was used throughout this study. In control cultures, only astrocytes expressed MHC class I, but after incubation with either IFN-γ or TNF-α oligodendrocytes acquired class I expression. Surprisingly, astrocytes became spontaneously class II positive in culture and this was greatly enhanced by IFN-γ. Other agents such as IL-2, epidermal growth factor, phorbolmyristate acetate and lectins had no effect. The expression of HLA molecules in the cells of the CNS both in basal conditions and in response to lymphokines is therefore selective and highly heterogenous, thus reflecting their intrinsic biological diversity. These findings may help to explain the features of the immunopathology of MS and also of latent viral infections of neural cells.

title: Host-directed therapies for infectious diseases: current status, recent progress, and future prospects
abstract: Despite extensive global efforts in the fight against killer infectious diseases, they still cause one in four deaths worldwide and are important causes of long-term functional disability arising from tissue damage. The continuing epidemics of tuberculosis, HIV, malaria, and influenza, and the emergence of novel zoonotic pathogens represent major clinical management challenges worldwide. Newer approaches to improving treatment outcomes are needed to reduce the high morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases. Recent insights into pathogen–host interactions, pathogenesis, inflammatory pathways, and the host's innate and acquired immune responses are leading to identification and development of a wide range of host-directed therapies with different mechanisms of action. Host-directed therapeutic strategies are now becoming viable adjuncts to standard antimicrobial treatment. Host-directed therapies include commonly used drugs for non-communicable diseases with good safety profiles, immunomodulatory agents, biologics (eg monoclonal antibodies), nutritional products, and cellular therapy using the patient's own immune or bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells. We discuss clinically relevant examples of progress in identifying host-directed therapies as adjunct treatment options for bacterial, viral, and parasitic infectious diseases.

title: Counter-regulatory 'Renin-Angiotensin' System-based Candidate Drugs to Treat COVID-19 Diseases in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19 and the 'Renin-Angiotensin' System The ubiquitous 'Renin-Angiotensin' system (RAS), also referred to as 'Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone' system, plays a crucial physiological role in humans as being a key regulator of renal, cardiovascular and innate immune functions [1, 2]. It appears to work in tandem with vitamin D, a secosteroid pro-hormone which reportedly acts as a negative regulatory factor of the RAS [3-6]. A dysfunction (e.g. over-reactivity) of RAS, together with hypovitaminosis D, is likely associated with some of the various renal, cardiac, vascular and immune outcomes that might be observed in COVID-19 patients, including the cytokine storm (i.e. unopposed hyperactive immune reaction generating both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines) and consequent lethal acute respiratory distress syndrome [1, 7]. Recently, SARS-CoV-2 [8, 9], the causative agent of COVID-19, has been described to interfere with the RAS  by interacting -via its spike (S) glycoprotein- with the metallopeptidase Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor [9, 10] that is expressed at the surface of epithelial cells from blood vessels, lung, kidney (renal tubules), intestine, and heart, as well as on cerebral neurons and immune monocytes/macrophages [11-13]. The main SARS-CoV-2-related COVID-19 symptoms/diseases reported hitherto are hypertension, atherosclerosis, thrombosis (coagulopathy), diarrhea, glaucoma, anosmia, ageusia, skin lesions (dermatitis), autoimmune inflammation of the central nervous system, and damages to various organs such as the lung, heart, kidney, and testicle [1, 2, 14]. All these diffuse COVID-19 disorders are likely linked to an over-reaction of RAS in SARS-CoV-2-infected persons. Such a RAS imbalance would be also favored by hypovitaminosis D [2-7, 11]. Since RAS appears to be central in COVID-19 symptoms/diseases, selective targeting of key component(s) of this system might be appropriate to treat RAS-dependent disorders. COVID-19 Disorders: 'Renin-Angiotensin' System (RAS) & Counter-regulatory RAS In the RAS pathway [1, 15], Renin (kidney) cleaves Angiotensinogen (liver) to give Angiotensin I (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPFHL). The latter is cleaved by the Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) to produce Angiotensin II (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPF), which is the substrate of ACE2 (SARS-CoV-2 receptor) and key player of the RAS. The cellular targets of Angiotensin II are the vasoconstrictor type 1 (AT1R) and vasodilatator type 2 (AT2R) Angiotensin II receptors (AT1R is expressed at the surface of monocytes/macrophages and T-cells indicating that RAS acts on innate immunity in host). When cleaved by ACE2, Angiotensin II gives Angiotensin 1-7 (i.e. peptide DRVYIHP), targeting the vasodilatator proto-oncogene Mas receptor (MasR). Angiotensin 1-7 can be further transformed to Alamandine (i.e. peptide ARVYIHP) by an aspartate decarboxylase. Alamandine would bind to the vasodilatator Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor member D (MRGD) thus promoting most of the Angiotensin 1-7-like effects. Angiotensin II can produce Angiotensin A (i.e. peptide ARVYIHPF) via an aspartate decarboxylase, and Alamandine via an additional ACE2 cleavage. ACE2 can also cleave Angiotensin I to form Angiotensin 1-9 (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPFH), which targets AT2R. In the RAS pathway were finally evidenced the related Angiotensin III (i.e. peptide RVYIHPF) and Angiotensin IV (i.e. peptide VYIHPF) variants targeting the AT1R and vasodilatator AT4R, respectively. From the known molecular functioning of the RAS, Angiotensins I and II (aside Angiotensin III) are playing central roles in the activity of RAS and associated pathologies, including COVID-19 [2, 10]. Interestingly, it appears that a 'counter-regulatory' RAS does exist to modulate system homeostasis; it relies on Angiotensin 1-7, Angiotensin 1-9, Alamandine, Angiotensin A, and Angiotensin IV, which are targeting the MasR, AT2R, MRGD, ACE2 and AT4R vasodilatator receptors, respectively. These peptides were found to exhibit cardioprotective, vasoactive (anti-hypertensive), anti-hypertrophic and/or anti-inflammatory potentials . Such naturally-produced molecules of the RAS are expected to counteract the SARS-CoV-2-induced over-activation of RAS and reverse, to some extent, the associated COVID-19 diseases. CONCLUDING REMARKS A recent report suggests that RAS inhibitors may act on the severity of viral infection and mortality of COVID-19 patients . Whether or not RAS blockers would be beneficial to COVID-19 cases is still controversial. The RAS inhibitors likely prevent the cytokine storm as RAS is reported to control the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines [1, 7]. It appears that COVID-19 disorders of SARS-CoV-2-infected humans depend on the RAS over-reacted by the (ACE2-dependent) viral infection and vitamin D deficiency. The track for a possible COVID-19 treatment would be to target RAS using specific candidate chemotherapeutic drugs. The proposed molecules are (so far) ACE inhibitors (to prevent the production of Angiotensin II from Angiotensin I), and blockers/antagonists of AT1R such as Losartan and derivatives. Recombinant ACE2 (under clinical trials) is also considered as a decoy for the recognition and competitive binding to the spike (S) glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 . We support the use of natural candidate peptide drugs that belong to the 'counter-regulatory' RAS, i.e. Angiotensin 1-7, Angiotensin 1-9, Alamandine, Angiotensin A and/or Angiotensin IV to treat COVID-19 disorders. The targeted receptors would thus be MasR, AT2R, MRGD, ACE2 and AT4R. The authors wish to thank Bonabes De Rougé MD for fruitful discussions.

title: Potential Cytoprotective Activity of Ozone Therapy in SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19
abstract: The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) disease (COVID-19) in China at the end of 2019 has caused a large global outbreak. Systemic ozone therapy (OT) could be potentially useful in the clinical management of several complications secondary to SARS-CoV-2. The rationale and mechanism of action has already been proven clinically in other viral infections and has been shown in research studies to be highly effective at decreasing organ damage mediated by inflammation and oxidative stress. This review summarizes the OT studies that illustrate the possible cytoprotective mechanism of action of ozone and its physiological by-products in target organs affected by SARS-CoV-2.  This review encompasses a total of 74 peer-reviewed original articles. It is mainly focused on ozone as a modulator of the NF-κB/Nrf2 pathways and IL-6/IL-1β expression.  In experimental models and the few existent clinical studies, homeostasis of the free radical and antioxidant balance by OT was associated with a modulation of NF-κB/Nrf2 balance and IL-6 and IL-1β expression. These molecular mechanisms support the cytoprotective effects of OT against tissue damage present in many inflammatory diseases, including viral infections.  The potential cytoprotective role of OT in the management of organ damage induced by COVID-19 merits further research. Controlled clinical trials are needed.

title: Can cell therapies halt cytokine storm in severe COVID-19 patients?
abstract: A pilot study of COVID-19 patients treated with mesenchymal stem cells demonstrates safety. Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) therapies, which have been explored for decades as a treatment for inflammatory diseases, are now being called into action to combat the cytokine storm induced by COVID-19. The severity of COVID-19 may be due in part to the patient's response to the infection. In some patients, the virus induces an outpouring of inflammatory mediators that leads to swelling, inflammatory infiltration, and reduced gas exchange in the alveoli of the lungs. To combat this cytokine storm, over 20 clinical trials aiming to treat COVID-19 with MSCs have been registered with ClinicalTrials.gov. Leng et al. recently conducted a pilot study of MSC transplantation in 10 patients in China. All patients tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 by polymerase chain reaction and had fever, shortness of breath, cough, and oxygen saturation at rest &lt;95%. Seven of the patients received intravenous infusions of allogeneic MSCs while three received saline as a placebo control. All seven MSC treated patients experienced resolution of symptoms while one of the placebo-treated patients went on to develop ARDS and another died. The response of the most severely ill patient treated with MSCs was monitored throughout recovery. Of note, C-reactive protein levels dropped 10-fold after MSC treatment, suggesting a drop in systemic inflammation. Analysis of cytokine levels before and after treatment revealed that MSC treatment, but not placebo, was associated with a halt in the increase of serum tumor necrosis factor–α and an increase in anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 concentrations in the serum. Although this study is not designed to make definitive claims regarding the efficacy of MSC therapy for COVID-19 or the mechanisms by which MSCs may function to prevent or treat cytokine storm, it does provide important safety data and hints of efficacy that have motivated further exploration of MSCs as a treatment for COVID-19. Of particular note is a randomized, multicenter, placebo-controlled, Phase 2/3 trial enrolling 240 patients being conducted through a public-private partnership between the U.S. National Institutes of Health–funded Cardiothoracic Surgical Trials Network and Mesoblast. As multiple clinical trials are launched around the world, we should not have to wait long to determine if MSCs are a viable and effective treatment option for severe COVID-19.

title: What would sérgio ferreira say to your physician in this war against COVID-19: How about kallikrein/kinin system?
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease with fast spreading all over the world caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus which can culminate in a severe acute respiratory syndrome by the injury caused in the lungs. However, other organs can be also damaged. SARS-CoV-2 enter into the host cells using the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as receptor, like its ancestor SARS-CoV. ACE2 is then downregulated in lung tissues with augmented serum levels of ACE2 in SARS-CoV-2 patients. Interestingly, ACE2(+) organs reveal the symptomatic repercussions, which are signals of the infection such as dry cough, shortness of breath, heart failure, liver and kidney damage, anosmia or hyposmia, and diarrhea. ACE2 exerts a chief role in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) by converting angiotensin II to angiotensin-(1-7) that activates Mas receptor, inhibits ACE1, and modulates bradykinin (BK) receptor sensitivity, especially the BK type 2 receptor (BKB2R). ACE2 also hydrolizes des-Arg(9)-bradykinin (DABK), an active BK metabolite, agonist at BK type 1 receptors (BKB1R), which is upregulated by inflammation. In this opinion article, we conjecture a dialogue by the figure of Sérgio Ferreira which brought together basic science of classical pharmacology and clinical repercussions in COVID-19, then we propose that in the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection: i) downregulation of ACE2 impairs the angiotensin II and DABK inactivation; ii) BK and its metabolite DABK seems to be in elevated levels in tissues by interferences in kallikrein/kinin system; iii) BK1 receptor contributes to the outbreak and maintenance of the inflammatory response; iv) kallikrein/kinin system crosstalks to RAS and coagulation system, linking inflammation to thrombosis and organ injury. We hypothesize that targeting the kallikrein/kinin system and BKB1R pathway may be beneficial in SARS-CoV-2 infection, especially on early stages. This route of inference should be experimentally verified by SARS-CoV-2 infected mice.

title: Cardiovascular Impairment in COVID-19: Learning From Current Options for Cardiovascular Anti-Inflammatory Therapy
abstract: In December 2019, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2, occurred in China and has currently led to a global pandemic. In addition to respiratory involvement, COVID-19 was also associated with significant multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Cardiovascular impairment has been observed and is now drawing growing attention. Cardiovascular protective strategies are urgent and of great significance to the overall prognosis of COVID-19 patients. Direct viral infection, cytokine storm, and aggravation of existing cardiovascular diseases were recognized as possible mechanisms of cardiovascular impairment in COVID-19. Hyperactivated inflammation plays an important role in all three mechanisms and is considered to be fundamental in the development of cardiovascular impairment and MODS in COVID-19. Therefore, in addition to conventional cardiovascular treatment, anti-inflammatory therapy is a reasonable strategy for severe cases to further enhance cardiovascular protection and potentially mitigate MODS. We reviewed the inflammatory features and current promising treatments of COVID-19 as well as cardiovascular anti-inflammatory therapies that have been verified in previous clinical trials with positive outcomes. We believe that targeting the central pathway (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6), balancing the Th1 and Th2 response, and administering long-term anti-inflammatory therapy might be promising prospects to reduce cardiovascular impairment and even MODS during the acute and recovery phases of COVID-19. The cardiovascular anti-inflammatory therapies might be of great application value to the management of COVID-19 patients and we further propose an algorithm for the selection of anti-inflammatory therapy for COVID-19 patients with or at high risk of cardiovascular impairment. We recommend to take the experiences in cardiovascular anti-inflammatory therapy as references in the management of COVID-19 and conduct related clinical trials, while the clinical translation of novel treatments from preclinical studies or in vitro drug screening should proceed with caution due to unguaranteed efficacy and safety profiles.

title: Vitamin D receptor stimulation to reduce acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in patients with coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infections: Revised Ms SBMB 2020_166
abstract: Coronavirus infection is a serious health problem awaiting an effective vaccine and/or antiviral treatment. The major complication of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the Acute Respiratory Distress syndrome (ARDS), is due to a variety of mechanisms including cytokine storm, dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin system, neutrophil activation and increased (micro)coagulation. Based on many preclinical studies and observational data in humans, ARDS may be aggravated by vitamin D deficiency and tapered down by activation of the vitamin D receptor. Several randomized clinical trials using either oral vitamin D or oral Calcifediol (25OHD) are ongoing. Based on a pilot study, oral calcifediol may be the most promising approach. These studies are expected to provide guidelines within a few months.

title: Disorders of White Blood Cells

title: Chemokines in acute respiratory distress syndrome
abstract: A characteristic feature of all inflammatory disorders is the excessive recruitment of leukocytes to the site of inflammation. The loss of control in trafficking these cells contributes to inflammatory diseases. Leukocyte recruitment is a well-orchestrated process that includes several protein families including the large cytokine subfamily of chemotactic cytokines, the chemokines. Chemokines and their receptors are involved in the pathogenesis of several diseases. Acute lung injury that clinically manifests as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is caused by an uncontrolled systemic inflammatory response resulting from clinical events including major surgery, trauma, multiple transfusions, severe burns, pancreatitis, and sepsis. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome involves activation of alveolar macrophages and sequestered neutrophils in the lung. The clinical hallmarks of ARDS are severe hypoxemia, diffuse bilateral pulmonary infiltrates, and normal intracardiac filling pressures. The magnitude and duration of the inflammatory process may ultimately determine the outcome in patients with ARDS. Recent evidence shows that activated leukocytes and chemokines play a key role in the pathogenesis of ARDS. The expanding number of antagonists of chemokine receptors for inflammatory disorders may hold promise for new medicines to combat ARDS.

title: Obesity: the “Achilles heel” for COVID-19?

title: Immune Response, Inflammation, and the Clinical Spectrum of COVID-19
abstract: The current COVID-19 pandemic began in December 2019 in Wuhan (China) and rapidly extended to become a global sanitary and economic emergency. Its etiological agent is the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. COVID-19 presents a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, which ranges from an asymptomatic infection to a severe pneumonia accompanied by multisystemic failure that can lead to a patient's death. The immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is known to involve all the components of the immune system that together appear responsible for viral elimination and recovery from the infection. Nonetheless, such immune responses are implicated in the disease's progression to a more severe and lethal process. This review describes the general aspects of both COVID-19 and its etiological agent SARS-CoV-2, stressing the similarities with other severe coronavirus infections, such as SARS and MERS, but more importantly, pointing toward the evidence supporting the hypothesis that the clinical spectrum of COVID-19 is a consequence of the corresponding variable spectrum of the immune responses to the virus. The critical point where progression of the disease ensues appears to center on loss of the immune regulation between protective and altered responses due to exacerbation of the inflammatory components. Finally, it appears possible to delineate certain major challenges deserving of exhaustive investigation to further understand COVID-19 immunopathogenesis, thus helping to design more effective diagnostic, therapeutic, and prophylactic strategies.

title: COVID-19-associated cardiovascular morbidity in older adults: a position paper from the Italian Society of Cardiovascular Researches
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infects host cells following binding with the cell surface ACE2 receptors, thereby leading to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 causes viral pneumonia with additional extrapulmonary manifestations and major complications, including acute myocardial injury, arrhythmia, and shock mainly in elderly patients. Furthermore, patients with existing cardiovascular comorbidities, such as hypertension and coronary heart disease, have a worse clinical outcome following contraction of the viral illness. A striking feature of COVID-19 pandemics is the high incidence of fatalities in advanced aged patients: this might be due to the prevalence of frailty and cardiovascular disease increase with age due to endothelial dysfunction and loss of endogenous cardioprotective mechanisms. Although experimental evidence on this topic is still at its infancy, the aim of this position paper is to hypothesize and discuss more suggestive cellular and molecular mechanisms whereby SARS-CoV-2 may lead to detrimental consequences to the cardiovascular system. We will focus on aging, cytokine storm, NLRP3/inflammasome, hypoxemia, and air pollution, which is an emerging cardiovascular risk factor associated with rapid urbanization and globalization. We will finally discuss the impact of clinically available CV drugs on the clinical course of COVID-19 patients. Understanding the role played by SARS-CoV2 on the CV system is indeed mandatory to get further insights into COVID-19 pathogenesis and to design a therapeutic strategy of cardio-protection for frail patients.

title: COVID-19 pandemic: Its impact on liver disease and liver transplantation
abstract: Severe pulmonary disease caused by the novel coronavirus [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)], has devastated many countries around the world. It has overwhelmed the medical system. The priorities of many institutions have changed to manage critically ill corona virus infectious disease-2019 (COVID-19) patients, which affected the working style of many departments. Hepatologists and transplant surgeons look after a very sensitive patient group. Patients with liver disease need special attention and continuous follow-up. Similarly, transplant candidates also need special care. Healthcare professionals in the field of hepatology face the overwhelming task of taking care of COVID-19 patients with hepatic complications, liver disease or transplant patients who are SARS-CoV-2 positive, and the patients on routine surveillance who do not have COVID-19. This review will evaluate COVID-19 from the perspective of its effect on the liver and its possible effects on patients with liver disease. Furthermore, the level of care for liver transplant recipients during the pandemic will be discussed.

title: Haematological manifestations, mechanisms of thrombosis and anti-coagulation in COVID-19 disease: A review
abstract: Coronavirus-19 disease (COVID-19), a zoonosis, was first reported in the city of Wuhan, province of Hubei, China in December 2019. The disease is caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-CoronaVirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of 12(th) of May 2020, 4,256,022 confirmed cases affecting 212 countries with 287,332 deaths have been reported. The common symptoms reported in patients with COVID-19 are fever, dry cough, dyspnoea and gastrointestinal symptoms such as vomiting and diarrhoea. Non-survivors often succumb due to widespread pulmonary intravascular coagulopathy, arterial and venous thromboembolism, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC), secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH), and multiorgan dysfunctional syndrome (MODS). All hospitalised patients should be monitored closely for thrombotic events. Patients who develop bleeding episodes should be managed according to standard DIC guidelines. The main objectives of this review are 1) to provide a succinct background of this novel disease 2) discuss the haematological presentations and mechanisms of thrombosis 3) emphasize the role of anti-coagulation prophylaxis 4) explore the management of coagulopathy 5) provide insight on management of patients with COVID-19 disease and pre-existing bleeding disorders.

title: Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases following COVID-19
abstract: Emerging reports show that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection precedes the appearance of various autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases, including paediatric inflammatory multisystemic syndrome (PIMS) or multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), thus adding to the growing mystery of this virus and raising questions about the nature of its link with autoimmune and autoinflammatory sequelae.

title: Severe COVID-19 and aging: are monocytes the key?
abstract: The ongoing pandemic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes a disproportionate number of severe cases and deaths in older adults. Severe SARS-CoV-2-associated disease (coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)) was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization in March 2020 and is characterized by cytokine storm, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and in some cases by systemic inflammation–related pathology. Currently, our knowledge of the determinants of severe COVID-19 is primarily observational. Here, I review emerging evidence to argue that monocytes, a circulating innate immune cell, are principal players in cytokine storm and associated pathologies in COVID-19. I also describe changes in monocyte function and phenotype that are characteristic of both aging and severe COVID-19, which suggests a potential mechanism underlying increased morbidity and mortality due to SARS-CoV-2 infection in older adults. The innate immune system is therefore a potentially important target for therapeutic treatment of COVID-19, but experimental studies are needed, and SARS-CoV-2 presents unique challenges for pre-clinical and mechanistic studies in vivo. The immediate establishment of colonies of SARS-CoV-2-susceptible animal models for aging studies, as well as strong collaborative efforts in the geroscience community, will be required in order to develop the therapies needed to combat severe COVID-19 in older adult populations.

title: The central role of Fas‐ligand cell signaling in inflammatory lung diseases
abstract: Following inflammation and injury in the lung, loss of epithelial cell precursors could determine the balance between tissue regeneration and fibrosis. This review discusses evidence that proapoptotic Fas‐Fas ligand (FasL) signaling plays a central role in pulmonary inflammation, injury and fibrosis. FasL signaling induces inflammatory apoptosis in epithelial cells and alveolar macrophages, with concomitant IL‐1β and chemokine release, leading to neutrophil infiltration. FasL signaling plays a critical role in models of acute lung injury, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and silicosis; blockade of Fas‐FasL interactions either prevents or attenuates pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. Serologic and immunohistochemical studies in patients support a major pathogenic role of Fas and FasL molecules in inflammatory lung diseases. Identification of the pathogenic role of FasL could facilitate the discovery of more effective treatments for currently untreatable inflammatory lung diseases.

title: The Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System and COVID-19
abstract: The ongoing pandemic has stimulated study of the Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System (RAAS), and how it can be manipulated to treat COVID-19. Studies are examining whether drugs that act on the RAAS system might be useful to treat COVID-19. COVID-19 and the RAAS are closely linked both in infection and in possible post-infection inflammatory cascades. We detail the Physiology and Pharmacology of the RAAS including the effects of aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide. It is appropriate that the theoretical benefits of modulation of the RAAS should be considered based on available knowledge of the complexity of the system. In this short review we have tried to explain the actions of the angiotensin family of peptides and produce a relatively simple model and diagrammatic summary of the RAAS and the possible sites of intervention.

title: Pathogenesis of COVID-19 from the Perspective of the Damage-Response Framework
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) presents the medical community with a significant challenge. COVID-19 is an entirely new disease with disparate clinical manifestations that are difficult to reconcile with a single pathogenic principle. Here, we explain how the flexible paradigm of the “damage-response framework” (DRF) of microbial pathogenesis can organize the varied manifestations of COVID-19 into a synthesis that accounts for differences in susceptibility of vulnerable populations as well as for differing manifestations of COVID-19 disease. By focusing on mechanisms of host damage, particularly immune-mediated damage, the DRF provides a lens to understand COVID-19 pathogenesis and to consider how potential therapies could alter the outcome of this disease.

title: Coagulation dysfunction: A hallmark in COVID-19.
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Coagulation dysfunction is a hallmark in patients with COVID-19. Fulminant thrombotic complications emerge as critical issues in patients with severe COVID-19.  To present a review of the literature and discuss the mechanisms of COVID-19 underlying coagulation activation and the implications for anticoagulant and thrombolytic treatment in the management of COVID-19.  We performed a systemic review of scientific papers on the topic of COVID-19, online available via the PubMed NCBI, medRxiv, and Preprints as of May 15, 2020. We also shared our experience on the management of thrombotic events in patients with COVID-19.  COVID-19-associated coagulopathy ranges from mild laboratory alterations to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) with a predominant phenotype of thrombotic/multiple organ failure. Characteristically, high D-dimer levels on admission and/or continuously increasing concentrations of D-dimer is associated with disease progression and poor overall survival. SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers the immune-hemostatic response. Drastic inflammatory responses including, but not limited to, cytokine storm, vasculopathy, and NETosis may contribute to an overwhelming activation of coagulation. Hypercoagulability and systemic thrombotic complications necessitate anticoagulant and thrombolytic interventions, which provide opportunities to prevent or reduce "excessive" thrombin generation, while preserving "adaptive" hemostasis and bring additional benefit via their anti-inflammatory effect in the setting of COVID-19.

title: Intravenous Anakinra for Macrophage Activation Syndrome May Hold Lessons for Treatment of Cytokine Storm in the Setting of Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) are increasingly recognized as being on a continuum of cytokine storm syndromes, with different initiating pathways culminating in cytotoxic dysfunction and uncontrolled activation and proliferation of T lymphocytes and macrophages. The activated immune cells produce large amounts of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin 1β (IL)‐1β. Management depends on the recognized diagnosis. In the setting of a cytokine storm syndrome and infection, collaborative involvement of specialists, including infectious disease and rheumatology is ideal. Anakinra, a recombinant IL‐1 receptor antagonist, has been used subcutaneously and intravenously in pediatric patients and is considered a first‐line treatment for MAS and secondary HLH (sHLH) among many pediatric rheumatologists. Previous reports of anakinra used in adults for treatment of MAS or sHLH are limited to subcutaneous administration. In this issue, Moneagudo et al. present a series of adult patients with sHLH treated with intravenous anakinra, including patients in whom subcutaneous anakinra was insufficient. As the authors suggest, there is a potential therapeutic use for anakinra in sHLH or the cytokine storm syndrome triggered by COVID19. Trial design will be key, with the patient subpopulation, timing of intervention, and doses tested important.

title: Vitamin C promotes wound healing through novel pleiotropic mechanisms.
abstract: Vitamin C (VitC) or ascorbic acid (AscA), a cofactor for collagen synthesis and a primary antioxidant, is rapidly consumed post-wounding. Parenteral VitC administration suppresses pro-inflammatory responses while promoting anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution effects in human/murine sepsis. We hypothesised that VitC could promote wound healing by altering the inflammatory, proliferative and remodelling phases of wound healing. Mice unable to synthesise VitC (Gulo(-/-) ) were used in this study. VitC was provided in the water (sufficient), withheld from another group (deficient) and supplemented by daily intra-peritoneal infusion (200 mg/kg, deficient + AscA) in a third group. Full thickness excisional wounds (6 mm) were created and tissue collected on days 7 and 14 for histology, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and Western blotting. Human neonatal dermal fibroblasts (HnDFs) were used to assess effects of In conclusion, VitC favorably on proliferation. Histological analysis showed improved wound matrix deposition and organisation in sufficient and deficient +AscA mice. Wounds from VitC sufficient and deficient + AscA mice had reduced expression of pro-inflammatory mediators and higher expression of wound healing mediators. Supplementation of HnDF with AscA induced the expression of self-renewal genes and promoted fibroblast proliferation. VitC favourably impacts the spatiotemporal expression of transcripts associated with early resolution of inflammation and tissue remodelling.

title: Examining the Complex Relationship Between Tuberculosis and Other Infectious Diseases in Children
abstract: Millions of children are exposed to tuberculosis (TB) each year, many of which become infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Most children can immunologically contain or eradicate the organism without pathology developing. However, in a minority, the organism overcomes the immunological constraints, proliferates and causes TB disease. Each year a million children develop TB disease, with a quarter dying. While it is known that young children and those with immunodeficiencies are at increased risk of progression from TB infection to TB disease, our understanding of risk factors for this transition is limited. The most immunologically disruptive process that can happen during childhood is infection with another pathogen and yet the impact of co-infections on TB risk is poorly investigated. Many diseases have overlapping geographical distributions to TB and affect similar patient populations. It is therefore likely that infection with viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa may impact on the risk of developing TB disease following exposure and infection, although disentangling correlation and causation is challenging. As vaccinations also disrupt immunological pathways, these may also impact on TB risk. In this article we describe the pediatric immune response to M. tuberculosis and then review the existing evidence of the impact of co-infection with other pathogens, as well as vaccination, on the host response to M. tuberculosis. We focus on the impact of other organisms on the risk of TB disease in children, in particularly evaluating if co-infections drive host immune responses in an age-dependent way. We finally propose priorities for future research in this field. An improved understanding of the impact of co-infections on TB could assist in TB control strategies, vaccine development (for TB vaccines or vaccines for other organisms), TB treatment approaches and TB diagnostics.

title: Is GSK3ß a molecular target of chloroquine treatment against COVID-19?
abstract: The recent clinical trial reports pertaining to the efficacy of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine against COVID-19 albeit yet to be validated with larger clinical trials, have sparked much interest globally to evaluate whether this anti-malarial drug can be repurposed for the treatment of COVID-19. In addition to its anti-viral activity, the anti-inflammatory activity of chloroquine may also contribute to its efficacy. Based on our data obtained from an animal infection model of melioidosis (a disease caused by the bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei), treatment with chloroquine can result in the phosphorylation and consequent inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK3ß). This serine/threonine protein kinase is now recognised as a point of convergence for host inflammatory response. In view of this, it is plausible that the mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effect of chloroquine against COVID-19 involves inhibition of host GSK3ß.

title: Corticosteroids and the hyper-inflammatory phase of the COVID-19 disease

title: Can Unconventional Immunomodulatory Agents Help Alleviate COVID-19 Symptoms and Severity?
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS coronavirus 2, or SARS-CoV-2) is the cause of the respiratory infection known as COVID-19. From an immunopathological standpoint, coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV-2 induce increased levels of a variety of T-helper 1 (Th1) and inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, including interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, CCL2 protein, and CXCL10 protein. In the absence of proven antiviral agents or an effective vaccine, substances with immunomodulatory activity may be able to inhibit inflammatory and Th1 cytokines and/or yield an anti-inflammatory and/or Th2 immune response to counteract COVID-19 symptoms and severity. This report briefly describes the following four unconventional but commercially accessible immunomodulatory agents that can be employed in clinical trials to evaluate their effectiveness at alleviating disease symptoms and severity: low-dose oral interferon alpha, microdose DNA, low-dose thimerosal, and phytocannabinoids.

title: Lymphopenia in COVID-19: Therapeutic opportunities
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is uncontrollably spread all over the world. The host immune responses strongly try to confront it with all the potential cells and cytokines. With chronically condition of SARS-CoV-2, natural killer cells and T cells become exhausted and decreasing their count leads to lymphopenia. Inability to eradicate the infected organ makes hyperinitiation of the immune system, which releases the excessive inflammatory cytokines to compensate the exhausted one as well as the low lymphocytes counts; it consequently leads to the cytokine storm syndrome. These mechanisms and the potential therapeutic targeting are discussed in this paper.

title: Comparison of risk factors for viral and nonviral asthma exacerbations

title: Mechanism of inflammatory response in associated comorbidities in COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, causes a respiratory disease and individuals with pre-existing cardiometabolic disorders display worse prognosis through the infection course. The aim of this minireview is to present epidemiological data related to metabolic comorbidities in association with the SARS-CoV-2.  This is a narrative mini-review with Pubmed search until April 23, 2020 using the keywords COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, treatment of coronavirus and following terms: diabetes mellitus, obesity, arterial hypertension, ACE-inhibitors, cytokine storm, immune response and vitamin D.  Studies indicate that obese individuals are more likely to develop infections, and that adipose tissue serves as a pathogen reservoir. In diabetic individuals higher rate of inflammatory processes is seen due to constant glucose recognition by C type lectin receptors. Hypertensive individuals, usually grouped with other conditions, are treated with drugs to reduce blood pressure mostly through ACEi and ARB, that leads to increased ACE2 expression, used by SARS-CoV-2 for human's cell entry. Until now, the studies have shown that individuals with those conditions and affected by COVID-19 present an uncontrolled release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and an unbalanced immune response, leading to the cytokine storm phenomenon. Vitamin D is highlighted as a potential therapeutic target, because in addition to acting on the immune system, it plays an important role in the control of cardiometabolic diseases.  Currently, since there is no proven and effective antiviral therapy for SARS-CoV-2, the efforts should focus on controlling inflammatory response and reduce the risks of associated complications.

title: Prevalence and correlates of physical activity in a sample of UK adults observing social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: To investigate the levels and correlates of physical activity during COVID-19 social distancing in a sample of the UK public.  This paper presents analyses of data from a cross-sectional study. Levels of physical activity during COVID-19 social distancing were self-reported. Participants also reported on sociodemographic and clinical data. The association between several factors and physical activity was studied using regression models.  Nine hundred and eleven adults were included (64.0% were women and 50.4% of the participants were aged 35–64 years). 75.0% of the participants met the physical activity guidelines during social distancing. Meeting these guidelines during social distancing was significantly associated with sex (reference: male; female: OR=1.60, 95% CI 1.10 to 2.33), age (reference: 18–34 years; ≥65 years: OR=4.11, 95% CI 2.01 to 8.92), annual household income (reference: <£15 000; £15 000–<£25 000: OR=2.03, 95% CI 1.11 to 3.76; £25 000–<£40 000: OR=3.16, 95% CI 1.68 to 6.04; £40 000–<£60 000: OR=2.27, 95% CI 1.19 to 4.34; ≥£60 000: OR=2.11, 95% CI 1.09 to 4.09), level of physical activity per day when not observing social distancing (OR=1.00 (per 1 min increase), 95% CI 1.00 to 1.01), and any physical symptom experienced during social distancing (reference: no; yes: OR=0.31, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.46).  During COVID-19, social distancing interventions should focus on increasing physical activity levels among younger adults, men and those with low annual household income. It should be noted in the present sample that women and younger adults are over-represented.

title: Platelets to surrogate lung inflammation in COVID-19 Patients
abstract: The neoteric severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been jeopardizing the world with the symptoms of seasonal flu. The virus contagion predicted to have been originated from Wuhan, China has by far trapped 4,198,418 cases from 212 countries in the world with two international conveyances with 284,102 deaths as of 11 May 2020 (10:18 GMT). Researchers around the globe have indulged in deciphering viral mode in the body for devising a cure. Affirmations from autopsies and preliminary findings on SARS-CoV-2 hypothesized on viral pathogenesis within the host, for instance, source of inflammation in lungs and pneumonia. This hypothesis assigns the platelets as agents of infection after viral entry. Presently, curbing infection to stall the spread of SARS-CoV-2 is the prima facie intervention employed, worldwide. However, public health authorities must monitor the state of affairs scrupulously, as the deeper our understanding of this novel virus and its associated outbreak, the better we can deal with it. Knowing this idea might be far-fetched, yet this postulate would serve as the groundwork for the present situation.

title: Acute myocardial injury in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 infection: A review
abstract: The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is now a global pandemic with millions affected and millions more at risk for contracting the infection. The COVID-19 virus, SARS-CoV-2, affects multiple organ systems particularly the lungs and heart. Elevation of cardiac biomarkers, particularly high-sensitivity troponin and/or creatine kinase MB, is common in patients with COVID-19 infection. In our review of clinical studies, we found that in 26 studies including 11,685 patients, the weighted pooled prevalence of acute myocardial injury was 20% (ranged from 5% to 38% depending on the criteria used). The plausible mechanisms of myocardial injury include, 1) hyperinflammation and cytokine storm mediated through pathologic T-cells and monocytes leading to myocarditis, 2) respiratory failure and hypoxemia resulting in damage to cardiac myocytes, 3) down regulation of ACE2 expression and subsequent protective signaling pathways in cardiac myocytes, 4) hypercoagulability and development of coronary microvascular thrombosis, 5) diffuse endothelial injury and ‘endotheliitis’ in several organs including heart, and, 6) inflammation and/or stress causing coronary plaque rupture or supply-demand mismatch leading to myocardial ischemia/infarction. Cardiac biomarkers can be used to aid in diagnosis as well as risk stratification. In patients with elevated hs-troponin, clinical context is important and myocarditis as well as stress induced cardiomyopathy should be considered in the differential, along with type I and type II myocardial infarction. Irrespective of etiology, patients with acute myocardial injury should be prioritized for treatment. Clinical decisions including interventions should be individualized and carefully tailored after thorough review of risks/benefits. Given the complex interplay of SARS-CoV-2 with the cardiovascular system, further investigation into potential mechanisms is needed to guide effective therapies. Randomized trials are urgently needed to investigate treatment modalities to reduce the incidence and mortality associated with COVID-19 related acute myocardial injury.

title: Idiotypic and Anti‐Idiotypic Antibodies Produced in Immune Response to Bacteria Lactobacillus acidophyllus
abstract: Lactobacilli are nonpathogenic gram‐positive inhabitants of the normal human intestine known for their health‐promoting effects. In our earlier work, it is shown that human monoclonal antibody isolated from sera of a patient with Waldenstrom macroglobulinaemia possess innate antibody characteristics and binds to lactic acid bacteria. According to the immune network model, immunization with this bacteria could induce the perturbations in immune system that might result in production of anti‐Lactobacillus antibodies, human monoclonal antibody like (Ab1) and anti‐idiotypic antibody (Ab2). In this study, BALB/c mice were immunized with two doses of bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus in complete and incomplete Freund's adjuvant and phosphate‐buffered saline (PBS), respectively. Seven days after the last immunization, sera from immunized mice were collected and the presence of Lactobacillus‐specific Ab1 and Ab2 were determined by ELISAs. In the sera of immunized mice, antibodies specific to bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus were shown. The concentration of Lactobacillus‐specific antibodies was higher in the sera of hyperimmunized mice (mice immunized with 1 mg of IgM DJ) than in sera of mice immunized with 100 times lower doses of immunogen (0.01 mg per doses). Moreover, Ab1 and Ab2 antibodies were detected in the sera of Lactobacillus‐hyperimmunized mice. In this study, we have shown the idiotypic network interactions in mice immunized with bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus.

title: Use of glucocorticoids in patients with adrenal insufficiency and COVID-19 infection

title: RIG-I Like Receptors and Their Signaling Crosstalk in the Regulation of Antiviral Immunity
abstract: During virus infection, multiple immune signaling pathways are triggered, both within the host cell and bystander cells of an infected tissue. These pathways act in concert to mediate innate antiviral immunity and to initiate the inflammatory response against infection. The RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) is a group of cytosolic RNA helicase proteins that can identify viral RNA as nonself via binding to pathogen associated molecular patter (PAMP) motifs within RNA ligands that accumulate during virus infection. This interaction then leads to triggering of an innate antiviral response within the infected cells through RLR induction of downstream effector molecules such as type I interferon (IFN) and other pro-inflammatory cytokines that serve to induce antiviral and inflammatory gene expression within the local tissue. Cellular regulation of RLR signaling is a critical process that can direct the outcome of infection and is essential for governance of the overall immune response and avoidance of immune toxicity. Mechanisms of positive and negative regulation of RLR signaling have been identified that include signaling crosstalk between RLR pathways and Nuclear Oligomerization Domain (NOD)-Like Receptor (NLR) pathways and Caspase networks. Furthermore, many viruses have evolved mechanisms to target these pathways to promote enhanced replication and spread within the host. These virus-host interactions therefore carry important consequences for host immunity and viral pathogenesis. Understanding the pivotal role of RLRs in immune regulation and signaling crosstalk in antiviral immunity may provide new insights into therapeutic strategies for the control of virus infection and immunity.

title: Potential mechanisms of cardiac injury and common pathways of inflammation in patients with COVID-19
abstract: Due to the lack of prospective, randomized, controlled clinical studies on inflammation and cardiovascular involvement, the exact mechanism of cardiac injury among patients with COVID-19 still remains uncertain. It was demonstrated that there is a high and significantly positive linear correlation between troponin T and plasma high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels, biomarkers of cardiac injury and systemic inflammation, respectively. Cardiac injury and inflammation is a relatively common association among patients hospitalized with COVID-19, and it is related to higher risk of in-hospital mortality. In our literature search, we identified several potential mechanisms of myocardial tissue damage, namely, coronavirus-associated acute myocarditis, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor binding affinity to the virus Spike protein, increased cytokine secretion, and hypoxia induced cardiac myocyte apoptosis. Elucidation of the disease pathogenesis and prospective histopathological studies are crucial for future proper treatment in case of renewed outbreaks. Of interest is that with hundred of thousands of bodies available for autopsy studies, no prospective investigation has been reported so far. Strong efforts and continued research of the cardiovascular complications and identification of risk factors for poor prognosis in COVID-19 are steadily needed. The high morbidity and mortality of COVID-19, its monumental economic burden and social impact, the despair of a new pandemic outbreak, and the thread of potential utilization of novel SARS-CoV2 as biologic weapons make it a preponderant necessity to better comprehend the therapeutic management of this lethal disease. Emerging as an acute infectious disease, COVID-19 may become a chronic epidemic because of genetic recombination. Therefore, we should be ready for the reemergence of COVID-19 or other coronaviruses.

title: Targeting Cytokine Storm to Manage Patients with COVID-19: A Mini-Review
abstract: pandemic is rapidly spreading all over the world. Excessive immune responses trigger life-threatening cytokine release syndrome (CRS) which can result in overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-1β with different pro-inflammatory roles. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the modulation of systemic immune responses may have a potential role in the treatment of patients with COVID-19. Given the importance of the issue and the lack of therapeutic treatment or vaccine; anti-cytokine therapy such as IL-6, TNFα and IL-1 antagonists have been suggested for the alleviation of hyper-inflammation status in these patients. In this mini-review, we addressed the inflammatory pathways of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its relationship with the host cytokine storm. Furthermore, the proposed therapeutic options to reverse hyper-inflammation in infected patients were mentioned.

title: Strengthening the Immune System and Reducing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress through Diet and Nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 Crisis.
abstract: The coronavirus-disease 2019 (COVID-19) was announced as a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. Challenges arise concerning how to optimally support the immune system in the general population, especially under self-confinement. An optimal immune response depends on an adequate diet and nutrition in order to keep infection at bay. For example, sufficient protein intake is crucial for optimal antibody production. Low micronutrient status, such as of vitamin A or zinc, has been associated with increased infection risk. Frequently, poor nutrient status is associated with inflammation and oxidative stress, which in turn can impact the immune system. Dietary constituents with especially high anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacity include vitamin C, vitamin E, and phytochemicals such as carotenoids and polyphenols. Several of these can interact with transcription factors such as NF-kB and Nrf-2, related to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, respectively. Vitamin D in particular may perturb viral cellular infection via interacting with cell entry receptors (angiotensin converting enzyme 2), ACE2. Dietary fiber, fermented by the gut microbiota into short-chain fatty acids, has also been shown to produce anti-inflammatory effects. In this review, we highlight the importance of an optimal status of relevant nutrients to effectively reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, thereby strengthening the immune system during the COVID-19 crisis.

title: Change in practice in gynecologic oncology during the COVID-19 pandemic: a social media survey
abstract: COVID-19 has affected gynecologic cancer management. The goal of this survey was to evaluate changes that occurred in gynecologic oncology practice during the COVID-19 pandemic.  A anonymous survey consisting of 33 questions (https://sites.google.com/view/gyncacovidfmartinelli) regarding interaction between gynecologic cancers and COVID-19 was distributed online via social media from April 9 to April 30, 2020. Basic descriptive statistics were applied. Analytics of survey-diffusion and generated-interest (visualizations, engagement rates, response rate) were analyzed.  The survey received 20 836 visualizations, generating an average engagement rates by reach of 4.7%. The response rate was 30%. A total of 86% of respondents completed the survey, for a total of 187 physicians surveyed across 49 countries. The majority (143/187; 76%) were gynecologic oncologists, and most were ≤50 years old (146/187; 78%). A total of 49.7% (93/187) were facing the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, while 26.7% (50/187) and 23.5% (44/187) were in the peak and plateau phases, respectively. For 97.3% (182/187) of respondents COVID-19 affected or changed their respective clinical practice. Between 16% (27/165) (before surgery) and 25% (26/102) (before medical treatment) did not perform any tests to rule out COVID-19 infection among patients. The majority of respondents did not alter indications of treatment if patients were COVID-19-negative, while treatments were generally postponed in COVID-19-positive patients. Treatments were considered priority for: early stage high-risk uterine cancers (85/187; 45%), newly diagnosed epithelial ovarian cancer (76/187; 41%), and locally advanced cervical cancer (76/187; 41%). Treatment of early stage low-grade endometrioid endometrial cancer was deferred according to 49% (91/187) of respondents, with hormonal treatment as the option of therapy (31%; 56/178). A total of 77% (136/177) of respondents reported no changes in (surgical) treatment for early stage cervical cancer in COVID-19-negative patients, while treatment was postponed by 54% (96/177) of respondent, if the patient tested COVID-19-positive. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for advanced ovarian cancers was considered by over one-third of respondents as well as hypofractionation of radiation treatment for locally advanced cervical cancers.  COVID-19 affected the treatment of gynecologic cancers patients, both in terms of prioritization and identification of strategies to reduce hospital access and length of stay. Social media is a reliable tool to perform fast-tracking, worldwide surveys.

title: Development of elderly care services in Hong Kong: challenges and creative solutions.
abstract: Elderly care services in Hong Kong began in the mid-1970s, with health and social services modelled on the UK experience. A major difference is the lack of a well-developed primary care system. As a result, geriatric service has evolved to encompass primary care, to include outreach geriatrics and psychogeriatric support to long-term residential care homes as well as frail elderly people living at home. There is room for innovation in the provision of community care, led by geriatricians, especially in management of chronic disease, incorporating the components of self management and use of telemedicine. Various models could be developed and evaluated to define which best meet the needs of the ageing population. The results would guide future government policy for health and social services for the elderly population in the community setting.

title: Nutrition support in the time of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

title: Updated Approaches against SARS-CoV-2
abstract: Novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) lies behind the ongoing outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). There is a growing understanding of SARS-CoV-2 in virology, epidemiology, and clinical management strategies. However, no anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug or vaccine has been officially approved due to the absence of adequate evidence. Scientists are racing to develop a treatment for COVID-19. Recent studies have revealed many attractive therapeutic options, even if some of them remain to be further confirmed in rigorous preclinical models and clinical trials. In this minireview, we aim to summarize the updated potential approaches against SARS-CoV-2. We emphasize that further efforts are warranted to develop the safest and most effective approach.

title: Human iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes , are Susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 Infection
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 is defined by respiratory symptoms, but cardiac complications including viral myocarditis are also prevalent. Although ischemic and inflammatory responses caused by COVID-19 can detrimentally affect cardiac function, the direct impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on human cardiomyocytes is not well-understood. Here, we utilize human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) as a model to examine the mechanisms of cardiomyocyte-specific infection by SARS-CoV-2. Microscopy and RNA-sequencing demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 can enter hiPSC-CMs via ACE2. Viral replication and cytopathic effect induce hiPSC-CM apoptosis and cessation of beating after 72 hours of infection. SARS-CoV-2 infection activates innate immune response and antiviral clearance gene pathways, while inhibiting metabolic pathways and suppressing ACE2 expression. These studies show that SARS-CoV-2 can infect hiPSC-CMs in vitro, establishing a model for elucidating infection mechanisms and potentially a cardiac-specific antiviral drug screening platform.

title: Covid-19: Indian doctors criticise directive to expedite vaccine trials

title: Children’s heart and COVID-19: Up-to-date evidence in the form of a systematic review
abstract: The new coronavirus disease outbreak in 2019 (COVID-19) represents a dramatic challenge for healthcare systems worldwide. As to viral tropism, lungs are not the only COVID-19 target but also the heart may be involved in a not negligible percentage of the infected patients. Myocarditis-related cardiac dysfunction and potentially life-threatening arrhythmias are the main aftermaths. A few studies showed that myocardial injury in adult patients is often linked with a fatal outcome. Conversely, scientific evidence in children is sparse, although several reports were published with the description of a cardiac involvement in COVID-19 paediatric patients. In these young subjects, a background of surgically treated congenital heart disease seems to be a predisposing factor.  This systematic review is aimed at summarizing all COVID-19 cases with a cardiac involvement published in paediatric age and trying to explain the underlying mechanisms responsible for COVID-19-related myocardial damage.

title: Deep-COVID: Predicting COVID-19 From Chest X-Ray Images Using Deep Transfer Learning
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic is causing a major outbreak in more than 150 countries around the world, having a severe impact on the health and life of many people globally. One of the crucial step in fighting COVID-19 is the ability to detect the infected patients early enough, and put them under special care. Detecting this disease from radiography and radiology images is perhaps one of the fastest way to diagnose the patients. Some of the early studies showed specific abnormalities in the chest radiograms of patients infected with COVID-19. Inspired by earlier works, we study the application of deep learning models to detect COVID-19 patients from their chest radiography images. We first prepare a dataset of 5,000 Chest X-rays from the publicly available datasets. Images exhibiting COVID-19 disease presence were identified by board-certified radiologist. Transfer learning on a subset of 2,000 radiograms was used to train four popular convolutional neural networks, including ResNet18, ResNet50, SqueezeNet, and DenseNet-121, to identify COVID-19 disease in the analyzed chest X-ray images. We evaluated these models on the remaining 3,000 images, and most of these networks achieved a sensitivity rate of 97\%($\pm$ 5\%), while having a specificity rate of around 90\%. While the achieved performance is very encouraging, further analysis is required on a larger set of COVID-19 images, to have a more reliable estimation of accuracy rates. Besides sensitivity and specificity rates, we also present the receiver operating characteristic (ROC), area under the curve (AUC), and confusion matrix of each model. The dataset, model implementations (in PyTorch), and evaluations, are all made publicly available for research community, here: https://github.com/shervinmin/DeepCovid.git

title: Transcription Factor Nrf2 as a Potential Therapeutic Target for Prevention of Cytokine Storm in COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Nrf2 is a key transcription factor responsible for antioxidant defense in many tissues and cells, including alveolar epithelium, endothelium, and macrophages. Furthermore, Nrf2 functions as a transcriptional repressor that inhibits expression of the inflammatory cytokines in macrophages. Critically ill patients with COVID-19 infection often present signs of high oxidative stress and systemic inflammation – the leading causes of mortality. This article suggests rationale for the use of Nrf2 inducers to prevent development of an excessive inflammatory response in COVID-19 patients.

title: The Role of Autophagy in Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation
abstract: Autophagy is a homeostatic mechanism that discards not only invading pathogens but also damaged organelles and denatured proteins via lysosomal degradation. Increasing evidence suggests a role for autophagy in inflammatory diseases, including infectious diseases, Crohn's disease, cystic fibrosis, and pulmonary hypertension. These studies suggest that modulating autophagy could be a novel therapeutic option for inflammatory diseases. Eosinophils are a major type of inflammatory cell that aggravates airway inflammatory diseases, particularly corticosteroid-resistant inflammation. The eosinophil count is a useful tool for assessing which patients may benefit from inhaled corticosteroid therapy. Recent studies demonstrate that autophagy plays a role in eosinophilic airway inflammatory diseases by promoting airway remodeling and loss of function. Genetic variant in the autophagy gene ATG5 is associated with asthma pathogenesis, and autophagy regulates apoptotic pathways in epithelial cells in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Moreover, autophagy dysfunction leads to severe inflammation, especially eosinophilic inflammation, in chronic rhinosinusitis. However, the mechanism underlying autophagy-mediated regulation of eosinophilic airway inflammation remains unclear. The aim of this review is to provide a general overview of the role of autophagy in eosinophilic airway inflammation. We also suggest that autophagy may be a new therapeutic target for airway inflammation, including that mediated by eosinophils.

title: What about COVID-19 and arachidonic acid pathway?
abstract: COVID-19 is a highly contagious viral disease. In this study, we tried to define and discuss all the findings on the potential association between arachidonic acid (AA) pathway and COVID-19 pathophysiology.  A literature search across PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane database was conducted. A total of 25 studies were identified.  The data elucidated that COX-2 and prostaglandins (PGs), particularly PGE(2), have pro-inflammatory action in COVID-19 pathophysiology. Arachidonic acid can act as endogenous antiviral compound. A deficiency in AA can make humans more susceptible to COVID-19. Targeting these pro-inflammatory mediators may help in decreasing the mortality and morbidity rate in COVID-19 patients.  PGE(2) levels and other PGs levels should be measured in patients with COVID-19. Lowering the PGE(2) levels through inhibition of human microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) can enhance the host immune response against COVID-19. In addition, the hybrid compounds, such as COX-2 inhibitors/TP antagonists, can be an innovative treatment to control the overall balance between AA mediators in patients with COVID-19.

title: Elevated serum levels of decoy receptor 3 are associated with disease severity in patients with hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
abstract: Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is an acute viral infectious disease characterized by fever, hemorrhage and renal failure. HFRS has become a serious public health problem in China. Unfortunately, the pathogenesis of HFRS has not been completely clarified. The aim of this study is to investigate the changes of decoy receptor 3 (DcR3) and to further explore its potential roles in HFRS. The levels of serum DcR3 were measured by sandwich ELISA. We found serum DcR3 levels increased significantly, which reached peak value during the oliguric phase and in the critical group. Moreover, serum DcR3 levels were closely related to the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and parameters reflecting kidney injury including BUN, creatinine (Cr) and proteinuria. This study indicates that high levels of serum DcR3 have associations with the disease stages, severity and degree of kidney damage. Meanwhile, our results suggest that DcR3 may play a dual role in HFRS pathogenesis. First, DcR3 is involved in the inflammatory cascade response resulting in capillary permeability and kidney injury in the early stage. Secondly, HTNV infection induced DcR3 expression at the convalescent phase may act as a feed-back mechanism in anti-inflammatory response. Thus, a study of DcR3 is essential for a better understanding of HFRS pathogenesis.

title: The immune system and COVID-19: Friend or foe?
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a novel highly contagious infection caused by SARS-CoV-2, which has been became a global public health challenge. The pathogenesis of this virus is not yet clearly understood, but there is evidence of a hyper-inflammatory immune response in critically ill patients, which leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multi-organ failure.  A literature review was performed to identify relevant articles on COVID-19 published up to April 30, 2020. The search resulted in 361 total articles. After reviewing the titles and abstracts for inclusion, some irrelevant papers were excluded. Additional relevant articles were identified from a review of citations referenced.  SARS-CoV-2, directly and indirectly, affects the immune system and avoids being eliminated in early stages. On the other hand, the secretion of inflammatory cytokines creates critical conditions that lead to multi-organ failure.  The immune system which is affected by the virus tries to respond via a cytokine storm and hyperinflammation, which itself leads to further multi-organ damage and even death.

title: Precision medicine in COVID-19: IL-1β a potential target

title: Predictive factors of severe coronavirus disease 2019 in previously healthy young adults: a single-center, retrospective study
abstract: Several previously healthy young adults have developed Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), and a few of them progressed to the severe stage. However, the factors are not yet determined.  We retrospectively analyzed 123 previously healthy young adults diagnosed with COVID-19 from January to March 2020 in a tertiary hospital in Wuhan. Patients were classified as having mild or severe COVID-19 based on their respiratory rate, SpO(2), and PaO(2)/FiO(2) levels. Patients’ symptoms, computer tomography (CT) images, preadmission drugs received, and the serum biochemical examination on admission were compared between the mild and severe groups. Significant variables were enrolled into logistic regression model to predict the factors affecting disease severity. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was applied to validate the predictive value of predictors.  Age; temperature; anorexia; and white blood cell count, neutrophil percentage, platelet count, lymphocyte count, C-reactive protein, aspartate transaminase, creatine kinase, albumin, and fibrinogen values were significantly different between patients with mild and severe COVID-19 (P < 0.05). Logistic regression analysis confirmed that lymphopenia (P = 0.010) indicated severe prognosis in previously healthy young adults with COVID-19, with the area under the curve (AUC) was 0.791(95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.704–0.877)(P < 0.001).  For previously healthy young adults with COVID-19, lymphopenia on admission can predict severe prognosis.

title: Could Intravenous Immunoglobulin Collected from Recovered Coronavirus Patients Protect against COVID-19 and Strengthen the Immune System of New Patients?
abstract: The emergence of the novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, which causes severe respiratory tract infections in humans (COVID-19), has become a global health concern Most coronaviruses infect animals but can evolve into strains that cross the species barrier and infect humans At the present, there is no single specific vaccine or efficient antiviral therapy against COVID-19 Recently, we showed that intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment reduces inflammation of intestinal epithelial cells and eliminates overgrowth of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Candida albicans in the murine gut Immunotherapy with IVIg could be employed to neutralize COVID-19 However, the efficacy of IVIg would be better if the immune IgG antibodies were collected from patients who have recovered from COVID-19 in the same city, or the surrounding area, in order to increase the chance of neutralizing the virus These immune IgG antibodies will be specific against COVID-19 by boosting the immune response in newly infected patients Different procedures may be used to remove or inactivate any possible pathogens from the plasma of recovered coronavirus patient derived immune IgG, including solvent/detergent, 60 &deg;C heat-treatment, and nanofiltration Overall, immunotherapy with immune IgG antibodies combined with antiviral drugs may be an alternative treatment against COVID-19 until stronger options such as vaccines are available

title: Leucocyte Subsets Effectively Predict the Clinical Outcome of Patients With COVID-19 Pneumonia: A Retrospective Case-Control Study
abstract: The clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been well-studied, while effective predictors for clinical outcome and research on underlying mechanisms are scarce.  Hospitalized COVID-19 pneumonia patients with definitive clinical outcome (cured or died) were retrospectively studied. The diagnostic performance of the leucocyte subsets and other parameters were compared using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Further, the correlations between leucocyte subsets and inflammation-related factors associated with clinical outcome were subsequently investigated.  Among 95 subjects included, 56 patients were cured, and 39 died. Older age, elevated aspartate aminotransferase, total bilirubin, serum lactate dehydrogenase, blood urea nitrogen, prothrombin time, D-dimer, Procalcitonin, and C-reactive protein levels, decreased albumin, elevated serum cytokines (IL2R, IL6, IL8, IL10, and TNF-α) levels, and a decreased lymphocyte count indicated poor outcome in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Lymphocyte subset (lymphocytes, T cells, helper T cells, suppressor T cells, natural killer cells, T cells+B cells+NK cells) counts were positively associated with clinical outcome (AUC: 0.777; AUC: 0.925; AUC: 0.900; AUC: 0.902; AUC: 0.877; AUC: 0.918, resp.). The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), neutrophil to T lymphocyte count ratio (NTR), neutrophil percentage to T lymphocyte ratio (NpTR) effectively predicted mortality (AUC: 0.900; AUC: 0.905; AUC: 0.932, resp.). Binary logistic regression showed that NpTR was an independent prognostic factor for mortality. Serum IL6 levels were positively correlated with leucocyte count, neutrophil count, and eosinophil count and negatively correlated with lymphocyte count.  These results indicate that leucocyte subsets predict the clinical outcome of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia with high efficiency. Non-self-limiting inflammatory response is involved in the development of fatal pneumonia.

title: Can Unconventional Immunomodulatory Agents Help Alleviate COVID-19 Symptoms and Severity?
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS coronavirus 2, or SARS-CoV-2) is the cause of the respiratory infection known as COVID-19. From an immunopathological standpoint, coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV-2 induce increased levels of a variety of T-helper 1 (Th1) and inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, including interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, CCL2 protein, and CXCL10 protein. In the absence of proven antiviral agents or an effective vaccine, substances with immunomodulatory activity may be able to inhibit inflammatory and Th1 cytokines and/or yield an anti-inflammatory and/or Th2 immune response to counteract COVID-19 symptoms and severity. This report briefly describes the following four unconventional but commercially accessible immunomodulatory agents that can be employed in clinical trials to evaluate their effectiveness at alleviating disease symptoms and severity: low-dose oral interferon alpha, microdose DNA, low-dose thimerosal, and phytocannabinoids.

title: Clinical Features of 69 Cases with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan, China ;Clinical Infectious Diseases ;Oxford Academic
abstract: From December 2019 to February 2020, 2019 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a serious outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China Related clinical features are needed Methods We reviewed 69 patients who were hospitalized in Union hospital in Wuhan between January 16 to January 29, 2020 All patients were confirmed to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 and the final date of follow-up was February 4, 2020  The median age of 69 enrolled patients was 42 0 years (IQR 35 0-62 0), and 32 patients (46%) were men The most common symptoms were fever (60[87%]), cough (38[55%]), and fatigue (29[42%]) Most patients received antiviral therapy (66 [98 5%] of 67 patients) and antibiotic therapy (66 [98 5%] of 67 patients) As of February 4, 2020, 18 (26 9%) of 67 patients had been discharged, and five patients had died, with a mortality rate of 7 5% According to the lowest SpO2 during admission, cases were divided into the SpO2≥90% group (n=55) and the SpO2&lt;90% group (n=14) All 5 deaths occurred in the SpO2&lt;90% group Compared with SpO2≥90% group, patients of the SpO2&lt;90% group were older, and showed more comorbidities and higher plasma levels of IL6, IL10, lactate dehydrogenase, and c reactive protein Arbidol treatment showed tendency to improve the discharging rate and decrease the mortality rate Conclusions COVID-19 appears to show frequent fever, dry cough, and increase of inflammatory cytokines, and induced a mortality rate of 7 5% Older patients or those with underlying comorbidities are at higher risk of death

title: Lessons from dermatology about inflammatory responses in Covid-19.
abstract: The SARS-Cov-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus composed of 16 non-structural proteins (NSP 1-16) with specific roles in the replication of coronaviruses. NSP3 has the property to block host innate immune response and to promote cytokine expression. NSP5 can inhibit interferon (IFN) signalling and NSP16 prevents MAD5 recognition, depressing the innate immunity. Dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages are the first cell lineage against viruses' infections. The IFN type I is the danger signal for the human body during this clinical setting. Protective immune responses to viral infection are initiated by innate immune sensors that survey extracellular and intracellular space for foreign nucleic acids. In Covid-19 the pathogenesis is not yet fully understood, but viral and host factors seem to play a key role. Important points in severe Covid-19 are characterized by an upregulated innate immune response, hypercoagulopathy state, pulmonary tissue damage, neurological and/or gastrointestinal tract involvement, and fatal outcome in severe cases of macrophage activation syndrome, which produce a 'cytokine storm'. These systemic conditions share polymorphous cutaneous lesions where innate immune system is involved in the histopathological findings with acute respiratory distress syndrome, hypercoagulability, hyperferritinemia, increased serum levels of D-dimer, lactic dehydrogenase, reactive-C-protein and serum A amyloid. It is described that several polymorphous cutaneous lesions similar to erythema pernio, urticarial rashes, diffuse or disseminated erythema, livedo racemosa, blue toe syndrome, retiform purpura, vesicles lesions, and purpuric exanthema or exanthema with clinical aspects of symmetrical drug-related intertriginous and flexural exanthema. This review describes the complexity of Covid-19, its pathophysiological and clinical aspects.

title: SCHOOL of nature: ligand-independent immunomodulatory peptides
abstract: Groundbreaking studies in protein biophysics have identified the mechanisms of transmembrane signaling at the level of druggable protein–protein interactions (PPIs). This resulted in the development of the signaling chain homooligomerization (SCHOOL) strategy to modulate cell responses using receptor-specific peptides. Inspired by nature, these short peptides use ligand-independent mechanisms of receptor inhibition and demonstrate potent efficacy in vitro and in vivo. The SCHOOL strategy is especially important when receptor ligands are unknown. An example is the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (TREM-1) receptor, an emerging therapeutic target involved in the pathogenesis of most inflammatory diseases. Here, I discuss advances in the field with a focus on TREM-1 inhibitory SCHOOL peptides that offer new hope for a ‘magic bullet’ cure for cancer, arthritis, sepsis, retinopathy, and other medical challenges.

title: Understanding Covid and the associated post- infectious hyper-inflammatory inflammatory state (PIMS-TS) in children
abstract: When SARS-CoV2 infection was first reported from China, very few children had severe lung or systemic disease. Approximately six weeks after the first adult cases were reported in the United Kingdom, a small subgroup of children of largely non-white backgrounds, presented with severe hyper-inflammatory disease, most likely associated with Covid. The possible reasons for this ethnic predilection are explored.

title: The Interaction Between Nutrition and Inflammatory Stress Throughout the Life Cycle
abstract: The human race inhabits a world in which it is surrounded by a myriad of different microorganisms—yeasts, bacteria, protozoa, and viruses. Most of these are benign, and some, such as the normal gut flora, play an important part in promoting health via the synthesis of vitamins and stimulation of normal function of gut epithelia. Approximately 0.1% of microbes in our environment have catastrophic effects if they penetrate the epithelial surfaces of the body (Bryson, 2003). History reveals many instances in which armies have been defeated and civilizations have collapsed because of encounters between humans and such microorganisms (Diamond, 1999).

title: The involvement of the central nervous system in patients with COVID-19.
abstract: Coronaviruses disease (COVID-19) has caused major outbreaks. A novel variant, SARS-CoV-2, is responsible for COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical presentations and pathological mechanisms of COVID-19 are broad. The respiratory aspect of the disease has been extensively researched. Emerging studies point out the possibility of the central nervous system (CNS) involvement by COVID-19. Here, we discuss the current evidence for CNS involvement in COVID-19 and highlight that the high pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 might be due to its neuroinvasive potential.

title: Predictive factors of poor outcomes in the COVID-19 epidemic: Consider the inflammatory response

title: The mechanism and treatment of gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with COVID-19.
abstract: In addition to the typical respiratory response, new coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) is also associated with very common gastrointestinal symptoms. Cases with gastrointestinal symptoms are more likely to be complicated by liver injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and diarrhea can also lead to electrolyte disturbances, causing nausea and vomiting, headache, fatigue, etc. If not treated in time, coma and circulatory failure may ensue. As SARS-CoV-2 infects the human body through the combination of ACE2 in the gastrointestinal tract, the mechanism underlying the gastrointestinal symptoms may involve damage to the intestinal mucosal barrier and promotion of the production of inflammatory factors, causing cytokine storms. Indeed, after cells in the lungs become infected by SARS-CoV-2, effector CD4+ T cells reach the small intestine through the gut-lung axis, causing intestinal immune damage and diarrhea; early extensive use of antibacterial and antiviral drugs can also lead to diarrhea in patients. Thus, treatment options for COVID-19 patients should be promptly adjusted when they have gastrointestinal symptoms. Additionally, when drug-induced diarrhea occurs, drugs should be withdrawn or reduced, and microecological regulators should be applied to maintain the intestinal microecological balance and prevent secondary bacterial infections. To guarantee effective treatment, attention should be paid to the patient's enteral nutrition and digestive tract function. As SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in the feces of COVID-19 patients, future prevention and control efforts must consider the possibility of fecal-oral transmission of the virus.

title: Comprehensive analysis of drugs to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection: Mechanistic insights into current COVID-19 therapies (Review)
abstract: The major impact produced by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) focused many researchers attention to find treatments that can suppress transmission or ameliorate the disease. Despite the very fast and large flow of scientific data on possible treatment solutions, none have yet demonstrated unequivocal clinical utility against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This work represents an exhaustive and critical review of all available data on potential treatments for COVID-19, highlighting their mechanistic characteristics and the strategy development rationale. Drug repurposing, also known as drug repositioning, and target based methods are the most used strategies to advance therapeutic solutions into clinical practice. Current in silico, in vitro and in vivo evidence regarding proposed treatments are summarized providing strong support for future research efforts.

title: Corticosteroids combined with continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration for treatment of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome caused by Puumala virus infection
abstract: Reported here are two cases of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome caused by Puumala virus infection, which rapidly resolved after initiation of corticosteroid treatment combined with continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration. These cases emphasize the role of the inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.

title: Baricitinib: A review of pharmacology, safety and emerging clinical experience in COVID‐19
abstract: A hyperinflammatory response to SARS‐CoV‐2 infection, reminiscent of cytokine release syndrome, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome and organ damage in patients with COVID‐19. Agents that inhibit components of the pro‐inflammatory cascade have garnered interest as potential treatment options with hopes that dampening the pro‐inflammatory process may improve clinical outcomes. Baricitinib is a reversible Janus‐associated kinase (JAK)‐inhibitor that interrupts the signaling of multiple cytokines implicated in COVID‐19 immunopathology. It may also have antiviral effects by targeting host factors that viruses rely for cell entry and by suppressing type I interferon driven angiotensin‐converting‐enzyme‐2 up regulation. However, baricitinib’s immunosuppressive effects may be detrimental during acute viral infections by delaying viral clearance and increasing vulnerability to secondary opportunistic infections. The lack of reliable biomarkers to monitor patients’ immune status as illness evolves complicates deployment of immunosuppressive drugs like baricitinib. Furthermore, baricitinib carries the risk of increased thromboembolic events which is concerning given the proclivity towards a hyper‐coagulable state in COVID‐19 patients. In this article we review available data on baricitinib with an emphasis on immunosuppressive and antiviral pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, safety and current progress in COVID‐19 clinical trials.

title: Insights into SARS-CoV-2 genome, structure, evolution, pathogenesis and therapies: Structural genomics approach
abstract: The sudden emergence of severe respiratory disease, caused by a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), has recently become a public health emergency. Genome sequence analysis of SARS-CoV-2 revealed its close resemblance to the earlier reported SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). However, initial testing of the drugs used against SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV has been ineffective in controlling SARS-CoV-2. The present review looks to highlight the differences in genomic, proteomic, pathogenesis, and therapeutic strategies of SARS-CoV-2. We have carried out sequence analysis of potential drug target proteins in SARS-CoV-2 and, compared them with SARS-CoV-1 and MERS viruses. Analysis of mutations in the coding and non-coding regions, genetic diversity, and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 has also been done. A detailed structural analysis of drug target proteins was performed to gain insights into the mechanism of pathogenesis, structure-function relationships, and the development of structure-guided therapeutic approaches. The cytokine profiling and inflammatory signalling are different in the case of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We also highlighted possible therapies and their mechanism of action followed by clinical manifestation. Our analysis suggests a minimal variation in the genome sequence of SARS-CoV-2, may be responsible for a drastic change in the structures of target proteins, makes available drugs ineffective.

title: Fetal heart rate changes on the cardiotocograph trace secondary to maternal COVID-19 infection
abstract: To determine the cardiotocograph (CTG) changes in women with symptomatic COVID-19 infection.  12 anonymised CTG traces from 2 hospitals in Spain were retrospectively analysed by 2 independent assessors. CTG parameters were studied based on fetal pathophysiological responses to inflammation and hypoxia that would be expected based on the pathogenesis of COVID-19 patients. Correlation was made with perinatal outcomes (Apgar score at 5 min and umbilical cord pH).  All fetuses showed an increased baseline FHR > 10 percent compared to the initial recording, in addition to absence of accelerations. 10 out of 12 CTG traces (83.3 percent) demonstrated late or prolonged decelerations and 7 out of 12 fetuses (58.3 percent) showed absence of cycling. Not a single case of sinusoidal pattern was observed. ZigZag pattern was found in 4 CTG traces (33 percent). Excessive uterine activity was observed in all CTG traces where uterine activity was monitored (10 out of 12). Apgar scores at 5 min were normal (>7) and absence of metabolic acidosis was found in the umbilical cord arterial pH (pH > 7.0) in the cases that were available (11 and 9, respectively).  Fetuses of COVID-19 patients showed a raised baseline FHR (>10 percent), loss of accelerations, late decelerations, ZigZag pattern and absence of cycling probably due to the effects of maternal pyrexia, maternal inflammatory response and the “cytokine storm”. However, the perinatal outcomes appear to be favourable. Therefore, healthcare providers should optimise the maternal environment first to rectify the reactive CTG changes instead of performing an urgent operative intervention.

title: Increased serum aminotransferase activity and clinical outcomes in Coronavirus disease 2019
abstract: Elevation of hepatic aminotransferases (aspartate aminotransferase [AST]/alanine aminotransferase [ALT]) is commonly noted among COVID-19 patients. It is unclear if they can predict the clinical outcomes among hospitalized COVID-19 patients. We aim to assess if elevations in AST/ALT were associated with poor outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients.  We retrospectively evaluated hospitalized COVID-19 patients with clinically significant elevated aminotransferases (defined as >2 times upper limit of normal) and compared them with COVID-19 patients without an elevation in aminotransferases.  The prevalence of elevation in AST/ALT was found to be 13.7% (20/145). The two groups were similar in baseline demographics, comorbidities, and the majority of laboratory tests. There was no difference in the mortality (50% vs. 36.8%, P=0.32) and median hospital stay (7 days vs. 7 days, P=0.78). However, there was a statistically significant increase in the rates of mechanical ventilation among elevated aminotransferases group compared to individuals without elevation (50% vs. 24%, P= 0.028). However, this difference was not observed after adjusting for inflammatory markers such as ferritin, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and lactic acid levels.  Elevated aminotransferases among hospitalized COVID-19 patients is associated with higher rates of mechanical ventilation, but did not achieve statistical significance after controlling for inflammatory markers. Also, patients with elevated aminotransferases did not have higher rates of mortality or prolonged length of stay.

title: Survival of COVID-19 patients requires precise immune regulation: The hypothetical immunoprotective role of nicotinic agonists
abstract: recent studies have provided novel evidence regarding the effect of nicotine agonists on the prevention or modulation of cytokines storm and reduction of infection. In this study we tried to attempt to address these issues from a therapeutic perspective of nicotine agonists in this manner and we describe one of the most challenging theories of immunotherapy in coronavirus-19 (COVID-19). The analysis of the proposed mechanism goes beyond the physiological consequences of a way to design new strategies to provide anti-inflammatory drugs.

title: β-sitosterol ameliorates influenza A virus-induced proinflammatory response and acute lung injury in mice by disrupting the cross-talk between RIG-I and IFN/STAT signaling
abstract: β-Sitosterol (24-ethyl-5-cholestene-3-ol) is a common phytosterol Chinese medical plants that has been shown to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. In this study we investigated the effects of β-sitosterol on influenza virus-induced inflammation and acute lung injury and the molecular mechanisms. We demonstrate that β-sitosterol (150–450 μg/mL) dose-dependently suppresses inflammatory response through NF-κB and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling in influenza A virus (IAV)-infected cells, which was accompanied by decreased induction of interferons (IFNs) (including Type I and III IFN). Furthermore, we revealed that the anti-inflammatory effect of β-sitosterol resulted from its inhibitory effect on retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) signaling, led to decreased STAT1 signaling, thus affecting the transcriptional activity of ISGF3 (interferon-stimulated gene factor 3) complexes and resulting in abrogation of the IAV-induced proinflammatory amplification effect in IFN-sensitized cells. Moreover, β-sitosterol treatment attenuated RIG-I-mediated apoptotic injury of alveolar epithelial cells (AEC) via downregulation of pro-apoptotic factors. In a mouse model of influenza, pre-administration of β-sitosterol (50, 200 mg·kg(−1)·d(−1), i.g., for 2 days) dose-dependently ameliorated IAV-mediated recruitment of pathogenic cytotoxic T cells and immune dysregulation. In addition, pre-administration of β-sitosterol protected mice from lethal IAV infection. Our data suggest that β-sitosterol blocks the immune response mediated by RIG-I signaling and deleterious IFN production, providing a potential benefit for the treatment of influenza.

title: NSAIDs in patients with viral infections, including Covid-19: victims or perpetrators?
abstract: Taking anti-inflammatory drugs, including non-steroidal (NSAIDs), during Covid-19 infection, how much is risky? The French Minister of Health, who has raised an alarm on a possible risk deriving from the use of ibuprofen for the control of fever and other symptoms during the disease, opened the debate a few days ago. In this paper we examine available evidence from preclinical and clinical studies that had analysed the role of COX in the inflammatory process and the effects of NSAIDs in patients with infections. Most of the published studies that suggested not protective effects of NSAIDs were mainly performed in vitro or on animals. Therefore, their meaning in humans is to be considered with great caution. Based also on data suggesting protective effects of NSAIDs, we concluded that currently there is no evidence suggesting a correlation between NSAIDs and a worsening of infections. Further studies will be certainly needed to better define the role of NSAIDs and particularly COX2 inhibitors in patients with infections. In the meantime, we must wait for results of the revision started by the PRAC on May 2019 on the association ibuprofen/ketoprofen​​​​​​ and worsening of infections. Since nowadays no scientific evidence establishes a correlation between NSAIDS and worsening of COVID-19, patients should be advice against any NSAIDs self-medication when COVID-19 like symptoms are present.

title: COVID-19 Cardiovascular Epidemiology, Cellular Pathogenesis, Clinical Manifestations and Management
abstract: Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a rapidly progressing global pandemic that may present with a variety of cardiac manifestations including, but not limited to, myocardial injury, myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, heart failure, cardiomyopathy, shock, thromboembolism, and cardiac arrest. These cardiovascular effects are worse in patients who have pre-existing cardiac conditions such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and coagulation abnormalities. Other predisposing risk factors include advanced age, immunocompromised state, and underlying systemic inflammatory conditions. Here we review the cellular pathophysiology, clinical manifestations and treatment modalities of the cardiac manifestations seen in patients with COVID-19.

title: Coagulopathy, thromboembolic complications and the use of heparin in COVID-19 Pneumonia
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) is causing a pandemic and potentially fatal disease, actually of global public health concern. Viral infections are known to be associated with coagulation impairment thus thrombosis, hemorrhage, or both, may occur. Understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the development of coagulation disorders during viral infection is essential for the development of therapeutic strategies. Coagulopathy in COVID-19 infection is emerging as a precipitant factor for severe respiratory complications and death. An increase in coagulation markers such as fibrinogen and D-Dimer has been found in severe COVID-19 cases. Heparin, clinically used as an anticoagulant, has also anti-inflammatory properties including binding of inflammatory cytokines, inhibition of neutrophil chemotaxis, protection of endothelial cells and a potential antiviral effect. We hypothesized that low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) may attenuate cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients therefore LMWH could be a valid adjunctive therapeutic drug for the treatment of COVID-19 pneumopathy. In this paper we review potential mechanisms involved in coagulation impairment following viral infection and the possible role of heparin in the treatment of COVID-19 patients.

title: Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19
abstract: Viral pandemics, such as the one caused by SARS-CoV-2, pose an imminent threat to humanity. Because of its recent emergence, there is a paucity of information regarding viral behavior and host response following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here we offer an in-depth analysis of the transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 compared with other respiratory viruses. Cell and animal models of SARS-CoV-2 infection, in addition to transcriptional and serum profiling of COVID-19 patients, consistently revealed a unique and inappropriate inflammatory response. This response is defined by low levels of type I and III interferons juxtaposed to elevated chemokines and high expression of IL-6. We propose that reduced innate antiviral defenses coupled with exuberant inflammatory cytokine production are the defining and driving features of COVID-19.

title: New perspectives on the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis
abstract: In the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis, locally produced antibodies complex with an inciting antigen, yet to be identified, within the joint and activate the complement system, resulting in articular inflammation mediated primarily by polymorphonuclear leukocytes and their products. Chronic inflammatory cells then produce soluble factors that induce both tissue destruction and inflammation. A major issue is how and why apparently normal immune responses in the acute stage progress to chronic inflammation in subsequent months to years. Although it is often assumed that the initial etiologic agent, persisting in the joint or at an extra-articular site, is responsible for continued synovitis, this need not be the case. It is possible that once the inciting agent is cleared from the joint through a normal immune response, the presence of activated cells rich in surface class II histocompatibility (Ia) antigens could, under the influence of multiple genetic or environmental factors, become the target of autoimmune attack. Alternatively, the process might result from the interactions of synovial lining cells and their products with T cells assuming a secondary role. Further research into the relative contributions of soluble products, T helper and suppressor subsets, synoviocytes, and antigen determine which model is correct.

title: A current review of COVID-19 for the cardiovascular specialist
abstract: Although Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) predominantly disrupts the respiratory system, there is accumulating experience that the disease, particularly in its more severe manifestations, also affects the cardiovascular system. Cardiovascular risk factors and chronic cardiovascular conditions are prevalent among patients affected by COVID-19 and associated with adverse outcomes. However, whether pre-existing cardiovascular disease is an independent determinant of higher mortality risk with COVID-19 remains uncertain. Acute cardiac injury, manifest by increased blood levels of cardiac troponin, electrocardiographic abnormalities, or myocardial dysfunction, occurs in up to ~60% of hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19. Potential contributors to acute cardiac injury in the setting of COVID-19 include 1) acute changes in myocardial demand and supply due to tachycardia, hypotension, and hypoxemia resulting in type 2 myocardial infarction; 2) acute coronary syndrome due to acute atherothrombosis in a virally-induced thrombotic and inflammatory milieu; 3) microvascular dysfunction due to diffuse microthrombi or vascular injury; 4) stress-related cardiomyopathy (Takotsubo syndrome); 5) non-ischemic myocardial injury due to a hyperinflammatory cytokine storm; or 6) direct viral cardiomyocyte toxicity and myocarditis. Diffuse thrombosis is emerging as an important contributor to adverse outcomes in patients with COVID-19. Practitioners should be vigilant for cardiovascular complications of COVID-19. Monitoring may include serial cardiac troponin and natriuretic peptides, along with fibrinogen, d-dimer, and inflammatory biomarkers. Management decisions should rely on the clinical assessment for the probability of ongoing myocardial ischemia, as well as alternative non-ischemic causes of injury, integrating the level of suspicion for COVID-19.

title: Hyperglycemia, hydroxychloroquine, and the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) infection and its severity can be explained by the concentration of glycosylated severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral particles in the lung epithelium, the concentration of glycosylated angiotensin-converting enzyme receptor 2 (ACE2) in the lung epithelium, and the degree and control of the pulmonary immune response to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein at approximately day 8 to 10 after symptom onset, which may be related to both. Binding of ACE2 by SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 also suggests that prolonged uncontrolled hyperglycemia, and not just a history of diabetes mellitus, may be important in the pathogenesis of the disease. It is tempting to consider that the same mechanism acts in COVID-19 as in SARS, where an overactive macrophage M1 inflammatory response, as neutralizing antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein form at day 7 to 10, results in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in susceptible patients. It also allows consideration of agents, such as hydroxychloroquine, which may interfere with this overly brisk macrophage inflammatory response and perhaps influence the course of the disease, in particular, those that blunt but do not completely abrogate the M1 to M2 balance in macrophage polarization, as well as viral load, which in SARS appears to be temporally related to the onset of ARDS.

title: Decreased serum albumin level indicates poor prognosis of COVID-19 patients: hepatic injury analysis from 2,623 hospitalized cases
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic which has caused numerous deaths worldwide. The present study investigated the roles of hypoproteinemia in the clinical outcome and liver dysfunction of COVID-19 patients. In this retrospective study, we extracted data from 2,623 clinically confirmed adult COVID-19 patients (>18 years old) between January 29, 2020 and March 6, 2020 in Tongji Hospital, Wuhan, China. The patients were divided into three groups-non-critically ill, critically ill, and death groups-in accordance with the Chinese Clinical Guideline for COVID-19. Serum albumin, low-density lipoproteins cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoproteins cholesterol (HDL-C) concentrations and inflammatory cytokines levels were measured and compared among these three groups. The median age of these 2,623 patients was 64 years old (interquartile range (IQR), 52-71). Among the patients enrolled in the study, 2,008 (76.6%) were diagnosed as non-critically ill and 615 (23.4%) were critically ill patients, including 383 (14.6%) critically ill survivors and 232 (8.8%) critically ill deaths in the hospital. Marked hypoalbuminemia occurred in 38.2%, 71.2%, and 82.4% patients in non-critically ill, critically ill, and death groups, respectively, on admission and 45.9%, 77.7%, and 95.6% of these three groups, respectively, during hospitalization. We also discovered that serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and HDL levels were significantly lower in critically ill and death groups compared to non-critically ill group. Meanwhile, the patients displayed dramatically elevated levels of serum inflammatory factors, while a markedly prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) in critically ill patients reflected coagulopathy. This study suggests that COVID-19-induced cytokine storm causes hepatotoxicity and subsequently critical hypoalbuminemia, which are associated with exacerbation of disease-associated inflammatory responses and progression of the disease and ultimately leads to death for some critically ill patients.

title: Testing for multiple bubbles in the copper price: Periodically collapsing behavior
abstract: This study investigates whether multiple bubbles exist in the copper price on the basis of the Generalized Supremum Augmented Dickey-Fuller (GSADF) approach (Phillips et al., 2013). This technique delivers date-stamping strategies for the emergence as well as collapse of explosive bubble episodes and is best suited for practical application to time series. The results reveal that four explosive bubbles are detected over the period of 1980–2019 when copper price deviates from fundamental value. Besides, this finding is in accordance with the asset pricing model (Gürkaynak, 2008), which generally considers both fundamental and bubble components in the presence of asset prices. Based on the empirical results, the multiple emergence and collapse of multiple price bubbles are attributed to speculation, depreciation of the U.S. dollar, an imbalance between supply and demand, and financial crises. Policymakers should actively recognize bubble episodes and monitor their evolution, which could be conducive to achieving the effective stabilization of the international copper price. To reduce excess price fluctuations and explosive copper bubbles, authorities should impose restrictions on excessive speculative behaviors under extreme market conditions.

title: 17ß-Estradiol, a potential ally to alleviate SARS-CoV-2 infection
abstract: Considering that female sexual hormones may modulate the inflammatory response and also exhibit direct effects on the cells of the immune system, herein, we intend to discuss the sex differences and the role of estradiol in modulating the lung and systemic inflammatory response, focusing on its possible application as a treatment modality for SARS-CoV-2 patients. COVID-19 patients develop severe hypoxemia early in the course of the disease, which is silent most of the time. Small fibrinous thrombi in pulmonary arterioles and a tumefaction of endothelial were observed in the autopsies of fatal COVID-19 cases. Studies showed that the viral infection induces a vascular process in the lung, which included vasodilation and endothelial dysfunction. Further, the proportions of CD4+ T and CD8+ T lymphocytes were strongly reduced in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 infection. Estradiol is connected with CD4+ T cell numbers and increases T-reg cell populations, affecting immune responses to infection. It is known that estradiol exerts a protective effect on endothelial function, activating the generation of nitric oxide (NO) via endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Estrogen attenuates the vasoconstrictor response to various stimuli and induces vasodilation in the pulmonary vasculature during stress situations like hypoxia. It exerts a variety of rapid actions, which are initiated after its coupling with membrane receptors, which in turn, may positively modulate vascular responses in pulmonary disease and help to maintain microvascular flow. Direct and indirect mechanisms underlying the effects of estradiol were investigated, and the results point to a possible protective effect of estradiol against COVID-19, indicating that it may be considered as an adjuvant therapeutic element for the treatment of patients affected by the novel coronavirus.

title: Crystal Structure of the 2′‐Specific and Double‐Stranded RNA‐Activated Interferon‐Induced Antiviral Protein 2′‐5′‐Oligoadenylate Synthetase
abstract: 2′‐5′‐oligoadenylate synthetases are interferon‐induced, double‐stranded RNA‐activated antiviral enzymes which are the only proteins known to catalyse 2′‐specific nucleotidyl transfer. This first crystal structure of a 2′‐5′‐oligoadenylate synthetase reveals a structural conservation with the 3′‐specific poly(A) polymerase that, coupled with structure‐guided mutagenesis, supports a conserved catalytic mechanism for the 2′‐ and 3′‐specific nucleotidyl transferases. Comparison with structures of other superfamily members indicates that the donor substrates are bound by conserved active site features while the acceptor substrates are oriented by nonconserved regions. The 2′‐5′‐oligoadenylate synthetases are activated by viral double‐stranded RNA in infected cells and initiate a cellular response by synthesizing 2′‐5′‐oligoadenylates, that in turn activate RNase L. This crystal structure suggests that activation involves a domain–domain shift and identifies a putative dsRNA activation site that is probed by mutagenesis. We demonstrated that this site is required both for the binding of dsRNA and for the subsequent activation of OAS. This RNA‐binding site is different from known RNA‐binding site; rather than forming a defined three‐dimensional domain, it is located at the interface of the two major domains in OAS. This novel architecture ensures that the dsRNA helix can make simultaneously contact with both domains of OAS and ensure the subsequent structural rearrangement leading to the activation of OAS. Our work provides structural insight into cellular recognition of double‐stranded RNA of viral origin and identifies a novel RNA‐binding motif.

title: The D-side of COVID-19: musculoskeletal benefits of vitamin D and beyond
abstract: Coronavirus 2019 disease (COVID-19) mostly adversely affects the elderly, a population at higher risk for low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels. In this viewpoint, we highlight the well-known musculoskeletal properties of vitamin D, which are particularly relevant in the context of COVID-19, suggesting further potential benefits through extra-skeletal effects. Maintaining optimal 25(OH)D is crucial to prevent falls, frailty and fractures in elderly patients, with low activity levels due to lockdown, or who are relatively immobilized during hospitalization and after discharge for prolonged periods of time. Hypovitaminosis D is also associated with susceptibility to respiratory infections, admissions to the intensive care unit, and mortality. We underscore the importance of achieving desirable serum 25(OH)D in COVID-19 elderly patients, to ensure beneficial musculoskeletal effects and possibly respiratory effects of vitamin D, in the context of COVID-19.

title: Baricitinib, a drug with potential effect to prevent SARS-COV-2 from entering target cells and control cytokine storm induced by COVID-19
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) suddenly broke out in China and rapidly spread all over the world. Recently, a cell surface protein, known as angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2), has been identified to be involved in receptor-mediated endocytosis for SARS-CoV-2 entry to the cells. Many studies have reported the clinical characteristics of COVID-19: sudden deterioration of disease around 1-2 weeks after onset; much lower level of lymphocytes, especially natural killer (NK) cells in peripheral blood; extremely high pro-inflammatory cytokines and C reactive protein (CRP). About 15.7% of patients develop severe pneumonia, and cytokine storm is an important factor leading to rapid disease progression. Currently, there are no specific drugs for COVID-19 and the cytokine storm it causes. Baricitinib intracellularly inhibits the proinflammatory signal of several cytokines by suppressing Janus kinase (JAK) JAK1/JAK2. It has been demonstrated clinical benefits for the patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), active systemic lupus erythematosus and atopic dermatitis with good efficacy and safety records. Baricitinib is expected to interrupt the passage and intracellular assembly of SARS-CoV-2 into the target cells mediated by ACE2 receptor, and treat cytokine storm caused by COVID-19. Several clinical trials are currently investigating the drug, and one of which has been completed with encouraging results. In this paper, we will elaborate the role of cytokine storm mediated by JAK-STAT pathway in severe COVID-19, the possible mechanisms of baricitinib on reducing the viral entry into the target cells and cytokine storm, the key points of pharmaceutical care based on the latest research reports, clinical trials progress and drug instruction from the US FDA, so as to provide reference for the treatment of severe COVID-19.

title: The Janus kinase 1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib in COVID-19 with severe systemic hyperinflammation
abstract: A subgroup of patients with severe COVID-19 suffers from progression to acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiorgan failure. These patients present with progressive hyperinflammation governed by proinflammatory cytokines. An interdisciplinary COVID-19 work flow was established to detect patients with imminent or full blown hyperinflammation. Using a newly developed COVID-19 Inflammation Score (CIS), patients were prospectively stratified for targeted inhibition of cytokine signalling by the Janus Kinase 1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib (Rux). Patients were treated with efficacy/toxicity guided step up dosing up to 14 days. Retrospective analysis of CIS reduction and clinical outcome was performed. Out of 105 patients treated between March 30th and April 15th(,) 2020, 14 patients with a CIS ≥ 10 out of 16 points received Rux over a median of 9 days with a median cumulative dose of 135 mg. A total of 12/14 patients achieved significant reduction of CIS by ≥25% on day 7 with sustained clinical improvement in 11/14 patients without short term red flag warnings of Rux-induced toxicity. Rux treatment for COVID-19 in patients with hyperinflammation is shown to be safe with signals of efficacy in this pilot case series for CRS-intervention to prevent or overcome multiorgan failure. A multicenter phase-II clinical trial has been initiated (NCT04338958).

title: Review of trials currently testing treatment and prevention of COVID-19
abstract: As COVID-19 cases continue to rise globally, evidence from large randomised controlled trials is still lacking. Currently, numerous trials testing potential treatment and preventative options are undertaken all over the world.  We summarised all registered clinical trials examining treatment and prevention options for COVID-19. Additionally, we evaluated the quality of the retrieved studies.  Clinicaltrials.gov, the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry and the European Union Clinical Trials Register were systematically searched.  Registered clinical trials examining treatment and/or prevention options for COVID-19 were included. No language, country or study design restrictions were applied. We excluded withdrawn or cancelled studies and trials not reporting therapeutic or preventative strategies for COVID-19.  and interventions: No restrictions in terms of participants’ age and medical background or type of intervention were enforced.  The registries were searched using the term “coronavirus” or “COVID-19” from their inception until 26(th) March 2020.Additional manual search of the registries was also performed. Eligible studies were summarised and tabulated. Interventional trials were methodologically analysed, excluding expanded access studies and trials testing Traditional Chinese Medicine.  In total, 309 trials evaluating therapeutic management options, 23 studies assessing preventive strategies and 3 studies examining both were retrieved. Finally, 214 studies were methodologically reviewed. Interventional treatment studies were mostly randomised (n=150, 76%) and open-label (n=73, 37%) with a median number of planned inclusions of 90 (IQR 40-200). Major categories of interventions that are currently being investigated are discussed.  Numerous clinical trials have been registered since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Summarised data on these trials will assist physicians and researchers to promote patient care and guide future research efforts for COVID-19 pandemic containment.

title: Hepatic involvement in COVID-19 patients: pathology, pathogenesis and clinical implications [Review].
abstract: During the clinical course of COVID-19, it has been observed that hepatic injury occurs in a significant proportion of patients, particularly in those with severe or critical illness. Mild increase in sinusoidal lymphocytic infiltration and multifocal hepatic necrosis are the main pathologic changes. Direct viral induced cellular injuries and potential hepatotoxicity from therapeutic drugs are two likely underlying mechanisms. In addition, preexisting chronic liver disease exacerbated during COVID-19, and COVID-19-related hyper-inflammatory reactions may contribute to liver injury as well. Further studies of additional autopsy cases will help clarifying these possibilities. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Cardiovascular implications of the COVID-19 pandemic: a global perspective
abstract: The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), represents the pandemic of the century, with approximately 3.5 million cases and 250,000 deaths worldwide as of May 2020. Although respiratory symptoms usually dominate the clinical presentation, COVID-19 is now known to also have potentially serious cardiovascular consequences, including myocardial injury, myocarditis, acute coronary syndromes, pulmonary embolism, stroke, arrhythmias, heart failure, and cardiogenic shock. The cardiac manifestations of COVID-19 might be related to the adrenergic drive, systemic inflammatory milieu and cytokine-release syndrome caused by SARS-CoV-2, direct viral infection of myocardial and endothelial cells, hypoxia due to respiratory failure, electrolytic imbalances, fluid overload, and side effects of certain COVID-19 medications. COVID-19 has profoundly reshaped usual care of both ambulatory and acute cardiac patients, by leading to the cancellation of elective procedures and by reducing the efficiency of existing pathways of urgent care, respectively. Decreased utilization of healthcare services for acute conditions by non-COVID-19 patients has also been reported and attributed to concerns about acquiring in-hospital infection. Innovative approaches that leverage modern technologies to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic have been introduced, which include telemedicine, dissemination of educational material over social media, smartphone apps for case tracking, and artificial intelligence for pandemic modelling, among others. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the pathophysiology and cardiovascular implications of COVID-19, its impact on existing pathways of care, the role of modern technologies to tackle the pandemic, and a proposal of novel management algorithms for the most common acute cardiac conditions.

title: Covid-19, induced activation of hemostasis, and immune reactions: Can an auto-immune reaction contribute to the delayed severe complications observed in some patients?
abstract: Covid-19 is characterized by weak symptoms in most affected patients whilst severe clinical complications, with frequent fatal issues, occur in others. Disease severity is associated with age and comorbidities. Understanding of viral infectious mechanisms, and antibody immune response, can help to better control disease progression. SARS-CoV-2 has a major impact on the Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System (RAAS), through its binding to the membrane cellular glycoprotein, Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE-2), then infecting cells for replication. This report hypothesizes the possible implication of an autoimmune response, induced by generation of allo- or autoantibodies to ACE-2, or to its complexes with viral spike protein. This could contribute to some delayed severe complications occurring in affected patients. We also propose a strategy for investigating this eventuality.

title: Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms for PRRSV Pathogenesis and Host Response to Infection
abstract: Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) has caused tremendous amounts of economic losses to the swine industry for more than three decades, but its control is still unsatisfactory. A significant amount of information is available for host cell-virus interactions during infection, and it is evident that PRRSV has evolved to equip various strategies to disrupt the host antiviral system and provide favorable conditions for survival. The current study reviews viral strategies for modulations of cellular processes including innate immunity, apoptosis, microRNAs, inflammatory cytokines, and other cellular pathways.

title: Counter-regulatory 'Renin-Angiotensin' System-based Candidate Drugs to Treat COVID-19 Diseases in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients.
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19 and the 'Renin-Angiotensin' System The ubiquitous 'Renin-Angiotensin' system (RAS), also referred to as 'Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone' system, plays a crucial physiological role in humans as being a key regulator of renal, cardiovascular and innate immune functions [1, 2]. It appears to work in tandem with vitamin D, a secosteroid pro-hormone which reportedly acts as a negative regulatory factor of the RAS [3-6]. A dysfunction (e.g. over-reactivity) of RAS, together with hypovitaminosis D, is likely associated with some of the various renal, cardiac, vascular and immune outcomes that might be observed in COVID-19 patients, including the cytokine storm (i.e. unopposed hyperactive immune reaction generating both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines) and consequent lethal acute respiratory distress syndrome [1, 7]. Recently, SARS-CoV-2 [8, 9], the causative agent of COVID-19, has been described to interfere with the RAS  by interacting -via its spike (S) glycoprotein- with the metallopeptidase Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor [9, 10] that is expressed at the surface of epithelial cells from blood vessels, lung, kidney (renal tubules), intestine, and heart, as well as on cerebral neurons and immune monocytes/macrophages [11-13]. The main SARS-CoV-2-related COVID-19 symptoms/diseases reported hitherto are hypertension, atherosclerosis, thrombosis (coagulopathy), diarrhea, glaucoma, anosmia, ageusia, skin lesions (dermatitis), autoimmune inflammation of the central nervous system, and damages to various organs such as the lung, heart, kidney, and testicle [1, 2, 14]. All these diffuse COVID-19 disorders are likely linked to an over-reaction of RAS in SARS-CoV-2-infected persons. Such a RAS imbalance would be also favored by hypovitaminosis D [2-7, 11]. Since RAS appears to be central in COVID-19 symptoms/diseases, selective targeting of key component(s) of this system might be appropriate to treat RAS-dependent disorders. COVID-19 Disorders: 'Renin-Angiotensin' System (RAS) & Counter-regulatory RAS In the RAS pathway [1, 15], Renin (kidney) cleaves Angiotensinogen (liver) to give Angiotensin I (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPFHL). The latter is cleaved by the Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) to produce Angiotensin II (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPF), which is the substrate of ACE2 (SARS-CoV-2 receptor) and key player of the RAS. The cellular targets of Angiotensin II are the vasoconstrictor type 1 (AT1R) and vasodilatator type 2 (AT2R) Angiotensin II receptors (AT1R is expressed at the surface of monocytes/macrophages and T-cells indicating that RAS acts on innate immunity in host). When cleaved by ACE2, Angiotensin II gives Angiotensin 1-7 (i.e. peptide DRVYIHP), targeting the vasodilatator proto-oncogene Mas receptor (MasR). Angiotensin 1-7 can be further transformed to Alamandine (i.e. peptide ARVYIHP) by an aspartate decarboxylase. Alamandine would bind to the vasodilatator Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor member D (MRGD) thus promoting most of the Angiotensin 1-7-like effects. Angiotensin II can produce Angiotensin A (i.e. peptide ARVYIHPF) via an aspartate decarboxylase, and Alamandine via an additional ACE2 cleavage. ACE2 can also cleave Angiotensin I to form Angiotensin 1-9 (i.e. peptide DRVYIHPFH), which targets AT2R. In the RAS pathway were finally evidenced the related Angiotensin III (i.e. peptide RVYIHPF) and Angiotensin IV (i.e. peptide VYIHPF) variants targeting the AT1R and vasodilatator AT4R, respectively. From the known molecular functioning of the RAS, Angiotensins I and II (aside Angiotensin III) are playing central roles in the activity of RAS and associated pathologies, including COVID-19 [2, 10]. Interestingly, it appears that a 'counter-regulatory' RAS does exist to modulate system homeostasis; it relies on Angiotensin 1-7, Angiotensin 1-9, Alamandine, Angiotensin A, and Angiotensin IV, which are targeting the MasR, AT2R, MRGD, ACE2 and AT4R vasodilatator receptors, respectively. These peptides were found to exhibit cardioprotective, vasoactive (anti-hypertensive), anti-hypertrophic and/or anti-inflammatory potentials . Such naturally-produced molecules of the RAS are expected to counteract the SARS-CoV-2-induced over-activation of RAS and reverse, to some extent, the associated COVID-19 diseases. CONCLUDING REMARKS A recent report suggests that RAS inhibitors may act on the severity of viral infection and mortality of COVID-19 patients . Whether or not RAS blockers would be beneficial to COVID-19 cases is still controversial. The RAS inhibitors likely prevent the cytokine storm as RAS is reported to control the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines [1, 7]. It appears that COVID-19 disorders of SARS-CoV-2-infected humans depend on the RAS over-reacted by the (ACE2-dependent) viral infection and vitamin D deficiency. The track for a possible COVID-19 treatment would be to target RAS using specific candidate chemotherapeutic drugs. The proposed molecules are (so far) ACE inhibitors (to prevent the production of Angiotensin II from Angiotensin I), and blockers/antagonists of AT1R such as Losartan and derivatives. Recombinant ACE2 (under clinical trials) is also considered as a decoy for the recognition and competitive binding to the spike (S) glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 . We support the use of natural candidate peptide drugs that belong to the 'counter-regulatory' RAS, i.e. Angiotensin 1-7, Angiotensin 1-9, Alamandine, Angiotensin A and/or Angiotensin IV to treat COVID-19 disorders. The targeted receptors would thus be MasR, AT2R, MRGD, ACE2 and AT4R. The authors wish to thank Bonabes De Rougé MD for fruitful discussions.

title: Social representations, identity threat, and coping amid COVID-19
abstract: This article describes an integrative social psychological framework within which human reactions to COVID-19 can be understood and predicted. It is argued that social representations of COVID-19 (and its mitigation strategies) must resonate among diverse communities, not be too threatening, and provide clear pathways for action and engagement.

title: COVID-19 as a Viral Functional ACE2 Deficiency Disorder with ACE2 Related Multi-organ Disease
abstract: SARS-CoV-2, the agent of COVID-19, shares a lineage with SARS-CoV-1, and a common fatal pulmonary profile but with striking differences in presentation, clinical course, and response to treatment. In contrast to SARS-CoV-1 (SARS), COVID-19 has presented as an often bi-phasic, multi-organ pathology, with a proclivity for severe disease in the elderly and those with hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Whilst death is usually related to respiratory collapse, autopsy reveals multi-organ pathology. Chronic pulmonary disease is underrepresented in the group with severe COVID-19. A commonality of aberrant renin angiotensin system (RAS) is suggested in the at-risk group. The identification of angiotensin-converting-enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the receptor allowing viral entry to cells precipitated our interest in the role of ACE2 in COVID-19 pathogenesis. We propose that COVID-19 is a viral multisystem disease, with dominant vascular pathology, mediated by global reduction in ACE2 function, pronounced in disease conditions with RAS bias toward angiotensin-converting-enzyme (ACE) over ACE2. It is further complicated by organ specific pathology related to loss of ACE2 expressing cells particularly affecting the endothelium, alveolus, glomerulus and cardiac microvasculature. The possible upregulation in ACE2 receptor expression may predispose individuals with aberrant RAS status to higher viral load on infection and relatively more cell loss. Relative ACE2 deficiency leads to enhanced and protracted tissue, and vessel exposure to angiotensin II, characterised by vasoconstriction, enhanced thrombosis, cell proliferation and recruitment, increased tissue permeability, and cytokine production (including IL-6) resulting in inflammation. Additionally, there is a profound loss of the “protective” angiotensin (1-7), a vasodilator with anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, antiproliferative, antifibrotic, anti-arrhythmic, and antioxidant activity. Our model predicts global vascular insult related to direct endothelial cell damage, vasoconstriction and thrombosis with a disease specific cytokine profile related to angiotensin II rather than “cytokine storm”. Our proposed mechanism of lung injury provides an explanation for early hypoxia without reduction in lung compliance and suggests a need for revision of treatment protocols to address vasoconstriction, thromboprophylaxis, and to minimize additional small airways and alveolar trauma via ventilation choice. Our model predicts long term sequelae of scarring/fibrosis in vessels, lungs, renal and cardiac tissue with protracted illness in at-risk individuals. It is hoped that our model stimulates review of current diagnostic and therapeutic intervention protocols, particularly with respect to early anticoagulation, vasodilatation and revision of ventilatory support choices.

title: A metabolic handbook for the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: For infectious-disease outbreaks, clinical solutions typically focus on efficient pathogen destruction. However, the COVID-19 pandemic provides a reminder that infectious diseases are complex, multisystem conditions, and a holistic understanding will be necessary to maximize survival. For COVID-19 and all other infectious diseases, metabolic processes are intimately connected to the mechanisms of disease pathogenesis and the resulting pathology and pathophysiology, as well as the host defence response to the infection. Here, I examine the relationship between metabolism and COVID-19. I discuss why preexisting metabolic abnormalities, such as type 2 diabetes and hypertension, may be important risk factors for severe and critical cases of infection, highlighting parallels between the pathophysiology of these metabolic abnormalities and the disease course of COVID-19. I also discuss how metabolism at the cellular, tissue and organ levels might be harnessed to promote defence against the infection, with a focus on disease-tolerance mechanisms, and speculate on the long-term metabolic consequences for survivors of COVID-19.

title: Dysfunctional Coagulation in COVID-19: From Cell to Bedside
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which can induce multisystem disease. Human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) widely expressing in arterial and venous endothelial cells and arterial smooth muscle cells has been identified as a functional receptor for SARS-CoV-2. Dysfunction of ACE2 leads to abnormal activation of the renin-angiotensin system and a systemic endotheliitis that may relate to abnormal coagulation and sepsis. Meanwhile, innate immune response and inflammation activation participate in dysfunctional coagulation. Previous research indicated that dysfunctional coagulation was one of the important risk factors accountable for a high risk of severe disease and death in patients with COVID-19. Understanding the possible mechanisms of dysfunctional coagulation and appropriate anticoagulation therapeutic strategies are important to prevent disease deterioration and reduce fatality rates during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Highly pathogenic coronavirus N protein aggravates lung injury by MASP-2-mediated complement over-activation
abstract: An excessive immune response contributes to SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and lethality, but the mechanism remains unclear. In this study, the N proteins of SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 were found to bind to MASP-2, the key serine protease in the lectin pathway of complement activation, resulting in aberrant complement activation and aggravated inflammatory lung injury. Either blocking the N protein:MASP-2 interaction or suppressing complement activation can significantly alleviate N protein-induced complement hyper-activation and lung injury in vitro and in vivo. Complement hyper-activation was also observed in COVID-19 patients, and a promising suppressive effect was observed when the deteriorating patients were treated with anti-C5a monoclonal antibody. Complement suppression may represent a common therapeutic approach for pneumonia induced by these highly pathogenic coronaviruses.

title: Demographic, etiological, and histological pulmonary analysis of patients with acute respiratory failure: a study of 19 years of autopsies
abstract: Acute respiratory failure has been one of the most important causes of death in intensive care units, and certain aspects of its pulmonary pathology are currently unknown.  The objective was to describe the demographic data, etiology, and pulmonary histopathological findings of different diseases in the autopsies of patients with acute respiratory failure.  Autopsies of 4,710 patients with acute respiratory failure from 1990 to 2008 were reviewed, and the following data were obtained: age, sex, and major associated diseases. The pulmonary histopathology was categorized as diffuse alveolar damage, pulmonary edema, alveolar hemorrhage, and lymphoplasmacytic interstitial pneumonia. The odds ratio of the concordance between the major associated diseases and specific autopsy findings was calculated using logistic regression.  Bacterial bronchopneumonia was present in 33.9% of the cases and cancer in 28.1%. The pulmonary histopathology showed diffuse alveolar damage in 40.7% (1,917) of the cases. A multivariate analysis showed a significant and powerful association between diffuse alveolar damage and bronchopneumonia, HIV/AIDS, sepsis, and septic shock, between liver cirrhosis and pulmonary embolism, between pulmonary edema and acute myocardial infarction, between dilated cardiomyopathy and cancer, between alveolar hemorrhage and bronchopneumonia and pulmonary embolism, and between lymphoplasmacytic interstitial pneumonia and HIV/AIDS and liver cirrhosis.  Bronchopneumonia was the most common diagnosis in these cases. The most prevalent pulmonary histopathological pattern was diffuse alveolar damage, which was associated with different inflammatory conditions. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the complete pathophysiological mechanisms involved with each disease and the development of acute respiratory failure.

title: Soluble Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Receptor: A Biomarker for Predicting Complications and Critical Care Admission of COVID-19 Patients
abstract: The novel coronavirus infection has spread worldwide, causing a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations. Most patients develop moderate clinical illness, but a substantial number will experience severe pneumonia, which may rapidly progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiple organ failure. In this population, soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) could serve as a quick triage test and independent marker of clinical severity, hospital and intensive care unit admission, complications, and mortality.

title: Endoscopy in inflammatory bowel diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic and post-pandemic period
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is changing the management of many chronic diseases, including that of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). In particular, the performance of routine endoscopy is temporarily suspended, and only emergency endoscopy is allowed in many countries where severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread. We highlight different scenarios in which endoscopy should still be performed urgently in patients with IBD, as well as recommendations regarding the use of personal protective equipment. We suggest a pathway for performing safe endoscopy and discuss the potential risks of postponing endoscopy in IBD. Finally, we propose a post-pandemic plan for access to endoscopy.

title: Edaravone: a potential treatment for the COVID-19-induced inflammatory syndrome?

title: HOW TO DETECT AND TRACK CHRONIC NEUROLOGIC SEQUELAE OF COVID-19? USE OF AUDITORY BRAINSTEM RESPONSES AND NEUROIMAGING FOR LONG-TERM PATIENT FOLLOW-UP.
abstract: This review intends to provide an overview of the current knowledge on neurologic sequelae of COVID-19 and their possible etiology, and, based on available data, proposes possible improvements in current medical care procedures. We conducted a thorough review of the scientific literature on neurologic manifestations of COVID-19, the neuroinvasive propensity of known coronaviruses (CoV) and their possible effects on brain structural and functional integrity. It appears that around one third of COVID-19 patients admitted to intensive care units (ICU) for respiratory difficulties exhibit neurologic symptoms. This may be due to progressive brain damage and dysfunction triggered by severe hypoxia and hypoxemia, heightened inflammation and SARS-CoV-2 dissemination into brain parenchyma, as suggested by current reports and analyses of previous CoV outbreaks. Viral invasion of the brain may particularly target and alter brainstem and thalamic functions and, consequently, result in sensorimotor dysfunctions and psychiatric disorders. Moreover, data collected from other structurally homologous CoV suggest that SARS-CoV-2 infection may lead to brain cell degeneration and demyelination similar to multiple sclerosis (MS). Hence, current evidence warrants further evaluation and long-term follow-up of possible neurologic sequelae in COVID-19 patients. It may be particularly relevant to evaluate brainstem integrity in recovered patients, as it is suspected that this cerebral area may particularly be dysfunctional following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Because CoV infection can potentially lead to chronic neuroinflammation and progressive demyelination, neuroimaging features and signs of MS may also be evaluated in the long term in recovered COVID-19 patients.

title: Immunotherapies for COVID-19: restoring the immunity could be the priority

title: The inhibition of IL-2/IL-2R gives rise to CD8+ T cell and lymphocyte decrease through JAK1-STAT5 in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia
abstract: Although most patients with COVID-19 pneumonia have a good prognosis, some patients develop to severe or critical illness, and the mortality of critical cases is up to 61.5%. However, specific molecular information about immune response in critical patients with COVID-19 is poorly understood. A total of 54 patients were enrolled and divided into three groups, among which 34 were common, 14 were severe, and 6 were critical. The constitution of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in patients was analyzed by CyTOF. The profile of cytokines was examined in plasma of patients using luminex. The IL-2 signaling pathway was investigated in the PBMC of patients by qRT-PCR. The count and percentage of lymphocytes were significantly decreased in critical patients compared to common and severe patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. The count of T cells, B cells, and NK cells was remarkably decreased in critical patients compared to normal controls. The percentage of CD8+ T cells was significantly lower in critical patients than that in common and severe patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. The expression of IL-2R, JAK1, and STAT5 decreased in PBMC of common, severe, and critical patients, but IL-2 level was elevated in severe patients and decreased in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. The decrease of CD8+ T cells in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia may be related to the IL-2 signaling pathway. The inhibition of IL-2/IL-2R gives rise to CD8+ T cell and lymphocyte decrease through JAK1-STAT5 in critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.

title: Thrombotic microangiopathy, DIC-syndrome and COVID-19: link with pregnancy prothrombotic state.
abstract: For last months, humanity has faced a formidable unknown enemy, which is presented as a new coronavirus infection. Despite the fact that the causative agents of new diseases appear at a certain frequency and that the virus SARS-CoV-2 has certain common properties with its predecessors, at the moment we are dealing with a new unknown pathogenesis of the development of severe complications in patients with risk factors. A final understanding of pathological process mechanisms is the goal of the scientific community. Summarizing research data from different countries, it became obvious that in severe cases of viral infection, we are dealing with a combination of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome, disseminated intravascular coagulation and thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA). Thrombotic microangiopathy is represented by a group of different conditions in which thrombocytopenia, hemolytic anemia, and multiple organ failure occur. The article reflects the main types of TMA, pathogenesis and principles of therapy. The main participants in the process are described in detail, including the von Willebrand factor and ADAMTS-13. Based on the knowledge available, as well as new data obtained from patients with COVID-19, we proposed possible models for the implementation of conditions such as sepsis, TMA, and DIC in patients with severe new coronavirus infection. Through a deeper understanding of pathogenesis, it will be possible to develop more effective diagnosis and therapy.

title: Hyperinflammatory shock related to COVID‐19 in a patient presenting with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children: First case from Iran

title: Striding Toward Malaria Elimination in China

title: Cytokine Storm in COVID19: A Neural Hypothesis.
abstract: Cytokine storm in COVID-19 is characterized by an excessive inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 that is caused by a dysregulated immune system of the host. We are proposing a new hypothesis that SARS-CoV-2 mediated inflammation of nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) may be responsible for the cytokine storm in COVID 19. The inflamed NTS may result in a dysregulated cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

title: May the Central Nervous System Be Fogged by the Cytokine Storm in COVID-19?: an Appraisal

title: IL-15 immunotherapy is a viable strategy for COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pulmonary inflammatory disease induced by a newly recognized coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). SARS-CoV-2 infection was detected for the first time in the city of Wuhan in China and spread all over the world at the beginning of 2020. Several millions of people have been infected with SARS-CoV-2, and almost 382,867 human deaths worldwide have been reported so far. Notably, there has been no specific, clinically approved vaccine or anti-viral treatment strategy for COVID-19. Herein, we review COVID-19, the viral replication, and its effect on promoting pulmonary fibro-inflammation via immune cell-mediated cytokine storms in humans. Several clinical trials are currently ongoing for anti-viral drugs, vaccines, and neutralizing antibodies against COVID-19. Viral clearance is the result of effective innate and adaptive immune responses. The pivotal role of interleukin (IL)-15 in viral clearance involves maintaining the balance of induced inflammatory cytokines and the homeostatic responses of natural killer and CD8+ T cells. This review presents supporting evidence of the impact of IL-15 immunotherapy on COVID-19.

title: A Comparison of Mortality-related Risk Factors of COVID-19, SARS, and MERS: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic. This systematic review compares mortality risk factors including clinical, demographic and laboratory features of COVID-19, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). The aim is to provide new strategies for COVID-19 prevention and treatment.  We performed a systematic review with meta-analysis, using five databases to compare the predictors of death for COVID-19, SARS and MERS. A random-effects model meta-analysis calculated odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI).  845 articles up through 11/4/2020 were retrieved, but only 28 studies were included in this meta-analysis. The results showed that males had a higher likelihood of death than females (OR = 1.82, 95% CI 1.56-2.13). Age (OR = 7.86, 95% CI 5.46-11.29), diabetes comorbidity (OR = 3.73, 95% CI 2.35-5.90), chronic lung disease (OR = 3.43, 95% CI 1.80-6.52) and hypertension (OR = 3.38, 95% CI 2.45-4.67) were the mortality risk factors. The laboratory indicators lactic dehydrogenase (OR = 37.52, 95% CI 24.68-57.03), C-reactive protein (OR = 12.11, 95% CI 5.24-27.98), and neutrophils (OR = 17.56, 95% CI 10.67-28.90) had stronger correlations with COVID-19 mortality than with SARS or MERS mortality. Consolidation and ground-glass opacity imaging features were similar among COVID-19, SARS, and MERS patients.  COVID-19’s mortality factors are similar to those of SARS and MERS. Age and laboratory indicators could be effective predictors of COVID-19 mortality outcomes.

title: Expanded Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells (UC-MSCs) as a Therapeutic Strategy in Managing Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients: The Case for Compassionate Use.
abstract: COVID-19 has affected the United States leading to a national emergency with health care and economic impact, propelling the country into a recession with disrupted lifestyles not seen in recent history. COVID-19 is a serious illness leading to multiple deaths in various countries including the United States. Several million Americans satisfy the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria for being high risk. Unfortunately, the available supply of medical beds and equipment for mechanical ventilation are much less than is projected to be needed. The World Health Organization (WHO) and multiple agencies led by the CDC in the United States have attempted to organize intensive outbreak investigation programs utilizing appropriate preventive measures, evaluation, and treatment. The clinical spectrum of COVID-19 varies from asymptomatic forms to conditions encompassing multiorgan and systemic manifestations in terms of septic shock, and multiple organ dysfunction (MOD) syndromes. The presently approved treatments are supportive but not curative for the disease. There are multiple treatments being studied. These include vaccines, medications Remdesivir and hydroxychloroquine and potentially combination therapy. Finally, expanded umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells or (UC-MSCs) may have a role and are being studied. The cure of COVID-19 is essentially dependent on the patients' own immune system. When the immune system is over activated in an attempt to kill the virus, this can lead to the production of a large number of inflammatory factors, resulting in severe cytokine storm. The cytokine storm may induce organ damage followed by the edema, dysfunction of air exchange, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute cardiac injury, and secondary infection, which may lead to death. Thus, at this point, the avoidance of the cytokine storm may be the key for the treatment of HCOV-19 infected patients.In China, where there was limited availability of effective modalities to manage COVID-19 several patients were treated with expanded UC-MSCs. Additionally, the Italian College of Anesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care have reported guidelines to treat coronavirus patients with stem cells in the hope of decreasing the number of patients going to the ICU, and, also relatively quickly getting them out of ICU. In this manuscript, we describe the urgent need for various solutions, pathogenesis of coronavirus and the clinical evidence for treatment of COVID-19 with stem cells. The limited but emerging evidence regarding UC MSC in managing COVID-19 suggests that it might be considered for compassionate use in critically ill patients to reduce morbidity and mortality in the United States. The administration and Coronavirus Task Force might wish to approach the potential of expanded UC-MSCs as an evolutionary therapeutic strategy in managing COVID-19 illness with a 3-pronged approach: If proven safe and effective on a specific and limited basis…1. Minimize regulatory burden by all agencies so that critically ill COVID-19 patients will have access regardless of their financial circumstance.2. Institute appropriate safeguards to avoid negative consequences from unscrupulous actors.3. With proper informed consent from patients or proxy when necessary, and subject to accumulation of data in that cohort, allow the procedure to be initiated in critically ill patients who are not responding to conventional therapies. Coronavirus, COVID-19, cytokine storm, multiorgan failure, expanded umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells.

title: Complex Immune Dysregulation in COVID-19 Patients with Severe Respiratory Failure
abstract: Proper management of COVID-19 mandates better understanding of disease pathogenesis. The sudden clinical deterioration 7–8 days after initial symptom onset suggests that severe respiratory failure (SRF) in COVID-19 is driven by a unique pattern of immune dysfunction. We studied immune responses of 54 COVID-19 patients, 28 of whom had SRF. All patients with SRF displayed either macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) or very low human leukocyte antigen D related (HLA-DR) expression accompanied by profound depletion of CD4 lymphocytes, CD19 lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) production by circulating monocytes was sustained, a pattern distinct from bacterial sepsis or influenza. SARS-CoV-2 patient plasma inhibited HLA-DR expression, and this was partially restored by the IL-6 blocker Tocilizumab; off-label Tocilizumab treatment of patients was accompanied by increase in circulating lymphocytes. Thus, the unique pattern of immune dysregulation in severe COVID-19 is characterized by IL-6-mediated low HLA-DR expression and lymphopenia, associated with sustained cytokine production and hyper-inflammation.

title: A strategy targeting monocyte-macrophage differentiation to avoid pulmonary complications in SARS-Cov2 infection

title: Novel COronaVirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic: What are the risk for systemic sclerosis patients?

title: The innate immune system: fighting on the front lines or fanning the flames of COVID-19?
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has had devastating global impacts and will continue to have dramatic effects on public health for years to come. A better understanding of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 will be critical for the application and development of therapeutics. The degree to which the innate immune response confers protection or induces pathogenesis through a dysregulated immune response remains unclear. In this review, we discuss what is known about the role of the innate immune system during SARS-CoV-2 infection, suggest directions for future studies, and evaluate proposed COVID-19 immunomodulating therapeutics.

title: Clonally Expanded CD8(+) T cells in Allogeneic Bone Marrow Transplantation
abstract: Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a potentially curative therapy for patients with haematologic malignancies. Several lines of evidence demonstrate that donor T cells are involved in the antitumour effects observed after BMT. Thus, patients receiving T‐cell‐depleted BMT have a higher risk of leukaemia relapse compared to patients receiving nonmanipulated BMT, and patients experiencing graft‐versus‐host disease (GVHD) have a lower risk of disease relapse than patients who do not experience GVHD. Although the importance of donor T cells for the curative action of BMT has been established, the exact mechanisms and molecules involved in this graft‐versus‐tumour effect remain largely unknown. In a recently initiated project, we have conducted a longitudinal study of T‐cell clonotypes in patients who received peripheral blood stem cell grafts after nonmyeloablative conditioning. Peripheral blood samples were obtained sequentially after transplant, and the mononuclear cells (MNCs) were isolated and cryopreserved. CD8(+) T cells were isolated from the MNCs by use of immunomagnetic beads or FACS and analysed for the presence of clonally expanded cells by T‐cell receptor clonotype mapping based on RT‐PCR and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Using this gel‐based methodology, clonally expanded T cells were monitored after transplant and compared to the clinical data of the patients. The preliminary results demonstrates the presence of clonally expanded CD8(+) T cells at all time points analysed. Furthermore, a number of clonotypes persisted for more than 6 months, and other clonotypes emerged during this period. The appearance of newly emerged clonotypes which coincided with clinical GVHD could indicate a role for these T cells in the pathogenesis of GVHD.

title: COVID-19-Associated dyslipidemia: Implications for mechanism of impaired resolution and novel therapeutic approaches
abstract: The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic presents a global challenge for managing acutely ill patients and complications from viral infection. Systemic inflammation accompanied by a "cytokine storm," hemostasis alterations and severe vasculitis have all been reported to occur with COVID-19, and emerging evidence suggests that dysregulation of lipid transport may contribute to some of these complications. Here, we aim to summarize the current understanding of the potential mechanisms related to COVID-19 dyslipidemia and propose possible adjunctive type therapeutic approaches that modulate lipids and lipoproteins. Specifically, we hypothesize that changes in the quantity and composition of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) that occurs with COVID-19 can significantly decrease the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative functions of HDL and could contribute to pulmonary inflammation. Furthermore, we propose that lipoproteins with oxidized phospholipids and fatty acids could lead to virus-associated organ damage via overactivation of innate immune scavenger receptors. Restoring lipoprotein function with ApoA-I raising agents or blocking relevant scavenger receptors with neutralizing antibodies could, therefore, be of value in the treatment of COVID-19. Finally, we discuss the role of omega-3 fatty acids transported by lipoproteins in generating specialized proresolving mediators and how together with anti-inflammatory drugs, they could decrease inflammation and thrombotic complications associated with COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 - Toward a comprehensive understanding of the disease
abstract: The evidence on the pathophysiology of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infection is rapidly growing. Understanding why some patients suffering from COVID-19 are getting so sick, while others are not, has become an informal imperative for researchers and clinicians around the globe. The answer to this question would allow rationalizing the fear surrounding this pandemic. Understanding of the pathophysiology of COVID-19 relies on an understanding of interplaying mechanisms, including SARS-CoV-2 virulence, human immune response, and complex inflammatory reactions with coagulation playing a major role. An interplay with bacterial co-infections, as well as the vascular system and microcirculation affected throughout the body should also be examined. More importantly, a compre-hensive understanding of pathological mechanisms of COVID-19 will increase the efficacy of therapy and decrease mortality. Herewith, presented is the current state of knowledge on COVID-19: beginning from the virus, its transmission, and mechanisms of entry into the human body, through the pathological effects on the cellular level, up to immunological reaction, systemic and organ presentation. Last but not least, currently available and possible future therapeutic and diagnostic options are briefly commented on.

title: Infections, inflammatory markers and schizophrenia

title: 19 treatment regimens?
abstract: The pandemic of COVID-19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a significant threat to global health. Currently, no specific prophylactic and therapeutic treatment is available. No evidence from randomized clinical trials (RCTs) that a treatment may ameliorate the clinical outcome of patients with COVID-19 exists with the only exception of preliminary evidence from remdesivir trials. Here, we present evidence from the literature and a compelling hypothesis on the potential immunomodulatory, iron chelating and anti-oxidant effects of iron chelators in the treatment of COVID-19 and its complications. Interestingly, iron chelation has been shown in vitro to suppress endothelial inflammation in viral infection, which is the main pathophysiologic mechanism behind systemic organ involvement induced by SARS-CoV-2, by inhibiting IL-6 synthesis through decreasing NF-kB. Iron chelators exhibit iron chelating, antiviral and immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo, particularly against RNA viruses. These agents could attenuate ARDS and help control SARS-CoV-2 via multiple mechanisms including: 1) inhibition of viral replication; 2) decrease of iron availability; 3) upregulation of B cells; 4) improvement of the neutralizing anti-viral antibody titer; 5) inhibition of endothelial inflammation and 6) prevention of pulmonary fibrosis and lung decline via reduction of pulmonary iron accumulation. Both retrospective analyses of data in electronic health records, as well as proof of concept studies in humans and large RCTs are needed to fully elucidate the efficacy and safety of iron chelating agents in the therapeutic armamentarium of COVID-19, probably as an adjunctive treatment.

title: Attenuated interferon and pro-inflammatory response in SARS-CoV-2-infected human dendritic cells is associated with viral antagonism of STAT1 phosphorylation
abstract: Clinical manifestations of COVID-19 vary from asymptomatic virus shedding, non-specific pharyngitis, to pneumonia with silent hypoxia and respiratory failure. Dendritic cells and macrophages are sentinel cells for innate and adaptive immunity that affect the pathogenesis of SARS and MERS. However, the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and these cell types remains unknown. Herein, we investigated the infection and host response of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) and macrophages (MDMs) infected by SARS-CoV-2. We demonstrated that moDCs and MDMs were permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection and protein expression but did not support productive virus replication. Importantly, SARS-CoV-2 launched an attenuated interferon response in both cell types. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2 triggered significant pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine expression in MDMs but not in moDCs. Further investigations suggested that this attenuated immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in moDCs was associated with viral antagonism of STAT1 phosphorylation. These findings on pathogenesis may explain the mild and insidious course of COVID-19 till late deterioration.

title: Can steroids reverse the severe COVID‐19 induced ‘cytokine storm’?
abstract: Severe COVID‐19 is characterized by an excessive pro‐inflammatory cytokine storm, resulting in acute lung injury and development of ARDS. The role of corticosteroids is controversial in severe COVID‐19 pneumonia and associated hyper‐inflammatory syndrome. We reported a case series of six consecutive COVID‐19 patients with severe pneumonia, ARDS and laboratory indices of hyper‐inflammatory syndrome. All patients were treated early with a short course of corticosteroids, and clinical outcomes were compared before and after corticosteroids administration. All patients evaded intubation and intensive care admission, ARDS resolved within 11.8 days (median), viral clearance was achieved in 4 patients within 17.2 days (median), and all patients were discharged from the hospital in 16.8 days (median). Early administration of short course corticosteroids improves clinical outcome of patients with severe COVID‐19 pneumonia and evidence of immune hyper‐reactivity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Diffuse pneumonitis from coronavirus HKU1 on checkpoint inhibitor therapy
abstract: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) can produce specific immune-related adverse events including pneumonitis. The impact of ICI therapy on the severity of acute coronavirus infection symptomatology warrants further exploration.  We report a 65-year-old man diagnosed with stage IV melanoma who developed pulmonary and brain metastases and was treated with bilateral craniotomies followed by combined nivolumab and ipilimumab immunotherapy. He developed early-onset severe dyspnea associated with acute coronavirus HKU1 (non-COVID-19) infection, with diffuse pneumonitis evidenced by ground glass opacification on CT scan. He was treated with steroids leading to resolution of pneumonitis on repeat imaging, suggesting an exacerbated immune-mediated toxicity.  We report the first case of a patient with melanoma with severe and reversible diffuse pneumonitis in association with coronavirus HKU1 following combined nivolumab and ipilimumab immunotherapy. Although we do not have data on the impact of ICI therapy on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) symptomatology, a possible interaction should be considered when deciding on dosing in patients with possible SARS-CoV-2 exposure or when evaluating patients with presumed ICI-related pneumonitis during the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Evaluation of the Broad-Range PCR-Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (PCR/ESI-MS) System and Virus Microarrays for Virus Detection
abstract: Advanced nucleic acid-based technologies are powerful research tools for novel virus discovery but need to be standardized for broader applications such as virus detection in biological products and clinical samples. We have used well-characterized retrovirus stocks to evaluate the limit of detection (LOD) for broad-range PCR with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (PCR/ESI-MS or PLEX-ID), RT-PCR assays, and virus microarrays. The results indicated that in the absence of background cellular nucleic acids, PLEX-ID and RT-PCR had a similar LOD for xenotropic murine retrovirus-related virus (XMRV; 3.12 particles per µL) whereas sensitivity of virus detection was 10-fold greater using virus microarrays. When virus was spiked into a background of cellular nucleic acids, the LOD using PLEX-ID remained the same, whereas virus detection by RT-PCR was 10-fold less sensitive, and no virus could be detected by microarrays. Expected endogenous retrovirus (ERV) sequences were detected in cell lines tested and known species-specific viral sequences were detected in bovine serum and porcine trypsin. A follow-up strategy was developed using PCR amplification, nucleotide sequencing, and bioinformatics to demonstrate that an RD114-like retrovirus sequence that was detected by PLEX-ID in canine cell lines (Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) and Cf2Th canine thymus) was due to defective, endogenous gammaretrovirus-related sequences.

title: Immune cell profiling of COVID-19 patients in the recovery stage by single-cell sequencing
abstract: COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, has recently affected over 1,200,000 people and killed more than 60,000. The key immune cell subsets change and their states during the course of COVID-19 remain unclear. We sought to comprehensively characterize the transcriptional changes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells during the recovery stage of COVID-19 by single-cell RNA sequencing technique. It was found that T cells decreased remarkably, whereas monocytes increased in patients in the early recovery stage (ERS) of COVID-19. There was an increased ratio of classical CD14(++) monocytes with high inflammatory gene expression as well as a greater abundance of CD14(++)IL1β(+) monocytes in the ERS. CD4(+) T cells and CD8(+) T cells decreased significantly and expressed high levels of inflammatory genes in the ERS. Among the B cells, the plasma cells increased remarkably, whereas the naïve B cells decreased. Several novel B cell-receptor (BCR) changes were identified, such as IGHV3-23 and IGHV3-7, and isotypes (IGHV3-15, IGHV3-30, and IGKV3-11) previously used for virus vaccine development were confirmed. The strongest pairing frequencies, IGHV3-23-IGHJ4, indicated a monoclonal state associated with SARS-CoV-2 specificity, which had not been reported yet. Furthermore, integrated analysis predicted that IL-1β and M-CSF may be novel candidate target genes for inflammatory storm and that TNFSF13, IL-18, IL-2, and IL-4 may be beneficial for the recovery of COVID-19 patients. Our study provides the first evidence of an inflammatory immune signature in the ERS, suggesting COVID-19 patients are still vulnerable after hospital discharge. Identification of novel BCR signaling may lead to the development of vaccines and antibodies for the treatment of COVID-19.

title: When interferon tiptoes through COVID-19: Pernio-like lesions and their prognostic implications during SARS-CoV-2 infection

title: Targeting the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Severe COVID-19
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a member of the genus Betacoronavirus within the family Coronaviridae. It is an enveloped single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus. Since December of 2019, a global expansion of the infection has occurred with widespread dissemination of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). COVID-19 often manifests as only mild cold-like symptomatology, but severe disease with complications occurs in 15% of cases. Respiratory failure occurs in severe disease that can be accompanied by a systemic inflammatory reaction characterized by inflammatory cytokine release. In severe cases, fatality is caused by the rapid development of severe lung injury characteristic of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Although ARDS is a complication of SARS-CoV-2 infection, it is not viral replication or infection that causes tissue injury; rather, it is the result of dysregulated hyperinflammation in response to viral infection. This pathology is characterized by intense, rapid stimulation of the innate immune response that triggers activation of the Nod-like receptor family, pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome pathway and release of its products including the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β. Here we review the literature that describes the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 and NLRP3 activation and describe an important role in targeting this pathway for the treatment of severe COVID-19.

title: Type I IFN immunoprofiling in COVID-19 patients
abstract: COVID patients in ICU present a high mortality rate and immunoprofiling reveals heterogeneous IFN-α2 production with about 20% of critically-ill patients unable to produce IFN-α2, highlighting the immune response heterogeneity and opening avenues for targeted therapies.

title: Can steroids reverse the severe COVID-19 induced "cytokine storm"?
abstract: Severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is characterized by an excessive proinflammatory cytokine storm, resulting in acute lung injury and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The role of corticosteroids is controversial in severe COVID-19 pneumonia and associated hyper-inflammatory syndrome. We reported a case series of six consecutive COVID-19 patients with severe pneumonia, ARDS and laboratory indices of hyper-inflammatory syndrome. All patients were treated early with a short course of corticosteroids, and clinical outcomes were compared before and after corticosteroids administration. All patients evaded intubation and intensive care admission, ARDS resolved within 11.8 days (median), viral clearance was achieved in four patients within 17.2 days (median), and all patients were discharged from the hospital in 16.8 days (median). Early administration of short course corticosteroids improves clinical outcome of patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia and evidence of immune hyperreactivity.

title: The transcriptomic profiling of COVID-19 compared to SARS, MERS, Ebola, and H1N1
abstract: COVID-19 pandemic is a global crisis that threatens our way of life. As of April 29, 2020, COVID-19 has claimed more than 200,000 lives, with a global mortality rate of ~7% and recovery rate of ~30%. Understanding the interaction of cellular targets to the SARS-CoV2 infection is crucial for therapeutic development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to perform a comparative analysis of transcriptomic signatures of infection of COVID-19 compared to different respiratory viruses (Ebola, H1N1, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV), to determine unique anti-COVID1-19 gene signature. We identified for the first time molecular pathways for Heparin-binding, RAGE, miRNA, and PLA2 inhibitors, to be associated with SARS-CoV2 infection. The NRCAM and SAA2 that are involved in severe inflammatory response, and FGF1 and FOXO1 genes, which are associated with immune regulation, were found to be associated with a cellular gene response to COVID-19 infection. Moreover, several cytokines, most significantly the IL-8, IL-6, demonstrated key associations with COVID-19 infection. Interestingly, the only response gene that was shared between the five viral infections was SERPINB1. The PPI study sheds light on genes with high interaction activity that COVID-19 shares with other viral infections. The findings showed that the genetic pathways associated with Rheumatoid arthritis, AGE-RAGE signaling system, Malaria, Hepatitis B, and Influenza A were of high significance. We found that the virogenomic transcriptome of infection, gene modulation of host antiviral responses, and GO terms of both COVID-19 and Ebola are more similar compared to SARS, H1N1, and MERS. This work compares the virogenomic signatures of highly pathogenic viruses and provides valid targets for potential therapy against COVID-19.

title: Abstracts of the contributed papers

title: Virology, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Control of COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) disease (COVID-19) in China has been brought to global attention and declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. Scientific advancements since the pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2002~2003 and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in 2012 have accelerated our understanding of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 and the development of therapeutics to treat viral infection. As no specific therapeutics and vaccines are available for disease control, the epidemic of COVID-19 is posing a great threat for global public health. To provide a comprehensive summary to public health authorities and potential readers worldwide, we detail the present understanding of COVID-19 and introduce the current state of development of measures in this review.

title: Pharmacological (or Synthetic) and Nutritional Agonists of PPAR-Î³ as Candidates for Cytokine Storm Modulation in COVID-19 Disease
abstract: The cytokine storm is an abnormal production of inflammatory cytokines, due to the over-activation of the innate immune response. This mechanism has been recognized as a critical mediator of influenza-induced lung disease, and it could be pivotal for COVID-19 infections. Thus, an immunomodulatory approach targeting the over-production of cytokines could be proposed for viral aggressive pulmonary disease treatment. In this regard, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-Î³, a member of the PPAR transcription factor family, could represent a potential target. Beside the well-known regulatory role on lipid and glucose metabolism, PPAR-Î³ also represses the inflammatory process. Similarly, the PPAR-Î³ agonist thiazolidinediones (TZDs), like pioglitazone, are anti-inflammatory drugs with ameliorating effects on severe viral pneumonia. In addition to the pharmacological agonists, also nutritional ligands of PPAR-Î³, like curcuma, lemongrass, and pomegranate, possess anti-inflammatory properties through PPAR-Î³ activation. Here, we review the main synthetic and nutritional PPAR-Î³ ligands, proposing a dual approach based on the strengthening of the immune system using pharmacological and dietary strategies as an attempt to prevent/treat cytokine storm in the case of coronavirus infection.

title: Immunopathology of highly virulent pathogens: insights from Ebola virus
abstract: Ebola virus is a highly virulent pathogen capable of inducing a frequently lethal hemorrhagic fever syndrome. Accumulating evidence indicates that the virus actively subverts both innate and adaptive immune responses and triggers harmful inflammatory responses as it inflicts direct tissue damage. The host immune system is ultimately overwhelmed by a combination of inflammatory factors and virus-induced cell damage, particularly in the liver and vasculature, often leading to death from septic shock. We summarize the mechanisms of immune dysregulation and virus-mediated cell damage in Ebola virus–infected patients. Future approaches to prevention and treatment of infection will be guided by answers to unresolved questions about interspecies transmission, molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis, and protective adaptive and innate immune responses to Ebola virus.

title: A brief review of liver injury in patients with Corona Virus Disease-19 during the pandemic
abstract: The novel coronavirus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has been mostly leading to respiratory distress syndrome, but liver injury has also been documented. The mechanism of liver injury is limited and poorly understood. However, the hepatic injury could be due to a consequence of systemic inflammatory response, viral infection of hepatocytes, or as a result of intensive care treatment or drug toxicity. Based on the current studies, this review article emphasizes on the demographic and potential mechanisms of Corona Virus Disease (COVID)-19-related liver dysfunction.

title: Malaria and the HIV virus: is there any interaction?

title: Biochemical indicators of coronavirus disease 2019 exacerbation and the clinical implications
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has sparked a global pandemic, affecting more than 4 million people worldwide. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can cause acute lung injury (ALI) and even acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS); with a fatality of 7.0 %. Accumulating evidence suggested that the progression of COVID-19 is associated with lymphopenia and excessive inflammation, and a subset of severe cases might exhibit cytokine storm triggered by secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH). Furthermore, secondary bacterial infection may contribute to the exacerbation of COVID-19. We recommend using both IL-10 and IL-6 as the indicators of cytokine storm, and monitoring the elevation of procalcitonin (PCT) as an alert for initiating antibacterial agents. Understanding the dynamic progression of SARS-CoV-2 infection is crucial to determine an effective treatment strategy to reduce the rising mortality of this global pandemic.

title: Molecular pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome
abstract: The global outbreak in 2002–2003 of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) posed a serious threat to public health and had a significant impact on socioeconomic stability. Although the global outbreak of SARS has been contained, there are serious concerns over its re-emergence and bioterrorism potential, and up to date, no specific treatment exists for this disease. Here we review the progress of studies on the pathogenesis of the disease, in particular, studies on the molecular level.

title: Lymphopenia in COVID‐19: Therapeutic opportunities
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) is uncontrollably spread all over the world. The host immune responses strongly try to confront it with all the potential cells and cytokines. With chronically condition of SARS‐CoV‐2, natural killer cells and T cells become exhausted and decreasing their count leads to lymphopenia. Inability to eradicate the infected organ makes hyperinitiation of the immune system, which releases the excessive inflammatory cytokines to compensate the exhausted one as well as the low lymphocytes counts; it consequently leads to the cytokine storm syndrome. These mechanisms and the potential therapeutic targeting are discussed in this paper.

title: The added value of pirfenidone to fight inflammation and fibrotic state induced by SARS-CoV-2: Anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic therapy could solve the lung complications of the infection?
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 infection has been divided by scientific opinion into three phases: the first as asymptomatic or slightly symptomatic and the second and the third with greater severity, characterized by a hyperinflammatory and fibrotic state, responsible for lung lesions, in some cases fatal. The development of antiviral drugs directed against SARS-CoV-2 and effective vaccines is progressing; meanwhile, the best pharmacological objective is related to the management of all the complications caused by this viral infection, mainly controlling the inflammatory and fibrotic state and preventing the infection from moving into the most serious phases.  Describe the scientific rationale related to the use of an antifibrotic therapy with pirfenidone, as monotherapy and/or in combination with anti-inflammatory drugs to manage and control complications of SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Based on the scientific literature and epidemiological results and considering the pathophysiological, biological, and molecular characteristics of SARS-CoV-2, an antifibrotic drug such as pirfenidone as monotherapy or in combination with anti-inflammatory drugs can be (acting early, at the right doses and at the right time) therapeutically effective to avoid serious complications during viral infection. The same approach can also be effective as postinfection therapy in patients with residual pulmonary fibrotic damage. Management of inflammation and fibrotic status with a combination therapy of pirfenidone and IL-6 or IL-1 inhibitors could represent a pharmacological synergy with added value.  In this article, we consider the role of antifibrotic therapy with pirfenidone in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection on going or in the stage of postinfection with pulmonary fibrotic consequences. The scientific rationale for its use is also described.

title: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus-induced lung epithelial cytokines exacerbate SARS pathogenesis by modulating intrinsic functions of monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells.
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which is caused by a novel coronavirus (CoV), is a highly communicable disease with the lungs as the major pathological target. Although SARS likely stems from overexuberant host inflammatory responses, the exact mechanism leading to the detrimental outcome in patients remains unknown. Pulmonary macrophages (Mphi), airway epithelium, and dendritic cells (DC) are key cellular elements of the host innate defenses against respiratory infections. While pulmonary Mphi are situated at the luminal epithelial surface, DC reside abundantly underneath the epithelium. Such strategic locations of these cells within the airways make it relevant to investigate their likely impact on SARS pathogenesis subsequent to their interaction with infected lung epithelial cells. To study this, we established highly polarized human lung epithelial Calu-3 cells by using the Transwell culture system. Here we report that supernatants harvested from the apical and basolateral domains of infected Calu-3 cells are potent in modulating the intrinsic functions of Mphi and DC, respectively. They prompted the production of cytokines by both Mphi and DC and selectively induced CD40 and CD86 expression only on DC. However, they compromised the abilities of the DC and Mphi in priming naïve T cells and phagocytosis, respectively. We also identified interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-8 as key SARS-CoV-induced epithelial cytokines capable of inhibiting the T-cell-priming ability of DC. Taken together, our results provide insights into the molecular and cellular bases of the host antiviral innate immunity within the lungs that eventually lead to an exacerbated inflammatory cascades and severe tissue damage in SARS patients.

title: COVID-19 and lung cancer: risks, mechanisms and treatment interactions
abstract: Cases of the 2019 novel coronavirus also known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continue to rise worldwide. To date, there is no effective treatment. Clinical management is largely symptomatic, with organ support in intensive care for critically ill patients. The first phase I trial to test the efficacy of a vaccine has recently begun, but in the meantime there is an urgent need to decrease the morbidity and mortality of severe cases. It is known that patients with cancer are more susceptible to infection than individuals without cancer because of their systemic immunosuppressive state caused by the malignancy and anticancer treatments. Therefore, these patients might be at increased risk of pulmonary complications from COVID-19. The SARS-CoV-2 could in some case induce excessive and aberrant non-effective host immune responses that are associated with potentially fatal severe lung injury and patients can develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Cytokine release syndrome and viral ARDS result from uncontrolled severe acute inflammation. Acute lung injury results from inflammatory monocyte and macrophage activation in the pulmonary luminal epithelium which lead to a release of proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor-&#945;. These cytokines play a crucial role in immune-related pneumonitis, and could represent a promising target when the infiltration is T cell predominant or there are indirect signs of high IL-6-related inflammation, such as elevated C-reactive protein. A monoclonal anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, tocilizumab has been administered in a number of cases in China and Italy. Positive clinical and radiological outcomes have been reported. These early findings have led to an ongoing randomized controlled clinical trial in China and Italy. While data from those trials are eagerly awaited, patients' management will continue to rely for the vast majority on local guidelines. Among many other aspects, this crisis has proven that different specialists must join forces to deliver the best possible care to patients.

title: COVID‐19‐associated immune thrombocytopenia
abstract: Thrombocytopenia is a risk factor for increased morbidity and mortality in patients with the new severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus, SARS‐CoV‐2 infection (COVID‐19 infection).(1) Thrombocytopenia in COVID‐19 patients may be caused by disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), sepsis or drug‐induced. Recently a single case report suggested immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) may be associated with COVID‐19 infection.(2) ITP is a rare autoimmune disease characterized by a platelet count < 100x10(9)/L, leading to an increased bleeding risk.(3) Several risk factors have been described for ITP including environmental (e.g. infection, malignancy and drugs) and genetic predisposition.(4) We report here the first case series of three patients with ITP associated with COVID‐19 infection.

title: COVID-19 and Asthma: Reflection During the Pandemic.
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), and abnormal, overactivated innate immunity and "cytokine storms" have been proposed as potential pathological mechanisms for rapid COVID-19 progression. Theoretically, asthmatic patients should have increased susceptibility and severity for SARS-CoV-2 infection due to a deficient antiviral immune response and the tendency for exacerbation elicited by common respiratory viruses. However, existing studies have not shown an expected prevalence of asthmatic individuals among COVID-19 patients. Certain aspects of type 2 immune response, including type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-13, etc.) and accumulation of eosinophils, might provide potential protective effects against COVID-19. Furthermore, conventional therapeutics for asthma, including inhaled corticosteroids, allergen immunotherapy (AIT), and anti-IgE monoclonal antibody, might also reduce the risks of asthmatics suffering infection of the virus through alleviating inflammation or enhancing antiviral defense. The interactions between COVID-19 and asthma deserve further attention and clarification.

title: COVID-19 and immunomodulation treatment for women with reproductive failures
abstract: COVID-19 pandemic is affecting various areas of health care, including human reproduction. Many women with reproductive failures, during the peri-implantation period and pregnancy, are on the immunotherapy using immune modulators and immunosuppressant due to underlying autoimmune diseases, cellular immune dysfunction, and rheumatic conditions. Many questions have been raised for women with immunotherapy during the COVID-19 pandemic, including infection susceptibility, how to manage women with an increased risk of and active COVID-19 infection. SARS-CoV-2 is a novel virus, and not enough information exists. Yet, we aim to review the data from previous coronavirus outbreaks and current COVID-19 and provide interim guidelines for immunotherapy in women with reproductive failures.

title: COVID-19 patients with hypertension have more severe disease: a multicenter retrospective observational study
abstract: This study aims to explore the effect of hypertension on disease progression and prognosis in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). A total of 310 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 were studied. A comparison was made between two groups of patients, those with hypertension and those without hypertension. Their demographic data, clinical manifestations, laboratory indicators, and treatment methods were collected and analyzed. A total of 310 patients, including 113 patients with hypertension and 197 patients without hypertension, were included in the analysis. Compared with patients without hypertension, patients with hypertension were older, were more likely to have diabetes and cerebrovascular disease, and were more likely to be transferred to the intensive care unit. The neutrophil count and lactate dehydrogenase, fibrinogen, and D-dimer levels in hypertensive patients were significantly higher than those in nonhypertensive patients (P < 0.05). However, multivariate analysis (adjusted for age and sex) failed to show that hypertension was an independent risk factor for COVID-19 mortality or severity. COVID-19 patients with hypertension were more likely than patients without hypertension to have severe pneumonia, excessive inflammatory reactions, organ and tissue damage, and deterioration of the disease. Patients with hypertension should be given additional attention to prevent worsening of their condition.

title: Targeting lymphocyte Kv1.3-channels to suppress cytokine storm in severe COVID-19: Can it be a novel therapeutic strategy?
abstract: In the midst of a pandemic, finding effective treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the urgent issue. In "chronic inflammatory diseases", the overexpression of delayed rectifier K+-channels (Kv1.3) in leukocytes is responsible for the overactivation of cellular immunity and the subsequent cytokine storm. In our previous basic studies, drugs including chloroquine and azithromycin strongly suppressed the channel activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine production from lymphocytes. These findings suggest a novel pharmacological mechanism by which chloroquine, with or without azithromycin, is effective for severe cases of COVID-19, in which the overactivation of cellular immunity and the subsequent cytokine storm are responsible for the pathogenesis.

title: Inhibition of cytokine signaling by ruxolitinib and implications for COVID-19 treatment
abstract: Approximately 15% of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) experience severe disease, and 5% progress to critical stage that can result in rapid death. No vaccines or antiviral treatments have yet proven effective against COVID-19. Patients with severe COVID-19 experience elevated plasma levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can result in cytokine storm, followed by massive immune cell infiltration into the lungs leading to alveolar damage, decreased lung function, and rapid progression to death. As many of the elevated cytokines signal through Janus kinase (JAK)1/JAK2, inhibition of these pathways with ruxolitinib has the potential to mitigate the COVID-19–associated cytokine storm and reduce mortality. This is supported by preclinical and clinical data from other diseases with hyperinflammatory states, where ruxolitinib has been shown to reduce cytokine levels and improve outcomes. The urgent need for treatments for patients with severe disease support expedited investigation of ruxolitinib for patients with COVID-19.

title: Vitamin D: A simpler alternative to tocilizumab for trial in COVID-19?
abstract: There is anecdotal evidence that tocilizumab, an immunosuppressant drug, may be a potential therapeutic option for patients with severe manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Like tocilizumab, Vitamin D appears to modulate the activity of an interleukin (IL-6), which may explain the seasonal variation in prevalence of influenza. While most cases of COVID-19 have, thus far, occurred in the Northern Hemisphere winter, limiting the ability to assess seasonal variation, there remains substantial variation in the severity of this condition that has yet to be explained. A retrospective comparison of Vitamin D levels in previously obtained blood samples between survivors and confirmed fatalities could establish a rationale for implementation of widespread Vitamin D supplementation. This would be far cheaper and simpler than tocilizumab as a therapeutic option to trial.

title: Ability of the immune system to fight viruses highlighted by cytometry and TCR clonotype assessments: lessons taken prior to COVID-19 virus pandemic outbreak.
abstract: The intriguing aspects of SARS-CoV-2 virus are the high rate of spread and rapid progression of pneumonitis. Confronted with thousands of deaths daily worldwide, we have to build quickly the rationale behind the treatment, taking advantage from past analogues. When a new virus strikes, T-cell receptor (TCR) gamma/delta cells are in the first line of defence, activated by stress molecules and recognising some epitopes in a process that is major histocompatibility complex (MHC) independent but still specific, e.g. cytomegalovirus (CMV), as well as participating in the regulatory mechanism - both characteristics are useful in fighting SARS-CoV-2. The fatalities are mostly due to pneumonitis, in the course of which an overwhelming inflammatory process impairs blood oxygenation, calling for artificial ventilation. In fatal COVID-19 cases the balance between the immune response and the inflammatory outcome fails, due to which the patients at risk, mostly aged, have higher levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and an enhanced inflammatory process in the lung. Apparently there is no feedback control over the antibody production. The investigational use of convalescent plasma, providing antibodies taken from patients who have recovered, was shown to be effective, likely through exerting idiotype associated negative control of antibody production. Similarly, the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) may assist the body regulatory mechanisms, knowing the anti-inflammatory potential of these cells. The use of these two immunotherapeutic tools is understandable on the grounds of basic immunology, whose knowledge may direct the medical community in efforts to fight the virus.

title: Vitamin D and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
abstract: Vitamin D is an important regulator of calcium and bone homeostasis. It is also involved in the regulation of different genes and cellular functions, particularly in the context of inflammation, regeneration and immune control. Conversely, vitamin D deficiency which is often found in chronic, infectious and inflammatory diseases is thought to drive or enhance uncontrolled inflammation. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by chronic inflammation of the airways most often because of cigarette smoking. It has been recognized that repetitive airway infections and systemic consequences or co-morbidities also contribute to the progressive nature of COPD. Vitamin D deficiency is known to sneak in from the early stages of COPD, to become highly prevalent at the more severe stages, and may thereby catalyse airway infection, inflammation and systemic consequences. Undoubtedly, vitamin D deficiency enhances bone resorption and osteoporosis in COPD for which appropriate vitamin D supplementation is recommended. However, conflicting evidence has emerged on the extra-calcemic effects of vitamin D in COPD. A recent intervention trial with high-dose supplementation in COPD was only able to reduce exacerbation frequency in the subgroup of patients with lowest baseline vitamin D levels. It confirms that severe vitamin D deficiency is a health hazard but that more clinical and experimental studies are needed to explore how vitamin D deficiency may affect airway biology and systemic effects in the context of smoke-induced lung diseases.

title: Advances in disease diagnosis, vaccine development and other emerging methods to control pathogens in aquaculture
abstract: Disease is still regarded as a major constraint to aquaculture production globally. Rapid disease diagnosis and vaccination play a huge part in the control of bacterial diseases, and there has been significant progress in both of these areas. This chapter considers the limitations of existing methods and reviews recent advances made in pathogen detection technologies and vaccine development methodologies. Future directions are discussed, including nanotechnology and reversed vaccinology.

title: Epigenetic dysregulation of ACE2 and interferon-regulated genes might suggest increased COVID-19 susceptibility and severity in lupus patients
abstract: Infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 can result in severe respiratory complications and death. Patients with a compromised immune system are expected to be more susceptible to a severe disease course. In this report we suggest that patients with systemic lupus erythematous might be especially prone to severe COVID-19 independent of their immunosuppressed state from lupus treatment. Specifically, we provide evidence in lupus to suggest hypomethylation and overexpression of ACE2, which is located on the X chromosome and encodes a functional receptor for the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein. Oxidative stress induced by viral infections exacerbates the DNA methylation defect in lupus, possibly resulting in further ACE2 hypomethylation and enhanced viremia. In addition, demethylation of interferon-regulated genes, NF&#954;B, and key cytokine genes in lupus patients might exacerbate the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and increase the likelihood of cytokine storm. These arguments suggest that inherent epigenetic dysregulation in lupus might facilitate viral entry, viremia, and an excessive immune response to SARS-CoV-2. Further, maintaining disease remission in lupus patients is critical to prevent a vicious cycle of demethylation and increased oxidative stress, which will exacerbate susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection during the current pandemic. Epigenetic control of the ACE2 gene might be a target for prevention and therapy in COVID-19.

title: A review of pathophysiology and neuropsychiatric manifestations of COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become one of the most serious pandemics of the recent times. Since this pandemic began, there have been numerous reports about the COVID-19 involvement of the nervous system. There have been reports of both direct and indirect involvement of the central and peripheral nervous system by the virus.  To review the neuropsychiatric manifestations along with corresponding pathophysiologic mechanisms of nervous system involvement by the COVID-19.  Since the beginning of the disease in humans in the later part of 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has rapidly spread across the world with over 2,719,000 reported cases in over 200 countries [World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) situation report-96.,]. While patients typically present with fever, shortness of breath, sore throat, and cough, neurologic manifestations have been reported, as well. These include the ones with both direct and indirect involvement of the nervous system. The reported manifestations include anosmia, ageusia, central respiratory failure, stroke, acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP), acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalopathy, toxic–metabolic encephalopathy, headache, myalgia, myelitis, ataxia, and various neuropsychiatric manifestations. These data were derived from the published clinical data in various journals and case reports.  The neurological manifestations of the COVID-19 are varied and the data about this continue to evolve as the pandemic continues to progress.

title: The cGAS-STING Defense Pathway and Its Counteraction by Viruses
abstract: Upon viral infection, host cells mount a concerted innate immune response involving type I interferon and pro-inflammatory cytokines to enable elimination of the pathogen. Recently cGAS and STING have been identified as intracellular sensors that activate the interferon pathway in response to virus infection and thus mediate host defense against a range of DNA and RNA viruses. Here we review how viruses are sensed by the cGAS-STING signaling pathway as well as how viruses modulate this pathway. Mechanisms utilized by viral proteins to inhibit cGAS and/or STING are also discussed. On the flip side, host cells have also evolved strategies to thwart viral immune escape. The balance between host immune control and viral immune evasion is pivotal to viral pathogenesis and we discuss this virus-host stand-off in the context of the cGAS-STING innate immune pathway.

title: Enhancing Students’ Understanding of the Nature of Science and the Interconnection Between Science, Technology and Society Through Innovative Teaching and Learning Activities
abstract: Understanding the nature of science (NOS) and the interconnection between science, technology and society (STS) has been a prominent objective of science curricula worldwide (e.g. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993; Council of Ministers of Education, 1997; Millar & Osborne, 1998). Research confirms the contention that sound knowledge of the NOS and STS will enhance students’ learning of science content, interest in science, and ability to make informed decisions based on evidence (Driver, Leach, Miller, & Scott, 1996; McComas, Clough, & Almazroa, 1998; Aikenhead, 1994).

title: Type I astrocytes and microglia induce a cytokine response in an encephalitic murine coronavirus infection
abstract: The pathogenesis of viral infections involves an immune response by cytokines, causing a deleterious effect on organ function, in addition to tissue destruction due to viral replication. Clinical symptoms and laboratory findings of the human coronavirus disease COVID-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS CoV-2, indicate cytokine involvement. Our laboratory showed that an experimental murine coronavirus (MHV-A59) can be transmitted into the brain by intranasal or intracerebral exposure and that neurovirulence is mediated by cytokine secretion. In this study we investigated which cells in the brain produce cytokines, thus functioning as the brain's innate immune system. Using tissue cultures of microglia, and clonal populations of astrocytes, we found that microglia and type I astrocytes (but not types II and III), produced pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to MHV-A59 infection. A molecularly closely related, non-encephalitic strain of the virus (MHV-2) caused in vitro infection, but without cytokine induction. Furthermore, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry revealed that type I astrocytes and microglia have perivascular foot processes necessary for the formation of the perivascular glymphatic system, the anatomical site of the brain's innate immune system. Cytokine secretion by type I astrocytes and microglia, as part of the brain's glymphatic and innate immune system, contributes to the pathogenesis of an encephalitic coronavirus infection, and indicates the rationale for anti-cytokine therapies for COVID-19.

title: The Cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system
abstract: In 2019-2020 a new coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2 was identified as the causative agent of a several acute respiratory infection named COVID-19, which is causing a worldwide pandemic. There are still many unresolved questions regarding the pathogenesis of this disease and especially the reasons underlying the extremely different clinical course, ranging from asymptomatic forms to severe manifestations, including the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS). SARS-CoV-2 showed phylogenetic similarities to both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses, and some of the clinical features are shared between COVID-19 and previously identified beta-coronavirus infections. Available evidence indicate that the so called “cytokine storm” an uncontrolled over-production of soluble markers of inflammation which, in turn, sustain an aberrant systemic inflammatory response, is a major responsible for the occurrence of ARDS. Chemokines are low molecular weight proteins with powerful chemoattractant activity which play a role in the immune cell recruitment during inflammation. This review will be aimed at providing an overview of the current knowledge on the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system in the cytokine storm related to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Basic and clinical evidences obtained from previous SARS and MERS epidemics and available data from COVID-19 will be taken into account.

title: Distinct infection process of SARS-CoV-2 in human bronchial epithelial cells line
abstract: COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, leads to a series of clinical symptoms of respiratory and pulmonary inflammatory reactions via unknown pathologic mechanisms related to the viral infection process in tracheal or bronchial epithelial cells. Investigation of this viral infection in the human bronchial epithelial cell line (16HBE) suggests that SARS-CoV-2 can enter these cells through interaction between its membrane-localized S protein with the ACE2 molecule on the host cell membrane. Further observation indicates distinct viral replication with a dynamic and moderate increase, whereby viral replication does not lead to a specific cytopathic effect but maintains a continuous release of progeny virions from infected cells. Although mRNA expression of various innate immune signaling molecules is altered in the cells, transcription of IFN&#945;, IFNß and IFNÎ³ is unchanged. Furthermore, expression of some interleukins related to inflammatory reactions, such as IL-6, IL-2 and IL-8, is maintained at low levels, whereas that of interleukins involved in immune regulation is upregulated. Interestingly, IL-22, an interleukin that functions mainly in tissue repair, shows very high expression. Collectively, these data suggest a distinct infection process for this virus in respiratory epithelial cells, which may be linked to its clinicopathological mechanism. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Constructs of COVID-19 Health Beliefs: A Comparison Between Sexual Minority and Heterosexual Individuals in Taiwan
abstract: This online survey study aimed to compare the cognitive, affective, and behavioral constructs of health beliefs related to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) between sexual minority and heterosexual individuals in Taiwan. In total, 533 sexual minority and 1421 heterosexual participants were recruited through a Facebook advertisement. The constructs pertaining to cognition (perceived relative susceptibility to COVID-19, perceived COVID-19 severity, having sufficient knowledge and information on COVID-19, and confidence in coping with COVID-19), affect (worry toward COVID-19), and behavior (adoption of health-protective behaviors) in relation to health beliefs about COVID-19 were compared between sexual minority and heterosexual participants. The results indicated that sexual minority participants had lower perceived susceptibility to COVID-19, greater self-confidence in coping with COVID-19, and lower worry about COVID-19 and were less likely to maintain good indoor ventilation and disinfect their household than heterosexual individuals. Sexual orientation is the modifying factor for the Health Belief Model in the COVID-19 pandemic and should be taken into consideration when medical professionals establish prevention programs for COVID-19.

title: Characteristics of inflammatory factors and lymphocyte subsets in patients with severe COVID‐19
abstract: To investigate the inflammatory factors and lymphocyte subsets which play an important role in the course of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). A total of 27 patients with severe COVID‐19 who were admitted to Tongji Hospital in Wuhan from 1 to 21 February 2020 were recruited to the study. The characteristics of interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β), IL‐2 receptor (IL‐2R), IL‐6, IL‐8, IL‐10, tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF)‐α, C‐reactive protein (CRP), serum ferritin and procalcitonin (PCT), and lymphocyte subsets of these patients were retrospectively compared before and after treatment. Before treatment, there was no significant difference in most inflammatory factors (IL‐1β, IL‐2R, IL‐6, IL‐8, IL‐10, CRP, and serum ferritin) between male and female patients. Levels of IL‐2R, IL‐6, TNF‐α, and CRP decreased significantly after treatment, followed by IL‐8, IL‐10, and PCT. Serum ferritin was increased in all patients before treatment but did not decrease significantly after treatment. IL‐1β was normal in most patients before treatment. Lymphopenia was common among these patients with severe COVID‐19. Analysis of lymphocyte subsets showed that CD4+ and particularly CD8+ T lymphocytes increased significantly after treatment. However, B lymphocytes and natural killer cells showed no significant changes after treatment. A pro‐inflammatory response and decreased level of T lymphocytes were associated with severe COVID‐19.

title: The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway alleviates acute lung injury
abstract: The ubiquiotous nuclear protein HMGB1 is extracellularly released by dying cells or activated innate immunity cells to promote inflammation. Extracellular HMGB1 plays a prominent role in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury of infectious as well as sterile origin including hyperoxia. Excessive amounts of systemic HMGB1 and HMGB1-partner molecule complexes can be retained in the pulmonary circulation indicated by a substantial reduction of HMGB1 plasma levels in arterial versus venous blood. The cholinergic antiinflammatory mechanism ameliorates pulmonary inflammation by inhibiting HMGB1 release and HMGB1 receptor expression. This comprehension was recently reinforced by results reported in Molecular Medicine by Sitapara and coworkers demonstrating that administration of an α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist attenuated hyperoxia-induced acute inflammatory lung injury by alleviating the accumulation of HMGB1 in the airways and the circulation. Activating the cholinergic antiinflammatory path might be considered to alleviate severe COVID-19 with or without concurrent oxygen-induced lung injury.

title: 17β-Estradiol, a potential ally to alleviate SARS-CoV-2 infection
abstract: Considering that female sexual hormones may modulate the inflammatory response and also exhibit direct effects on the cells of the immune system, herein, we intend to discuss the sex differences and the role of estradiol in modulating the lung and systemic inflammatory response, focusing on its possible application as a treatment modality for SARS-CoV-2 patients. COVID-19 patients develop severe hypoxemia early in the course of the disease, which is silent most of the time. Small fibrinous thrombi in pulmonary arterioles and a tumefaction of endothelial were observed in the autopsies of fatal COVID-19 cases. Studies showed that the viral infection induces a vascular process in the lung, which included vasodilation and endothelial dysfunction. Further, the proportions of CD4+ T and CD8+ T lymphocytes were strongly reduced in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 infection. Estradiol is connected with CD4+ T cell numbers and increases T-reg cell populations, affecting immune responses to infection. It is known that estradiol exerts a protective effect on endothelial function, activating the generation of nitric oxide (NO) via endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Estrogen attenuates the vasoconstrictor response to various stimuli and induces vasodilation in the pulmonary vasculature during stress situations like hypoxia. It exerts a variety of rapid actions, which are initiated after its coupling with membrane receptors, which in turn, may positively modulate vascular responses in pulmonary disease and help to maintain microvascular flow. Direct and indirect mechanisms underlying the effects of estradiol were investigated, and the results point to a possible protective effect of estradiol against COVID-19, indicating that it may be considered as an adjuvant therapeutic element for the treatment of patients affected by the novel coronavirus.

title: Immune Status of COVID-19 Patients with Reference to SARS and MERS
abstract: During this global pandemic of COVID-19 infection, it became well known that morbidity and mortality is especially high at the extreme of life especially in certain racial or ethnic groups like Americans and Africans This is presumed due to low immunity associated with other comorbid conditions like diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, obesity and metabolic syndrome But the information available on the immune status of COVID-19 patients is limited Attempts must be made to enhance our understanding of the immune status of COVID-19 patients by revisiting our knowledge on the immune mechanisms of already known coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV Early elevation of the serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines observed in SARS and MERS infection suggests a possible same type of cytokine storm-mediated lung damage in COVID-19 patients too Dysregulation of interferon-1 response and downstream cascade in initial innate immune response at virus entry point has been related to lethal pneumonia in COVID-19 patients Adaptive response of increased CD8+ levels in COVID-19 patients seems to be useful in mild cases where it causes deteriorating effects in progressed severe disease patients resulting in destruction of type 2 pneumocytes hence inability to regenerate the alveolar epithelium A phenomenon called cytokine storm activates violent immunological reactions in the lung tissue resulting in ARDS followed by multiple organ system damages in COVID-19 patients Several immune evading mechanisms are thought to be employed by severe respiratory syndrome virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) that might have resulted in its extremely increased contagiousness probably related with its frequent RNA mutations Failure to develop adequate virus limiting immune reactions by some cured patients warrant monitoring of all recovered patients This rapid mini review is aimed to enhance our knowledge of the immune status of COVID-19 infected patients with reference to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV

title: Targeting the Heme-Heme Oxygenase System to Prevent Severe Complications Following COVID-19 Infections
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is causing a pandemic resulting in high morbidity and mortality. COVID-19 patients suffering from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are often critically ill and show lung injury and hemolysis. Heme is a prosthetic moiety crucial for the function of a wide variety of heme-proteins, including hemoglobin and cytochromes. However, injury-derived free heme promotes adhesion molecule expression, leukocyte recruitment, vascular permeabilization, platelet activation, complement activation, thrombosis, and fibrosis. Heme can be degraded by the anti-inflammatory enzyme heme oxygenase (HO) generating biliverdin/bilirubin, iron/ferritin, and carbon monoxide. We therefore postulate that free heme contributes to many of the inflammatory phenomena witnessed in critically ill COVID-19 patients, whilst induction of HO-1 or harnessing heme may provide protection. HO-activity not only degrades injurious heme, but its effector molecules possess also potent salutary anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Until a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 becomes available, we need to explore novel strategies to attenuate the pro-inflammatory, pro-thrombotic, and pro-fibrotic consequences of SARS-CoV-2 leading to morbidity and mortality. The heme-HO system represents an interesting target for novel “proof of concept” studies in the context of COVID-19.

title: Pharmacological Agents Targeting Thromboinflammation in COVID-19: Review and Implications for Future Research
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), currently a worldwide pandemic, is a viral illness caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The suspected contribution of thrombotic events to morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 patients has prompted a search for novel potential options for preventing COVID-19-associated thrombotic disease. In this article by the Global COVID-19 Thrombosis Collaborative Group, we describe novel dosing approaches for commonly used antithrombotic agents (especially heparin-based regimens) and the potential use of less widely used antithrombotic drugs in the absence of confirmed thrombosis. Although these therapies may have direct antithrombotic effects, other mechanisms of action, including anti-inflammatory or antiviral effects, have been postulated. Based on survey results from this group of authors, we suggest research priorities for specific agents and subgroups of patients with COVID-19. Further, we review other agents, including immunomodulators, that may have antithrombotic properties. It is our hope that the present document will encourage and stimulate future prospective studies and randomized trials to study the safety, efficacy, and optimal use of these agents for prevention or management of thrombosis in COVID-19.

title: Corticosteroid treatment of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19)
abstract: To assess the efficacy of corticosteroid treatment of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19).  Observational study in the two COVID‐19‐designated hospitals in Wuhu, Anhui province, China, 24 January – 24 February 2020.  Thirty‐one patients infected with the severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) treated at the two designated hospitals.  Virus clearance time, length of hospital stay, and duration of symptoms, by treatment type (including or not including corticosteroid therapy).  Eleven of 31 patients with COVID‐19 received corticosteroid treatment. Cox proportional hazards regression analysis indicated no association between corticosteroid treatment and virus clearance time (hazard ratio [HR], 1.26; 95% CI, 0.58–2.74), hospital length of stay (HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.33–1.78), or duration of symptoms (HR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.40–1.83). Univariate analysis indicated that virus clearance was slower in two patients with chronic hepatitis B infections (mean difference, 10.6 days; 95% CI, 6.2–15.1 days).  Corticosteroids are widely used when treating patients with COVID‐19, but we found no association between therapy and outcomes in patients without acute respiratory distress syndrome. An existing HBV infection may delay SARS‐CoV‐2 clearance, and this association should be further investigated.

title: Anti-inflammatory effect of Houttuynia cordata injection
abstract: Houttuynia cordata (Saururaceae) injection (HCI) is a traditional Chinese medicine used in China. It was chosen as one of eight types of traditional Chinese medicine that play a unique role in severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) owing to the effect of curbing inflammation. In order to validate this plausible anti-inflammatory property, the chemical composition of HCI has been analysed by GC/MS, 22 components were identified, and the inflammation induced by carrageenan in the rat pleurisy model and by xylene in the mice ear edema model was adopted to study the anti-inflammatory activity of HCI. Injection of carrageenan into the pleural cavity elicited an acute inflammatory response characterized by protein rich fluid accumulation and leukocyte infiltration in the pleural cavity. The peak inflammatory response was obtained at 24h when the fluid volume, protein concentration, C-reactive protein and cell infiltration were maximums. The results showed that these parameters were attenuated by HCI at any dose and touched bottom at dose of 0.54ml/100g, although less strong than dexamethasone. This drug was also effective in inhibiting xylene induced ear edema, and the percentage of inhibition came to 50% at dose of 80μl/20g. The results clearly indicate that HCI have anti-inflammatory activity.

title: Understanding SARS-CoV-2-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children
abstract: A new multisystem inflammatory syndrome apparently related to infection with SARS-CoV-2 has recently been reported in older children (known as MIS-C), manifested by severe abdominal pain, cardiac dysfunction and shock. Here, I discuss the similarities and differences between MIS-C and Kawasaki disease, focusing on their epidemiology, aetiology and pathophysiological mechanisms.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 in older adults: what we may expect regarding pathogenesis, immune responses, and outcomes
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 virus, the causative agent of the coronavirus infectious disease-19 (COVID-19), is taking the globe by storm, approaching 500,000 confirmed cases and over 21,000 deaths as of March 25, 2020. While under control in some affected Asian countries (Taiwan, Singapore, Vietnam), the virus demonstrated an exponential phase of infectivity in several large countries (China in late January and February and many European countries and the USA in March), with cases exploding by 30–50,000/day in the third and fourth weeks of March, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 has proven to be particularly deadly to older adults and those with certain underlying medical conditions, many of whom are of advanced age. Here, we briefly review the virus, its structure and evolution, epidemiology and pathogenesis, immunogenicity and immune, and clinical response in older adults, using available knowledge on SARS-CoV-2 and its highly pathogenic relatives MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-1. We conclude by discussing clinical and basic science approaches to protect older adults against this disease.

title: Hepatic consequences of COVID-19 infection. Lapping or biting?
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) starting last December in China placed emphasis on liver involvement during infection. This review discusses the underlying mechanisms linking COVID-19 to liver dysfunction, according to recent available information, while waiting further studies. The manifestations of liver damage are usually mild (moderately elevated serum aspartate aminotransferase activities), and generally asymptomatic. Few patients can still develop severe liver problems, and therapeutic options can be limited. Liver dysfunction may affect about one-third of the patients, with prevalence greater in men than women, and in elderly. Mechanisms of damage are complex and include direct cholangiocyte damage and other coexisting conditions such as the use of antiviral drugs, systemic inflammatory response, respiratory distress syndrome-induced hypoxia, sepsis, and multiple organ dysfunction. During new COVID-19 infections, liver injury may be observed. If liver involvement appears during COVID-19 infection, however, attention is required. This is particularly true if patients are older or have a pre-existing history of liver diseases. During COVID-19 infection, the onset of liver damage impairs the prognosis, and hospital stay is longer.

title: Effect of favipiravir and an anti-inflammatory strategy for COVID-19

title: Neuropilin-1 modulates interferon-γ-stimulated signaling in brain microvascular endothelial cells.
abstract: Inflammatory response of blood-brain barrier (BBB) endothelial cells plays an important role in pathogenesis of many central nervous system inflammatory diseases, including multiple sclerosis; however, the molecular mechanism mediating BBB endothelial cell inflammatory response remains unclear. In this study, we first observed that knockdown of neuropilin-1 (NRP1), a co-receptor of several structurally diverse ligands, suppressed interferon-γ (IFNγ)-induced C-X-C motif chemokine 10 expression and activation of STAT1 in brain microvascular endothelial cells in a Rac1-dependent manner. Moreover, endothelial-specific NRP1-knockout mice, VECadherin-Cre-ERT2/NRP1flox/flox mice, showed attenuated disease progression during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a mouse neuroinflammatory disease model. Detailed analysis utilizing histological staining, quantitative PCR, flow cytometry and magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated that deletion of endothelial NRP1 suppressed neuron demyelination, altered lymphocyte infiltration, preserved BBB function and decreased activation of the STAT1-CXCL10 pathway. Furthermore, increased expression of NRP1 was observed in endothelial cells of acute multiple sclerosis lesions. Our data identify a new molecular mechanism of brain microvascular endothelial inflammatory response through NRP1-IFNγ crosstalk that could be a potential target for intervention of endothelial cell dysfunction in neuroinflammatory diseases.

title: The inflammatory response in transgastric surgery: gastric content leak leads to localized inflammatory response and higher adhesive disease.
abstract: Risk of gastric spillage during transgastric surgery is a potential complication of NOTES procedures. The aim of this study was to determine risk outcomes from gastric spillage in a rat survival model by measuring local and systemic inflammatory markers, adhesive disease, and morbidity.  We performed a minilaparotomy with needle aspiration of 2 ml of gastric contents mixed with 2 ml of sterile saline (study group, SG) or 4 ml of sterile saline (control group, CG) injected into the peritoneal cavity of 60 male rats. Inflammatory markers (TNFalpha, IL-6, and IL-10) were analyzed at 1, 3, 6, and 24 h postoperatively by obtaining plasma levels and peritoneal washings. At necropsy, the peritoneal cavity was examined grossly for adhesions.  Adhesions were seen more frequently in the SG versus the CG (100% vs. 33.3%, p < 0.014). There was a significant difference in the peritoneal TNFalpha levels in the SG compared with the CG, which peaked 1 h after surgery (p < 0.02). Both peritoneal IL-6 and IL-10 levels were higher in the SG versus the CG, which peaked 3 h after surgery (p < 0.005 and p < 0.001, respectively). All peritoneal inflammatory markers returned to undetectable levels at 24 h for both groups. Plasma cytokines were undetectable at all time intervals.  The inflammatory response was found to be a localized and not systemic event, with plasma cytokine levels remaining normal while peritoneal washings revealed a brisk, short-lived localized inflammatory response. There was a significantly higher rate of adhesive disease in the SG compared with the CG; this, however did not translate into a difference in apparent clinical outcome. We conclude that gastric leakage in this NOTES rodent model induces a localized inflammatory response, followed by mild to moderate adhesive disease. This may be important in human NOTES.

title: Emerging Trends in COVID-19 Treatment: Learning from Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Cellular Therapies
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (SARS-CoV2) is an active global health threat for which treatments are desperately being sought. Even though most people infected experience mild to moderate respiratory symptoms and recover with supportive care, certain vulnerable hosts develop severe clinical deterioration. While several drugs are currently being investigated in clinical trials, there are currently no approved treatments or vaccines for COVID-19 and hence there is an unmet need to explore additional therapeutic options. At least three inflammatory disorders or syndromes associated with immune dysfunction have been described in the context of cellular therapy. Specifically, Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS), Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS), and Secondary Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH) all have clinical and laboratory characteristics in common with COVID19 and associated therapies that could be worth testing in the context of clinical trials. Here we discuss these diseases, their management, and potential applications of these treatment in the context of COVID-19. We also discuss current cellular therapies that are being evaluated for the treatment of COVID-19 and/or its associated symptoms.

title: Charts and Tables

title: Complement, a target for therapy in inflammatory and degenerative diseases
abstract: The complement system is a key innate immune defence against infection and an important driver of inflammation; however, these very properties can also cause harm. Inappropriate or uncontrolled activation of complement can cause local and/or systemic inflammation, tissue damage and disease. Complement provides numerous options for drug development as it is a proteolytic cascade that involves nine specific proteases, unique multimolecular activation and lytic complexes, an arsenal of natural inhibitors, and numerous receptors that bind to activation fragments. Drug design is facilitated by the increasingly detailed structural understanding of the molecules involved in the complement system. Only two anti-complement drugs are currently on the market, but many more are being developed for diseases that include infectious, inflammatory, degenerative, traumatic and neoplastic disorders. In this Review, we describe the history, current landscape and future directions for anti-complement therapies.  The online version of this article (doi:10.1038/nrd4657) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

title: COVID-19 Datasets: A Survey and Future Challenges
abstract: In December 2019, a novel virus named as COVID-19 emerged in the city of Wuhan, China. In early 2020, the COVID-19 virus spread in all continents of the world except Antarctica causing widespread infections and deaths due to its contagious characteristics and no medically proven treatment. The COVID-19 pandemic has been termed as most consequential global crisis after the World Wars. The first line of defense against the COVID-19 spread are the non-pharmaceutical measures like social distancing and personal hygiene. On the other hand, the medical service providers are the first responders for infected persons with severe symptoms of COVID-19. The great pandemic affecting billions of lives economically and socially has motivated the scientific community to come up with solutions based on computer-aided digital technologies for diagnosis, prevention, and estimation of COVID-19. Some of these efforts focus on statistical and Artificial Intelligence-based analysis of the available data concerning COVID-19. All of these scientific efforts necessitate that the data brought to service for the analysis should be open-source to promote the extension, validation, and collaboration of the work in the fight against the global pandemic. Our survey is motivated by the open-source efforts that can be mainly categorized as: (a) COVID-19 diagnosis from CT scans and X-ray images, (b) COVID-19 case reporting, transmission estimation, and prognosis from epidemiological, demographic, and mobility data, (c) COVID-19 emotional and sentiment analysis from social media, and (d) knowledge-based discovery and semantic analysis from the collection of scholarly articles covering COVID-19. We review and critically analyze works in these directions that are accompanied by open-source data and code. We hope that the article will provide the scientific community with an initiative to start open-source extensible and transparent research in the collective fight against COVID-19.

title: Inappropriate Antibiotic Consumption as a Possible Cause of Inflammatory Storm and Septic Shock in Patients Diagnosed with Coronavirus-19 Disease (COVID-19)
abstract: The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection which has been known as Coronavirus diseases 2019 (COVID-19) has become an endemic emergent situation by the World Health Organization. So far, no successful specific treatment has been found for this disease. As has been reported, most of non-survivor patients with COVID-19 (70%) had septic shock which was significantly higher than survived ones. Although the exact pathophysiology of septic shock in these patients is still unclear, it seems to be possible that part of it would be due to the administration of empiric antibiotics with inflammatory properties especially in the absence of bacterial infection. Herein, we have reviewed possible molecular pathways of septic shock in the patients who have received antibiotics with inflammatory properties which mainly is release of interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF- α) through different routes. Altogether, we highly recommend clinicians to look after those antibiotics with anti-inflammatory activity for both empiric antibiotic therapy and reducing the inflammation to prevent septic shock in patients with diagnosed COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 and lung cancer: risks, mechanisms and treatment interactions
abstract: Cases of the 2019 novel coronavirus also known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continue to rise worldwide. To date, there is no effective treatment. Clinical management is largely symptomatic, with organ support in intensive care for critically ill patients. The first phase I trial to test the efficacy of a vaccine has recently begun, but in the meantime there is an urgent need to decrease the morbidity and mortality of severe cases. It is known that patients with cancer are more susceptible to infection than individuals without cancer because of their systemic immunosuppressive state caused by the malignancy and anticancer treatments. Therefore, these patients might be at increased risk of pulmonary complications from COVID-19. The SARS-CoV-2 could in some case induce excessive and aberrant non-effective host immune responses that are associated with potentially fatal severe lung injury and patients can develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Cytokine release syndrome and viral ARDS result from uncontrolled severe acute inflammation. Acute lung injury results from inflammatory monocyte and macrophage activation in the pulmonary luminal epithelium which lead to a release of proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α. These cytokines play a crucial role in immune-related pneumonitis, and could represent a promising target when the infiltration is T cell predominant or there are indirect signs of high IL-6-related inflammation, such as elevated C-reactive protein. A monoclonal anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, tocilizumab has been administered in a number of cases in China and Italy. Positive clinical and radiological outcomes have been reported. These early findings have led to an ongoing randomized controlled clinical trial in China and Italy. While data from those trials are eagerly awaited, patients’ management will continue to rely for the vast majority on local guidelines. Among many other aspects, this crisis has proven that different specialists must join forces to deliver the best possible care to patients.

title: Prostaglandin D2 signaling in dendritic cells is critical for the development of EAE
abstract: Priming of autoreactive T cells in lymph nodes by dendritic cells (DCs) is critical for the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE). DC activation reflects a balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory signals. One anti-inflammatory factor is prostaglandin D2 signaling through its cognate receptor, D-prostanoid receptor 1 (PTGDR), on myeloid cells. Loss of PTGDR signaling might be expected to enhance DC activation and EAE but here we show that PTGDR(−/)(−) mice developed only mild signs of MOG(35-55) peptide immunization-induced EAE. Compared to wild type mice, PTGDR(−/)(−) mice exhibited less demyelination, decreased leukocyte infiltration and diminished microglia activation. These effects resulted from increased pro-inflammatory responses in the lymph nodes, most notably in IL-1β production, with the unexpected consequence of increased activation-induced apoptosis of MOG(35-55) peptide-specific T cells. Conditional deletion of PTGDR on DCs, and not other myeloid cells ameliorated EAE. Together, these results demonstrate the indispensable role that PGD(2)/PTGDR signaling on DCs has in development of pathogenic T cells in autoimmune demyelination.

title: The role of infectious agents in the pathogenesis of vasculitis
abstract: Numerous human studies and animal models have implicated various infectious agents in the pathogenesis of vasculitis in susceptible hosts. However, the link between infection and vasculitis is very complex and only incompletely understood. In fact, different agents can induce the same type of vasculitis, as the case of leukocytoclastic vasculitis exemplifies. Conversely, the same agent can give rise to a panoply of host responses ranging from a clinically silent infection or localized organ involvement to devastating, widespread vasculitis.

title: Autoimmune Disease and the Human Metagenome
abstract: The prevailing theory of autoimmune disease, that the body creates autoantibodies that attack “self,” was developed during an era when culture-based methods vastly underestimated the number of microbes capable of persisting in and on Homo sapiens. Thanks to the advent of culture-independent tools, the human body is now known to harbor billions of microbes whose collective genomes work in concert with the human genome. Thus, the human genome can no longer be studied in isolation. Some of these microbes persist by slowing the activity of the vitamin D receptor nuclear receptor, affecting the expression of endogenous antimicrobials and other key components of the innate immune system. It seems that bacteria that cause autoimmune disease accumulate over a lifetime, with individuals picking up pathogens with greater ease over time, as the immune response becomes increasingly compromised. Any one autoimmune disease is likely due to many different microbes within the metagenomic microbiota. This helps explain the high levels of comorbidity observed among patients with autoimmune conditions. What are commonly believed to be autoantibodies may instead be created in response to this metagenomic microbiota when the adaptive immune system is forced to deal with disintegration of infected cells. Similarly, haplotypes associated with autoimmune conditions vary widely among individuals and populations. They are more suggestive of a regional infectious model rather than a model in which an illness is caused by inherited variation of HLA haplotypes

title: SAA is a biomarker to distinguish the severity and prognosis of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
abstract: To explore the significance of SAA in evaluating the severity and prognosis of COVID-19.  A total of 132 patients with confirmed COVID-19 who were admitted to a designated COVID-19 hospital in Wuhan, China from January 18, 2020 to February 26, 2020 were collected. The dynamic changes of blood SAA, CRP, PCT, WBC, Lymphocyte (L), PLT, CT imaging, and disease progression were studied. All patients completed at least twice laboratory data collection and clinical condition assessment at three time points indicated for this study; The length of hospital stay was longer than 14 days prior to February 26, 2020. Results COVID-19 patients had significantly increased SAA and CRP levels, while L count decreased, and PCT, WBC, and PLT were in the normal range. As disease progressed from mild to critically severe, SAA and CRP gradually increased, while L decreased, and PLT, WBC, and PCT had no significant changes; ROC curve analysis suggests that SAA/L, CRP, SAA, and L count are valuable in evaluating the severity of COVID-19 and distinguishing critically ill patients from mild ones; Patients with SAA consistently trending down during the course of disease have better prognosis, compared with the patients with SAA continuously rising; The initial SAA level is positively correlated with the dynamic changes of the serial CT scans. Patient with higher initial SAA level are more likely to have poor CT imaging.  SAA and L are sensitive indicators in evaluating the severity and prognosis of COVID-19. Monitoring dynamic changes of SAA, combined with CT imaging could be valuable in diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19.

title: Immune response to SARS‐CoV‐2 and mechanisms of immunopathological changes in COVID‐19
abstract: As a zoonotic disease that has already spread globally to several million human beings and possibly to domestic and wild animals, eradication of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) appears practically impossible. There is a pressing need to improve our understanding of the immunology of this disease to contain the pandemic by developing vaccines and medicines for the prevention and treatment of patients. In this review, we aim to improve our understanding on the immune response and immunopathological changes in patients linked to detoriating clinical conditions such as, cytokine storm, acute respiratory distress syndrome, autopsy findings and changes in acute phase reactants and serum biochemistry in COVID‐19. Similar to many other viral infections, asymptomatic disease is present in a significant but currently unknown fraction of the affected individuals.In the majority of the patients, a one‐week, self‐limiting viral respiratory disease typically occurs, which ends with the development of neutralizing anti‐viral T cell and antibody immunity. The IgM, IgA and IgG type virus‐specific antibodies levels are important measurements to predict population immunity against this disease and whether cross‐reactivity with other coronaviruses is taking place.High viral‐load during the first infection and repeated exposure to virus especially in healthcare workers can be an important factor for severity of disease. It should be noted that many aspects of severe patients are unique to COVID‐19 and are rarely observed in other respiratory viral infections, such as severe lymphopenia and eosinopenia, extensive pneumonia and lung tissue damage, a cytokine storm leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiorgan failure. Lymphopenia causes a defect in antiviral and immune regulatory immunity. At the same time, a cytokine storm starts with extensive activation of cytokine‐secreting cells with innate and adaptive immune mechanisms both of with contribute to a poor prognosis. Elevated levels of acute phase reactants and lymphopenia are early predictors of high disease severity. Prevention of development to severe disease, cytokine storm, acute respiratory distress syndrome and novel approachs to prevent their development will be main routes for future research areas. As we learn to live amidst the virus, understanding the immunology of the disease can assist in containing the pandemic and in developing vaccines and medicines to prevent and treat individual patients.

title: Unleashing the mysterious link between COVID-19 and a famous childhood vasculitis: Kawasaki disease
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emerged as a small outbreak in Wuhan rapidly progressing into the deadliest pandemic since the Spanish flu of 1918. The disease was deemed trivial in children, until the reporting, few days ago, of an emerging pediatric multi-inflammatory syndrome mimicking Kawasaki disease (KD).  This report reveals that coronaviridae were implicated in induction of several post-infectious vasculitides, namely, KD, AHEI, and HSP. This occurs in genetically susceptible individuals to vascular inflammation. Shared genetic susceptibilities between KD and CoV include genes encoding for CD 40, HLAB-15:03, and ACE. This leads to augmented inflammation with hypersecretion of cytokines especially IL-6.  The revealed relationships between KD and CoV can help to predict the risk of KD in COVID-19 patients through screening levels of upregulated cytokines. It might also signify that classic treatment of KD with IVIG might need to be replaced with anti-cytokine therapy in COVID-19 patients.

title: Dermatological therapies with relevance to COVID‐19
abstract: SARS‐CoV‐2 is a novel single stranded RNA virus that has gripped humanity all over. It affects primarily the respiratory system, but is not limited to it, causing widespread involvement of many organ systems. The cases are still rising at an exponential rate and manifold trials are on to test different agents with the hope for potential limitation of spread and control of symptoms. Various classes of drugs have been tried; some with moderate success while many are yet to be proven to be of definite benefit. We have observed that the drugs used in dermatology practice are featured in more than a few of such studies. Here we wish to highlight the ones that we are familiar with, which has featured at some point, in the management of this very challenging pandemic. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Can an effective SARS-CoV-2 vaccine be developed for the older population?
abstract: The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 and its inordinately rapid spread is posing severe challenges to the wellbeing of millions of people worldwide, health care systems and the global economy. While many younger people experience no or mild symptoms on infection, older adults are highly susceptible to life-threatening respiratory and systemic conditions which demand a full understanding and leveraging of knowledge of the differences between immunity in young and old people. Consequently, we welcome papers addressing any issues relevant to immunity and ageing in the context of SARS-CoV-2, and will endeavour to fast-track peer-review. We aim to provide a platform exclusively for discussions of individual and age differences in susceptibility and immune responses to COVID caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection and how to prevent or reduce severity of disease in older adults.

title: Expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in patients with severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19)
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is associated with a 3.4% mortality rate in patients with severe disease. The pathogenesis of severe cases remains unknown. We performed an in-depth prospective analysis of immune and inflammation markers in two patients with severe COVID-19 disease from presentation to convalescence. Peripheral blood from 18 SARS-CoV-2-infected patients, 9 with severe and 9 with mild COVID-19 disease, was obtained at admission and analyzed for T-cell activation profile, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and cytokine profiles. MDSC functionality was tested in vitro. In four severe and in four mild patients, a longitudinal analysis was performed daily from the day of admission to the early convalescent phase. Early after admission severe patients showed neutrophilia, lymphopenia, increase in effector T cells, a persisting higher expression of CD95 on T cells, higher serum concentration of IL-6 and TGF-ß, and a cytotoxic profile of NK and T cells compared with mild patients, suggesting a highly engaged immune response. Massive expansion of MDSCs was observed, up to 90% of total circulating mononuclear cells in patients with severe disease, and up to 25% in the patients with mild disease; the frequency decreasing with recovery. MDSCs suppressed T-cell functions, dampening excessive immune response. MDSCs decline at convalescent phase was associated to a reduction in TGF-ß and to an increase of inflammatory cytokines in plasma samples. Substantial expansion of suppressor cells is seen in patients with severe COVID-19. Further studies are required to define their roles in reducing the excessive activation/inflammation, protection, influencing disease progression, potential to serve as biomarkers of disease severity, and new targets for immune and host-directed therapeutic approaches.

title: Cannabinoid Receptor Type 2: A Possible Target in SARS-CoV-2 (CoV-19) Infection?
abstract: In late December 2019, a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2 or CoV-19) appeared in Wuhan, China, causing a global pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 causes mild to severe respiratory tract inflammation, often developing into lung fibrosis with thrombosis in pulmonary small vessels and causing even death. COronaVIrus Disease (COVID-19) patients manifest exacerbated inflammatory and immune responses, cytokine storm, prevalence of pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages and increased levels of resident and circulating immune cells. Men show higher susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection than women, likely due to estrogens production. The protective role of&nbsp;estrogens, as well as an immune-suppressive activity that limits the excessive inflammation, can be mediated by cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2). The role of this receptor in modulating inflammation and immune response is well documented in fact in several settings. The stimulation of CB2 receptors is known to limit the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, shift the macrophage phenotype towards the anti-inflammatory M2 type and enhance the immune-modulating properties of mesenchymal stromal cells. For these reasons, we hypothesize that CB2 receptor can be a therapeutic target in COVID-19 pandemic emergency.

title: Acute Transverse Myelitis Associated with SARS-CoV-2: A Case-Report
abstract: • The third case of acute transverse myelitis due to SARS-CoV-2 reported in the world; • Possible inflammatory complications affecting the myelin in spinal cord. • We must be vigilant of the critical neurological illnesses associated with COVID-19.

title: Complement and viral pathogenesis
abstract: The complement system functions as an immune surveillance system that rapidly responds to infection. Activation of the complement system by specific recognition pathways triggers a protease cascade, generating cleavage products that function to eliminate pathogens, regulate inflammatory responses, and shape adaptive immune responses. However, when dysregulated, these powerful functions can become destructive and the complement system has been implicated as a pathogenic effector in numerous diseases, including infectious diseases. This review highlights recent discoveries that have identified critical roles for the complement system in the pathogenesis of viral infection.

title: The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The Perspectives of clinical immunologists from China
abstract: The pandemic outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is rapidly spreading all over the world. Reports from China showed that about 20% of patients developed severe disease, resulting in a fatality of 4%. In the past two months, we clinical immunologists participated in multi-rounds of MDT (multidiscipline team) discussion on the anti-inflammation management of critical COVID-19 patients, with our colleagues dispatched from Chinese leading PUMC Hospital to Wuhan to admit and treat the most severe patients. Here, from the perspective of clinical immunologists, we will discuss the clinical and immunological characteristics of severe patients, and summarize the current evidence and share our experience in anti-inflammation treatment, including glucocorticoids, IL-6 antagonist, JAK inhibitors and choloroquine/hydrocholoroquine, of patients with severe COVID-19 that may have an impaired immune system.

title: Immunomodulatory therapy for the management of severe COVID-19. Beyond the anti-viral therapy: A comprehensive review
abstract: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome related to Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) may cause severe illness in 20% of patients. This may be in part due to an uncontrolled immune-response to SARS-CoV-2 infection triggering a systemic hyperinflammatory response, the so-called "cytokine storm". The reduction of this inflammatory immune-response could be considered as a potential therapeutic target against severe COVID-19. The relationship between inflammation and clot activation must also be considered. Furthermore, we must keep in mind that currently, no specific antiviral treatment is available for SARS-CoV-2. While moderate-severe forms need in-hospital surveillance plus antivirals and/or hydroxychloroquine; in severe and life-threating subsets a high intensity anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory therapy could be a therapeutic option. However, right data on the effectiveness of different immunomodulating drugs are scarce. Herein, we discuss the pathogenesis and the possible role played by drugs such as: antimalarials, anti-IL6, anti-IL-1, calcineurin and JAK inhibitors, corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, heparins, angiotensin-converting enzyme agonists and statins in severe COVID-19.

title: Perioperative COVID-19 testing of orthopedic patients: Current evidence

title: Knowledge and understanding among medical imaging professionals in India during the rapid rise of the covid-19 pandemic
abstract: During the first week of March,2020 the surge of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) cases reached all over the globe with more than 100,000 cases. Healthcare national and international authorities have already initiated awareness and lockdown activities. A poor understanding of the disease among medical imaging professionals (MIPs) may result in rapid spread of infection. This study aimed to investigate the knowledge and understanding of MIPs about COVID-19. A cross-sectional, web-based study was conducted among MIPs about COVID- 19 during the fourth week of March 2020. An online sample of MIPs was successfully recruited via the authors’ networks in India using data collection tool – write google forms. A self-developed online KAP questionnaire was completed by the participants. The knowledge and understanding questionnaire consisted questions regarding the clinical characteristics and transmission routes of COVID-19. Assessment on practices towards COVID-19 included questions on techniques while imaging against COVID-19 suspected patients. Of 700 participants, a total of 550 MIPs completed the survey (response rate: 78.57%); 56.7% were males, 85.4.1% were aged 17–26 years, and most were undergraduates (77.6%) and postgraduates (17.1%). Regarding COVID-19, most of the participants answered correctly (95.5%) on symptoms, (84.4%) time interval for visible symptoms, (98.0%) transmission and (44%) airborne transmission respectively. A significant proportion of MIPs (36.4%) had poor knowledge about wearing multiple masks as an effective measure against coronavirus infection. Most of the respondents (48.5%) incorrectly considered X-ray as the reliable method of diagnosis for suspected COVID-19 patients. 44.6% of the respondents lacked knowledge about the steps involved in hand washing technique which is one of the most important safety practice methods in medical imaging to prevent spread of infection. Factors such as age and occupation were associated with inadequate knowledge and poor perception of COVID-19. As the current global threat of COVID-19 continues to emerge, it is crucial and critical to improve the knowledge and understanding of MIPs. Educational videos and live webinars are urgently needed to reach MIPs and further detailed studies are the need of the hour.  The online version of this article (10.1007/s12553-020-00437-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

title: Medications in COVID-19 patients: summarizing the current literature from an orthopaedic perspective
abstract: The review aims to provide a summary of the current literature regarding common medications prescribed in orthopaedic surgery and their potential implications in COVID-19 patients.  A systematic review was performed using the PRISMA guidelines. All clinical studies, reviews, consensus and guidelines related to the above medications and COVID-19 were included.  A total of 18 articles were included. The use of analgesia, anti-inflammatories, steroids, anticoagulants, antibiotics, vitamin B, vitamin C and vitamin D and their potential impact on COVID-19 patients were reported.  Eight main recommendations were derived from the review. Firstly, paracetamol remains the first line of analgesia and antipyretic. Secondly, there is no need to avoid NSAIDs for COVID-19 patients. Thirdly, opioids have the potential for immunosuppression in addition to respiratory depression and, therefore, should be prescribed with care in COVID-19 patients. Fourthly, patients with conditions where steroids are proven to be efficacious can continue to receive their steroids; otherwise, systemic steroids are not recommended for COVID-19 patients. Fifthly, orthopaedic surgeons following up on COVID-19 patients who are using steroids should continue to follow them up for possible avascular necrosis. Sixthly, whenever possible, oral anticoagulation should be converted to parental heparin. Seventhly, common orthopaedic antibiotics including penicillin and clindamycin are safe to continue for COVID-19 patients. However, for COVID-19 patients, the antibiotics can potentially be switched to macrolides and tetracyclines if the organisms are sensitive. Lastly, prescription for vitamins B, C and D should continue as per usual clinical practice.

title: Is GSK3β a molecular target of chloroquine treatment against COVID-19?
abstract: The recent clinical trial reports pertaining to the efficacy of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine against COVID-19 albeit yet to be validated with larger clinical trials, have sparked much interest globally to evaluate whether this anti-malarial drug can be repurposed for the treatment of COVID-19. In addition to its anti-viral activity, the anti-inflammatory activity of chloroquine may also contribute to its efficacy. Based on our data obtained from an animal infection model of melioidosis (a disease caused by the bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei), treatment with chloroquine can result in the phosphorylation and consequent inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β). This serine/threonine protein kinase is now recognised as a point of convergence for host inflammatory response. In view of this, it is plausible that the mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effect of chloroquine against COVID-19 involves inhibition of host GSK3β.

title: Innate immune response induced by Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection
abstract: Although the causative agents of human multiple sclerosis (MS) are not known, it is suspected that a viral infection may be associated with the initiation of the disease. Several viral disease models in mice have been studied to understand the pathogenesis of demeylination. In particular, Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) has been extensively studied as a relevant model. Various cytokines and chemokines are produced upon viral infection by different cell types, including antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as macrophages; dendritic cells (DCs); and glial cells, such as astrocytes, microglia, and oligoden-drocytes. The upregulation of the corresponding molecules are also found in MS and are likely to play an important role in the protection and/or pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease. In this review, the type of cells and molecules, gene-activation mechanisms as well as their potential roles in protection and pathogenesis will be discussed.

title: Risk Factors Prediction, Clinical Outcomes, and Mortality of COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Preventing communicable diseases requires understanding the spread, epidemiology, clinical features, progression, and prognosis of the disease. Early identification of risk factors and clinical outcomes might help to identify critically ill patients, provide proper treatment and prevent mortality.  We conducted a prospective study in patients with flu-like symptoms referred to the imaging department of a tertiary hospital in IRAN between 3 March 2020 and 8 April 2020. Patients with COVID-19 were followed up to check their health condition after two months. The categorical data between groups were analyzed by Fisher exact test and continuous data by Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test.  319 patients (mean age 45.48 years, 177 women) were enrolled. Fever, dyspnea, weakness, shivering, C-reactive protein (CRP), fatigue, dry cough, anorexia, anosmia, ageusia, dizziness, sweating and age were the most important symptoms of COVID-19 infection. Traveling in past three months, asthma, taking corticosteroids, liver disease, rheumatological disease, cough with sputum, eczema, conjunctivitis, tobacco use, and chest pain did not have any relationship with COVID-19.  Finding clinical symptoms for early diagnosis of COVID-19 is a critical part of prevention. These symptoms can help in the assessment of disease progression. To the best of our knowledge, some of the effective features on the mortality due to COVID-19 are investigated for the first time in this research.

title: Autoinflammatory and autoimmune conditions at the crossroad of COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been categorized as evolving in overlapping phases. First, there is a viral phase that may well be asymptomatic or mild in the majority, perhaps 80% of patients. The pathophysiological mechanisms resulting in minimal disease in this initial phase are not well known. In the remaining 20% of cases, the disease may become severe and/or critical. In most patients of this latter group, there is a phase characterized by the hyperresponsiveness of the immune system. A third phase corresponds to a state of hypercoagulability. Finally, in the fourth stage organ injury and failure occur. Appearance of autoinflammatory/autoimmune phenomena in patients with COVID-19 calls attention for the development of new strategies for the management of life-threatening conditions in critically ill patients. Antiphospholipid syndrome, autoimmune cytopenia, Guillain-Barré syndrome and Kawasaki disease have each been reported in patients with COVID-19. Here we present a scoping review of the relevant immunological findings in COVID-19 as well as the current reports about autoimmune/autoinflammatory conditions associated with the disease. These observations have crucial therapeutic implications since immunomodulatory drugs are at present the most likely best candidates for COVID-19 therapy. Clinicians should be aware of these conditions in patients with COVID-19, and these observations should be considered in the current development of vaccines.

title: Predisposing factors, pathogenesis and therapeutic intervention of Kawasaki disease
abstract: Kawasaki disease (KD) is an acute febrile childhood inflammatory disease, associated with coronary artery abnormalities. The disease is believed to result from an aberrant inflammatory response to an infectious trigger in a genetically predisposed individual. KD is associated with an endothelial cell injury as a consequence of T cell activation and cytotoxic effects of various proinflammatory cytokines. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) infusion and aspirin are the standard treatment of acute KD. However, 10–20% of patients show resistance to IVIG therapy and present higher risk of coronary vasculitis. The relative roles of second IVIG infusion, corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors, interleukin-1 antagonists and anti-tumor necrosis factor agents remain uncertain. In this review, we highlight the predisposing factors, pathogenesis and therapeutic intervention of KD, particularly new therapeutics for IVIG-resistant patients.

title: Management of inflammatory bowel disease during COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Cytokine Storm Induced by SARS-CoV-2
abstract: A novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) triggered by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is currently spreading globally, causing severe pneumonia and acute lung injury in many patients. Even worse, severe respiratory may develop into acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in COVID-19. The cytokine storm caused by immune over-activation due to virus infection may be an important cause of death in the late period of progress, but the pathogenesis of cytokine storm is still unclear. This article reviews the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2-induced cytokine storm in detail based on the current discovered researches, and put forward some valuable medication ideas for the targeted cytokines drug researches and treatment. The goal of this work will be helpful for reducing excessive immune response.

title: The pathogenesis and treatment of the `Cytokine Storm' in COVID-19
abstract: Cytokine storm is an excessive immune response to external stimuli. The pathogenesis of the cytokine storm is complex. The disease progresses rapidly, and the mortality is high. Certain evidence shows that, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic, the severe deterioration of some patients has been closely related to the cytokine storm in their bodies. This article reviews the occurrence mechanism and treatment strategies of the COVID-19 virus-induced inflammatory storm in attempt to provide valuable medication guidance for clinical treatment.

title: Emerging pharmacotherapy for COVID-19
abstract: Broadly speaking, pharmacological treatments for COVID-19 can be divided into those acting on upstream pathways early on in the disease process via suppression of viral replication or by inhibiting cell entry, and those acting on downstream pathways later on via selective attenuation of the adaptive immune cytokine-mediated inflammatory response. The antiviral drug remdesivir has been shown to shorten duration of disease while interferon beta-1b may speed up viral clearance. The results with hydroxychloroquine have thus far been rather disappointing. Trials with selective cytokine blockers including anti-interleukin-1 (anti-IL-1) and anti-interleukin-6 (anti-IL-6), have shown some promise in more severe cases, with further confirmation being required from large-scale phase-3 randomised controlled trials. The likelihood is that combination therapy addressing both upstream and downstream pathways may be required to prevent progression of severe COVID-19 infection in susceptible older patients with comorbidities and we believe further studies are now warranted to specifically target such at-risk groups who are more prone to worse outcomes.

title: Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: a review inspired by the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: Hemophagocytic syndrome (HPS) or hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is an acute and rapidly progressive systemic inflammatory disorder characterized by cytopenia, excessive cytokine production, and hyperferritinemia. Common clinical manifestations of HLH are acute unremitting fever, lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, and multiorgan failure. Due to a massive cytokine release, this clinical condition is considered as a cytokine storm syndrome. HPS has primary and acquired (secondary, reactive) forms. Its primary form is mostly seen in childhood and caused by various mutations with genetic inheritance and, therefore, is called familial HLH. Secondary HLH may be caused in the presence of an underlying disorder, that is, secondary to a malignant, infectious, or autoimmune/autoinflammatory stimulus. This paper aims to review the pathogenesis and the clinical picture of HLH, and its severe complication, the cytokine storm, with a special emphasis on the developed classification criteria sets for rheumatologists, since COVID-19 infection has clinical symptoms resembling those of the common rheumatologic conditions and possibly triggers HLH. MED-LINE/Pubmed was searched from inception to April 2020, and the following terms were used for data searching: “hemophagocytic syndrome” OR “macrophage activation syndrome” OR “hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis”, OR “cytokine storm”. Finally, AND “COVID-19” was included in this algorithm. The selection is restricted to the past 5 years and limited numbers of earlier key references were manually selected. Only full-text manuscripts, published in an English language peer-reviewed journal were included. Manuscript selection procedure and numbers are given in Fig. 2. Briefly, the database search with the following terms of “Hemophagocytic syndrome” OR “Macrophage activation syndrome” OR “Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis” OR “Cytokine storm” yielded 6744 results from inception to April 2020. The selection is restricted to the past 5 years and only limited numbers of earlier key references were selected, and this algorithm resulted in 3080 manuscripts. The addition of (AND “COVID-19”) resulted in 115 publications of which 47 studies, together with four sections of an online book were used in the final review. No statistical method was used. HLH is triggered by genetic conditions, infections, malignancies, autoimmune-autoinflammatory diseases, and some drugs. In COVID-19 patients, secondary HLH and cytokine storm may be responsible for unexplained progressive fever, cytopenia, ARDS, neurological and renal impairment. Differentiation between the primary and secondary forms of HLH is utterly important, since primary form of HLH requires complicated treatments such as hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Further studies addressing the performance of HScore and other recommendations in the classification of these patients is necessary.

title: Upregulation of Human Endogenous Retroviruses in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid of COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Severe COVID-19 pneumonia has been associated with the development of intense inflammatory responses during the course of infections with SARS-CoV-2. Given that Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) are known to be activated during and participate in inflammatory processes, we examined whether HERV dysregulation signatures are present in COVID-19 patients.  By comparing transcriptomes of Peripheral Blood Monocytes (PBMCs) and Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid (BALF) from patients and normal controls we have shown that HERVs are intensely dysregulated in BALF, but not in PBMCs. In particular, upregulation in the expression of multiple HERV families was detected in BALF samples of COVID-19 patients, with HERV-W being the most highly upregulated family among the families analysed. In addition, we compared the expression of HERVs in Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells (HBECs) without and after senescence induction in an oncogene-induced senescence model, in order to quantitatively measure changes in the expression of HERVs in bronchial cells during the processes of cellular senescence.  This apparent difference of HERV dysregulation between PBMCs and BALF warrants further studies in involvement of HERVs in inflammatory pathogenetic mechanisms as well as exploration of HERVs as potential biomarkers for disease progression. Furthermore, the increase in the expression of HERVs in senescent HBECs in comparison to non-induced HBECs provides a potential link for increased COVID-19 severity and mortality in aged populations.

title: Knowledge-based repositioning of the anti-HCV direct antiviral agent Sofosbuvir as SARS-CoV-2 treatment
abstract: The new human coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense RNA virus for which no specific drugs are currently available. A knowledge-based analysis strongly suggests a possible repositioning of the anti-HCV direct antiviral agent (DAA) Sofosbuvir as treatment for SARS-CoV-2. Indeed, the RNA-dependent RNA-polymerases (RdRp) of the two viruses show high sequence and structural homology, supporting the likelihood of binding the Sofosbuvir molecule with similar efficiency. Such a repositioning would allow the containment of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and limit the progression of disease to potentially deadly COVID19.

title: Viral Induced Demyelination
abstract: Viral induced demyelination, in both humans and rodent models, has provided unique insights into the cell biology of oligodendroglia, their complex cell‐cell interactions and mechanisms of myelin destruction. They illustrate mechanisms of viral persistence, including latent infections in which no infectious virus is readily evident, virus reactivation and viral‐induced tissue damage. These studies have also provided excellent paradigms to study the interactions between the immune system and the central nervous system (CNS). Although of interest in their own right, an understanding of the diverse mechanisms used by viruses to induce demyelination may shed light into the etiology and pathogenesis of the common demyelinating disorder multiple sclerosis (MS). This notion is supported by the persistent view that a viral infection acquired during adolescence might initiate MS after a long period of quiescence. Demyelination in both humans and rodents can be initiated by infection with a diverse group of enveloped and non‐enveloped RNA and DNA viruses (Table 1). The mechanisms that ultimately result in the loss of CNS myelin appear to be equally diverse as the etiological agents capable of causing diseases which result in demyelination. Although demyelination can be a secondary result of axonal loss, in many examples of viral induced demyelination, myelin loss is primary and associated with axonal sparing. This suggests that demyelination induced by viral infections can result from: 1) a direct viral infection of oligodendroglia resulting in cell death with degeneration of myelin and its subsequent removal; 2) a persistent viral infection, in the presence or absence of infectious virus, resulting in the loss of normal cellular homeostasis and subsequent oligodendroglial death; 3) a vigorous virus‐specific inflammatory response wherein the virus replicates in a cell type other than oligodendroglia, but cytokines and other immune mediators directly damage the oligodendroglia or the myelin sheath; or 4) infection initiates activation of an immune response specific for either oligodendroglia or myelin components. Virus‐induced inflammation may be associated with the processing of myelin or oligodendroglial components and their presentation to the host's own T cell compartment. Alternatively, antigenic epitopes derived from the viral proteins may exhibit sufficient homology to host components that the immune response to the virus activates autoreactive T cells, i.e. molecular mimicry. Although it is not clear that each of these potential mechanisms participates in the pathogenesis of human demyelinating disease, analysis of the diverse demyelinating viral infections of both humans and rodents provides examples of many of these potential mechanisms.

title: Syndromic Surveillance

title: Multiple Sclerosis following SARS-CoV-2 infection
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 infection can produce neurological features. The most common are headache, anosmia and dysgeusia but patients may also develop other central nervous system (CNS) injuries. We present a patient affected by Covid-19 who initially consulted for decreased visual acuity. The MRI showed inflammation in the right optic nerve and demyelinating lesions in the CNS. We speculate that an immune mechanism induced by SARS-CoV-2, which can activate lymphocytes and an inflammatory response, plays a role in the clinical onset of the disease. This pathogen may be associated with either the triggering or the exacerbation of inflammatory/demyelinating disease.

title: Predictions for the binding domain and potential new drug targets of 2019-nCoV
abstract: An outbreak of new SARS-like viral in Wuhan, China has been named 2019-nCoV. The current state of the epidemic is increasingly serious, and there has been the urgent necessity to develop an effective new drug. In previous studies, it was found that the conformation change in CTD1 was the region where SARS-CoV bound to human ACE2. Although there are mutations of the 2019-nCoV, the binding energy of ACE2 remains high. The surface glycoprotein of 2019-nCoV was coincident with the CTD1 region of the S-protein by comparing the I-TASSER prediction model with the actual SARS model, which suggests that 2019-nCoV may bind to the ACE2 receptor through conformational changes. Furthermore, site prediction on the surface glycoprotein of 2019-nCoV suggests some core amino acid area may be a novel drug target against 2019-nCoV.

title: Pediatric inflammatory syndrome temporally related to covid-19.

title: AI4COVID-19: AI Enabled Preliminary Diagnosis for COVID-19 from Cough Samples via an App
abstract: Inability to test at scale has become Achille's heel in humanity's ongoing war against COVID-19 pandemic. An agile, scalable and cost-effective testing, deployable at a global scale, can act as a game changer in this war. To address this challenge, building on the promising results of our prior work on cough-based diagnosis of a motley of respiratory diseases, we develop an Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based test for COVID-19 preliminary diagnosis. The test is deployable at scale through a mobile app named AI4COVID-19. The AI4COVID-19 app requires 2-second cough recordings of the subject. By analyzing the cough samples through an AI engine running in the cloud, the app returns a preliminary diagnosis within a minute. Unfortunately, cough is common symptom of over two dozen non-COVID-19 related medical conditions. This makes the COVID-19 diagnosis from cough alone an extremely challenging problem. We solve this problem by developing a novel multi-pronged mediator centered risk-averse AI architecture that minimizes misdiagnosis. At the time of writing, our AI engine can distinguish between COVID-19 patient coughs and several types of non-COVID-19 coughs with over 90% accuracy. AI4COVID-19's performance is likely to improve as more and better data becomes available. This paper presents a proof of concept to encourage controlled clinical trials and serves as a call for labeled cough data. AI4COVID-19 is not designed to compete with clinical testing. Instead, it offers a complementing tele-testing tool deployable anytime, anywhere, by anyone, so clinical-testing and treatment can be channeled to those who need it the most, thereby saving more lives.

title: Attenuated interferon and pro-inflammatory response in SARS-CoV-2-infected human dendritic cells is associated with viral antagonism of STAT1 phosphorylation
abstract: Clinical manifestations of COVID-19 vary from asymptomatic virus shedding, non-specific pharyngitis, to pneumonia with silent hypoxia and respiratory failure. Dendritic cells and macrophages are sentinel cells for innate and adaptive immunity that affect the pathogenesis of SARS and MERS. However, the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and these cell types remains unknown. Herein, we investigated the infection and host response of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) and macrophages (MDMs) infected by SARS-CoV-2. We demonstrated that moDCs and MDMs were permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection and protein expression but did not support productive virus replication. Importantly, SARS-CoV-2 launched an attenuated interferon response in both cell types. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2 triggered significant pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine expression in MDMs but not in moDCs. Further investigations suggested that this attenuated immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in moDCs was associated with viral antagonism of STAT1 phosphorylation. These findings on pathogenesis may explain the mild and insidious course of COVID-19 till late deterioration.

title: Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology
abstract: Human coronaviruses (hCoVs) can be divided into low pathogenic and highly pathogenic coronaviruses. The low pathogenic CoVs infect the upper respiratory tract and cause mild, cold-like respiratory illness. In contrast, highly pathogenic hCoVs such as severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV) predominantly infect lower airways and cause fatal pneumonia. Severe pneumonia caused by pathogenic hCoVs is often associated with rapid virus replication, massive inflammatory cell infiltration and elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine responses resulting in acute lung injury (ALI), and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Recent studies in experimentally infected animal strongly suggest a crucial role for virus-induced immunopathological events in causing fatal pneumonia after hCoV infections. Here we review the current understanding of how a dysregulated immune response may cause lung immunopathology leading to deleterious clinical manifestations after pathogenic hCoV infections.

title: Initial success in the identification and management of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) indicates human-to-human transmission in Wuhan, China
abstract: Coronavirus (CoV) has been one of the major pandemic threats to human health in the last two decades. The human coronavirus was first identified in 1960s. CoVs 229E, NL63, OC43, HKU1, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV have caused numerous disasters or human deaths worldwide. Recently, an outbreak of the previously unknown deadly CoV disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoV 2 (SARS-CoV-2, early named 2019-nCoV) occurred in Wuhan, China, and it had caused 81238 cases of confirmed infection, including 3250 deaths until March 19, 2020. Its risks and pandemic potential have brought global consideration. We summarized epidemiology, virological characteristics, clinical symptoms, diagnostic methods, clinical treatments, and prevention methods for COVID-19 to present a reference for the future wave of probable CoV outbreaks.

title: A First Look at Android Applications in Google Play related to Covid-19
abstract: Due to the convenience of access-on-demand to information and business solutions, mobile apps have become an important asset in the digital world. In the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, app developers have joined the response effort in various ways by releasing apps that target different user bases (e.g., all citizens or journalists), offer different services (e.g., location tracking or diagnostic-aid), provide generic or specialized information, etc. While many apps have raised some concerns by spreading misinformation or even malware, the literature does not yet provide a clear landscape of the different apps that were developed. In this study, we focus on the Android ecosystem and investigate Covid-related Android apps. In a best-effort scenario, we attempt to systematically identify all relevant apps and study their characteristics with the objective to provide a first taxonomy of Covid-related apps, broadening the relevance beyond the implementation of contact tracing. Overall, our study yields a number of empirical insights that contribute to enlarge the knowledge on Covid-related apps: (1) Developer communities contributed rapidly to the Covid-19, with apps released as early as February 2020; (2) Covid-related apps deliver digital tools to users (e.g., health diaries), serve to broadcast information to users (e.g., spread statistics), and collect data from users (e.g., for tracing); (3) Covid-related apps are less complex than standard apps; (4) they generally do not seem to leak sensitive data; (5) in the majority of cases, Covid-related apps are released by entities with past experience on the market, mostly official government entities or public health organizations.

title: Does vitamin D deficiency increase the severity of COVID-19?
abstract: The severity of coronavirus 2019 infection (COVID-19) is determined by the presence of pneumonia, severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), myocarditis, microvascular thrombosis and/or cytokine storms, all of which involve underlying inflammation. A principal defence against uncontrolled inflammation, and against viral infection in general, is provided by T regulatory lymphocytes (Tregs). Treg levels have been reported to be low in many COVID-19 patients and can be increased by vitamin D supplementation. Low vitamin D levels have been associated with an increase in inflammatory cytokines and a significantly increased risk of pneumonia and viral upper respiratory tract infections. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with an increase in thrombotic episodes, which are frequently observed in COVID-19. Vitamin D deficiency has been found to occur more frequently in patients with obesity and diabetes. These conditions are reported to carry a higher mortality in COVID-19. If vitamin D does in fact reduce the severity of COVID-19 in regard to pneumonia/ARDS, inflammation, inflammatory cytokines and thrombosis, it is our opinion that supplements would offer a relatively easy option to decrease the impact of the pandemic.

title: Cytokine profile in plasma of severe COVID-19 does not differ from ARDS and sepsis
abstract: Elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines have been associated with poor outcomes among COVID-19 patients. It is unknown, however, how these levels compare to those observed in critically ill patients with ARDS or sepsis due to other causes.  To directly compare plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines, with a focus on 6 cytokines associated with cytokine storm (IL-1b, IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, and TNF), between hospitalized COVID-19 patients and banked plasma samples from ARDS and sepsis patients from prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.  15 hospitalized COVID-19 patients, 9 of whom were critically ill, were compared to 28 critically ill patients with ARDS or sepsis. There were no statistically significant differences in baseline levels of IL-1b, IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, and TNF between patients with severe COVID-19 and critically ill controls with ARDS or sepsis.  Levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-1b, IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, and TNF were not higher in critically ill COVID-19 patients than in critically ill patients admitted with ARDS or sepsis due to other causes in this small cohort. Broad use of immunosuppressive therapies in ARDS has failed in numerous Phase 3 studies; use of these therapies in unselected patients with COVID-19 is likely unwarranted.

title: Inflammation and Inflammatory Diseases, Markers, and Mediators: Role of CRP in Some Inflammatory Diseases
abstract: The knowledge of inflammation records dates back in first century AD. Initially discovered with features of rubor, tumor, calor, and dolor, scientific investigations have revealed chemical components, cells, and pathways involved in the process of inflammation. The body’s initial defense in response to infection, trauma, or inflammation is through the acute-phase response (APR). APR is a multifaceted set of systemic reactions seen shortly after the experience of a triggering event. One of the many aspects of an APR is the increased hepatic synthesis of positive acute-phase proteins (APPs) leading to increased serum concentration of these proteins. The serum level of these APPs returns to base concentration when the stimulating factor is not anymore present. Today a plethora of inflammatory diseases are causing concern to global health. All the key players and mediators of inflammation change its role with the change in setup of disease and patients. The biomarkers of inflammation and inflammatory mediators are also used as therapeutic targets in under-trial animal models. Even in clinical diagnosis of an inflammatory patient, some broad-spectrum markers were analyzed without individual dissection of each mediator or biomarker. This chapter also provides a review of the acute-phase protein C-reactive protein and its possible use as inflammatory biomarker in diseases. We have highlighted case studies of some patients from Kolkata, India, revealing inflammation from disease together with their clinical history. The question which we probe in here is that whether there is a correlation with the clinical history, C-reactive protein, and inflammation and whether CRP can act as a unique diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in some diseases. The future course of this chapter lies in identifying clinical markers for inflammation, the sequential flow of inflammatory responses for a wide spectrum of diseases and its diagnostic, and therapeutic application to screen out pro-inflammatory diseases vs. anti-inflammatory conditions.

title: COVID-19 associated Kawasaki-like multisystem inflammatory disease in an adult
abstract: Recent reports have described a secondary Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) after a prior COVID-19 infection that often has features of Kawasaki disease (KD). Here, we report the case of a 36-year-old woman who presented to the emergency department hypotensive and tachycardic after 1 week of fevers, abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhea, and was found to have the classic phenotype of complete Kawasaki's Disease including nonexudative conjunctivitis, cracked lips, edema of the hands and feet, palmar erythema, a diffuse maculopapular rash, and cervical lymphadenopathy. Initial laboratory studies were significant for hyponatremia, elevated liver function tests including direct hyperbilirubinemia, and leukocytosis with neutrophilia. Imaging revealed mild gallbladder wall edema, a small area of colitis, and small pleural effusion. She was treated for Kawasaki Disease Shock Syndrome (KDSS) with pulse dose solumedrol, IVIG, and aspirin with near resolution of symptoms and normalization of vital signs within 1 day and subsequent improvement in her laboratory abnormalities. She was later found to be COVID-19 IgG positive, suggesting past exposure. This case represents an early report of a KD-like illness in an adult with serologic evidence of a previous COVID-19 infection, similar to MIS-C. It suggests that the virulent strain of SARS-CoV-2 appears to cause a post-infectious inflammatory syndrome similar to KD in adults, as well as children. Our understanding of the myriad of COVID-19 symptoms and sequelae is rapidly evolving. We recommend physicians remain vigilant for inflammatory syndromes that mimic KD/KDSS which may warrant prompt treatment with IVIG and steroids.

title: Detectable serum SARS-CoV-2 viral load (RNAaemia) is closely associated with drastically elevated interleukin 6 (IL-6) level in critically ill COVID-19 patients
abstract: Although the SARS-CoV-2 viral load detection of respiratory specimen has been widely used for novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) diagnosis, it is undeniable that serum SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid (RNAaemia) could be detected in a fraction of the COVID-19 patients. However, it is not clear that if the incidence of RNAaemia could be correlated with the occurrence of cytokine storm or with the specific class of patients.  This study enrolled 48 patients with COVID-19 admitted to the General Hospital of Central Theater Command, PLA, a designated hospital in Wuhan, China. The patients were divided into three groups according to the Diagnosis and Treatment of New Coronavirus Pneumonia (version 6) published by the National Health Commission of China. The clinical and laboratory data were collected. The serum viral load detection and serum IL-6 levels were determined. Except for routine statistical analysis, Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) analysis was used to establish a patient status prediction model based on real-time RT-PCR Ct value.  The Result showed that cases with RNAaemia were exclusively confirmed in critically ill patients group and appeared to reflect the illness severity. Further more, the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 levels were significantly elevated in critically ill patients, which is almost 10-folds higher than those in other patients. More importantly, the extremely high IL-6 level was closely correlated with the incidence of RNAaemia (R=0.902) and the vital signs of COVID-19 patients (R= -0.682).  Serum SARS-CoV-2 viral load (RNAaemia) is strongly associated with cytokine storm and can be used to predict the poor prognosis of COVID-19 patients. Moreover, our results strongly suggest that cytokine IL-6 should be considered as a therapeutic target in critically ill patients with excessive inflammatory response.

title: An overview of COVID-19
abstract: Pneumonia caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection emerged in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China in December 2019.  2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) officially named the disease resulting from infection with SARS-CoV-2 as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). COVID-19 represents a spectrum of clinical manifestations that typically include fever, dry cough, and fatigue, often with pulmonary involvement. SARS-CoV-2 is highly contagious and most individuals within the population at large are susceptible to infection. Wild animal hosts and infected patients are currently the main sources of disease which is transmitted via respiratory droplets and direct contact. Since the outbreak, the Chinese government and scientific community have acted rapidly to identify the causative agent and promptly shared the viral gene sequence, and have carried out measures to contain the epidemic. Meanwhile, recent research has revealed critical aspects of SARS-CoV-2 biology and disease pathogenesis; other studies have focused on epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, management, as well as drug and vaccine development. This review aims to summarize the latest research findings and to provide expert consensus. We will also share ongoing efforts and experience in China, which may provide insight on how to contain the epidemic and improve our understanding of this emerging infectious disease, together with updated guidance for prevention, control, and critical management of this pandemic.

title: Binding of SARS-CoV-2 and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2: clinical implications

title: Pathophysiology of COVID-19: Why Children Fare Better than Adults?
abstract: The world is facing Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which is causing a large number of deaths and burden on intensive care facilities. It is caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) originating in Wuhan, China. It has been seen that fewer children contract COVID-19 and among infected, children have less severe disease. Insights in pathophysiological mechanisms of less severity in children could be important for devising therapeutics for high-risk adults and elderly. Early closing of schools and day-care centers led to less frequent exposure and hence, lower infection rate in children. The expression of primary target receptor for SARS-CoV-2, i.e. angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2), decreases with age. ACE-2 has lung protective effects by limiting angiotensin-2 mediated pulmonary capillary leak and inflammation. Severe COVID-19 disease is associated with high and persistent viral loads in adults. Children have strong innate immune response due to trained immunity (secondary to live-vaccines and frequent viral infections), leading to probably early control of infection at the site of entry. Adult patients show suppressed adaptive immunity and dysfunctional over-active innate immune response in severe infections, which is not seen in children. These could be related to immune-senescence in elderly. Excellent regeneration capacity of pediatric alveolar epithelium may be contributing to early recovery from COVID-19. Children, less frequently, have risk factors such as co-morbidities, smoking, and obesity. But young infants and children with pre-existing illnesses could be high risk groups and need careful monitoring. Studies describing immune-pathogenesis in COVID-19 are lacking in children and need urgent attention.

title: Ruxolitinib for tocilizumab-refractory severe COVID-19 infection
abstract: Whilst the majority of patients with COVID-19 infection have mild self-limiting symptoms, for some the SARS-CoV2 virus can trigger a severe hyperinflammatory syndrome which is life threatening. Anti-IL6 therapy has shown promise in restraining the hyperinflammatory syndrome and while IL-6 is a pleiotropic mediatory of the inflammatory response, redundancy within inflammatory pathways means that the use of such targeted monoclonal therapy may have too restricted a repertoire in some patients. We present the case of a 53-year-old haematopoetic stem cell transplant recipient who developed a severe COVID-19 that was refractory to anti-IL6 therapy, but responded to Jak-Stat inhibition with ruxolitinib, demonstrating its safety and efficacy in this setting.

title: Inflammasomes and their roles in the pathogenesis of viral hepatitis and their related complications: An updated systematic review
abstract: Inflammasomes are a set of innate receptors which are the responsible molecules for activation of pro-interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 and induction of inflammation. Due to the key roles of the inflammasomes in the induction of inflammation, it has been hypothesized that the molecules may be the main parts of immune responses against viral infections and the tissue damage. Because some cases of viral hepatitis infections, including hepatitis B and C, are diagnosed as chronic and may be associated with various complications such as liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), several studies focused on the roles played by the inflammation on the pathogenesis of viral hepatitis. Based on the roles played by inflammasomes in induction of inflammation, it has been hypothesized that inflammasomes may be the main parts of the puzzle of the viral hepatitis complications. This article reviews the roles of the inflammasomes in the pathogenesis of hepatitis B and C viral infections and their complications, liver cirrhosis, and HCC.

title: Distinct features of SARS-CoV-2-specific IgA response in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Humoral immune response to SARS-CoV-2 showed an early response of IgA, instead of IgM, in COVID-19 patients. As highlighted by our study, enhanced IgA responses observed in severe COVID-19 might confer damaging effects in severe COVID-19.

title: Proprotein convertases: Key players in inflammation-related malignancies and metastasis
abstract: Many cancers occur from locations of inflammation due to chronic irritation and/or infection. Tumor microenvironment contains various different inflammatory cells and mediators that orchestrate diverse neoplastic processes, including proliferation, survival, adhesion and migration. In parallel, tumor cells have adapted some of the signaling molecules used by inflammatory cells, such as selectins and chemokines as well as their receptors for invasion, extravasation and subsequently metastasis. Expression and/or activation of the majority of these molecules is mediated by the proprotein convertases (PCs); proteases expressed by both tumor cells and inflammatory cells. This review analyzes the potential role of these enzymatic system in inflammation-associated cancer impacting on the malignant and metastatic potential of cancer cells, describing the possible use of PCs as a new anti-inflammatory therapeutic approach to tumor progression and metastasis.

title: Neurological manifestations of COVID-19 and other coronavirus infections: A systematic review
abstract: Increasing research reports neurological manifestations of COVID-19 patients. SARS-CoV-2 shares homology with other human coronaviruses that have also had nervous system involvement.  To review the neurological aspects of SARS-cov2 and other coronavirus, including transmission pathways, mechanisms of invasion into the nervous system, and mechanisms of neurological disease.  We conducted a systematic review of articles in PubMed, SCOPUS and EMBASE data bases. Reviewed evidence is presented in sections of this manuscript which includes pathogenesis, neuro-invasion, encephalitis, Guillain-Barré, ADEM, multiple sclerosis, polyneuropathy, and cerebrovascular disease.  A total 67 studies were included in the final analysis of experimental studies, case reports, series of cases, cohort studies, and systematic reviews related to neurological manifestations of SARS- CoV-2 and other human coronavirus infections. The SARS-CoV-2 receptor is expressed in the nervous system. Common reported symptoms included hyposmia, headaches, weakness, altered consciousness. Encephalitis, demyelination, neuropathy, and stroke have been associated with COVID-19. Infection through the cribriform plate and olfactory bulb and dissemination through trans-synaptic transfer are some of the mechanisms proposed. Invasion of the medullary cardiorespiratory center by SARS-CoV-2 may contribute to the refractory respiratory failure observed in critically-ill COVID-19 patients.  An increasing number of reports of COVID-19 patients with neurological disorders add to emergent experimental models with neuro-invasion as a reasonable concern that SARS-CoV-2 is a new neuropathogen. How it may cause acute and chronic neurologic disorders needs to be clarified in future research.

title: Challenges of autoimmune rheumatic disease treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: a review
abstract: Since December 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic has become a major public health problem. To date, there is no evidence of a higher incidence of COVID in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases and we support the approach of maintaining chronic rheumatological treatments. However, once infected there is a small but significant increased risk of mortality. Among the different treatments, NSAIDs are associated with higher rates of complications, but data for other drugs are conflicting or incomplete. The use of certain drugs for autoimmune inflammatory rheumatisms appears to be a potentially interesting options for the treatment. The rationale for their use is based on the immune system runaway and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Il1, IL6, TNFα) in severe forms of the disease. Notably, patients on chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine as a treatment for their autoimmune rheumatic disease are not protected from COVID-19.

title: Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerases in Host-Pathogen Interactions, Inflammation, and Immunity.
abstract: The literature review presented here details recent research involving members of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) family of proteins. Among the 17 recognized members of the family, the human enzyme PARP1 is the most extensively studied, resulting in a number of known biological and metabolic roles. This review is focused on the roles played by PARP enzymes in host-pathogen interactions and in diseases with an associated inflammatory response. In mammalian cells, several PARPs have specific roles in the antiviral response; this is perhaps best illustrated by PARP13, also termed the zinc finger antiviral protein (ZAP). Plant stress responses and immunity are also regulated by poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. PARPs promote inflammatory responses by stimulating proinflammatory signal transduction pathways that lead to the expression of cytokines and cell adhesion molecules. Hence, PARP inhibitors show promise in the treatment of inflammatory disorders and conditions with an inflammatory component, such as diabetes, arthritis, and stroke. These functions are correlated with the biophysical characteristics of PARP family enzymes. This work is important in providing a comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of pathogenesis and host responses, as well as in the identification of inhibitors. This is important because the identification of inhibitors has been shown to be effective in arresting the progression of disease.

title: Coronavirus COV-19/SARS-CoV-2 affects women less than men: clinical response to viral infection
abstract: CoV-19/SARS-CoV-2 is a highly pathogenic virus that causes coronavirus-19 disease (COVID-19) an acute respiratory distress syndrome which provokes serious problems for global health. Studies suggest that there are many differences between men and women in the immune response to CoV-19 infection and inflammatory diseases. Women, compared to men, are less susceptible to viral infections based on a different innate immunity, steroid hormones and factors related to sex chromosomes. The presence of two X chromosomes in women emphasize the immune system even if one is inactive. The immune regulatory genes encoded by X chromosome in female gender causes lower viral load levels, and less inflammation than in man, while CD4+ T cells are higher with better immune response. In addition, women generally produce higher levels of antibodies which remain in the circulation longer. The levels of activation of the immune cells are higher in women than in men, and it is correlated with the trigger of TLR7 and the production of IFN. TLR7 is higher in women than in men and its biallelic expression leads to higher immune responses and increases the resistance to viral infections. TLR7 is expressed in innate immune cells which recognizes single strand RNA virus by promoting the production of antibodies against the virus and the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6 and IL-1 family members. Moreover, in women the production of inflammatory IL-6 after viral infection is lower than in males and is often correlated with a better longevity. In addition, on the X chromosome there are loci that code for the genes involved in the regulation of immune cells such as FOXP3, and transcription factor for Treg involved in virus pathogenesis. The X chromosome influences the immune system by acting on many other proteins, including TLR8, CD40L and CXCR3 which can be over-expressed in women, and influence the response to viral infections and vaccinations. However, the biallelic expression of the X-linked genes can promote harmful autoimmune and inflammatory responses. Cardiovascular diseases are more frequent in males and subjects without cardiovascular dysfunctions infected by CoV-19 have a better prognosis, but these effects are still under study. It is hoped that certain drugs, such as CoV-19 receptor blockers, anti-inflammatories (against rheumatic diseases), monoclonal antibodies, anti-IL-1 and anti-IL-6, the remdesevir drug (analogue adenosine, effective against ebola), hydroxychloroquine (for the treatment of malaria) and vaccines, will open up new strategies and new therapeutic ways to combat this terrible virus.

title: Water scarcity and COVID-19 in sub-Saharan Africa

title: What next for the coronavirus response?

title: High‐dose, short‐term corticosteroids for ARDS caused by COVID‐19: a case series
abstract: We report a case series of seven mechanically ventilated patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) caused by coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) who received early treatment with high‐dose, short‐term systemic corticosteroids to prevent cytokine overproduction. Of the seven patients, four were male and median age was 69 years. They were intubated within seven days after admission when their respiratory status rapidly worsened. At that time, we administered 1000 or 500 mg/day for three days of methylprednisolone intravenously, followed by 1 mg/kg and tapered off. The median duration for the total administration of corticosteroids was 13 days. This high‐dose, short‐term corticosteroid therapy enabled extubation of the patients within seven days. Many questions on the clinical management of COVID‐19 remain unanswered, and data on corticosteroid therapy as a choice of treatment are mixed. We present the clinical course of our cases, review the previous evidence, and discuss management.

title: Commentary: Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors as potential adjunct treatment targeting the cytokine storm in COVID-19
abstract: The most severe presentation of COVID-19 is characterized by a hyperinflammatory state attributed to the massive pro-inflammatory cytokine release, called "cytokine storm". Several specific anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressive agents are being evaluated by ongoing clinical trials; however, there is currently insufficient evidence for their efficacy and safety in COVID-19 treatment. Given the role of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE) 4 and cyclic adenosine monophosphate in the inflammatory response, we hypothesize that selective PDE4 inhibition may attenuate the cytokine storm in COVID-19, through the upstream inhibition of pro-inflammatory molecules, particularly TNF-&#945;, and the regulation of the pro-inflammatory/anti-inflammatory balance. Conversely, other anti-cytokine agents lead to the downstream inhibition of specific targets, such as IL-1, IL-6 or TNF-&#945;, and may not be efficient in blocking the cytokine storm, once it has been triggered. Due to their mechanism of action targeting an early stage of the inflammatory response and ameliorating lung inflammation, we believe that selective PDE4 inhibitors may represent a promising treatment option for the early phase of COVID-19 pneumonia before the cytokine storm and severe multiorgan dysfunction take place. Furthermore, PDE4 inhibitors present several advantages including an excellent safety profile; the oral route of administration; the convenient dosing; and beneficial metabolic properties. Interestingly, obesity and diabetes mellitus type 2 have been reported to be risk factors for the severity of COVID-19. Therefore, randomized clinical trials of PDE4 inhibitors are necessary to explore their potential therapeutic effect as an adjunct to supportive measures and other therapeutic regiments.

title: The cytokine storm of COVID-19: a spotlight on prevention and protection.
abstract: The cytokine release syndrome (CRS) of COVID-19 is associated with the development of critical illness requiring multi-organ support. Further research is required to halt progression of multi-organ injury induced by hyper-inflammation. AREAS COVERED PubMed/MEDLINETM databases were accessed between May 9th-June 9th, 2020, to review the latest perspectives on the treatment and pathogenesis of CRS.  Over-activity of chemotaxis triggers a macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) resulting in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. IL-6 and TNF- α are at the forefront of hyper-inflammation. The inflammatory cascade induces endothelial activation and capillary leak, leading to circulatory collapse and shock. As endothelial dysfunction persists, there is activation of the clotting cascade and microvascular obstruction. Continued endothelial activation results in multi-organ failure, regardless of pulmonary tissue damage. We propose that targeting the endothelium may interrupt this cycle. Immuno-modulating therapies have been suggested, however, further data is necessary to confirm that they do not jeopardize adaptive immunity. Inhibition of IL-6 and the Janus Kinase, signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins pathway (JAK/STAT), are favorable targets. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) reduces the inflammation of sepsis in animal models and should be considered as a low risk intervention, in combination with cardiovascular protection.

title: Insights into pediatric multi-system inflammatory syndrome and COVID-19

title: Immunopathogenesis of coronavirus infections: implications for SARS
abstract: At the end of 2002, the first cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) were reported, and in the following year, SARS resulted in considerable mortality and morbidity worldwide. SARS is caused by a novel species of coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and is the most severe coronavirus-mediated human disease that has been described so far. On the basis of similarities with other coronavirus infections, SARS might, in part, be immune mediated. As discussed in this Review, studies of animals that are infected with other coronaviruses indicate that excessive and sometimes dysregulated responses by macrophages and other pro-inflammatory cells might be particularly important in the pathogenesis of disease that is caused by infection with these viruses. It is hoped that lessons from such studies will help us to understand more about the pathogenesis of SARS in humans and to prevent or control outbreaks of SARS in the future.

title: Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases following COVID-19

title: The ACE-2 in COVID-19: Foe or Friend?
abstract: COVID-19 is a rapidly spreading outbreak globally. Emerging evidence demonstrates that older individuals and people with underlying metabolic conditions of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia are at higher risk of morbidity and mortality. The SARS-CoV-2 infects humans through the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE-2) receptor. The ACE-2 receptor is a part of the dual system renin-angiotensin-system (RAS) consisting of ACE-Ang-II-AT (1) R axis and ACE-2-Ang-(1–7)-Mas axis. In metabolic disorders and with increased age, it is known that there is an upregulation of ACE-Ang-II-AT (1) R axis with a downregulation of ACE-2-Ang-(1–7)-Mas axis. The activated ACE-Ang-II-AT1R axis leads to pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic effects in respiratory system, vascular dysfunction, myocardial fibrosis, nephropathy, and insulin secretory defects with increased insulin resistance. On the other hand, the ACE-2-Ang-(1–7)-Mas axis has anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects on the respiratory system and anti-inflammatory, antioxidative stress, and protective effects on vascular function, protects against myocardial fibrosis, nephropathy, pancreatitis, and insulin resistance. In effect, the balance between these two axes may determine the prognosis. The already strained ACE-2-Ang-(1–7)-Mas in metabolic disorders is further stressed due to the use of the ACE-2 by the virus for entry, which affects the prognosis in terms of respiratory compromise. Further evidence needs to be gathered on whether modulation of the renin angiotensin system would be advantageous due to upregulation of Mas activation or harmful due to the concomitant ACE-2 receptor upregulation in the acute management of COVID-19.

title: Network Analysis and Transcriptome Profiling Identify Autophagic and Mitochondrial Dysfunctions in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
abstract: Lack of effective treatment strategy and vaccine makes SARS-CoV-2 infection a big threat to mankind. Analyzing the host transcriptional changes in response to virus infection will help delineate the biological processes impacted by the virus and will potentially facilitate drug development. Using RNA seq datasets of virus infected lung cell lines A549 (infected with either SARS-CoV-2 or Influenza A virus (IAV)) and Calu3 (infected with either SARS-CoV-2 or MERS-CoV), we present a detailed analysis of genes expression changes in response to each of these viral infections. Upregulation of the antiviral interferon signaling was observed with all three viral infections. However, upregulation of the cytokine/inflammatory processes, downregulation of mitochondrial organization and respiration processes, and perturbation in the autophagic processes were specifically observed in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells, which were absent in IAV infected cells. Upregulation of the inflammatory processes was concordant with the gene expression signature of COVID-19 lungs and with inflammatory symptoms observed in severe cases of COVID-19 patients. Coexpression networks analysis also facilitated the identification of protein-protein interaction (PPI) subnetworks of genes in the inflammation and mitochondrial processes that were either coordinately up or downregulated in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells, respectively. Comparing the expression of marker genes of lung cell types from single cell RNA seq data with expression profile of A549 cells revealed that they likely represent the lung epithelial lineage cells. The cellular processes uniquely perturbed in infected cells that were identified in this analysis likely delineates lung epithelial cells response to the SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: COVID‐19: a collision of complement, coagulation and inflammatory pathways
abstract: COVID‐19 is frequently accompanied by a hypercoagulable inflammatory state with microangiopathic pulmonary changes that can precede the diffuse alveolar damage characteristic of typical ARDS seen in other severe pathogenic infections. Parallels with systemic inflammatory disorders such as atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome (aHUS) have implicated the complement pathway in the pathogenesis of COVID‐19, and particularly the anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a released from cleavage of C3 and C5 respectively. C5a is a potent cell signalling protein that activates a cytokine storm – a hyper‐inflammatory phenomenon – within hours of infection and the innate immune response. However, excess C5a can result in a pro‐inflammatory environment orchestrated through a plethora of mechanisms, that propagates lung injury, lymphocyte exhaustion and an immune paresis. Furthermore, disruption of the homeostatic interactions between complement and extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways contributes to a net pro‐coagulant state in the microvasculature of critical organs. Fatal COVID‐19 has been associated with a systemic inflammatory response accompanied by a pro‐coagulant state and organ damage, particularly microvascular thrombi in the lungs and kidneys. Pathologic studies report strong evidence of complement activation. C5 blockade reduces inflammatory cytokines and their manifestations in animal studies, and has shown benefits in patients with aHUS, prompting investigation of this approach in the treatment of COVID‐19. This review describes the role of the complement pathway and particularly C5a and its aberrations in highly pathogenic virus infections, and therefore its potential as a therapeutic target in COVID‐19.

title: New spectrum of COVID-19 manifestations in children: Kawasaki-like syndrome and hyperinflammatory response
abstract: Since late April 2020, data regarding Kawasaki-like syndrome and hyperinflammatory response in children associated with COVID-19 has rapidly emerged. Much remains unknown about the risk factors, pathogenesis, prognosis, and specific therapy for this emerging manifestation of COVID-19 known as Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). MIS-C is rare and early recognition is crucial though no standardized treatment guideline have been established. Worldwide collaboration will be important as more cases are recognized going forward.

title: Towards treatment planning of COVID-19: Rationale and hypothesis for the use of multiple immunosuppressive agents: Anti-antibodies, immunoglobulins, and corticosteroids
abstract: The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV2, can cause a potentially fatal disease, COVID-19, in humans. Here, we will provide an overview of therapeutic options for COVID-19. Plasma from patients recovered from COVID-19 that contains antibodies against SARS-CoV2 has shown promising results in patients with severe COVID-19. Also, IVIG, combined with moderate-dose of corticosteroids, might improve patient outcomes. Evidence links COVID-19 to variable degrees of inflammation. Studies show that the use of corticosteroids might accelerate recovery from COVID-19. There are, however, no controlled clinical trials that show whether the use of corticosteroids can reduce COVID-19-related death. Also, the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL6 is the best-documented cytokine in COVID-19 correlated with severity, criticality, viral load, and prognosis of patients with COVID-19. Tocilizumab, a monoclonal antibody against IL6, could confer clinical benefit in patients with high IL6 levels. Essential elements that process SARS-CoV2 cell entry and specific characteristics that allow SARS-CoV2 to escape the immune system have the potential as targets for COVID-19 therapy.

title: Eicosanoids: the Overlooked Storm in COVID-19?
abstract: Severe coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) symptoms, including systemic inflammatory response and multi-system organ failure, are now affecting thousands of infected patients and causing widespread mortality. Coronavirus infection causes tissue damage, which triggers the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response and subsequent eicosanoid and cytokine storms. While pro-inflammatory eicosanoids including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes are critical mediators of physiological processes such as inflammation, fever, allergy, and pain, their role in COVID-19 are poorly characterized. Arachidonic acid derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) could alleviate the systemic hyper-inflammatory response in COVID-19 infection by modulating ER stress and stimulating the resolution of inflammation. Soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) inhibitors, which increase endogenous EET levels, exhibit potent anti-inflammatory activity and inhibit various pathologic processes in preclinical disease models including pulmonary fibrosis, thrombosis, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Therefore, targeting eicosanoids and sEH could be a novel therapeutic approach in combating COVID-19. In this review, we discuss the predominant role of eicosanoids in regulating the inflammatory cascade and propose the potential application of sEH inhibitors in alleviating COVID-19 symptoms. We also discuss the host-protective action of omega-3 fatty acid-derived epoxyeicosanoids and specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) in regulating anti-inflammation and anti-viral response. Future studies determining the eicosanoid profile in COVID-19 patient or preclinical model are pivotal in providing the novel insight of coronavirus-host interaction and inflammation modulation.

title: Hyponatremia: A Possible Immuno-Neuroendocrine Interface with COVID-19 in a Kidney Transplant Recipient.
abstract: There is fast-emerging, cumulative clinical data on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in kidney transplant recipients. Although respiratory tract symptoms are often the initial presentation among kidney transplant recipients who contract COVID-19, other clinical features which may indicate underlying SARS-CoV-2-related inflammation, such as gastrointestinal symptoms, are not uncommon. Hyponatremia can develop and may reflect underlying inflammation. Interferon-6 is an important pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 complications and may play a role in the inappropriately higher secretion of antidiuretic hormone leading to hyponatremia. This pathway is the so-called immuno-neuroendocrine interface. Hyponatremia in COVID-19 has been reported in a few case series of non-kidney transplant patients and only one reported kidney transplant recipient. However, the clinical course and prognostic value of hyponatremia in this population is not described in detail. We report a kidney transplant recipient who was infected with COVID-19 and exhibited severe hyponatremia secondary to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Hyponatremia is one of the clinical presentations of COVID-19, although less common, and may occur more frequently in kidney transplant recipients. Thus the possible underlying immuno-neuroendocrine relationship related to the inflammatory process of COVID-19 leading to hyponatremia, and its prognostic value, are reviewed.

title: Editor’s Perspectives – June 2020

title: The Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer perspective on regulation of interleukin-6 signaling in COVID-19-related systemic inflammatory response
abstract: The pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has placed an unprecedented burden on healthcare systems around the world. In patients who experience severe disease, acute respiratory distress is often accompanied by a pathological immune reaction, sometimes referred to as ‘cytokine storm’. One hallmark feature of the profound inflammatory state seen in patients with COVID-19 who succumb to pneumonia and hypoxia is marked elevation of serum cytokines, especially interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 17 (IL-17), interleukin 8 (IL-8) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Initial experience from the outbreaks in Italy, China and the USA has anecdotally demonstrated improved outcomes for critically ill patients with COVID-19 with the administration of cytokine-modulatory therapies, especially anti-IL-6 agents. Although ongoing trials are investigating anti-IL-6 therapies, access to these therapies is a concern, especially as the numbers of cases worldwide continue to climb. An immunology-informed approach may help identify alternative agents to modulate the pathological inflammation seen in patients with COVID-19. Drawing on extensive experience administering these and other immune-modulating therapies, the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer offers this perspective on potential alternatives to anti-IL-6 that may also warrant consideration for management of the systemic inflammatory response and pulmonary compromise that can be seen in patients with severe COVID-19.

title: Oligodendrocytes that survive acute coronavirus infection induce prolonged inflammatory responses in the CNS
abstract: Neurotropic strains of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), a coronavirus, cause acute and chronic demyelinating encephalomyelitis with similarities to the human disease multiple sclerosis. Here, using a lineage-tracking system, we show that some cells, primarily oligodendrocytes (OLs) and oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), survive the acute MHV infection, are associated with regions of demyelination, and persist in the central nervous system (CNS) for at least 150 d. These surviving OLs express major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and other genes associated with an inflammatory response. Notably, the extent of inflammatory cell infiltration was variable, dependent on anatomic location within the CNS, and without obvious correlation with numbers of surviving cells. We detected more demyelination in regions with larger numbers of T cells and microglia/macrophages compared to those with fewer infiltrating cells. Conversely, in regions with less inflammation, these previously infected OLs more rapidly extended processes, consistent with normal myelinating function. Together, these results show that OLs are inducers as well as targets of the host immune response and demonstrate how a CNS infection, even after resolution, can induce prolonged inflammatory changes with CNS region-dependent impairment in remyelination.

title: EEG findings in acutely ill patients investigated for SARS‐CoV‐2/COVID‐19: A small case series preliminary report
abstract: Acute encephalopathy may occur in COVID‐19‐infected patients. We investigated whether medically indicated EEGs performed in acutely ill patients under investigation (PUIs) for COVID‐19 report epileptiform abnormalities and whether these are more prevalent in COVID‐19 positive than negative patients.  In this retrospective case series, adult COVID‐19 inpatient PUIs underwent EEGs for acute encephalopathy and/or seizure‐like events. PUIs had 8‐channel headband EEGs (Ceribell; 20 COVID‐19 positive, 6 COVID‐19 negative); 2 more COVID‐19 patients had routine EEGs. Overall, 26 Ceribell EEGs, 4 routine and 7 continuous EEG studies were reviewed. EEGs were interpreted by board‐certified clinical neurophysiologists (n = 16). EEG findings were correlated with demographic data, clinical presentation and history, and medication usage. Fisher's exact test was used.  We included 28 COVID‐19 PUIs (30‐83 years old), of whom 22 tested positive (63.6% males) and 6 tested negative (33.3% male). The most common indications for EEG, among COVID‐19‐positive vs COVID‐19‐negative patients, respectively, were new onset encephalopathy (68.2% vs 33.3%) and seizure‐like events (14/22, 63.6%; 2/6, 33.3%), even among patients without prior history of seizures (11/17, 64.7%; 2/6, 33.3%). Sporadic epileptiform discharges (EDs) were present in 40.9% of COVID‐19‐positive and 16.7% of COVID‐19‐negative patients; frontal sharp waves were reported in 8/9 (88.9%) of COVID‐19‐positive patients with EDs and in 1/1 of COVID‐19‐negative patient with EDs. No electrographic seizures were captured, but 19/22 COVID‐19‐positive and 6/6 COVID‐19‐negative patients were given antiseizure medications and/or sedatives before the EEG.  This is the first preliminary report of EDs in the EEG of acutely ill COVID‐19‐positive patients with encephalopathy or suspected clinical seizures. EDs are relatively common in this cohort and typically appear as frontal sharp waves. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings and evaluate the potential direct or indirect effects of COVID‐19 on activating epileptic activity.

title: Molecular Targets in the Chemotherapy of Coronavirus Infection
abstract: In the pathogenesis of the infectious process in the respiratory tract by SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 coronaviruses, two stages can be distinguished: early (etiotropic) and late (pathogenetic) ones. In the first stage, when the virus multiplication and accumulation are prevalent under insufficient host immune response, the use of chemotherapeutic agents blocking the reproduction of the virus is reasonable to suppress the development of the disease. This article considers six major chemotherapeutic classes aimed at certain viral targets: inhibitors of viral RNA polymerase, inhibitors of viral protease Mpro, inhibitors of proteolytic activation of viral protein S allowing virus entry into the target cell, inhibitors of virus uncoating in cellular endosomes, compounds of exogenous interferons, and compounds of natural and recombinant virus-neutralizing antibodies. In the second stage, when the multiplication of the virus decreases and threatening pathological processes of excessive inflammation, acute respiratory distress syndrome, pulmonary edema, hypoxia, and secondary bacterial pneumonia and sepsis events develop, a pathogenetic therapeutic approach including extracorporeal blood oxygenation, detoxification, and anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial therapy seems to be the most effective way for the patient’s recovery.

title: Mesenchymal stem cell use in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a potential therapeutic application
abstract: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a condition of acute respiratory failure resulting from noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. It may occur as a consequence of lung infection, sepsis, trauma, aspiration or drug reaction. The pathogenesis of ARDS is understood to be an unregulated inflammatory cascade with both endothelial and epithelial layer damage leading to alveolar fluid collection and pulmonary edema. Despite improved understanding of the cause of ARDS, treatment remains supportive with a mortality rate ranging from 25–40%. Preclinical and early phase clinical trials have highlighted the potential role of mesenchymal stem cells in combating the inflammatory cascade through immunomodulatory mechanisms and assisting in tissue repair.

title: Role of macrolide therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
abstract: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. The Global Burden of Disease study has concluded that COPD will become the third leading cause of death worldwide by 2020, and will increase its ranking of disability-adjusted life years lost from 12th to 5th. Acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD) are associated with impaired quality of life and pulmonary function. More frequent or severe AECOPDs have been associated with especially markedly impaired quality of life and a greater longitudinal loss of pulmonary function. COPD and AECOPDs are characterized by an augmented inflammatory response. Macrolide antibiotics are macrocyclical lactones that provide adequate coverage for the most frequently identified pathogens in AECOPD and have been generally included in published guidelines for AECOPD management. In addition, they exert broad-ranging, immunomodulatory effects both in vitro and in vivo, as well as diverse actions that suppress microbial virulence factors. Macrolide antibiotics have been used to successfully treat a number of chronic, inflammatory lung disorders including diffuse panbronchiolitis, asthma, noncystic fibrosis associated bronchiectasis, and cystic fibrosis. Data in COPD patients have been limited and contradictory but the majority hint to a potential clinical and biological effect. Additional, prospective, controlled data are required to define any potential treatment effect, the nature of this effect, and the role of bronchiectasis, baseline colonization, and other cormorbidities.

title: Current pharmacological treatments for COVID‐19: What's next?
abstract: Since December 2019 SARS‐Cov‐2 was found responsible for the disease COVID‐19, which has spread worldwide. No specific therapies/vaccines are yet available for the treatment of COVID‐19. Drug repositioning may offer a strategy and a number of drugs have been repurposed, including lopinavir/ritonavir, remdesivir, favipiravir and tocilizumab. This paper describes the main pharmacological properties of such drugs administered to patients with COVID‐19, focusing on their antiviral, immune‐modulatory and/or anti‐inflammatory actions. Where available, data from clinical trials involving patients with COVID‐19 are reported. Preliminary clinical trials seem to support their benefit. However, such drugs in COVID‐19 patients have peculiar safety profiles. Thus, adequate clinical trials are necessary for these compounds. Nevertheless, while waiting for effective preventive measures i.e. vaccines, many clinical trials on drugs belonging to different therapeutic classes are currently underway. Their results will help us in defining the best way to treat COVID‐19 and reducing its symptoms and complications.

title: Expert recommendations on blood purification treatment protocol for patients with severe COVID-19 Recommendation and consensus
abstract: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was first diagnosed in Wuhan in December 2019. The World Health Organization defined the subsequent outbreak of COVID-19 worldwide as a public health emergency of international concern. Epidemiological data indicate that at least 20% of COVID-19 patients have severe disease. In addition to impairment of the respiratory system, acute kidney injury (AKI) is a major complication. Immune damage mediated by cytokine storms and concomitant AKI is a key factor for poor prognosis. Based on previous experience of blood purification for patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome combined with clinical front-line practice, we developed a blood purification protocol for patients with severe COVID-19. This protocol is divided into four major steps. The first step is to assess whether patients with severe COVID-19 require blood purification. The second step is to prescribe a blood purification treatment for patients with COVID-19. The third step is to monitor and adjust parameters of blood purification. The fourth step is to evaluate the timing of discontinuation of blood purification. It is expected that blood purification will play a key role in effectively reducing the mortality of patients with severe COVID-19 through the standardized implementation of the present protocol.

title: Immunopathological characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 cases in Guangzhou, China
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is a respiratory disorder caused by the highly contagious SARS‐CoV‐2. The immunopathological characteristics of COVID‐19 patients, either systemic or local, have not been thoroughly studied. In the present study, we analyzed both the changes in the number of various immune cell types as well as cytokines important for immune reactions and inflammation. Our data indicate that patients with severe COVID‐19 exhibited an overall decline of lymphocytes including CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, B cells, and NK cells. The number of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells was moderately increased in patients with mild COVID‐19. IL‐6, IL‐10, and C‐reactive protein were remarkably up‐regulated in patients with severe COVID‐19. In conclusion, our study shows that the comprehensive decrease of lymphocytes, the elevation of IL‐6, IL‐10, and C‐reactive protein are reliable indicators of severe COVID‐19.

title: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Induces Differential Host Gene Expression Responses Associated with Pathogenesis
abstract: The newly emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) exhibits unique characteristics with respect to its molecular biology, replication, transcription and assembly Several cell types including Vero E6 cells are permissive for SARS-CoV replication with resultant cytopathic effects Microarray analyses have elucidated the cellular expression patterns of human genes in response to SARS-CoV infection These studies have revealed alterations in the transcription and translation of genes belonging to various functional groups including cell cycle, apoptosis, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, host translation, protein modulators, protein trafficking, cytoskeletal network, cellular metabolism, and antiviral resistance There is significant induction of heat shock proteins that are crucial to the immune response mechanism Specific immune-related genes are upregulated, coinciding with the high cytokine profiles in SARS patients which incite proinflammatory responses Modified levels of transcripts mediating proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes illustrate the balance between opposing forces during SARS pathogenesis Another interesting phenomenon is the differential expression of genes that support both anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic processes Thus, anti-apoptotic mechanisms facilitate the initial viral multiplication, whereas at later infection phase, apoptosis results in cell lysis to release viral progeny Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses provide new insights into the host-pathogen interactions and pathophysiology of SARS-CoV infection These critical interactions involve an elaborate interplay between various mechanisms to favor virus propagation before frank apoptosis and the triggering of specific pathways in host cells that attempt to eliminate the pathogen

title: The plasticity of inflammatory monocyte responses to the inflamed central nervous system
abstract: Over the last three decades it has become increasingly clear that monocytes, originally thought to have fixed, stereotypic responses to foreign stimuli, mediate exquisitely balanced protective and pathogenic roles in disease and immunity. This balance is crucial in core functional organs, such as the central nervous system (CNS), where minor changes in neuronal microenvironments and the production of immune factors can result in significant disease with fatal consequences or permanent neurological sequelae. Viral encephalitis and multiple sclerosis are examples of important human diseases in which the pathogenic contribution of monocytes recruited from the bone marrow plays a critical role in the clinical expression of disease, as they differentiate into macrophage or dendritic cells in the CNS to carry out effector functions. While antigen-specific lymphocyte populations are central to the adaptive immune response in both cases, in viral encephalitis a prominent macrophage infiltration may mediate immunopathological damage, seizure induction, and death. However, the autoimmune response to non-replicating, non-infectious, but abundant, self antigen has a different disease progression, associated with differentiation of significant numbers of infiltrating monocytes into dendritic cells in the CNS. Whilst a predominant presence of macrophages or dendritic cells in the inflamed CNS in viral encephalitis or multiple sclerosis is well described, the way in which the inflamed CNS mobilizes monocytes in the bone marrow to migrate to the CNS and the key drivers that lead to these specific differentiation pathways in vivo are not well understood. Here we review the current understanding of factors facilitating inflammatory monocyte generation, migration and entry into the brain, as well as their differentiation towards macrophages or dendritic cells in viral and autoimmune disease in relation to their respective disease outcomes.

title: Pulmonary radiological change of COVID-19 patients with 99mTc-MDP treatment
abstract: As increasing cases of COVID-19 around world, urgent need for effective COVID-19-specific therapeutic drugs is necessary; therefore, we conducted a pilot randomized-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of 99mTc-MDP for COVID-19 therapeutic treatment.  A total of 21 mild patients with COVID-19 were enrolled in this pilot RCT from February 2020 through March 2020, and then were assigned, in a 1:1 ratio, into control (11 patients) and 99mTc-MDP group (10 patients). Patients in the control group received routine treatment and patients assigned to the 99mTc-MDP group received a combination of routine treatment and an administration of 99mTc-MDP injection of 5ml/day. Both of the patients in the control and 99mTc-MDP groups were treated for 7 days with the primary end point of CT-based radiological pulmonary changes during 7-day follow-up.  From baseline to the day 7, 8 (80%) of 10 mild patients in the 99mTc-MDP group had a significant radiological improvement in lung and a decline in inflammatory infiltration, whereas only 1 (9.1%) of 11 patients in the control group had a radiological improvement in lung. None of the patients in the 99mTc-MDP group had disease progression from mild to severe, as well as an inflammatory cytokine storm, and 2 mild patients (18.2%) in the control group developed severe. During days 7 through 14, the number of patients with radiological improvement in the 99mTc-MDP group remained consistent, and only 1 additional case (22%) in the control group were reported.  In this randomized pilot study, 99mTc-MDP had an effective inhibitory effect on the inflammatory disease progression for the therapy of COVID-19, and it can accelerate the absorption of pulmonary inflammation in a short period of time during the process of treatment.

title: Extracorporeal blood purification treatment options for COVID-19: The role of immunoadsorption
abstract: The activation of the innate and adaptive immune systems by SARS-CoV-2 causes the release of several inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6. The inflammatory hypercytokinemia causes immunopathological changes in the lungs including vascular leakage, and alveolar edema. As a result of these changes in the lungs, hypoxia and acute respiratory distress syndrome occur in patients with COVID-19. Even though there are clinical trials on the development of therapeutics and vaccines, there are currently no licensed vaccines or therapeutics for COVID-19. Pharmacological approaches have shown poor results in sepsis-like syndromes caused by the hypercytokinemia. Suppressing the cytokine storm is an important way to prevent the organ damage in patients with COVID-19. Extracorporeal blood purification could be proposed as an adjunctive therapy for sepsis, aiming to control the associated dysregulation of the immune system, which is known to protect organ functions. Several extracorporeal blood purification therapies are now available, and most of them target endotoxins and/or the cytokines and aim improving the immune response. For this purpose, plasmapheresis and immunoadsorption may be an important adjunctive treatment option to manage the complications caused by cytokine storm in critically ill patients with COVID-19.

title: COVID-19-Associated dyslipidemia: Implications for mechanism of impaired resolution and novel therapeutic approaches
abstract: The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic presents a global challenge for managing acutely ill patients and complications from viral infection. Systemic inflammation accompanied by a "cytokine storm," hemostasis alterations and severe vasculitis have all been reported to occur with COVID-19, and emerging evidence suggests that dysregulation of lipid transport may contribute to some of these complications. Here, we aim to summarize the current understanding of the potential mechanisms related to COVID-19 dyslipidemia and propose possible adjunctive type therapeutic approaches that modulate lipids and lipoproteins. Specifically, we hypothesize that changes in the quantity and composition of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) that occurs with COVID-19 can significantly decrease the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative functions of HDL and could contribute to pulmonary inflammation. Furthermore, we propose that lipoproteins with oxidized phospholipids and fatty acids could lead to virus-associated organ damage via overactivation of innate immune scavenger receptors. Restoring lipoprotein function with ApoA-I raising agents or blocking relevant scavenger receptors with neutralizing antibodies could, therefore, be of value in the treatment of COVID-19. Finally, we discuss the role of omega-3 fatty acids transported by lipoproteins in generating specialized proresolving mediators and how together with anti-inflammatory drugs, they could decrease inflammation and thrombotic complications associated with COVID-19.

title: Mechanisms of Myocardial Injury in Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) predominantly presents with symptoms of fever, fatigue, cough and respiratory failure. However, it appears to have a unique interplay with cardiovascular disease (CVD); patients with pre-existing CVD are at highest risk for mortality from COVID-19, along with the elderly. COVID-19 contributes to cardiovascular complications including arrhythmias, myocardial dysfunction and myocardial inflammation. Although the exact mechanism of myocardial inflammation in patients with COVID-19 is not known, several plausible mechanisms have been proposed based on early observational reports. In this article, the authors summarise the available literature on mechanisms of myocardial injury in COVID-19.

title: Changes of Laboratory Cardiac Markers and Mechanisms of Cardiac Injury in Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: Some patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) show abnormal changes in laboratory myocardial injury markers, suggesting that patients with myocardial injury have a higher mortality rate than those without myocardial injury. This article reviews the possible mechanism of myocardial injury in patients with COVID-19. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) affects the patients with COVID-19 in aspects of direct infection of myocardial injury, specific binding to functional receptors on cardiomyocytes, and immune-mediated myocardial injury. During hospitalization, the monitoring of laboratory myocardial injury markers in patients of COVID-19 should be strengthened.

title: Hyperacute multi-organ thromboembolic storm in COVID-19: a case report
abstract: Acute viral pneumonia, hypoxemic respiratory failure and severe inflammatory response are hallmarks of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The COVID-19-associated inflammatory state may further lead to symptomatic thromboembolic complications despite prophylaxis. We report a 66-year-old female patient with post-mortem diagnosis of COVID-19 who presented progressive livedo racemosa, acute renal failure and myocardial injury, as well as an absence of respiratory symptoms. Transthoracic echocardiography showed severe spontaneous echo contrast in the right cardiac chambers and right-sided cardiac overload presumed to result from pulmonary microvascular thrombosis or embolism. d-dimer levels were increased. The patient developed an acute ischemic stroke and died 2 days following presentation despite therapeutic anticoagulation. Her predominantly thromboembolic presentation supports the concept of coronavirus infection of endothelial cells and hypercoagulability, or COVID-19 endotheliitis. The case we report highlights that COVID-19-associated hyperacute multi-organ thromboembolic storm may precede or present disproportionately to respiratory involvement.  The online version of this article (10.1007/s11239-020-02173-w) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

title: The Modulation of Mucosal Antiviral Immunity by Immunobiotics: Could They Offer Any Benefit in the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic?
abstract: Viral respiratory infections are of major importance because of their capacity to cause of a high degree of morbidity and mortality in high-risk populations, and to rapidly spread between countries. Perhaps the best example of this global threat is the infectious disease caused by the new SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has infected more than 4 million people worldwide, causing the death of 287,000 persons according to the WHO's situation report on May 13, 2020. The availability of therapeutic tools that would be used massively to prevent or mitigate the detrimental effects of emerging respiratory viruses on human health is therefore mandatory. In this regard, research from the last decade has reported the impact of the intestinal microbiota on the respiratory immunity. It was conclusively demonstrated how the variations in the intestinal microbiota affect the responses of respiratory epithelial cells and antigen presenting cells against respiratory virus attack. Moreover, the selection of specific microbial strains (immunobiotics) with the ability to modulate immunity in distal mucosal sites made possible the generation of nutritional interventions to strengthen respiratory antiviral defenses. In this article, the most important characteristics of the limited information available regarding the immune response against SARS-CoV-2 virus are revised briefly. In addition, this review summarizes the knowledge on the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the improvement of respiratory antiviral defenses by beneficial immunobiotic microorganisms such as Lactobacillus rhamnosus CRL1505. The ability of beneficial microorganisms to enhance type I interferons and antiviral factors in the respiratory tract, stimulate Th1 response and antibodies production, and regulate inflammation and coagulation activation during the course of viral infections reducing tissue damage and preserving lung functionally, clearly indicate the potential of immunobiotics to favorably influence the immune response against SARS-CoV-2 virus.

title: Crosstalk between endoplasmic reticulum stress and anti-viral activities: A novel therapeutic target for COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 caused by 2019–nCov/SARS-CoV-2 has become a pandemic with an urgent need for understanding the mechanisms and identifying a treatment. Viral infections including SARS-CoV are associated with increased levels of reactive oxygen species, disturbances of Ca(++) caused by unfolded protein response (UPR) mediated by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and is due to the exploitation of virus's own protein i.e., viroporins into the host cells. Several clinical trials are on-going including testing Remdesivir (anti-viral), Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine derivatives (anti-malarial drugs) etc. Unfortunately, each drug has specific limitations. Herein, we review the viral protein involvement to activate ER stress transducers (IRE-1, PERK, ATF-6) and their downstream signals; and evaluate combination therapies for COVID-19 mediated ER stress alterations. Melatonin is an immunoregulator, anti-pyretic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and ER stress modulator during viral infections. It enhances protective mechanisms for respiratory tract disorders. Andrographolide, isolated from Andrographis paniculata, has versatile biological activities including immunomodulation and determining SARS-CoV-2 binding site. Considering the properties of both compounds in terms of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-pyrogenic, anti-viral and ER stress modulation and computational approaches revealing andrographolide docks with the SARS-CoV2 binding site, we predict that this combination therapy may have potential utility against COVID-19.

title: A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19
abstract: COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) is a public health emergency of international concern. As of this time, there is no known effective pharmaceutical treatment, although it is much needed for patient contracting the severe form of the disease. The aim of this systematic review was to summarize the evidence regarding chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19.  PubMed, EMBASE, and three trial Registries were searched for studies on the use of chloroquine in patients with COVID-19.  We included six articles (one narrative letter, one in-vitro study, one editorial, expert consensus paper, two national guideline documents) and 23 ongoing clinical trials in China. Chloroquine seems to be effective in limiting the replication of SARS-CoV-2 (virus causing COVID-19) in vitro.  There is rationale, pre-clinical evidence of effectiveness and evidence of safety from long-time clinical use for other indications to justify clinical research on chloroquine in patients with COVID-19. However, clinical use should either adhere to the Monitored Emergency Use of Unregistered Interventions (MEURI) framework or be ethically approved as a trial as stated by the World Health Organization. Safety data and data from high-quality clinical trials are urgently needed.

title: RESPUESTA INFLAMATORIA EN RELACIÓN A COVID-19 Y OTROS FENOTIPOS PROTROMBÓTICOS
abstract: Resumen El sistema hemostático actúa en concierto con la inflamación, de forma que tras la respuesta inflamatoria diversos mediadores activan el sistema hemostático a través de disfunción endotelial, activación plaquetar y de coagulación, promoviendo la trombosis, lo que se ha denominado tromboinflamación. En este proceso adquiere especial relevancia el inflamasoma, cuya estimulación promueve respuestas inmunes innata y adaptativa. La activación del inflamasoma juega un papel fisopatológico importante en diversas patologías que cursan con fenómenos inflamatorios y trombóticos. El papel de la tromboinflamación se ha puesto de relevancia en la pandemia por COVID-19, en la que se ha descrito una tormenta de citocinas como uno de los mecanismos responsables.  The haemostatic system acts in concert with inflammation, so that after inflammatory response various mediators activate the haemostatic system through endothelial dysfunction, platelet activation and coagulation promoting thrombosis, which is termed thromboinflammation. In this process, the inflammasome acquires special relevance; its stimulation promotes innate and adaptive immune responses. Inflammasome activation plays an important physiopathological role in several disorders with inflammatory and thrombotic phenomena. The role of thromboinflammation has become relevant in the COVID-19 pandemic, in which a cytokine storm has been described as one of the mechanisms responsible.

title: A Call for Vaccine Against COVID-19: Implications for Cardiovascular Morbidity and Healthcare Utilization

title: Differential Regulation of Toll-Like Receptor-Mediated Cytokine Production by Unfolded Protein Response
abstract: The ability of the host immune response is largely mediated by the proinflammatory cytokine production. Physiological and pathological conditions of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) trigger unfolded protein response and contribute to the development or pathology of inflammatory diseases. Under ER stress, unfolded protein response (UPR) signaling pathways participate in upregulating inflammatory cytokine production via NF-kappaB, MAPK, and GSK-3β. Moreover, it has been suggested that ER stress crosstalks with toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway to promote the production of proinflammatory cytokines. In addition, TLR stimulation can lead to UPR activation to promote inflammation. In this review, we will cover how proinflammatory cytokine production by UPR signaling can be induced or amplified in the presence or absence of TLR activation.

title: Coronavirus COV-19/SARS-CoV-2 affects women less than men: clinical response to viral infection.
abstract: CoV-19/SARS-CoV-2 is a highly pathogenic virus that causes coronavirus-19 disease (COVID-19) an acute respiratory distress syndrome which provokes serious problems for global health. Studies suggest that there are many differences between men and women in the immune response to CoV-19 infection and inflammatory diseases. Women, compared to men, are less susceptible to viral infections based on a different innate immunity, steroid hormones and factors related to sex chromosomes. The presence of two X chromosomes in women emphasize the immune system even if one is inactive. The immune regulatory genes encoded by X chromosome in female gender causes lower viral load levels, and less inflammation than in man, while CD4+ T cells are higher with better immune response. In addition, women generally produce higher levels of antibodies which remain in the circulation longer. The levels of activation of the immune cells are higher in women than in men, and it is correlated with the trigger of TLR7 and the production of IFN. TLR7 is higher in women than in men and its biallelic expression leads to higher immune responses and increases the resistance to viral infections. TLR7 is expressed in innate immune cells which recognizes single strand RNA virus by promoting the production of antibodies against the virus and the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6 and IL-1 family members. Moreover, in women the production of inflammatory IL-6 after viral infection is lower than in males and is often correlated with a better longevity. In addition, on the X chromosome there are loci that code for the genes involved in the regulation of immune cells such as FOXP3, and transcription factor for Treg involved in virus pathogenesis. The X chromosome influences the immune system by acting on many other proteins, including TLR8, CD40L and CXCR3 which can be over-expressed in women, and influence the response to viral infections and vaccinations. However, the biallelic expression of the X-linked genes can promote harmful autoimmune and inflammatory responses. Cardiovascular diseases are more frequent in males and subjects without cardiovascular dysfunctions infected by CoV-19 have a better prognosis. ACE2 is a receptor for CoV-19 and protects lung damage. CoV-19 infection and the virus's Spike protein inhibit the expression of ACE2, abolishing its protective function. Inhibitors of the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACEI) are used to stem the devastating effects of CoV-19, to increase the number of CD3 and CD8 T cells and to reduce the viral load and IL-6 levels that control CoV-19 replication via NF-B, but these effects are still under study. It is hoped that certain drugs, such as CoV-19 receptor blockers, anti-inflammatories (against rheumatic diseases), monoclonal antibodies, anti-IL-1 and anti-IL-6, the remdesevir drug (analogue adenosine, effective against ebola), hydroxychloroquine (for the treatment of malaria) and vaccines, will open up new strategies and new therapeutic ways to combat this terrible virus.

title: Disruption of the Blood-Brain Barrier During Neuroinflammatory and Neuroinfectious Diseases
abstract: As the organ of highest metabolic demand, utilizing over 25% of total body glucose utilization via an enormous vasculature with one capillary every 73 μm, the brain evolves a barrier at the capillary and postcapillary venules to prevent toxicity during serum fluctuations in metabolites and hormones, to limit brain swelling during inflammation, and to prevent pathogen invasion. Understanding of neuroprotective barriers has since evolved to incorporate the neurovascular unit (NVU), the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier, and the presence of CNS lymphatics that allow leukocyte egress. Identification of the cellular and molecular participants in BBB function at the NVU has allowed detailed analyses of mechanisms that contribute to BBB dysfunction in various disease states, which include both autoimmune and infectious etiologies. This chapter will introduce some of the cellular and molecular components that promote barrier function but may be manipulated by inflammatory mediators or pathogens during neuroinflammation or neuroinfectious diseases.

title: Convalescent plasma in Covid-19: Possible mechanisms of action
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Therapeutic options including antimalarials, antivirals, antibiotics and vaccines are under study. Meanwhile the current pandemic has called attention over old therapeutic tools to treat infectious diseases. Convalescent plasma (CP) constitutes the first option in the current situation, since it has been successfully used in other coronaviruses outbreaks. Herein, we discuss the possible mechanisms of action of CP and their repercussion in COVID-19 pathogenesis, including direct neutralization of the virus, control of an overactive immune system (i.e., cytokine storm, Th1/Th17 ratio, complement activation) and immunomodulation of a hypercoagulable state. All these benefits of PC are expected to be better achieved if used in non-critically hospitalized patients, in the hope of reducing morbidity and mortality.

title: Understanding pathophysiology of hemostasis disorders in critically ill patients with COVID-19

title: COVID-19 as an Acute Inflammatory Disease
abstract: The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by the virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has created an unprecedented global crisis for the infrastructure sectors, including economic, political, healthcare, education, and research systems. Although over 90% of infected individuals are asymptomatic or manifest noncritical symptoms and will recover from the infection, those individuals presenting with critical symptoms are in urgent need of effective treatment options. Emerging data related to mechanism of severity and potential therapies for patients presenting with severe symptoms are scattered and therefore require a comprehensive analysis to focus research on developing effective therapeutics. A critical literature review suggests that the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with dysregulation of inflammatory immune responses, which in turn inhibits the development of protective immunity to the infection. Therefore, the use of therapeutics that modulate inflammation without compromising the adaptive immune response could be the most effective therapeutic strategy.

title: Chemical composition and pharmacological mechanism of Qingfei Paidu Decoction and Ma Xing Shi Gan Decoction against Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): in silico and experimental study
abstract: pandemic has become a huge threaten to global health, which raise urgent demand of developing efficient therapeutic strategy. The aim of the present study is to dissect the chemical composition and the pharmacological mechanism of Qingfei Paidu Decoction (QFPD), a clinically used Chinese medicine for treating COVID-19 patients in China. Through comprehensive analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry (MS), a total of 129 compounds of QFPD were putatively identified. We also constructed molecular networking of mass spectrometry data to classify these compounds into 14 main clusters, in which exhibited specific patterns of flavonoids (45%), glycosides (15%), carboxylic acids (10%), and saponins (5%). The target network model of QFPD, established by predicting and collecting the targets of identified compounds, indicated a pivotal role of Ma Xing Shi Gan Decoction (MXSG) in the therapeutic efficacy of QFPD. Supportively, through transcriptomic analysis of gene expression after MXSG administration in rat model of LPS-induced pneumonia, the thrombin and Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway were suggested to be essential pathways for MXSG mediated anti-inflammatory effects. Besides, changes in content of major compounds in MXSG during decoction were found by the chemical analysis. We also validate that one major compound in MXSG, i.e. glycyrrhizic acid, inhibited TLR agonists induced IL-6 production in macrophage. In conclusion, the integration of in silico and experimental results indicated that the therapeutic effects of QFPD against COVID-19 may be attributed to the anti-inflammatory effects of MXSG, which supports the rationality of the compatibility of TCM.

title: Immune response in COVID-19: addressing a pharmacological challenge by targeting pathways triggered by SARS-CoV-2
abstract: To date, no vaccines or effective drugs have been approved to prevent or treat COVID-19 and the current standard care relies on supportive treatments. Therefore, based on the fast and global spread of the virus, urgent investigations are warranted in order to develop preventive and therapeutic drugs. In this regard, treatments addressing the immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 infection have become a major focus. Notably, while a rapid and well-coordinated immune response represents the first line of defense against viral infection, excessive inflammatory innate response and impaired adaptive host immune defense may lead to tissue damage both at the site of virus entry and at systemic level. Several studies highlight relevant changes occurring both in innate and adaptive immune system in COVID-19 patients. In particular, the massive cytokine and chemokine release, the so-called “cytokine storm”, clearly reflects a widespread uncontrolled dysregulation of the host immune defense. Although the prospective of counteracting cytokine storm is compelling, a major limitation relies on the limited understanding of the immune signaling pathways triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The identification of signaling pathways altered during viral infections may help to unravel the most relevant molecular cascades implicated in biological processes mediating viral infections and to unveil key molecular players that may be targeted. Thus, given the key role of the immune system in COVID-19, a deeper understanding of the mechanism behind the immune dysregulation might give us clues for the clinical management of the severe cases and for preventing the transition from mild to severe stages.

title: Indomethacin and resveratrol as potential treatment adjuncts for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19
abstract: The ongoing pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2, also known as COVID-19) has led to unprecedented challenges for the global healthcare system. This novel coronavirus disease phenotype ranges from asymptomatic carriage to fulminant cytokine storm with respiratory failure, polyorgan dysfunction and death. Severe disease is characterised by exuberant inflammation resulting from high circulating cytokines such as interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor. These inflammatory mediators are responsible for the detrimental effects on the immune, hematologic, respiratory, renal, gastrointestinal and other body systems. In addition to inhibition of viral replication, blunting this inflammatory response before overt cytokine storm is important to improve outcomes. Although there are upcoming promising agents such as remdesivir and convalescent plasma, inexpensive, safe and widely available adjunct treatments to ameliorate disease burden would be welcome. Two potential anti-inflammatory agents include indomethacin, which has been shown in experimental models to decrease canine coronavirus levels in dogs and exhibit antiviral activity against several other viruses and the polyphenol, resveratrol, a potent antioxidant that has shown antiviral activity against several viruses.

title: JAK–STAT Signaling as a Target for Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases: Current and Future Prospects
abstract: The Janus kinase/signal transduction and activator of transcription (JAK–STAT) signaling pathway is implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Many cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases use JAKs and STATs to transduce intracellular signals. Mutations in JAK and STAT genes cause a number of immunodeficiency syndromes, and polymorphisms in these genes are associated with autoimmune diseases. The success of small-molecule JAK inhibitors (Jakinibs) in the treatment of rheumatologic disease demonstrates that intracellular signaling pathways can be targeted therapeutically to treat autoimmunity. Tofacitinib, the first rheumatologic Jakinib, is US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for rheumatoid arthritis and is currently under investigation for other autoimmune diseases. Many other Jakinibs are in preclinical development or in various phases of clinical trials. This review describes the JAK–STAT pathway, outlines its role in autoimmunity, and explains the rationale/pre-clinical evidence for targeting JAK–STAT signaling. The safety and clinical efficacy of the Jakinibs are reviewed, starting with the FDA-approved Jakinib tofacitinib, and continuing on to next-generation Jakinibs. Recent and ongoing studies are emphasized, with a focus on emerging indications for JAK inhibition and novel mechanisms of JAK–STAT signaling blockade.

title: Finding disease modules for cancer and COVID-19 in gene co-expression networks with the Core&Peel method
abstract: Diseases imply dysregulation of cell’s functions at several levels. The study of differentially expressed genes in case-control cohorts of patients is often the first step in understanding the details of the cell’s dysregulation. A further level of analysis is introduced by noticing that genes are organized in functional modules (often called pathways), thus their action and their dysregulation may be better understood by the identification of the modules most affected by the disease (aka disease modules, or active subnetworks). We describe how an algorithm based on the Core&Peel method developed originally for detecting protein complexes in PPI networks, can be adapted to detect disease modules in co-expression networks of genes. We first validate Core&Peel for the easier general task of functional module detection by comparison with 42 methods participating in the Disease Module Identification DREAM challenge of 2019. Next, we use four specific disease test cases (colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, asthma and rheumatoid arthritis), four state-of-the-art algorithms (ModuleDiscoverer, Degas, KeyPathwayMiner and ClustEx), and several pathway databases to validate the proposed algorithm. Core&Peel is the only method able to find significant associations of the predicted disease module with known validated relevant pathways for all four diseases. Moreover for the two cancer data sets, Core&Peel detects further nine relevant pathways enriched in the predicted disease module, not discovered by the other methods used in the comparative analysis. Finally we apply Core&Peel, along with other methods, to explore the transcriptional response of human cells to SARS-CoV-2 infection, at a modular level, aiming at finding supporting evidence for drug repositioning efforts.

title: Inflammatory Bowel Disease Care in the COVID-19 Pandemic Era: The Humanitas, Milan, Experience
abstract: The outbreak of the COVID-19 caused by coronavirus SARS-CoV2, is rapidly spreading worldwide. This is the first pandemic caused by a coronavirus in history. More than 150 000 confirmed cases worldwide are reported involving the SARS-CoV2, with more than 5000 COVID-19-related deaths on March 14, 2020. Fever, chills, cough, shortness of breath, generalised myalgia, malaise, drowsiness, diarrhoea, confusion, dyspnoea, and bilateral interstitial pneumonia are the common symptoms. No therapies are available, and the only way to contain the virus spread is to regularly and thoroughly clean one’s hands with an alcohol-based hand rub or wash them with soap and water, to maintain at least 1 m [3 feet] distance from anyone who is coughing or sneezing, to avoid touching eyes, nose, and mouth, and to stay home if one feels unwell. No data are available on the risk of COVID-19 and outcomes in inflammatory bowel disease [IBD] patients. Outbreak restrictions can impact on the IBD care. We aim to give a viewpoint on how operationally to manage IBD patients and ensure quality of care in the current pandemic era.

title: Pattern of Cytokine Responses to Gram‐Positive and Gram‐Negative Commensal Bacteria is Profoundly Changed when Monocytes Differentiate into Dendritic Cells
abstract: The normal gastrointestinal flora is crucial for the maturation of the acquired immunity via effects on antigen‐presenting cells (APCs). Here, we have investigated how two types of APCs, monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs), react to different bacterial strains typical of the commensal intestinal flora. Purified monocytes and monocyte‐derived DCs were stimulated with UV‐inactivated gram‐positive (Lactobacillus plantarum and Bifidobacterium adolescentis) and gram‐negative (Escherichia coli and Veillonella parvula) bacterial strains. Monocytes produced higher levels of IL‐12p70 and TNF, as detected by ELISA, in response to L. plantarum than to E. coli and V. parvula. In contrast, DCs secreted high amounts of IL‐12p70, TNF, IL‐6 and IL‐10 in response to E. coli and V. parvula but were practically unresponsive to L. plantarum and B. adolescentis. The lack of response to the gram‐positive strains correlated with a lower surface expression of Toll‐like reseptor 2 (TLR2) on DCs compared to monocytes. The surface expression of TLR4 on DCs was undetectable when analysed by flow cytometry, but blocking this receptor decreased the TNF production in response to V. parvula, indicating that low TLR4 expression on DCs is sufficient to mount an inflammatory response to gram‐negative bacteria. IFN‐γ increased the expression of TLR4 on DCs and also potentiated the cytokine response to gram‐negative bacteria. Our results indicate that, when monocytes differentiate into DCs, their ability to respond to different commensal bacteria dramatically changes, thereby becoming unresponsive to probiotic gram‐positive bacteria. These results may have important implications for the capacity of different groups of commensal bacteria to regulate mucosal and systemic immunity.

title: Delirium in COVID-19: A case series and exploration of potential mechanisms for central nervous system involvement
abstract: Neuropsychiatric manifestations of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been described, including anosmia, ageusia, headache, paresthesia, encephalitis and encephalopathy. Little is known about the mechanisms by which the virus causes central nervous system (CNS) symptoms, and therefore little guidance is available regarding potential workup or management options.  We present a series of four consecutive cases, seen by our psychiatry consultation service over a one-week period, each of which manifested delirium as a result of infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2).  The four cases highlighted here all occurred in older patients with premorbid evidence of cognitive decline. Unique features seen in multiple cases included rigidity, alogia, abulia, and elevated inflammatory markers. In all four cases, a change in mental status was the presenting symptom, and three of the four cases lacked significant respiratory symptoms. In addition to discussing unique features of the cases, we discuss possible pathophysiologic explanations for COVID-19 delirium.  Delirium should be recognized as a potential feature of infection with SARS-CoV-2 and may be the only presenting symptom. Based on the high rates of delirium demonstrated in prior studies, hospitals should consider adding mental status changes to the list of testing criteria. Further research is needed to determine if delirium in COVID-19 represents a primary encephalopathy heralding invasion of the CNS by the virus, or a secondary encephalopathy related to systemic inflammatory response or other factors.

title: Molecular mechanism of evolution and human infection with the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)
abstract: Since December, 2019, an outbreak of pneumonia caused by the new coronavirus (2019-nCoV) has hit the city of Wuhan in the Hubei Province. With the continuous development of the epidemic, it has become a national public health crisis and calls for urgent antiviral treatments or vaccines. The spike protein on the coronavirus envelope is critical for host cell infection and virus vitality. Previous studies showed that 2019-nCoV is highly homologous to human SARS-CoV and attaches host cells though the binding of the spike receptor binding domain (RBD) domain to the angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2). However, the molecular mechanisms of 2019-nCoV binding to human ACE2 and evolution of 2019-nCoV remain unclear. In this study, we have extensively studied the RBD-ACE2 complex, spike protein, and free RBD systems of 2019-nCoV and SARS-CoV using protein-protein docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. It was shown that the RBD-ACE2 binding free energy for 2019-nCoV is significantly lower than that for SARS-CoV, which is consistent with the fact that 2019-nCoV is much more infectious than SARS-CoV. In addition, the spike protein of 2019-nCoV shows a significantly lower free energy than that of SARS-CoV, suggesting that 2019-nCoV is more stable and able to survive a higher temperature than SARS-CoV. This may also provide insights into the evolution of 2019-nCoV because SARS-like coronaviruses are thought to have originated in bats that are known to have a higher body-temperature than humans. It was also revealed that the RBD of 2019-nCoV is much more flexible especially near the binding site and thus will have a higher entropy penalty upon binding ACE2, compared to the RBD of SARS-CoV. That means that 2019-nCoV will be much more temperature-sensitive in terms of human infection than SARS-CoV. With the rising temperature, 2019-nCoV is expected to decrease its infection ability much faster than SARS-CoV, and get controlled more easily. The present findings are expected to be helpful for the disease prevention and control as well as drug and vaccine development of 2019-nCoV.

title: Pathophysiology of viral-induced exacerbations of COPD
abstract: Inflammation of the lower airways is a central feature of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Inflammatory responses are associated with an increased expression of a cascade of proteins including cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, enzymes, adhesion molecules and receptors. In most cases the increased expression of these proteins is the result of enhanced gene transcription: many of these genes are not expressed in normal cells under resting conditions but they are induced in the inflammatory process in a cell-specific manner. Transcription factors regulate the expression of many pro-inflammatory genes and play a key role in the pathogenesis of airway inflammation. Many studies have suggested a role for viral infections as a causative agent of COPD exacerbations. In this review we will focus our attention on the relationship between common respiratory viral infections and the molecular and inflammatory mechanisms that lead to COPD exacerbation.

title: ACE/ACE2 Ratio: A Key Also in 2019 Coronavirus Disease (Covid-19)?

title: Role of Microglia and Macrophages in Eae
abstract: Microglia and macrophages are related cell types that play an important role in the pathogenesis of MS and EAE. This chapters reviews the role of these cells in the normal brain and their contribution to inflammatory demyelinating disease, including their role in antigen presentation, co-stimulation, and production of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators

title: Social Media as a Sensor of Air Quality and Public Response in China
abstract: Recent studies have demonstrated the utility of social media data sources for a wide range of public health goals, including disease surveillance, mental health trends, and health perceptions and sentiment. Most such research has focused on English-language social media for the task of disease surveillance.  We investigated the value of Chinese social media for monitoring air quality trends and related public perceptions and response. The goal was to determine if this data is suitable for learning actionable information about pollution levels and public response.  We mined a collection of 93 million messages from Sina Weibo, China’s largest microblogging service. We experimented with different filters to identify messages relevant to air quality, based on keyword matching and topic modeling. We evaluated the reliability of the data filters by comparing message volume per city to air particle pollution rates obtained from the Chinese government for 74 cities. Additionally, we performed a qualitative study of the content of pollution-related messages by coding a sample of 170 messages for relevance to air quality, and whether the message included details such as a reactive behavior or a health concern.  The volume of pollution-related messages is highly correlated with particle pollution levels, with Pearson correlation values up to .718 (n=74, P<.001). Our qualitative results found that 67.1% (114/170) of messages were relevant to air quality and of those, 78.9% (90/114) were a firsthand report. Of firsthand reports, 28% (32/90) indicated a reactive behavior and 19% (17/90) expressed a health concern. Additionally, 3 messages of 170 requested that action be taken to improve quality.  We have found quantitatively that message volume in Sina Weibo is indicative of true particle pollution levels, and we have found qualitatively that messages contain rich details including perceptions, behaviors, and self-reported health effects. Social media data can augment existing air pollution surveillance data, especially perception and health-related data that traditionally requires expensive surveys or interviews.

title: COVID-19 and Liver Dysfunction: Current Insights and Emergent Therapeutic Strategies
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has attracted increasing worldwide attention. Cases of liver damage or dysfunction (mainly characterized by moderately elevated serum aspartate aminotransferase levels) have been reported among patients with COVID-19. However, it is currently uncertain whether the COVID-19-related liver damage/dysfunction is due mainly to the viral infection per se or other coexisting conditions, such as the use of potentially hepatotoxic drugs and the coexistence of systemic inflammatory response, respiratory distress syndrome-induced hypoxia, and multiple organ dysfunction. Based on the current evidence from case reports and case series, this review article focuses on the demographic and clinical characteristics, potential mechanisms, and treatment options for COVID-19-related liver dysfunction. This review also describes the geographical and demographic distribution of COVID-19-related liver dysfunction, as well as possible underlying mechanisms linking COVID-19 to liver dysfunction, in order to facilitate future drug development, prevention, and control measures for COVID-19.

title: E-cigarette-induced pulmonary inflammation and dysregulated repair are mediated by nAChR α7 receptor: role of nAChR α7 in SARS-CoV-2 Covid-19 ACE2 receptor regulation
abstract: Electronic cigarette (e-cig) vaping is increasing rapidly in the United States, as e-cigs are considered less harmful than combustible cigarettes. However, limited research has been conducted to understand the possible mechanisms that mediate toxicity and pulmonary health effects of e-cigs. We hypothesized that sub-chronic e-cig exposure induces inflammatory response and dysregulated repair/extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, which occur through the &#945;7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR&#945;7). Adult wild-type (WT), nAChR&#945;7 knockout (KO), and lung epithelial cell-specific KO (nAChR&#945;7 CreCC10) mice were exposed to e-cig aerosol containing propylene glycol (PG) with or without nicotine. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) and lung tissues were collected to determine e-cig induced inflammatory response and ECM remodeling, respectively. Sub-chronic e-cig exposure with nicotine increased inflammatory cellular influx of macrophages and T-lymphocytes including increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in BALF and increased SARS-Cov-2 Covid-19 ACE2 receptor, whereas nAChR&#945;7 KO mice show reduced inflammatory responses associated with decreased ACE2 receptor. Interestingly, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as MMP2, MMP8 and MMP9, were altered both at the protein and mRNA transcript levels in female and male KO mice, but WT mice exposed to PG alone showed a sex-dependent phenotype. Moreover, MMP12 was increased significantly in male mice exposed to PG with or without nicotine in a nAChR&#945;7-dependent manner. Additionally, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine altered the abundance of ECM proteins, such as collagen and fibronectin, significantly in a sex-dependent manner, but without the direct role of nAChR&#945;7 gene. Overall, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine affected lung inflammation and repair responses/ECM remodeling, which were mediated by nAChR&#945;7 in a sex-dependent manner.

title: Divergent SARS-CoV-2-specific T and B cell responses in severe but not mild COVID-19
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Understanding both the immunological processes providing specific immunity and potential immunopathology underlying the pathogenesis of this disease may provide valuable insights for potential therapeutic interventions. Here, we quantified SARS-CoV-2 specific immune responses in patients with different clinical courses. Compared to individuals with a mild clinical presentation, CD4+ T cell responses were qualitatively impaired in critically ill patients. Strikingly, however, in these patients the specific IgG antibody response was remarkably strong. The observed disparate T and B cell responses could be indicative of a deregulated immune response in critically ill COVID-19 patients.

title: Transmission Parameters of the 2001 Foot and Mouth Epidemic in Great Britain
abstract: Despite intensive ongoing research, key aspects of the spatial-temporal evolution of the 2001 foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in Great Britain (GB) remain unexplained. Here we develop a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method for estimating epidemiological parameters of the 2001 outbreak for a range of simple transmission models. We make the simplifying assumption that infectious farms were completely observed in 2001, equivalent to assuming that farms that were proactively culled but not diagnosed with FMD were not infectious, even if some were infected. We estimate how transmission parameters varied through time, highlighting the impact of the control measures on the progression of the epidemic. We demonstrate statistically significant evidence for assortative contact patterns between animals of the same species. Predictive risk maps of the transmission potential in different geographic areas of GB are presented for the fitted models.

title: Can Zn Be a Critical Element in COVID-19 Treatment?
abstract: The current COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has prompted investigators worldwide to search for an effective anti-viral treatment. A number of anti-viral drugs such as ribavirin, remdesivir, lopinavir/ritonavir, antibiotics such as azithromycin and doxycycline, and anti-parasite such as ivermectin have been recommended for COVID-19 treatment. In addition, sufficient pre-clinical rationale and evidence have been presented to use chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19. Furthermore, Zn has the ability to enhance innate and adaptive immunity in the course of a viral infection. Besides, Zn supplement can favour COVID-19 treatment using those suggested and/or recommended drugs. Again, the effectiveness of Zn can be enhanced by using chloroquine as an ionophore while Zn inside the infected cell can stop SARS-CoV-2 replication. Given those benefits, this perspective paper describes how and why Zn could be given due consideration as a complement to the prescribed treatment of COVID-19.

title: Lungs as target of COVID-19 infection: Protective common molecular mechanisms of vitamin D and melatonin as a new potential synergistic treatment
abstract: COVID-19 pandemic has a high mortality rate and is affecting practically the entire world population. The leading cause of death is severe acute respiratory syndrome as a consequence of exacerbated inflammatory response accompanied by uncontrolled oxidative stress as well as the inflammatory reaction at the lung level. Until now, there is not a specific and definitive treatment for this pathology that worries the world population, especially the older adults who constitute the main risk group. In this context, it results in a particular interest in the evaluation of the efficacy of existing pharmacological agents that may be used for overcoming or attenuating the severity of this pulmonary complication that has ended the lives of many people worldwide. Vitamin D and melatonin could be good options for achieving this aim, taking into account that they have many shared underlying mechanisms that are able to modulate and control the immune adequately and oxidative response against COVID-19 infection, possibly even through a synergistic interaction. The renin-angiotensin system exaltation with consequent inflammatory response has a leading role in the physiopathology of COVID-19 infection; and it may be down-regulated by vitamin D and melatonin in many organs. Therefore, it is also essential to analyze this potential therapeutic association and their relation with RAS as part of this new approach.

title: Boosting the arsenal against COVID-19 through computational drug repurposing

title: Macrophage-migration inhibitory factor: role in inflammatory diseases and graft rejection
abstract: Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) functions as a pleiotropic protein, participating in inflammatory and immune responses. MIF was originally discovered as a lymphokine involved in delayed hypersensitivity and various macrophage functions, including production of proinflammatory cytokines, glucocorticoid-induced immunomodulator, and natural killer cell inhibitory factor (NKIF), regulation of toll-like receptor expression, adherence and phagocytosis of macrophages, as well as induction of metalloproteinase. Therefore MIF is considered as a potential target protein in many pathophysiological states. In this review, considering the protein structure and the acting mechanisms of MIF, we mainly discuss the important role of MIF in pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and graft rejection.

title: Devilishly radical NETwork in COVID-19: Oxidative stress, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), and T cell suppression
abstract: Pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and poses an unprecedented challenge to healthcare systems due to the lack of a vaccine and specific treatment options. Accordingly, there is an urgent need to understand precisely the pathogenic mechanisms underlying this multifaceted disease. There is increasing evidence that the immune system reacts insufficiently to SARS-CoV-2 and thus contributes to organ damage and to lethality. In this review, we suggest that the overwhelming production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting in oxidative stress is a major cause of local or systemic tissue damage that leads to severe COVID-19. It increases the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and suppresses the adaptive arm of the immune system, i.e. T cells that are necessary to kill virus-infected cells. This creates a vicious cycle that prevents a specific immune response against SARS-CoV-2. The key role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 implies that therapeutic counterbalancing of ROS by antioxidants such as vitamin C or NAC and/or by antagonizing ROS production by cells of the MPS and neutrophil granulocytes and/or by blocking of TNF-α can prevent COVID-19 from becoming severe. Controlled clinical trials and preclinical models of COVID-19 are needed to evaluate this hypothesis.

title: The potential of wastewater-based epidemiology as surveillance and early warning of infectious disease outbreaks
abstract: Infectious diseases caused by pathogens have become one of the main threats to public health. Efficient monitoring of infectious disease transmission is critical to prevent and manage infectious disease epidemics. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an efficient approach with great potential for early warning of infectious disease transmission and outbreaks. By analysing infectious disease biomarkers in wastewater taken from wastewater collection points, the transmission of infectious diseases in certain areas can be comprehensively monitored in near real time. This short review presents WBE as a surveillance and early warning system for infectious disease outbreaks regarding pathogens with pandemic potential. We also discuss the challenges and perspective of WBE in infectious disease surveillance and early warning.

title: Guillain Barre syndrome associated with COVID-19 infection: A case report
abstract: Novel outbreak with coronavirus 2019 began since 31 December 2019. Coronaviruses can cause multiple systemic infections that respiratory complications are the most obvious symptoms. In this report, we describe the symptoms of Guillain Barre syndrome (GBS) in one infected patient with COVID-19, for the first time. We reported a 65-years- old male patient with complaints of acute progressive symmetric ascending quadriparesis. Two weeks prior to hospitalization, the patient suffered from cough, fever, and RT-PCR was reported positive for COVID-19 infection. The electrodiagnostic test showed that the patient is an AMSAN variant of GBS. COVID-19 stimulates inflammatory cells and produces various inflammatory cytokines and as a result, it creates immune-mediated processes. GBS is an immune-mediated disorder and molecular mimicry as a mechanism of autoimmune disorder plays an important role in creating it. It is unclear whether COVID-19 induces the production of antibodies against specific gangliosides. Further investigations should be conducted about the mechanism of GBS in patients with COVID-19, in the future.

title: Transmission patterns of smallpox: systematic review of natural outbreaks in Europe and North America since World War II
abstract: Because smallpox (variola major) may be used as a biological weapon, we reviewed outbreaks in post-World War II Europe and North America in order to understand smallpox transmission patterns.  A systematic review was used to identify papers from the National Library of Medicine, Embase, Biosis, Cochrane Library, Defense Technical Information Center, WorldCat, and reference lists of included publications. Two authors reviewed selected papers for smallpox outbreaks.  51 relevant outbreaks were identified from 1,389 publications. The median for the effective first generation reproduction rate (initial R) was 2 (range 0–38). The majority outbreaks were small (less than 5 cases) and contained within one generation. Outbreaks with few hospitalized patients had low initial R values (median of 1) and were prolonged if not initially recognized (median of 3 generations); outbreaks with mostly hospitalized patients had higher initial R values (median 12) and were shorter (median of 3 generations). Index cases with an atypical presentation of smallpox were less likely to have been diagnosed with smallpox; outbreaks in which the index case was not correctly diagnosed were larger (median of 27.5 cases) and longer (median of 3 generations) compared to outbreaks in which the index case was correctly diagnosed (median of 3 cases and 1 generation).  Patterns of spread during Smallpox outbreaks varied with circumstances, but early detection and implementation of control measures is a most important influence on the magnitude of outbreaks. The majority of outbreaks studied in Europe and North America were controlled within a few generations if detected early.

title: High-Throughput Sequencing and De Novo Assembly of the Isatis indigotica Transcriptome
abstract: Isatis indigotica, the source of the traditional Chinese medicine Radix isatidis (Ban-Lan-Gen), is an extremely important economical crop in China. To facilitate biological, biochemical and molecular research on the medicinal chemicals in I. indigotica, here we report the first I. indigotica transcriptome generated by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq).  RNA-seq library was created using RNA extracted from a mixed sample including leaf and root. A total of 33,238 unigenes were assembled from more than 28 million of high quality short reads. The quality of the assembly was experimentally examined by cDNA sequencing of seven randomly selected unigenes. Based on blast search 28,184 unigenes had a hit in at least one of the protein and nucleotide databases used in this study, and 8 unigenes were found to be associated with biosynthesis of indole and its derivatives. According to Gene Ontology classification, 22,365 unigenes were categorized into 48 functional groups. Furthermore, Clusters of Orthologous Group and Swiss-Port annotation were assigned for 7,707 and 18,679 unigenes, respectively. Analysis of repeat motifs identified 6,400 simple sequence repeat markers in 4,509 unigenes.  Our data provide a comprehensive sequence resource for molecular study of I. indigotica. Our results will facilitate studies on the functions of genes involved in the indole alkaloid biosynthesis pathway and on metabolism of nitrogen and indole alkaloids in I. indigotica and its related species.

title: COVID-19 and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: risk assessment, shared molecular pathways and therapeutic challenges
abstract: The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 causing COVID-19 disease is yielding a global outbreak with serious threats to public health. In this paper, we aimed to review the current knowledge about COVID-19 infectious risk status in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients requiring immunosuppressive medication. Also, we focused on several molecular insights that could explain why IBD patients appear to not have higher risks of infection and worse outcome in COVID-19 than the general population, in attempt to provide scientific support for safer decisions in IBD patient care.  PubMed electronic database was interogated for relevant articles involving data about common molecular pathways and shared treatment strategies between SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV and inflammatory bowel diseases. In addition, Neural Covidex, an artificial intelligence tool, was used to answer queries about pathogenic coronaviruses and possible IBD interactions using the COVID-19 Open Research Dataset (CORD-19). Discussions. Few molecular and therapeutic interactions between IBD and pathogenic coronaviruses were explored. First, we showed how the activity of soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, CD209L alternate receptor and phosphorylated subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 might exert protective impact in IBD in case of coronavirus infection. Second, IBD medication was discussed in the context of possible beneficial effects on COVID-19 pathogeny including "cytokine storm" prevention and treatment, immunomodulation, interferon signaling blocking, viral endocytosis inhibition.  Using current understanding of SARS-CoV-2 as well as other pathogenic coronaviruses immunopathology, we showed why IBD patients should not be considered at an increased risk of infection or more severe outcomes. Whether our findings are entirely applicable to the pathogenesis, disease susceptibility and treatment management of SARS-CoV-2 infection in IBD must be further explored.

title: Hidden in plain sight: The effects of BCG vaccination in COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: To investigate the relationship between BCG vaccination and SARS-CoV-2 by bioinformatic approach. Two datasets for Sars-CoV-2 infection group and BCG-vaccinated group were downloaded. Differentially Expressed Genes were identified. Gene ontology and pathways were functionally enriched, and networking was constructed in NetworkAnalyst. Lastly, correlation between post-BCG vaccination and COVID-19 transcriptome signatures were established. A total of 161 DEGs (113 upregulated DEGs and 48 downregulated genes) were identified in the Sars-CoV-2 group. In the pathway enrichment analysis, cross-reference of upregulated KEGG pathways in Sars-CoV-2 with downregulated counterparts in the BCG-vaccinated group, resulted in the intersection of 45 common pathways, accounting for 86.5% of SARS-CoV-2 upregulated pathways. Of these intersecting pathways, a vast majority were immune and inflammatory pathways with top significance in IL-17, TNF, NOD-like receptors, and NF-κB signaling pathways. Our data suggests BCG-vaccination may incur a protective role in COVID-19 patients until a targeted vaccine is developed.

title: Acute Symptomatic Seizures in Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19: Is There an Association?
abstract: The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) emerged as a global pandemic. Historically, the group of human coronaviruses can also affect the central nervous system leading to neurological symptoms; however, the causative mechanisms of the neurological manifestations of COVID-19 disease are not well known. Seizures have not been directly reported as a part of COVID-19 outside of patients with previously known brain injury or epilepsy. We report two cases of acute symptomatic seizures, in non-epileptic patients, associated with severe COVID-19 disease.  Two advanced-age, non-epileptic, male patients presented to our northeast Ohio-based health system with concern for infection in Mid-March 2020. Both had a history of lung disease and during their hospitalization tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. They developed acute encephalopathy days into their hospitalization with clinical and electrographic seizures. Resolution of seizures was achieved with levetiracetam.  Patients with COVID-19 disease are at an elevated risk for seizures, and the mechanism of these seizures is likely multifactorial. Clinical (motor) seizures may not be readily detected in this population due to the expansive utilization of sedatives and paralytics for respiratory optimization strategies. Many of these patients are also not electrographically monitored for seizures due to limited resources, multifactorial risk for acute encephalopathy, and the risk of cross-contamination. Previously, several neurological symptoms were seen in patients with more advanced COVID-19 disease, and these were thought to be secondary to multi-system organ failure and/or disseminated intravascular coagulopathy-related brain injury. However, these patients may also have an advanced breakdown of the blood–brain barrier precipitated by pro-inflammatory cytokine reactions. The neurotropic effect and neuroinvasiveness of SARS-Coronavirus-2 have not been directly established.  Acute symptomatic seizures are possible in patients with COVID-19 disease. These seizures are likely multifactorial in origin, including cortical irritation due to blood–brain barrier breakdown, precipitated by the cytokine reaction as a part of the viral infection. Patients with clinical signs of seizures or otherwise unexplained encephalopathy may benefit from electroencephalography monitoring and/or empiric anti-epileptic therapy. Further studies are needed to elucidate the risk of seizures and benefit of monitoring in this population.

title: The Biology of Persistent Infection: Inflammation and Demyelination following Murine Coronavirus Infection of the Central Nervous System.
abstract: Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of humans. Although causes of MS are enigmatic, underlying elements contributing to disease development include both genetic and environmental factors. Recent epidemiological evidence has pointed to viral infection as a trigger to initiating white matter damage in humans. Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) is a positive strand RNA virus that, following intracranial infection of susceptible mice, induces an acute encephalomyelitis that later resolves into a chronic fulminating demyelinating disease. Immune cell infiltration into the central nervous system is critical both to quell viral replication and instigate demyelination. Recent efforts by our laboratory and others have focused upon strategies capable of enhancing remyelination in response to viral-induced demyelination, both by dampening chronic inflammation and by surgical engraftment of remyelination - competent neural precursor cells.

title: Cytokine Storms: Understanding COVID-19
abstract: The elevated circulating levels of cytokines associated with a variety of infectious and immune-mediated conditions are frequently termed a cytokine storm. Here, we explain the protective functions of cytokines in “ideal” responses; the multi-factorial origins that can drive these responses to become pathological; and how this ultimately leads to vascular damage, immunopathology, and worsening clinical outcomes.

title: COVID-19 and Headache Medicine: A Narrative Review of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) and Corticosteroid Use
abstract: To summarize the current literature on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug and corticosteroid use during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, recognizing that these are commonly used treatments in the field of headache medicine.  The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and corticosteroids in patients during the COVID-19 pandemic has been a controversial topic within the medical community and international and national health organizations. Lay press and social media outlets have circulated opinions on this topic despite the fact that the evidence for or against the use of these medications is sparse. In the field of headache medicine, these medications are used commonly and both patients and clinicians may have questions or hesitations pertaining to their use during the COVID-19 pandemic.  A detailed search of the scientific and popular literature was performed.  There is limited literature pertaining to the safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and corticosteroids during the COVID-19 pandemic. To date, there are no clear scientific data that preclude the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the general population who may acquire COVID-19 or in those acutely infected with the virus. Several health organizations have concluded that treatment with corticosteroids during active infection should be avoided due to concerns of prolonged viral shedding in the respiratory tract and the lack of survival benefit based on the data from past coronaviruses and influenza virus; specific exceptions exist including treatment for underlying asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, septic shock, and acute respiratory distress syndrome.  Scientific information regarding the COVID-19 pandemic is constantly evolving, and limited or contradictory information can lead to confusion for both patients and clinicians. It is recommended that prior to prescribing non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and steroids for the treatment of headache, clinicians have open discussions with their patients about the potential risks and benefits of using these medications during the COVID-19 pandemic. This manuscript summarizes the currently available evidence and understanding about these risks and benefits to help clinicians navigate such discussions.

title: Papular‐purpuric exanthem in a COVID‐19 patient: clinical and dermoscopic description
abstract: Acute Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global health concern associated with a broad spectrum of clinical presentations. Cutaneous lesions in COVID-19 are still under continuous study. We report a case of COVID-19 (+) patient with late-onset cutaneous rash associated with a systemic inflammatory response during the second hospitalization.

title: 2019 Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID‐19) in patients with Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
abstract: Data on patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) who have had 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS‐CoV‐2) disease (COVID‐19) are lacking.  To report the clinical characteristics, including gastrointestinal symptoms, of COVID‐19 in IBD patients, and to assess the risk of COVID‐19 in IBD.  This case series included consecutive IBD patients with laboratory‐confirmed COVID‐19. Age‐adjusted cumulative incidences were compared with the general population in the Madrid region.  Through April 8, 12 patients of 1918 IBD patients were diagnosed of COVID‐19. The average age was 52 years, 75% of the patients were female, and 58.3% had Crohn’s disease. Seven patients (58%) were on maintenance treatment with immunomodulators/biologics, of these 4 with combined therapy (33%). Eight patients (66%) required hospitalization (1 intensive care unit admission, and 2 deaths), and 4 patients were isolated at home. Nine patients had diarrhoea ranging between 4‐10 loose stools per day (mean 5.4, SD 1.6). In 5 patients (42%) diarrhoea was a presenting symptom. In 2 patients, diarrhoea was the only symptom at debut. Cumulative incidence of COVID‐19 was 6.1 per 1000 IBD patients. IBD patients had a lower adjusted incidence ratio of COVID‐19 (OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.70‐0.77; p<0.001), and a similar associated mortality ratio (OR 0.95, 95% CI: 0.84‐1.06; p=0.36), compared with the general population.  IBD patients do not have an increased risk of COVID‐19 and associated mortality compared with the general population. In many IBD patients diarrhoea was a presenting symptom, and sometimes, was the only symptom at onset of COVID‐19.

title: Interleukin-22: A Bridge Between Epithelial Innate Host Defense and Immune Cells
abstract: Interleukin-22 (IL-22), an IL-10 family cytokine, is produced by various leukocytes. The receptor of IL-22, however, is preferentially detected on peripheral tissue epithelial cells. IL-22 functions as a unique messenger from immune system to tissue epithelial cells and to regulate homeostasis of epithelia. IL-22 is able to directly enhance antimicrobial defense mechanisms in epithelial cells and to facilitate epithelial barrier repair and wound healing process. It, therefore, possesses an irreplaceable role in host defense against certain pathogens that specifically invade epithelial cells. In addition, IL-22 can help to preserve the integrity and homeostasis of various epithelial organs during infection or inflammation. The importance of its tissue-protective function is manifested in many inflammatory situations such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and hepatitis. On the other hand, as a cytokine, IL-22 is capable of induction of proinflammatory responses, especially in synergy with other cytokines. Consequently, IL-22 contributes to pathogenesis of certain inflammatory diseases for example psoriasis.

title: Remdesivir and Tocilizumab: Mix or Match
abstract: To date, no therapy has demonstrated definite efficacy for patients with COVID‐19. Antiviral, as well as, anti‐inflammatory approaches, as these represented by remdesivir (RDV) and tocilizumab (TCZ) use, have been recently put forward. However, data upon optimal choice of one over the other, or potential need for regimen combination, remains an open question. We hereby report two well‐matched cases of SARS‐CoV‐2 (+) patients, developing respiratory failure, both receiving TCZ following severe inflammatory response, with or without RDV. We argue that, RDV administration is pivotal early in the course of the disease, since TCZ use alone cannot ensure inflammation control. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Amelioration of COVID‐19 related cytokine storm syndrome: Parallels to chimeric antigen receptor‐T cell cytokine release syndrome
abstract: Coronavirus disease‐2019 (COVID‐19) severity appears to parallel the host immune response, with a subset of patients developing COVID‐19 cytokine storm syndrome (CSS).(1) Serum inflammatory cytokines are elevated in COVID‐19,(2–5) and interleukin (IL)‐6 appears to play a central role in COVID‐19 related CSS.(6–8) Based on the success of IL‐6 receptor blockade for chimeric antigen receptor T‐cell therapy associated cytokine release syndrome (CAR T‐cell CRS), similar strategies using tocilizumab are being investigated in COVID‐19.

title: Mechanisms involved in the development of thrombocytopenia in patients with COVID-19
abstract: Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Emerging genetic and clinical evidence suggests similarities between COVID-19 patients and those with severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome. Hematological changes such as lymphopenia and thrombocytopenia are not rare in COVID-19 patients, and a smaller population of these patients had leukopenia. Thrombocytopenia was detected in 5–41.7% of the patients with COVID-19. Analyzing the dynamic decrease in platelet counts may be useful in the prognosis of patients with COVID-19. However, the mechanisms underlying the development of thrombocytopenia remain to be elucidated. This review summarizes the hematological changes in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 and possible underlying mechanisms of thrombocytopenia development.

title: Analysis of 92 deceased patients with COVID‐19
abstract: This retrospective study aimed to analysis the clinical characteristics and complications in death cases with novel coronavirus disease‐19 (COVID‐19).  We collected the medical records of 92 patients with COVID‐19 in Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University who died during January 6th to February 25th, 2020, summarized the clinical characteristics of complications.  There were 91 death cases who developed different complications including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) (73/91), myocardial injury (31/91), liver injury (15/91), renal insufficiency (14/91), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) (14/91) and pneumothorax (1/91). Among these patients, 83 patients had at least one complication. While 1 patient who died of recurrent gastrointestinal bleeding was not directly linked to COVID‐19.  The main complications of deceased patients with COVID‐19 were ARDS, myocardial injury, liver injury, renal insufficiency and MODS. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Stem Cell Therapy in the Treatment of Rheumatic Diseases and Application in the Treatment of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
abstract: Current systemic therapies help to improve the symptoms and quality of life for patients with severe life-threatening rheumatic diseases but provide no curative treatment. For the past two decades, preclinical and clinical studies of stem cell transplantation (SCT) have demonstrated tremendous therapeutic potential for patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Herein, the current advances on stem cell therapies, both in animal models and clinical studies, are discussed, with particular attention on systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Despite extensive research and promising data, our knowledge on mechanisms of action for SCT, its administration route and timing, the optimal dose of cells, the cells’ fate and distribution in vivo, and the safety and efficacy of the treatments remains limited. Further research on stem cell biology is required to ensure that therapeutic safety and efficacy, as observed in animal models, can be successfully translated in clinical trials. Current understanding, limitations, and future directions for SCT with respect to rheumatic diseases are also discussed.

title: Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS) and Nicotine in COVID-19 Patients: Trying to Calm the Storm
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is a new coronavirus that has caused a worldwide pandemic. It causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (COVID-19), which is fatal in many cases, and is characterized by a cytokine release syndrome (CRS). Great efforts are currently being made to block the signal transduction pathway of pro-inflammatory cytokines in order to control this “cytokine storm” and rescue severely affected patients. Consequently, possible treatments for cytokine-mediated hyperinflammation, preferably within approved safe therapies, are urgently being researched to reduce rising mortality. One approach to inhibit proinflammatory cytokine release is to activate the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAchR). Nicotine, an exogenous α7nAchR agonist, is clinically used in ulcerative colitis to counteract inflammation. We have found epidemiological evidence, based on recent clinical SARS-CoV-2 studies in China, that suggest that smokers are statistically less likely to be hospitalized. In conclusion, our hypothesis proposes that nicotine could constitute a novel potential CRS therapy in severe SARS-CoV-2 patients.

title: Adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells for the treatment of patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation. A proof of concept study
abstract: Identification of effective treatments in severe cases of COVID-19 requiring mechanical ventilation represents an unmet medical need. Our aim was to determine whether the administration of adipose-tissue derived mesenchymal stromal cells (AT-MSC) is safe and potentially useful in these patients.  Thirteen COVID-19 adult patients under invasive mechanical ventilation who had received previous antiviral and/or anti-inflammatory treatments (including steroids, lopinavir/ritonavir, hydroxychloroquine and/or tocilizumab, among others) were treated with allogeneic AT-MSC. Ten patients received two doses, with the second dose administered a median of 3 days (interquartile range-IQR- 1 day) after the first one. Two patients received a single dose and another patient received 3 doses. Median number of cells per dose was 0.98 × 10(6) (IQR 0.50 × 10(6)) AT-MSC/kg of recipient's body weight. Potential adverse effects related to cell infusion and clinical outcome were assessed. Additional parameters analyzed included changes in imaging, analytical and inflammatory parameters.  First dose of AT-MSC was administered at a median of 7 days (IQR 12 days) after mechanical ventilation. No adverse events were related to cell therapy. With a median follow-up of 16 days (IQR 9 days) after the first dose, clinical improvement was observed in nine patients (70%). Seven patients were extubated and discharged from ICU while four patients remained intubated (two with an improvement in their ventilatory and radiological parameters and two in stable condition). Two patients died (one due to massive gastrointestinal bleeding unrelated to MSC therapy). Treatment with AT-MSC was followed by a decrease in inflammatory parameters (reduction in C-reactive protein, IL-6, ferritin, LDH and d-dimer) as well as an increase in lymphocytes, particularly in those patients with clinical improvement.  Treatment with intravenous administration of AT-MSC in 13 severe COVID-19 pneumonia under mechanical ventilation in a small case series did not induce significant adverse events and was followed by clinical and biological improvement in most subjects.

title: COVID-19: towards understanding of pathogenesis

title: The pathogenesis and treatment of the `Cytokine Storm' in COVID-19
abstract: Cytokine storm is an excessive immune response to external stimuli. The pathogenesis of the cytokine storm is complex. The disease progresses rapidly, and the mortality is high. Certain evidence shows that, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic, the severe deterioration of some patients has been closely related to the cytokine storm in their bodies. This article reviews the occurrence mechanism and treatment strategies of the COVID-19 virus-induced inflammatory storm in attempt to provide valuable medication guidance for clinical treatment.

title: The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak - an update on the status
abstract: An acute respiratory disease, caused by a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2, previously known as 2019-nCoV), the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread throughout China and received worldwide attention. On 30 January 2020, World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared the COVID-19 epidemic as a public health emergency of international concern. The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, since the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2002 and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012, marked the third introduction of a highly pathogenic and large-scale epidemic coronavirus into the human population in the twenty-first century. As of 1 March 2020, a total of 87,137 confirmed cases globally, 79,968 confirmed in China and 7169 outside of China, with 2977 deaths (3.4%) had been reported by WHO. Meanwhile, several independent research groups have identified that SARS-CoV-2 belongs to ß-coronavirus, with highly identical genome to bat coronavirus, pointing to bat as the natural host. The novel coronavirus uses the same receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as that for SARS-CoV, and mainly spreads through the respiratory tract. Importantly, increasingly evidence showed sustained human-to-human transmission, along with many exported cases across the globe. The clinical symptoms of COVID-19 patients include fever, cough, fatigue and a small population of patients appeared gastrointestinal infection symptoms. The elderly and people with underlying diseases are susceptible to infection and prone to serious outcomes, which may be associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and cytokine storm. Currently, there are few specific antiviral strategies, but several potent candidates of antivirals and repurposed drugs are under urgent investigation. In this review, we summarized the latest research progress of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical characteristics of COVID-19, and discussed the current treatment and scientific advancements to combat the epidemic novel coronavirus.

title: Characterization of the Inflammatory Response to Severe COVID-19 Illness.
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global threat to health. Its inflammatory characteristics are incompletely understood.  To define the cytokine profile of COVID-19, and to identify evidence of immunometabolic alterations in those with severe illness.  Levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and soluble TNF receptor 1 (sTNFR1) were assessed in plasma from healthy volunteers, hospitalized-but-stable COVID-19 patients (COVIDstable), COVID-19 patients requiring intensive care unit (ICU) admission (COVIDICU) and individuals with severe community-acquired pneumonia requiring ICU support (CAPICU). Immunometabolic markers were measured in circulating neutrophils from patients with severe COVID-19. The acute phase response of alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) to COVID-19 was also evaluated. MAIN RESULTS IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and sTNFR1 were all increased in patients with COVID-19. COVIDICU patients could be clearly differentiated from COVIDstable, and demonstrated higher levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and sTNFR1 - but lower IL-10 - than CAPICU. COVID-19 neutrophils displayed altered immunometabolism, with increased cytosolic PKM2, phosphorylated PKM2, HIF-1α and lactate. The production and sialylation of AAT increased in COVID-19, but this anti-inflammatory response was overwhelmed in severe illness, with the IL-6:AAT ratio markedly higher in patients requiring ICU admission (P<0.0001). In critically unwell COVID-19 patients, increases in IL-6:AAT predicted prolonged ICU stay and mortality, while improvement in IL-6:AAT was associated with clinical resolution (P<0.0001).  The COVID-19 cytokinemia is distinct from that of other types of pneumonia leading to organ failure and ICU need. Neutrophils undergo immunometabolic reprogramming in severe COVID-19 illness. Cytokine ratios may predict outcomes in this population.

title: Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels are associated with increased risk of viral coinfections in wheezing children

title: Contrasting Inflammatory Responses in Severe and Non-severe Community-acquired Pneumonia
abstract: The objective of this study was to compare systemic and local cytokine profiles and neutrophil responses in patients with severe versus non-severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Hospitalized patients with CAP were grouped according to the pneumonia severity index (PSI), as non-severe (PSI < 91 points) or severe (PSI ≥ 91 points). Blood and sputum samples were collected upon admission. Compared to non-severe CAP patients, the severe CAP group showed higher plasma levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines but in contrast, lower sputum concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Blood neutrophil functional responses were elevated in CAP patients compared to healthy controls. However, neutrophils from severe CAP patients showed reduced respiratory burst activity compared to the non-severe group. Results indicate that patients with severe CAP fail to mount a robust local pro-inflammatory response but exhibit instead a more substantial systemic inflammatory response, suggesting that a key driver of CAP severity may be the ability of the patient to generate an optimal local inflammatory response.

title: Issues on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pathogenesis.

title: Auxiliary activation of the complement system and its importance for the pathophysiology of clinical conditions
abstract: Activation and regulation of the cascade systems of the blood (the complement system, the coagulation/contact activation/kallikrein system, and the fibrinolytic system) occurs via activation of zymogen molecules to specific active proteolytic enzymes. Despite the fact that the generated proteases are all present together in the blood, under physiological conditions, the activity of the generated proteases is controlled by endogenous protease inhibitors. Consequently, there is remarkable little crosstalk between the different systems in the fluid phase. This concept review article aims at identifying and describing conditions where the strict system-related control is circumvented. These include clinical settings where massive amounts of proteolytic enzymes are released from tissues, e.g., during pancreatitis or post-traumatic tissue damage, resulting in consumption of the natural substrates of the specific proteases and the available protease inhibitor. Another example of cascade system dysregulation is disseminated intravascular coagulation, with canonical activation of all cascade systems of the blood, also leading to specific substrate and protease inhibitor elimination. The present review explains basic concepts in protease biochemistry of importance to understand clinical conditions with extensive protease activation.

title: Oxidative stress-mediated epidermal growth factor receptor activation regulates PM2.5-induced over-secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators from human bronchial epithelial cells
abstract: Exposure to PM2.5 has been associated with increased morbidity and mortality of lung diseases although the underlying mechanisms have not been fully uncovered. Airway inflammation is a critical event in the pathogenesis of lung diseases. This study aimed to examine the role of oxidative stress and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in PM2.5-induced pro-inflammatory response in a human bronchial epithelial cell line, BEAS-2B.  BEAS-2B cells were exposed to 0, 20, 50, 100 and 150 µg/ml of PM2.5. Secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators including interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8 and IL-1ß was determined using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were determined using flow cytometry. Phosphorylation of the EGFR was examined with immunoblotting.  PM2.5 exposure increased the secretion of IL-6, IL-8, and IL-1ß in a concentration-dependent fashion. Moreover, exposure to PM2.5 elevated intracellular levels of ROS, and phosphorylation of the EGFR (Y1068). Pretreatment of BEAS-2B cells with either an antioxidant or a specific EGFR inhibitor significantly reduced PM2.5-induced IL-6, IL-8 and IL-1ß secretion, implying that both oxidative stress and EGFR activation were involved in PM2.5-induced pro-inflammatory response. Furthermore, pre-treatment of BEAS-2B cells with an antioxidant significantly blunted PM2.5-induced EGFR activation, suggesting that oxidative stress was required for PM2.5-induced EGFR activation.  PM2.5 exposure induces pro-inflammatory response in human bronchial epithelial cells through oxidative stress-mediated EGFR activation.

title: Bradycardia in Patients With COVID-19: A Calm Before the Storm?
abstract: Cardiac manifestations of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), including arrhythmia, have been described in the literature. However, to our knowledge, association of COVID-19 with bradycardia has not been reported. This case study describes sinus bradycardia as a potential manifestation of COVID-19. This is a retrospective case series of four patients with laboratory-confirmed severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, admitted to St. Luke’s University Health Network ICU between 24 March 2020 and 5 April 2020. Medical records of these patients were reviewed using the EPIC electronic health record system. Demographic, clinical, laboratory, and treatment data were reviewed against periods of bradycardia in each patient. The patient group comprised two males and two females. Two patients had pre-existing cardiovascular (CV) comorbidities but no history of arrythmias. Heart rates ranged between 66 and 88 beats/min on admission. The lowest rates during bradycardia were between 42 and 49 beats/min. The onset of sinus bradycardia in patients 1, 2, and 3 were day nine, 15, and five of illness, respectively. Patient 4 had three episodes of bradycardia, starting on day 10 of illness. Patients’ bradycardia episodes lasted one to 14 days. During bradycardia, maximum body temperatures ranged between 99.9 and 100.2 degree Fahrenheit. Patients 2, 3, and 4 required vasopressors to maintain mean arterial pressure > 65 mmHg during episodes. All four patients were on propofol at some point during bradycardia with patients 1, 2, and 3 also receiving dexmedetomidine. There was no consistent correlation of these medications with bradycardia. Electrocardiogram (ECG) findings included sinus bradycardia. Prolonged QTc interval observed in patient 2 on admission improved during bradycardia. Transient sinus bradycardia is a possible manifestation of COVID-19 and is important for close CV surveillance. Etiology can be multifactorial, but severe hypoxia, inflammatory damage of cardiac pacemaker cells, and exaggerated response to medications are possible triggers. High levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines may act directly on the sinoatrial (SA) node contributing to the development of bradycardia. This may be a warning sign of the onset of a serious cytokine storm. An increased awareness of possible exaggerated bradycardia response is important to consider with the use of empiric medications which have arrhythmogenic effects.

title: Crucial Inflammatory Mediators and Efficacy of Drug Interventions in Pneumonia Inflated COVID-19: An Invivo Mathematical Modelling Study
abstract: The virus SARS-COV-2 caused disease COVID-19 has been declared a pandemic by WHO. Currently, over 210 countries and territories have been affected. Careful, well-designed drugs and vaccine for the total elimination of this virus seem to be the need of the hour. In this context, the invivo mathematical modelling studies can be extremely helpful in understanding the efficacy of the drug interventions. These studies can also help understand the role of the crucial inflammatory mediators and the behaviour of immune response towards this novel coronavirus. Motivated by these facts, in this paper, we study the invivo dynamics of Covid-19. The results obtained here are inline with some of the clinical findings for Covid-19. This invivo modelling study involving the crucial biomarkers of Covid-19 is the first of its kind and the results obtained from this can be helpful to researchers, epidemiologists, clinicians and doctors who are working in this field.

title: Genome-wide gene expression profiling of human mast cells stimulated by IgE or FcεRI-aggregation reveals a complex network of genes involved in inflammatory responses
abstract: Mast cells are well established effectors of IgE-triggered allergic reactions and immune responses to parasitic infections. Recent studies indicate that mast cells may play roles in adaptive and innate immunity, suggesting an innovative view of the regulation of immune responses. Here, we profiled the transcriptome of human mast cells sensitized with IgE alone, or stimulated by FcεRI aggregation.  Our data show that among 8,793 genes examined, 559 genes are differentially regulated in stimulated mast cells when compared with resting/unstimulated mast cells. The major functional categories of upregulated genes include cytokines, chemokines, and other genes involved in innate and adaptive immune-responses. We observed the increased expression of over 63 gene-transcripts following IgE-sensitization alone. Our data was validated using Real-Time-PCR; ELISA and western blot. We confirmed that IgE alone does not trigger mast cell-immediate responses, such as calcium signals, degranulation or protein-phosphorylation.  This report represents a substantial advance in our understanding of the genome wide effects triggered by "passive sensitization" or active stimulation of human mast cells, supporting mast cells' potential involvement in a wide range of inflammatory responses.

title: Tocilizumab for the treatment of severe COVID-19 pneumonia with hyperinflammatory syndrome and acute respiratory failure: A single center study of 100 patients in Brescia, Italy
abstract: A hyperinflammatory syndrome (HIS) may cause a life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. A prospective series of 100 consecutive patients admitted to the Spedali Civili University Hospital in Brescia (Italy) between March 9th and March 20th with confirmed COVID-19 pneumonia and ARDS requiring ventilatory support was analyzed to determine whether intravenous administration of tocilizumab (TCZ), a monoclonal antibody that targets the interleukin 6 (IL-6) receptor, was associated with improved outcome. Tocilizumab was administered at a dosage of 8 mg/kg by two consecutive intravenous infusions 12 h apart. A third infusion was optional based on clinical response. The outcome measure was an improvement in acute respiratory failure assessed by means of the Brescia COVID Respiratory Severity Score (BCRSS 0 to 8, with higher scores indicating higher severity) at 24–72 h and 10 days after tocilizumab administration. Out of 100 treated patients (88 M, 12 F; median age: 62 years), 43 received TCZ in the intensive care unit (ICU), while 57 in the general ward as no ICU beds were available. Of these 57 patients, 37 (65%) improved and suspended noninvasive ventilation (NIV) (median BCRSS: 1 [IQR 0–2]), 7 (12%) patients remained stable in NIV, and 13 (23%) patients worsened (10 died, 3 were admitted to ICU). Of the 43 patients treated in the ICU, 32 (74%) improved (17 of them were taken off the ventilator and were discharged to the ward), 1 (2%) remained stable (BCRSS: 5) and 10 (24%) died (all of them had BCRSS≥7 before TCZ). Overall at 10 days, the respiratory condition was improved or stabilized in 77 (77%) patients, of whom 61 showed a significant clearing of diffuse bilateral opacities on chest x-ray and 15 were discharged from the hospital. Respiratory condition worsened in 23 (23%) patients, of whom 20 (20%) died. All the patients presented with lymphopenia and high levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, ferritin and IL-6 indicating a HIS. During the 10-day follow-up, three cases of severe adverse events were recorded: two patients developed septic shock and died, one had gastrointestinal perforation requiring urgent surgery and was alive at day 10. In conclusion, our series showed that COVID-19 pneumonia with ARDS was characterized by HIS. The response to TCZ was rapid, sustained, and associated with significant clinical improvement.

title: A possible role of immunopathogenesis in COVID-19 progression
abstract: The efficacy of the humoral and cellular immunity determines the outcome of viral infections. An appropriate immune response mediates protection, whereas an overwhelming immune response has been associated with immune-mediated pathogenesis in viral infections. The current study explored the general and SARS-CoV-2 specific cellular and humoral immune status in patients with different COVID-19 severities.  In this prospective study, we included 53 patients with moderate, severe, and critical COVID-19 manifestations comparing their quantitative, phenotypic, and functional characteristics of circulating immune cells, SARS-CoV-2 antigen specific T-cells, and humoral immunity.  Significantly diminished frequencies of CD8+T-cells, CD4+ and CD8+T-cell subsets with activated differentiated memory/effector phenotype and migratory capacity were found in circulation in patients with severe and/or critical COVID-19 as compared to patients with moderate disease. Importantly, the improvement of the clinical courses from severe to moderate was accompanied by an improvement in the T-cell subset alterations. Furthermore, we surprisingly observed a detectable SARS-CoV-2-reactive T-cell response in all three groups after stimulation with SARS-CoV-2 S-protein overlapping peptide pool already at the first visit. Of note, patients with a critical COVID-19 demonstrated a stronger response of SARS-CoV-2-reactive T-cells producing Th1 associated inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, clear correlation between antibody titers and SARS-CoV-2-reactive CD4+ frequencies underscore the role of specific immunity in disease progression.  Our data demonstrate that depletion of activated memory phenotype circulating T-cells and a strong SARS-CoV-2-specific cellular and humoral immunity are associated with COVID-19 disease severity. This counter-intuitive finding may have important implications for diagnostic, therapeutic and prophylactic COVID-19 management.

title: Pentoxifylline: An Immunomodulatory Drug for the Treatment of COVID-19
abstract: Rapidly spreading outbreak of the novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is causing serious health concerns worldwide It started as an epidemic in Wuhan, Hubei province, central China, and has now become a pandemic, spreading over most of the continents of the planet The major clinical symptoms of the infection are dry cough, fever, pneumonia, respiratory failure, hypoxia, and in certain cases, even death Alveolar damage and respiratory system failure are observed in severe cases Initial mild infection leads to activation of the immune system in the lungs and accumulation of various inflammatory cells and molecules At a later phase during the infection, a "cytokine storm" causes an Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), leading to an increase in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, migration of a large number of immune cells to the site of infection, and ultimately pulmonary damage The rapid and uncontrolled outbreak requires putative therapeutic drugs for treatment of patients suffering from COVID-19 Amongst the currently used antiviral drugs, such as hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir, remdesivir etc we would like to present an update on another effective drug, pentoxifylline Pentoxifylline has anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-viral, and bronchodilatory properties Pentoxifylline is known to reduce cytokine production, immune cell migration, and suppress certain signal transduction pathways (e g NF-kappa beta and STAT3) Thus, it minimizes inflammatory damage in the lung tissues

title: Potential Immunoregulatory and Antiviral/SARS-CoV-2 Activities of Nitric Oxide
abstract: Nitric oxide (NO) represents a key signaling molecule in multiple regulatory pathways underlying vascular, metabolic, immune, and neurological function across animal phyla. Our brief critical discussion is focused on the multiple roles of the NO signaling pathways in the maintenance of basal physiological states of readiness in diverse cell types mediating innate immunological functions and in the facilitation of proinflammatory-mediated adaptive immunological responses associated with viral infections. Prior studies have reinforced the critical importance of constitutive NO signaling pathways in the homeostatic maintenance of the vascular endothelium, and state-dependent changes in innate immunological responses have been associated with a functional override of NO-mediated inhibitory tone. Accordingly, convergent lines of evidence suggest that dysregulation of NO signaling pathways, as well as canonical oxidative effects of inducible NO, may provide a permissive cellular environment for viral entry and replication. In immunologically compromised individuals, functional override and chronic rundown of inhibitory NO signaling systems promote aberrant expression of unregulated proinflammatory pathways resulting in widespread metabolic insufficiencies and structural damage to autonomous cellular and organ structures. We contend that restoration of normative NO tone via combined pharmaceutical, dietary, or complex behavioral interventions may partially reverse deleterious physiological conditions brought about by viral infection linked to unregulated adaptive immune responses.

title: A new therapeutic strategy for lung tissue injury induced by influenza with CR2 targeting complement inhibitior
abstract: Influenza is a respiratory disease that seriously threatens human health. In fact, influenza virus itself does not make critical contribution to mortality induced by influenza, but "cytokine storm" produced by the excessive immune response triggered by the virus can result in inflammatory reaction of lung tissues and fatal lung tissue injury, and thus increase influenza mortality. Therefore, besides antiviral drugs, immunosuppression drugs should also be included in infection treatment.  Complement is the center of inflammatory reaction. If complement system is over activated, the body will have strong inflammatory reaction or tissue injury, resulting in pathological process. Many studies have proved that, inflammatory injury of lung tissues caused by influenza virus is closely related to complement activation. Therefore, inhibiting complement activation can significantly reduce inflammatory injury in lung tissues. As complement is both a physiological defense and pathological damage medium, systematic inhibition may result in side effects including infection. Therefore, we design targeting complement inhibitors for complement activation sites, i.e. with CR2 as targeting vector, complement inhibitors like CD59 and Crry are targeted to inflammatory sites to specially inhibit the complement activation in local injury, thus local inflammatory reaction is inhibited.  CR2-CD59 and CR2-Crry targeting complement inhibitors are fusion-expressed, and their biological activity is examined via in vivo and in vitro tests. CR2 targeting complement inhibitors are used to treat mouse influenza viral pneumonia model, with PBS treatment group as the control. The survival and lung tissue injury of the mice is observed and the effect of CR2 targeting complement inhibitors on pneumonia induced by influenza virus is evaluated.  CR2 targeting complement inhibitors are expected to be ideal drugs for viral pneumonia.

title: Proper Management of People with Obesity during the COVID-19 Pandemic
abstract: Since December 2019, countries around the world have been struggling with a novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Case series have reported that people with obesity experience more severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). During the COVID-19 pandemic, people have tended to gain weight because of environmental factors imposed by quarantine policies, such as decreased physical activity and increased consumption of unhealthy food. Mechanisms have been postulated to explain the association between COVID-19 and obesity. COVID-19 aggravates inflammation and hypoxia in people with obesity, which can lead to severe illness and the need for intensive care. The immune system is compromised in people with obesity and COVID-19 affects the immune system, which can lead to complications. Interleukin-6 and other cytokines play an important role in the progression of COVID-19. The inflammatory response, critical illness, and underlying risk factors may all predispose to complications of obesity such as diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. The common medications used to treat people with obesity, such as glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues, statins, and antiplatelets agents, should be continued because these agents have anti-inflammatory properties and play protective roles against cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. It is also recommended that renin–angiotensin system blockers are not stopped during the COVID-19 pandemic because no definitive data about the harm or benefits of these agents have been reported. During the COVID-19 pandemic, social activities have been discouraged and exercise facilities have been closed. Under these restrictions, tailored lifestyle modifications such as home exercise training and cooking of healthy food are encouraged.

title: Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths
abstract: The world is in the grip of the COVID-19 pandemic. Public health measures that can reduce the risk of infection and death in addition to quarantines are desperately needed. This article reviews the roles of vitamin D in reducing the risk of respiratory tract infections, knowledge about the epidemiology of influenza and COVID-19, and how vitamin D supplementation might be a useful measure to reduce risk. Through several mechanisms, vitamin D can reduce risk of infections. Those mechanisms include inducing cathelicidins and defensins that can lower viral replication rates and reducing concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines that produce the inflammation that injures the lining of the lungs, leading to pneumonia, as well as increasing concentrations of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Several observational studies and clinical trials reported that vitamin D supplementation reduced the risk of influenza, whereas others did not. Evidence supporting the role of vitamin D in reducing risk of COVID-19 includes that the outbreak occurred in winter, a time when 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations are lowest; that the number of cases in the Southern Hemisphere near the end of summer are low; that vitamin D deficiency has been found to contribute to acute respiratory distress syndrome; and that case-fatality rates increase with age and with chronic disease comorbidity, both of which are associated with lower 25(OH)D concentration. To reduce the risk of infection, it is recommended that people at risk of influenza and/or COVID-19 consider taking 10,000 IU/d of vitamin D(3) for a few weeks to rapidly raise 25(OH)D concentrations, followed by 5000 IU/d. The goal should be to raise 25(OH)D concentrations above 40–60 ng/mL (100–150 nmol/L). For treatment of people who become infected with COVID-19, higher vitamin D(3) doses might be useful. Randomized controlled trials and large population studies should be conducted to evaluate these recommendations.

title: Review of Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Imaging Data Acquisition, Segmentation and Diagnosis for COVID-19
abstract: ( The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is spreading all over the world. Medical imaging such as X-ray and computed tomography (CT) plays an essential role in the global fight against COVID-19, whereas the recently emerging artificial intelligence (AI) technologies further strengthen the power of the imaging tools and help medical specialists. We hereby review the rapid responses in the community of medical imaging (empowered by AI) toward COVID-19. For example, AI-empowered image acquisition can significantly help automate the scanning procedure and also reshape the workflow with minimal contact to patients, providing the best protection to the imaging technicians. Also, AI can improve work efficiency by accurate delination of infections in X-ray and CT images, facilitating subsequent quantification. Moreover, the computer-aided platforms help radiologists make clinical decisions, i.e., for disease diagnosis, tracking, and prognosis. In this review paper, we thus cover the entire pipeline of medical imaging and analysis techniques involved with COVID-19, including image acquisition, segmentation, diagnosis, and follow-up. We particularly focus on the integration of AI with X-ray and CT, both of which are widely used in the frontline hospitals, in order to depict the latest progress of medical imaging and radiology fighting against COVID-19.

title: Pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes incite inflammatory storm in severe COVID-19 patients
abstract: Pathogenic human coronavirus infections, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV), cause high morbidity and mortality1, 2 Recently, a severe pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome caused by a new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) was reported at December 2019 in the city Wuhan, Hubei province, China3, 4, 5, which was also named as pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome (PARS)6 and can cause coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) to seriously endanger human health Up to 24th of February 2020, at least 77779 cases have been reported with 2666 fatal cases according to the report from China CDC However, the immune mechanism that potential orchestrated acute mortality from COVID-19 patients is still unknown Here we show that after the SARS-CoV-2 infection, CD4+ T lymphocytes are rapidly activated to become pathogenic T helper (Th) 1 cells and generate GM-CSF etc The cytokines environment induces inflammatory CD14+CD16+ monocytes with high expression of IL-6 and accelerate the inflammation Given that large amount of inflammatory cells infiltrations have been observed in lungs from severe COVID-19 patients7, 8, these aberrant pathogenic Th1 cells and inflammatory monocytes may enter the pulmonary circulation in huge numbers and play an immune damaging role to causing lung functional disability and quick mortality Our results demonstrate that excessive non-effective host immune responses by pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes may associate with severe lung pathology Thus, we suggest that monoclonal antibodies targeting GM-CSF or interleukin 6 may be effective in blocking inflammatory storms and, therefore, be a promising treatment of severe COVID-19 patients

title: Diarrhea during COVID-19 infection: pathogenesis, epidemiology, prevention and management
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19) pandemic is a worldwide emergency. An increasing number of diarrhea cases is reported. Here we investigate the epidemiology, clinical presentation, molecular mechanisms, management, and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 associated diarrhea.  We searched on PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science up to March 2020 to identify studies documenting diarrhea and mechansism of intestinal inflammation in patients with confirmed diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Clinical studies show an incidence rate of diarrhea ranging from 2% to 50% of cases. It may precede or trail respiratory symptoms. A pooled analysis revealed an overall percentage of diarrhea onset of 10.4%. SARS-CoV uses the the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and the serine protease TMPRSS2 for S protein priming. ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are not only expressed in lung, but also in the small intestinal epithelia. ACE2 is expressed furthermore in the upper esophagus, liver, and colon. SARS-CoV-2 binding affinity to ACE2 is significantly higher (10-20 times) compared with SARS-CoV. Several reports indicate viral RNA shedding in stool detectable longer time period than in nasopharyngeal swabs. Current treatment is supportive, but several options appear promising and are the subject of investigation.  Diarrhea is a frequent presenting symptom in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Increasing evidence indicates possible fecal oral transmission, indicating the need for a rapid and effective modification of the screening and diagnostic algorithms. The optimal methods to prevent, manage, and treat diarrhea in COVID-19 infected patients are subjects of intensive research.

title: Low dose anti-inflammatory radiotherapy for the treatment of pneumonia by covid-19: A proposal for a multi-centric prospective trial
abstract: COVID-19 is a highly contagious viral infection with high morbidity that is draining health resources. The biggest complication is pneumonia, which has a serious inflammatory component, with no standardized treatment. Low-dose radiation therapy (LD-RT) is non-invasive and has anti-inflammatory effects that can interfere with the inflammatory cascade, thus reducing the severity of associated cytokine release and might be useful in the treatment of respiratory complications caused by COVID-19.  This multicentric prospective clinical trial seeks to evaluate the efficacy of bilateral lung LD-RT therapy as a treatment for interstitial pneumonia in patients with COVID-19 for improving respiratory function. This prospective study will have 2 phases: I) an exploratory phase enrolling 10 patients, which will assess the feasibility and efficacy of low-dose lung irradiation, evaluated according to an increase in the PaO2/FiO2 ratio of at least 20% at 48–72 h with respect to the pre-irradiation value. If a minimum efficiency of 30% of the patients is not achieved, the study will not be continued. II) Non-randomized comparative phase in two groups: a control group, which will only receive pharmacological treatment, and an experimental arm with pharmacological treatment and LD-RT. It will include 96 patients, the allocation will be 1: 2, that is, 32 in the control arm and 64 in the experimental arm. The primary end-point will be the efficacy of LD-RT in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia according to an improvement in PaO2/FiO2. Secondary objectives will include the safety of bilateral lung LD-RT, an improvement in the radiology image, overall mortality rates at 15 and 30 days after irradiation and characterizing anti-inflammatory mechanisms of LD-RT by measuring the level of expression of adhesion molecules, anti-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress mediators.

title: Rationale for the clinical use of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells for COVID-19 patients
abstract: In late 2019, a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in Wuhan, capital city of Hubei province in China. Cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection quickly grew by several thousand per day. Less than 100 days later, the World Health Organization declared that the rapidly spreading viral outbreak had become a global pandemic. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is typically associated with fever and respiratory symptoms. It often progresses to severe respiratory distress and multi-organ failure which carry a high mortality rate. Older patients or those with medical comorbidities are at greater risk for severe disease. Inflammation, pulmonary edema and an over-reactive immune response can lead to hypoxia, respiratory distress and lung damage. Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) possess potent and broad-ranging immunomodulatory activities. Multiple in vivo studies in animal models and ex vivo human lung models have demonstrated the MSC’s impressive capacity to inhibit lung damage, reduce inflammation, dampen immune responses and aid with alveolar fluid clearance. Additionally, MSCs produce molecules that are antimicrobial and reduce pain. Upon administration by the intravenous route, the cells travel directly to the lungs where the majority are sequestered, a great benefit for the treatment of pulmonary disease. The in vivo safety of local and intravenous administration of MSCs has been demonstrated in multiple human clinical trials, including studies of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Recently, the application of MSCs in the context of ongoing COVID-19 disease and other viral respiratory illnesses has demonstrated reduced patient mortality and, in some cases, improved long-term pulmonary function. Adipose-derived stem cells (ASC), an abundant type of MSC, are proposed as a therapeutic option for the treatment of COVID-19 in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. Additionally, when proven to be safe and effective, ASC treatments may reduce the demand on critical hospital resources. The ongoing COVID-19 outbreak has resulted in significant healthcare and socioeconomic burdens across the globe. There is a desperate need for safe and effective treatments. Cellular based therapies hold great promise for the treatment of COVID-19. This literature summary reviews the scientific rationale and need for clinical studies of adipose-derived stem cells and other types of mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of patients who suffer with COVID-19.

title: Role of Viral Infection in the Aetiology of Multiple Sclerosis: Status of Current Knowledge and Therapeutic Implications
abstract: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease of the CNS that typically begins in late adolescence or early adulthood. It is highly variable in its expression and severity. The cause of MS is unknown, but both genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in its pathogenesis. It is known that viruses can induce chronic neurological disease, but the pathogenetic process in unclear. A viral cause for MS has been postulated, but to date no single virus has been confirmed to be associated with the disease. Although most viral candidates are no longer considered as possible aetiological agents in MS, a few are still being investigated.

title: Early Guillain-Barré syndrome in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a case report from an Italian COVID-hospital
abstract: Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is an acute polyradiculoneuropathy associated with dysimmune processes, often related to a previous infectious exposure. During Italian severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 outbreak, a woman presented with a rapidly progressive flaccid paralysis with unilateral facial neuropathy after a few days of mild respiratory symptoms. Coronavirus was detected by nasopharyngeal swab, but there was no evidence of its presence in her cerebrospinal fluid, which confirmed the typical albumin-cytological dissociation of GBS, along with consistent neurophysiological data. Despite immunoglobulin infusions and intensive supportive care, her clinical picture worsened simultaneously both from the respiratory and neurological point of view, as if reflecting different aspects of the same systemic inflammatory response. Similar early complications have already been observed in patients with para-infectious GBS related to Zika virus, but pathological mechanisms have yet to be established.

title: Thrombosis in Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) through the prism of Virchow’s triad
abstract: The pathogenesis of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is gradually being comprehended. A high number of thrombotic episodes are reported, along with the mortality benefits of heparin. COVID-19 can be viewed as a prothrombotic disease. We overviewed the available evidence to explore this possibility. We identified various histopathology reports and clinical case series reporting thromboses in COVID-19. Also, multiple coagulation markers support this. COVID-19 can be regarded as a risk factor for thrombosis. Applying the principles of Virchow’s triad, we described abnormalities in the vascular endothelium, altered blood flow, and platelet function abnormalities that lead to venous and arterial thromboses in COVID-19. Endothelial dysfunction, activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) with the release of procoagulant plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1), and hyperimmune response with activated platelets seem to be significant contributors to thrombogenesis in COVID-19. Stratifying risk of COVID-19 thromboses should be based on age, presence of comorbidities, D-dimer, CT scoring, and various blood cell ratios. Isolated heparin therapy may not be sufficient to combat thrombosis in this disease. There is an urgent need to explore newer avenues like activated protein C, PAI-1 antagonists, and tissue plasminogen activators (tPA). These should be augmented with therapies targeting RAAS, antiplatelet drugs, repurposed antiinflammatory, and antirheumatic drugs.

title: Pharmacological (or Synthetic) and Nutritional Agonists of PPAR-Î³ as Candidates for Cytokine Storm Modulation in COVID-19 Disease
abstract: The cytokine storm is an abnormal production of inflammatory cytokines, due to the over-activation of the innate immune response. This mechanism has been recognized as a critical mediator of influenza-induced lung disease, and it could be pivotal for COVID-19 infections. Thus, an immunomodulatory approach targeting the over-production of cytokines could be proposed for viral aggressive pulmonary disease treatment. In this regard, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-Î³, a member of the PPAR transcription factor family, could represent a potential target. Beside the well-known regulatory role on lipid and glucose metabolism, PPAR-Î³ also represses the inflammatory process. Similarly, the PPAR-Î³ agonist thiazolidinediones (TZDs), like pioglitazone, are anti-inflammatory drugs with ameliorating effects on severe viral pneumonia. In addition to the pharmacological agonists, also nutritional ligands of PPAR-Î³, like curcuma, lemongrass, and pomegranate, possess anti-inflammatory properties through PPAR-Î³ activation. Here, we review the main synthetic and nutritional PPAR-Î³ ligands, proposing a dual approach based on the strengthening of the immune system using pharmacological and dietary strategies as an attempt to prevent/treat cytokine storm in the case of coronavirus infection.

title: Predicting pseudoknotted structures across two RNA sequences
abstract: Laboratory RNA structure determination is demanding and costly and thus, computational structure prediction is an important task. Single sequence methods for RNA secondary structure prediction are limited by the accuracy of the underlying folding model, if a structure is supported by a family of evolutionarily related sequences, one can be more confident that the prediction is accurate. RNA pseudoknots are functional elements, which have highly conserved structures. However, few comparative structure prediction methods can handle pseudoknots due to the computational complexity.  A comparative pseudoknot prediction method called DotKnot-PW is introduced based on structural comparison of secondary structure elements and H-type pseudoknot candidates. DotKnot-PW outperforms other methods from the literature on a hand-curated test set of RNA structures with experimental support.

title: The Usual Suspects: Chemokines and Microbial Infection of the Central Nervous System
abstract: For many years, the central nervous system (CNS) was considered an “immunologically privileged site” — a perspective based on limited immune surveillance when compared to peripheral tissue, muted expression of MHC molecules in the context of an apparent lack of professional antigen presenting cells, and the absence of a classical lymphatic drainage system. Together, these observations supported the notion that the CNS was unable to mount and/or support an immune response. However, over time this view evolved and it is now clear that CNS tissue is neither immunologically inert nor privileged, rather, its immune response is exquisitely sensitive to antigenic challenge. Indeed, overwhelming evidence now indicates that upon microbial infection of the CNS there is often a dynamic and orchestrated localized immune response that culminates with infiltration of antigen-specific lymphocytes, usually resulting in control and elimination of the invading pathogen. It is important to note that not all effective immune responses originating in the CNS are completely beneficial to the host; alternatively, there are instances where immune cell infiltration following infection is associated with severe neuropathology resulting in death or chronic neurodegenerative disease.

title: Can activation of NRF2 be a strategy against COVID-19?
abstract: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) caused by SARS-CoV-2 is largely the result of a dysregulated host response, followed by damage to alveolar cells and lung fibrosis. Exacerbated pro-inflammatory cytokines release (cytokine storm) and loss of T-lymphocytes (leucopenia) characterize the most aggressive presentation. Here we propose that a multi-faceted anti-inflammatory strategy based on pharmacological activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (NRF2), can be deployed against the virus. The strategy provides robust cytoprotection by restoring the redox and protein homeostasis, promoting resolution of inflammation, and facilitating repair. NRF2 activators such as sulforaphane and bardoxolone methyl are already in clinical trials. The safety and efficacy information of these modulators in humans, together with their well-documented cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in preclinical models, highlight the potential of this armamentarium for deployment to the battlefield against COVID-19.

title: Immunology of Multiple Sclerosis

title: Low doses of radiation therapy increase the immunosuppressive profile of lung macrophages via IL-10 production and IFNγ/IL-6 suppression: a therapeutic strategy to counteract lung inflammation?
abstract: Patients with severe COVID-19 have a marked inflammatory state characterized by a cytokine storm syndrome. Severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) have been described in 14% of the reported cases. Several therapeutic approaches are under investigation but safety and potential efficacy remain to be determined. Chest irradiation at equivalent doses below 1 Gy has been used successfully in the past to treat pneumonia. However, after the onset of effective antimicrobial agents, the use of low doses in the treatment of patients has been discontinued and the involved mechanism remained unknown. The objective of this study was to determine the mechanism by which low doses of radiation therapy (RT) protect the lung from inflammation. Nerve- and airway-associated macrophages (NAMs) and the pro-versus anti-inflammatory cytokine balance (IL6-IFNγ/IL-10) were recently shown to regulate lung inflammation. Here, we used Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) ligand polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid [Poly(I:C)] and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in human lung macrophages and murine model of lung inflammation for functional assays. Our results show that irradiation of Poly(I:C)-stimulated human lung macrophages in vitro using low doses of RT (0.5-1 Gy) increased IL-10 secretion and decreased IFNγ production in the culture supernatant. The percentage of human lung macrophages producing IL-6 was also decreased in vitro with low doses of RT. Furthermore, using experimental models (LPS- and Poly(I :C)-induced lung inflammation), we showed that chest irradiation using low doses of RT significantly increased the percentage of NAMs producing IL-10, leading to lung protection from inflammation. Altogether, our data highlight one of the mechanisms by which low doses of RT regulate lung inflammation and positively favor anti-inflammatory cytokine secretion by lung macrophages. These data strongly suggest that low doses of RT could be used in order to mitigate lung inflammatory processes in situations such as COVID-19-induced ARDS.

title: Emerging pharmacotherapy for COVID-19.
abstract: Broadly speaking, pharmacological treatments for COVID-19 can be divided into those acting on upstream pathways early on in the disease process via suppression of viral replication or by inhibiting cell entry, and those acting on downstream pathways later on via selective attenuation of the adaptive immune cytokine-mediated inflammatory response. The antiviral drug remdesivir has been shown to shorten duration of disease while interferon beta-1b may speed up viral clearance. The results with hydroxychloroquine have thus far been rather disappointing. Trials with selective cytokine blockers including anti-interleukin-1 (anti-IL-1) and anti-interleukin-6 (anti-IL-6), have shown some promise in more severe cases, with further confirmation being required from large-scale phase-3 randomised controlled trials. The likelihood is that combination therapy addressing both upstream and downstream pathways may be required to prevent progression of severe COVID-19 infection in susceptible older patients with comorbidities and we believe further studies are now warranted to specifically target such at-risk groups who are more prone to worse outcomes.

title: Diet Supplementation, Probiotics, and Nutraceuticals in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Scoping Review
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (Sars-CoV-2) global pandemic is a devastating event that is causing thousands of victims every day around the world. One of the main reasons of the great impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on society is its unexpected spread, which has not allowed an adequate preparation. The scientific community is fighting against time for the production of a vaccine, but it is difficult to place a safe and effective product on the market as fast as the virus is spreading. Similarly, for drugs that can directly interfere with viral pathways, their production times are long, despite the great efforts made. For these reasons, we analyzed the possible role of non-pharmacological substances such as supplements, probiotics, and nutraceuticals in reducing the risk of Sars-CoV-2 infection or mitigating the symptoms of COVID-19. These substances could have numerous advantages in the current circumstances, are generally easily available, and have negligible side effects if administered at the already used and tested dosages. Large scientific evidence supports the benefits that some bacterial and molecular products may exert on the immune response to respiratory viruses. These could also have a regulatory role in systemic inflammation or endothelial damage, which are two crucial aspects of COVID-19. However, there are no specific data available, and rigorous clinical trials should be conducted to confirm the putative benefits of diet supplementation, probiotics, and nutraceuticals in the current pandemic.

title: Could Intravenous Immunoglobulin Collected from Recovered Coronavirus Patients Protect against COVID-19 and Strengthen the Immune System of New Patients?
abstract: The emergence of the novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, which causes severe respiratory tract infections in humans (COVID-19), has become a global health concern. Most coronaviruses infect animals but can evolve into strains that cross the species barrier and infect humans. At the present, there is no single specific vaccine or efficient antiviral therapy against COVID-19. Recently, we showed that intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment reduces inflammation of intestinal epithelial cells and eliminates overgrowth of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Candida albicans in the murine gut. Immunotherapy with IVIg could be employed to neutralize COVID-19. However, the efficacy of IVIg would be better if the immune IgG antibodies were collected from patients who have recovered from COVID-19 in the same city, or the surrounding area, in order to increase the chance of neutralizing the virus. These immune IgG antibodies will be specific against COVID-19 by boosting the immune response in newly infected patients. Different procedures may be used to remove or inactivate any possible pathogens from the plasma of recovered coronavirus patient derived immune IgG, including solvent/detergent, 60 °C heat-treatment, and nanofiltration. Overall, immunotherapy with immune IgG antibodies combined with antiviral drugs may be an alternative treatment against COVID-19 until stronger options such as vaccines are available.

title: Age, inflammation and disease location are critical determinants of intestinal expression of SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in inflammatory bowel disease.

title: Managing thromboembolic risk with menopausal hormone therapy and hormonal contraception in the COVID-19 pandemic: Recommendations from the Spanish Menopause Society, Sociedad Española de Ginecología y Obstetricia and Sociedad Española de Trombosis y Hemostasia
abstract: Abstract COVID-19 is associated with a systemic inflammatory response with activation of coagulation in symptomatic patients. The possibility of coagulopathies in peri- and postmenopausal women taking estrogen therapies makes it necessary to consider antithrombotic strategies, such as the use of low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) at specific prophylactic or treatment doses for each individual case, depending on the risk factors that each woman presents. For such reasons, a panel of experts from various Spanish scientific societies has met to develop usage recommendations for managing menopausal women taking menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) or combined hormonal contraception (CHC) during the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: A Case of Cytokine Hemofiltration and ECLS as Treatment of COVID-19 Respiratory Failure
abstract: Discovery of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (n-SARS-CoV-2) in late 2019 has brought with it a renewed interest in methods of inflammatory mitigation, particularly due to reports of a cytokine release syndrome playing a pathogenic role . One method of decreasing inflammation is through hemofiltration in combination with a dialysis membrane that has a large cutoff for protein permeability (high-cutoff/HCO), thereby capturing inflammatory cytokines and attenuating their harmful side effects. The authors report a patient with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) secondary to COVID-19 infection, requiring Veno-Venous Extracorporeal Life Support (VV-ECLS) who was treated with cytokine hemofiltration and showed clinical improvement.  Our patient is a 53 year-old female who presented with coronavirus infection and respiratory failure culminating in hypoxemia refractory to conventional mechanical ventilation. She was cannulated onto veno-venous extra-corporeal life support and treated with cytokine hemofiltration using a high-cutoff filter. Following treatment, inflammatory markers improved along with compliance and oxygenation. She was decannulated from ECLS shortly thereafter. IRB approval was waived due to the single case report nature. Consent was obtained for use of images and case data.  Inflammatory modulation has been theorized to be beneficial in the management of organ failure secondary to coronavirus infection. A cytokine release syndrome (CRS) has been implicated in this disease’s pathogenesis. Cytokine hemofiltration is one modality to mitigate harmful inflammation. Our patient demonstrated remarkable improvement with treatment and to our knowledge represents the first report of cytokine hemofiltration as management of COVID-19 respiratory failure in conjunction with VV-ECLS. This therapy warrants further evaluation as a treatment option.

title: Activation of P2X(7) Receptor by ATP Plays an Important Role in Regulating Inflammatory Responses during Acute Viral Infection
abstract: Acute viral infection causes damages to the host due to uncontrolled viral replication but even replication deficient viral vectors can induce systemic inflammatory responses. Indeed, overactive host innate immune responses to viral vectors have led to devastating consequences. Macrophages are important innate immune cells that recognize viruses and induce inflammatory responses at the early stage of infection. However, tissue resident macrophages are not easily activated by the mere presence of virus suggesting that their activation requires additional signals from other cells in the tissue in order to trigger inflammatory responses. Previously, we have shown that the cross-talk between epithelial cells and macrophages generates synergistic inflammatory responses during adenoviral vector infection. Here, we investigated whether ATP is involved in the activation of macrophages to induce inflammatory responses during an acute adenoviral infection. Using a macrophage-epithelial cell co-culture system we demonstrated that ATP signaling through P2X(7) receptor (P2X(7)R) is required for induction of inflammatory mediators. We also showed that ATP-P2X(7)R signaling regulates inflammasome activation as inhibition or deficiency of P2X(7)R as well as caspase-1 significantly reduced IL-1β secretion. Furthermore, we found that intranasal administration of replication deficient adenoviral vectors in mice caused a high mortality in wild-type mice with symptoms of acute respiratory distress syndrome but the mice deficient in P2X(7)R or caspase-1 showed increased survival. In addition, wild-type mice treated with apyrase or inhibitors of P2X(7)R or caspase-1 showed higher rates of survival. The improved survival in the P2X(7)R deficient mice correlated with diminished levels of IL-1β and IL-6 and reduced neutrophil infiltration in the early phase of infection. These results indicate that ATP, released during viral infection, is an important inflammatory regulator that activates the inflammasome pathway and regulates inflammatory responses.

title: COVID-19 infection: mitohormetic concept of immune response

title: COVID‐19: A review of therapeutics under investigation
abstract: The COVID‐19 outbreak has disrupted global health care networks and caused thousands of deaths and an international economic downturn. Multiple drugs are being used on patients with COVID‐19 based on theoretical and in vitro therapeutic targets. Several of these therapies have been studied, but many have limited evidence behind their use, and clinical trials to evaluate their efficacy are either ongoing or have not yet begun. This review summarizes the existing evidence for medications currently under investigation for treatment of COVID‐19, including remdesivir, chloroquine/hydroxychlorquine, convalescent plasma, lopinavir/ritonavir, IL‐6 inhibitors, corticosteroids, and angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors.

title: Impact of the COVID-19 Outbreak on the Management of Patients with Cancer
abstract: The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) outbreak is having a profound impact on the management of patients with cancer. In this review, we comprehensively investigate the various aspects of cancer care during the pandemic, taking advantage of data generated in Asia and Europe at the frontline of the COVID-19 pandemic spread. Cancer wards have been subjected to several modifications to protect patients and healthcare professionals from COVID-19 infection, while attempting to maintain cancer diagnosis, therapy, and research. In this setting, the management of COVID-19 infected patients with cancer is particularly challenging. We also discuss the direct and potential remote impacts of the global pandemic on the mortality of patients with cancer. As such, the indirect impact of the pandemic on the global economy and the potential consequences in terms of cancer mortality are discussed. As the infection is spreading worldwide, we are obtaining more knowledge on the COVID-19 pandemic consequences that are currently impacting and may continue to further challenge cancer care in several countries.

title: COVID-19, coagulopathy and venous thromboembolism: more questions than answers
abstract: The acute respiratory illnesses caused by severe acquired respiratory syndrome corona Virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a global health emergency, involving more than 8.6 million people worldwide with more than 450,000 deaths. Among the clinical manifestations of COVID-19, the disease that results from SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans, a prominent feature is a pro-thrombotic derangement of the hemostatic system, possibly representing a peculiar clinicopathologic manifestation of viral sepsis. The severity of the derangement of coagulation parameters in COVID-19 patients has been associated with a poor prognosis, and the use of low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) at doses registered for prevention of venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been endorsed by the World Health Organization and by Several Scientific societies. However, some relevant issues on the relationships between COVID-19, coagulopathy and VTE have yet to be fully elucidated. This review is particularly focused on four clinical questions: What is the incidence of VTE in COVID-19 patients? How do we frame the COVID-19 associated coagulopathy? Which role, if any, do antiphospolipid antibodies have? How do we tackle COVID-19 coagulopathy? In the complex scenario of an overwhelming pandemic, most everyday clinical decisions have to be taken without delay, although not yet supported by a sound scientific evidence. This review discusses the most recent findings of basic and clinical research about the COVID-associated coagulopathy, to foster a more thorough knowledge of the mechanisms underlying this compelling disease.

title: Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China
abstract: In December 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emerged in Wuhan and rapidly spread throughout China.  Demographic and clinical data of all confirmed cases with COVID-19 on admission at Tongji Hospital from January 10 to February 12, 2020, were collected and analyzed. The data of laboratory examinations, including peripheral lymphocyte subsets, were analyzed and compared between severe and non-severe patients.  Of the 452 patients with COVID-19 recruited, 286 were diagnosed as severe infection. The median age was 58 years and 235 were male. The most common symptoms were fever, shortness of breath, expectoration, fatigue, dry cough and myalgia. Severe cases tend to have lower lymphocytes counts, higher leukocytes counts and neutrophil-lymphocyte-ratio (NLR), as well as lower percentages of monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. Most of severe cases demonstrated elevated levels of infection-related biomarkers and inflammatory cytokines. The number of T cells significantly decreased, and more hampered in severe cases. Both helper T cells and suppressor T cells in patients with COVID-19 were below normal levels, and lower level of helper T cells in severe group. The percentage of naïve helper T cells increased and memory helper T cells decreased in severe cases. Patients with COVID-19 also have lower level of regulatory T cells, and more obviously damaged in severe cases.  The novel coronavirus might mainly act on lymphocytes, especially T lymphocytes. Surveillance of NLR and lymphocyte subsets is helpful in the early screening of critical illness, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19.

title: Immunological and inflammatory profiles in mild and severe cases of COVID-19
abstract: COVID-19 is associated with 5.1% mortality. Although the virological, epidemiological, clinical, and management outcome features of COVID-19 patients have been defined rapidly, the inflammatory and immune profiles require definition as they influence pathogenesis and clinical expression of COVID-19. Here we show lymphopenia, selective loss of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells and NK cells, excessive T-cell activation and high expression of T-cell inhibitory molecules are more prominent in severe cases than in those with mild disease. CD8+ T cells in patients with severe disease express high levels of cytotoxic molecules. Histochemical studies of lung tissue from one fatality show sub-anatomical distributions of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and massive infiltration of T cells and macrophages. Thus, aberrant activation and dysregulation of CD8+ T cells occur in patients with severe COVID-19 disease, an effect that might be for pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection and indicate that immune-based targets for therapeutic interventions constitute a promising treatment for severe COVID-19 patients.

title: Mechanisms of Cell and Tissue Damage
abstract: Cell damage has profound effects if it is the endothelial cells of small blood vessels that are involved. When bacteria invade tissues, they almost inevitably cause some damage, and this is also true for fungi and protozoa. Cell and tissue damage are sometimes due to the direct local action of the microorganism and microbial toxins. They either interfere with the transcription, translation, and DNA synthesis or change the permeability of the cell membrane. Some of the indirect damage brought about by these microbes is through inflammation and immune responses. Host cells are destroyed or blood vessels injured as a direct result of the action of microbes or their toxins. Inflammatory materials are liberated from necrotic cells, whatever the cause of the necrosis. Also many bacteria themselves liberate inflammatory products and certain viruses cause living infected cells to release inflammatory mediators. The expression of the immune response necessarily involves a certain amount of inflammation, cell infiltration, lymph node swelling, even tissue destruction. Sometimes they are very severe, leading to serious disease or death, but at other times they play a minimal part in the pathogenesis of disease. Other indirect mechanisms of damage include stress, hemorrhage, placental infection, and tumors.

title: Treatment options for COVID-19: the reality and challenges
abstract: An outbreak related to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in Wuhan, China in December 2019. An extremely high potential for dissemination resulted in the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in 2020. Despite the worsening trends of COVID-19, no drugs are validated to have significant efficacy in clinical treatment of COVID-19 patients in large-scale studies. Remdesivir is considered the most promising antiviral agent; it works by inhibiting the activity of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). A large-scale study investigating the clinical efficacy of remdesivir (200 mg on day 1, followed by 100 mg once daily) is on-going. The other excellent anti-influenza RdRp inhibitor favipiravir is also being clinically evaluated for its efficacy in COVID-19 patients. The protease inhibitor lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/RTV) alone is not shown to provide better antiviral efficacy than standard care. However, the regimen of LPV/RTV plus ribavirin was shown to be effective against SARS-CoV in vitro. Another promising alternative is hydroxychloroquine (200 mg thrice daily) plus azithromycin (500 mg on day 1, followed by 250 mg once daily on day 2-5), which showed excellent clinical efficacy on Chinese COVID-19 patients and anti-SARS-CoV-2 potency in vitro. The roles of teicoplanin (which inhibits the viral genome exposure in cytoplasm) and monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 are under investigation. Avoiding the prescription of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, or angiotensin II type I receptor blockers is advised for COVID-19 patients.

title: COVID-19 pathophysiology: A review
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus, now named as SARS-CoV-2, caused a series of acute atypical respiratory diseases in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. The disease caused by this virus was termed COVID-19. The virus is transmittable between humans and has caused pandemic worldwide. The number of death tolls continues to rise and a large number of countries have been forced to do social distancing and lockdown. Lack of targeted therapy continues to be a problem. Epidemiological studies showed that elder patients were more susceptible to severe diseases, while children tend to have milder symptoms. Here we reviewed the current knowledge about this disease and considered the potential explanation of the different symptomatology between children and adults.

title: A Review of Acute Myocardial Injury in Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: In December 2019, an outbreak of pneumonia caused by a novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), occurred in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, and it has spread rapidly across the world, causing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Although SARS-CoV-2 infection predominantly results in pulmonary issues, accumulating evidence suggests the increased frequency of a variety of cardiovascular complications in patients with COVID-19. Acute cardiac injury, defined as elevated cardiac troponin levels, is the most reported cardiac abnormality in COVID-19 and strongly associated with mortality. In this article, we summarize the currently available data on the association of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 with acute myocardial injury.

title: Placental SARS-CoV-2 in a patient with mild COVID-19 disease
abstract: The full impact of COVID-19 on pregnancy remains uncharacterized. Current literature suggests minimal maternal, fetal, and neonatal morbidity and mortality,1 and COVID-19 manifestations appear similar between pregnant and non-pregnant women.2 We present a case of placental SARS-CoV-2 virus in a woman with an uncomplicated pregnancy and mild COVID-19 disease.  A pregnant woman was evaluated at University of Missouri Women and Childrens Hospital. Institutional review board approval was obtained; information was obtained from medical records. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to detect SARS-CoV-2. A gynecological pathologist examined the placenta and performed histolopathology. Sections were formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded; slides were cut and subjected to hematoxylin-and-eosin or immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. IHC was performed with specific monoclonal antibodies to detect SARS-CoV-2 antigen or to identify trophoblasts.  A 29 year-old multigravida presented at 40-4/7 weeks for labor induction. With myalgias two days prior, she tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Her parents were in self-isolation for COVID-19 positivity; husband was asymptomatic and tested negative for COVID-19, but exposed to a workplace (meatpacking facility) outbreak. Prenatal course was uncomplicated, with no gestational hypertension. She was afebrile and asymptomatic with normal vital signs throughout hospitalization. Her myalgias improved prior to admission. A liveborn male infant was delivered vaginally. Newborn course was uneventful; he was appropriate for gestational age, physical was unremarkable, and he was discharged home at 36 hours. COVID-19 RT-PCR test was negative at 24 hours. At one-week follow-up, newborn was breastfeeding well, with no fevers or respiratory distress. Overall placental histology is consistent with acute uterine hypoxia (subchorionic laminar necrosis) superimposed on chronic uterine hypoxia (extra-villous trophoblasts and focal chronic villitis). IHC using SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid-specific monoclonal antibody demonstrated SARS-CoV-2 antigens throughout the placenta in chorionic villi endothelial cells, and rarely in CK7-expressing trophoblasts. Negative control placenta (November 2019 delivery) and ferret nasal turbinate tissues (not shown) were negative for SARS-CoV-2.  In this report, SARS-CoV-2 was found in the placenta, but newborn was COVID-19 negative. Our case shows maternal vascular malperfusion, with no features of fetal vascular malperfusion. To our knowledge, this is the first report of placental COVID-19 despite mild COVID-19 disease in pregnancy (with no symptoms of COVID-19 aside from myalgias); specifically, this patient had no fever, cough, or shortness of breath, but only myalgias and sick contacts. Despite her having mild COVID-19 disease in pregnancy, we demonstrate placental vasculopathy and presence of SARS-CoV-2 virus across the placenta. Evidence of placental COVID-19 raises concern for possible placental vasculopathy (potentially leading to fetal growth restriction, pre-eclampsia, and other pregnancy complications) as well as for potential vertical transmission -- especially for pregnant women who may be exposed to COVID-19 in early pregnancy. Further studies are urgently needed, to determine whether women with mild, pre-symptomatic, or asymptomatic COVID-19 may have SARS-CoV-2 virus that can cross the placenta, cause fetal vascular malperfusion, and possibly affect the fetus. This raises important public health and public policy questions of whether future pregnancy guidance should include stricter pandemic precautions, such as screening for a wider array of COVID-19 symptoms, increased antenatal surveillance, and possibly routine COVID-19 testing on a regular basis throughout pregnancy.

title: COVID-19 and lung cancer: risks, mechanisms and treatment interactions
abstract: Cases of the 2019 novel coronavirus also known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continue to rise worldwide. To date, there is no effective treatment. Clinical management is largely symptomatic, with organ support in intensive care for critically ill patients. The first phase I trial to test the efficacy of a vaccine has recently begun, but in the meantime there is an urgent need to decrease the morbidity and mortality of severe cases. It is known that patients with cancer are more susceptible to infection than individuals without cancer because of their systemic immunosuppressive state caused by the malignancy and anticancer treatments. Therefore, these patients might be at increased risk of pulmonary complications from COVID-19. The SARS-CoV-2 could in some case induce excessive and aberrant non-effective host immune responses that are associated with potentially fatal severe lung injury and patients can develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Cytokine release syndrome and viral ARDS result from uncontrolled severe acute inflammation. Acute lung injury results from inflammatory monocyte and macrophage activation in the pulmonary luminal epithelium which lead to a release of proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor-&#945;. These cytokines play a crucial role in immune-related pneumonitis, and could represent a promising target when the infiltration is T cell predominant or there are indirect signs of high IL-6-related inflammation, such as elevated C-reactive protein. A monoclonal anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, tocilizumab has been administered in a number of cases in China and Italy. Positive clinical and radiological outcomes have been reported. These early findings have led to an ongoing randomized controlled clinical trial in China and Italy. While data from those trials are eagerly awaited, patients' management will continue to rely for the vast majority on local guidelines. Among many other aspects, this crisis has proven that different specialists must join forces to deliver the best possible care to patients.

title: Current Knowledge and Research Priorities in the Digestive Manifestations of COVID-19

title: Pulmonary Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) and Inflammatory Lung Disease.
abstract: In response to infectious and, in some instances, noninfectious insults, the affected tissues/cells of the host undergo inflammation. However, uncontrolled inflammation could be detrimental to the host, resulting in inflammatory disease, such as inflammatory lung disease. Although the etiology of the disease is well defined, the underling pathogenesis is still incompletely understood. The renin-angiotensin system (RAS), one of the primary cardiovascular regulatory systems, has been proposed to be involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory lung disease. In particular, the RAS has been implicated as advances in the understanding of the multifunctionality of individual components of the system have been made, and by the fact that the RAS acts not only systemically, but also locally in a variety of tissues, including the lung. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a relatively new member of the RAS, has drawn extensive attention since 2003, because of the findings that ACE2 is the receptor for SARS Corona virus and that maintenance of normal ACE2 levels in the lung is beneficial for the host to combat inflammatory lung disease. Nevertheless, the mechanism through which ACE2 plays a role in inflammatory lung disease has not been clearly identified. In an attempt to summarize current literature findings and progress made in uncovering the role of ACE2 in inflammatory lung disease, this review will focus on recent studies examining pulmonary ACE2 biology, its roles in inflammatory lung disease pathogenesis and possible underlying mechanisms. Finally, we will discuss pulmonary ACE2 as a potential therapeutic target for inflammatory lung disease.

title: COVID-19, chronic inflammatory respiratory diseases and eosinophils-Observations from reported clinical case series

title: Tocilizumab administration in a refractory case of COVID-19

title: Using Partial Differential Equation with Google Mobility Data to Model COVID-19 in Arizona
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 disrupts the life of many people in the world. The state of Arizona in the U.S. emerges as one of the country's newest COVID-19 hot spots. Accurate forecasting for COVID-19 cases will help governments to implement necessary measures and convince more people to take personal precautions to combat the virus. It is difficult to accurately predict the COVID-19 cases due to many human factors involved. This paper aims to provide a forecasting model for COVID-19 cases with the help of human activity data from the Google Community Mobility Reports. To achieve this goal, a specific partial differential equation (PDE) is developed and validated with the COVID-19 data from the New York Times at the county level in the state of Arizona in the U.S. The proposed model describes the combined effects of transboundary spread among county clusters in Arizona and human actives on the transmission of COVID-19. The results show that the prediction accuracy of this model is well acceptable (above 94\%). Furthermore, we study the effectiveness of human precautions such as wearing face masks and practicing social distancing on the decrease of COVID-19 cases at the local level. The localized analytical results can be used to help to slow down the spread of COVID-19 in Arizona. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first attempt to apply PDE models on COVID-19 prediction with the Google Community Mobility Reports.

title: Pathological inflammation in patients with COVID-19: a key role for monocytes and macrophages
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic caused by infection with SARS-CoV-2 has led to more than 200,000 deaths worldwide. Several studies have now established that the hyperinflammatory response induced by SARS-CoV-2 is a major cause of disease severity and death in infected patients. Macrophages are a population of innate immune cells that sense and respond to microbial threats by producing inflammatory molecules that eliminate pathogens and promote tissue repair. However, a dysregulated macrophage response can be damaging to the host, as is seen in the macrophage activation syndrome induced by severe infections, including in infections with the related virus SARS-CoV. Here we describe the potentially pathological roles of macrophages during SARS-CoV-2 infection and discuss ongoing and prospective therapeutic strategies to modulate macrophage activation in patients with COVID-19.

title: Clinical features, diagnostics, and outcomes of patients presenting with acute respiratory illness: a comparison of patients with and without COVID-19
abstract: Emerging data on the clinical presentation, diagnostics, and outcomes of patients with COVID-19 have largely been presented as case series. Few studies have compared these clinical features and outcomes of COVID-19 to other acute respiratory illnesses.  We examined all patients presenting to an emergency department in San Francisco, California between February 3 and March 31, 2020 with an acute respiratory illness who were tested for SARS-CoV-2. We determined COVID-19 status by PCR and metagenomic next generation sequencing (mNGS). We compared demographics, comorbidities, symptoms, vital signs, and laboratory results including viral diagnostics using PCR and mNGS. Among those hospitalized, we determined differences in treatment (antibiotics, antivirals, respiratory support) and outcomes (ICU admission, ICU interventions, acute respiratory distress syndrome, cardiac injury).  In a cohort of 316 patients, 33 (10%) tested positive for SARS-CoV-2; 31 patients, all without COVID-19, tested positive for another respiratory virus (16%). Among patients with additional viral testing, no co-infections with SARS-CoV-2 were identified by PCR or mNGS. Patients with COVID-19 reported longer symptoms duration (median 7 vs. 3 days), and were more likely to report fever (82% vs. 44%), fatigue (85% vs. 50%), and myalgias (61% vs 27%); p<0.001 for all comparisons. Lymphopenia (55% vs 34%, p=0.018) and bilateral opacities on initial chest radiograph (55% vs. 24%, p=0.001) were more common in patients with COVID-19. Patients with COVID-19 were more often hospitalized (79% vs. 56%, p=0.014). Of 186 hospitalized patients, patients with COVID-19 had longer hospitalizations (median 10.7d vs. 4.7d, p<0.001) and were more likely to develop ARDS (23% vs. 3%, p<0.001). Most comorbidities, home medications, signs and symptoms, vital signs, laboratory results, treatment, and outcomes did not differ by COVID-19 status.  While we found differences in clinical features of COVID-19 compared to other acute respiratory illnesses, there was significant overlap in presentation and comorbidities. Patients with COVID-19 were more likely to be admitted to the hospital, have longer hospitalizations and develop ARDS, and were unlikely to have co-existent viral infections. These findings enhance understanding of the clinical characteristics of COVID-19 in comparison to other acute respiratory illnesses.

title: Protection against COVID-19 injury by Qingfei Paidu decoction via anti-viral, anti-inflammatory activity and metabolic programming
abstract: Paidu decoction (QFPD), a multi-component herbal formula, has been widely used to treat COVID-19 in China. However, its active compounds and mechanisms of action are still unknown. Firstly, we divided QFPD into five functional units (FUs) according to the compatibility theory of traditional Chinese medicine. The corresponding common targets of the five FUs were all significantly enriched in Go Ontology (oxidoreductase activity, lipid metabolic process, homeostatic process, etc.), KEGG pathways (steroid biosynthesis, PPAR signaling pathway, adipocytokine signaling pathway, etc.), TTD diseases (chronic inflammatory diseases, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary Disease, etc.), miRNA (MIR183), kinase (CDK7) and TF (LXR). QFPD contained 257 specific targets in addition to HCoV, pneumonia and ACE2 co-expression proteins. Then, network topology analysis of the five components-target-pathway-disease networks yielded 67 active ingredients. In addition, ADMET estimations showed that 20 compounds passed the stringent lead-like criteria and in silico drug-likeness test with high gastrointestinal absorption and the median lethal dose (LD50 > 1600 mg/kg). Moreover, 4 specific ingredients (M3, S1, X2 and O2) and 5 common ingredients (MS1, MX16, SX1, WO1 and XO1) of QFPD presented good molecular docking score for 2019-nCov structure and non-structure proteins. Finally, drug perturbation of COVID-19 network robustness showed that all five FUs may protect COVID-19 independently, and target 8 specifically expressed drug-attacked nodes which were related to the bacterial and viral responses, immune system, signaling transduction, etc. In conclusion, our new FUNP analysis showed that QFPD had a protection effect on COVID-19 by regulating a complex molecular network with safety and efficacy. Part of the mechanism was associated with the regulation of anti-viral, anti-inflammatory activity and metabolic programming.

title: What is the true incidence of COVID-19 in patients with rheumatic diseases?

title: Pathogenic mechanisms implicated in the intravascular coagulation in the lungs of BVDV-infected calves challenged with BHV-1
abstract: Resistance to respiratory disease in cattle requires host defense mechanisms that protect against pathogens which have evolved sophisticated strategies to evade them, including an altered function of pulmonary macrophages (MΦs) or the induction of inflammatory responses that cause lung injury and sepsis. The aim of this study was to clarify the mechanisms responsible for vascular changes occurring in the lungs of calves infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and challenged later with bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1), evaluating the role of MΦs in the development of pathological lesions in this organ. For this purpose, pulmonary lesions were compared between co-infected calves and healthy animals inoculated only with BHV-1 through immunohistochemical (MAC387, TNFα, IL-1α, iNOS, COX-2 and Factor-VIII) and ultrastructural studies. Both groups of calves presented important vascular alterations produced by fibrin microthrombi and platelet aggregations within the blood vessels. These findings were earlier and more severe in the co-infected group, indicating that the concomitance of BVDV and BHV-1 in the lungs disrupts the pulmonary homeostasis by facilitating the establishment of an inflammatory and procoagulant environment modulated by inflammatory mediators released by pulmonary MΦs. In this regard, the co-infected calves, in spite of presenting a greater number of IMΦs than single-infected group, show a significant decrease in iNOS expression coinciding with the presence of more coagulation lesions. Moreover, animals pre-inoculated with BVDV displayed an alteration in the response of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα and IL-1), which play a key role in activating the immune response, as well as in the local cell-mediated response.

title: Lessons learned from the mechanisms of posttraumatic inflammation extrapolated to the inflammatory response in COVID-19: a review
abstract: Up to 20% of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) patients develop severe inflammatory complications with diffuse pulmonary inflammation, reflecting acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). A similar clinical profile occurs in severe trauma cases. This review compares pathophysiological and therapeutic principles of severely injured trauma patients and severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The development of sequential organ failure in trauma parallels deterioration seen in severe COVID-19. Based on established pathophysiological models in the field of trauma, two complementary pathways of disease progression into severe COVID-19 have been identified. Furthermore, the transition from local contained disease into systemic and remote inflammation has been addressed. More specifically, the traumatology concept of sequential insults (‘hits’) resulting in immune dysregulation, is applied to COVID-19 disease progression modelling. Finally, similarities in post-insult humoral and cellular immune responses to severe trauma and severe COVID-19 are described. To minimize additional ‘hits’ to COVID-19 patients, we suggest postponing all elective surgery in endemic areas. Based on traumatology experience, we propose that immunoprotective protocols including lung protective ventilation, optimal thrombosis prophylaxis, secondary infection prevention and calculated antibiotic therapy are likely also beneficial in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Finally, rising SARS-CoV-2 infection and mortality rates mandate exploration of out-of-the box treatment concepts, including experimental therapies designed for trauma care.

title: Olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions due to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a review of current evidence
abstract: It is reported that coronavirus disease (COVID-19) can affect the sense of smell and taste of infected people. The pathobiology of this virus is still incompletely known, and it is therefore important to explore the impact of COVID-19 infections on olfactory and gustatory functions. We aimed to review current evidence on olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions caused by COVID-19.  This study was a narrative review performed in 2020 to investigate the olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions of the COVID-19. We searched eight keywords in six databases to determine the related documents on the main objective of the study. To discover studies meeting the inclusion criteria, the authors screened the titles and abstracts of the identified articles. The appropriate studies were included and their results were discussed to make the final selection.  We have studied 24 current articles on the olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions due to COVID-19. A review of current studies has shown that we have a surge in the spread of olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions that happened during the epidemic of COVID-19 infection. Most studies (95.8%) have confirmed the symptoms of anosmia in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. A review of current studies showed that, in addition to anosmia, evidence of ageusia and dysgeusia (parageusia) was also seen in patients with COVID-19.  The results of our study support recent reports that SARS-CoV-2 may infect oral and nasal tissues and cause olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions. These findings may aid future research on the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of COVID-19 consequences.

title: COVID-19 treatment: Combining anti-inflammatory and antiviral therapeutics using a network-based approach
abstract: To date, there are no effective antiviral medications for COVID-19. Drug repurposing, a strategy that uses existing drugs, offers potential prevention and treatment options for COVID-19. We discuss one treatment strategy that combines anti-inflammatory (melatonin) and antiviral (toremifene) agents for patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 from network medicine-based findings. We also describe the pathobiology and immunologic characteristics of COVID-19 and highlight the rationale of combination drug treatment to rescue the pulmonary and cardiovascular conditions resulting from COVID-19. A preliminary analysis reveals a high potential for the synergistic effects of melatonin and toremifene to reduce viral infection and replication, and the aberrant host inflammatory responses, offering strong biologic plausibility as an effective therapy for COVID-19.

title: What about COVID-19 and arachidonic acid pathway?
abstract: COVID-19 is a highly contagious viral disease. In this study, we tried to define and discuss all the findings on the potential association between arachidonic acid (AA) pathway and COVID-19 pathophysiology.  A literature search across PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane database was conducted. A total of 25 studies were identified.  The data elucidated that COX-2 and prostaglandins (PGs), particularly PGE2, have pro-inflammatory action in COVID-19 pathophysiology. Arachidonic acid can act as endogenous antiviral compound. A deficiency in AA can make humans more susceptible to COVID-19. Targeting these pro-inflammatory mediators may help in decreasing the mortality and morbidity rate in COVID-19 patients.  PGE2 levels and other PGs levels should be measured in patients with COVID-19. Lowering the PGE2 levels through inhibition of human microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) can enhance the host immune response against COVID-19. In addition, the hybrid compounds, such as COX-2 inhibitors/TP antagonists, can be an innovative treatment to control the overall balance between AA mediators in patients with COVID-19.

title: Is Guillain-Barrè syndrome triggered by SARS-CoV-2? Case report and literature review
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the infectious agent responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Respiratory and gastrointestinal manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 are well described, less defined is the clinical neurological spectrum of COVID-19. We reported a case of COVID-19 patient with acute monophasic Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), and a literature review on the SARS-CoV-2 and GBS etiological correlation.  A 68 years-old man presented to the emergency department with symptoms of acute progressive symmetric ascending flaccid tetraparesis. Oropharyngeal swab for SARS-CoV-2 tested positive. Neurological examination showed bifacial nerve palsy and distal muscular weakness of lower limbs. The cerebrospinal fluid assessment showed an albuminocytologic dissociation. Electrophysiological studies showed delayed distal latencies and absent F waves in early course. A diagnosis of Acute Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP) subtype of GBS was then made.  Neurological manifestations of COVID-19 are still under study. The case we described of GBS in COVID-19 patient adds to those already reported in the literature, in support of SARS-CoV-2 triggers GBS. COVID-19 associated neurological clinic should probably be seen not as a corollary of classic respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms, but as SARS-CoV-2-related standalone clinical entities. To date, it is essential for all Specialists, clinicians and surgeons, to direct attention towards the study of this virus, to better clarify the spectrum of its neurological manifestations.

title: 0177 Bovine macrophage phenotype influences inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide
abstract: Severe inflammation during gram negative bacterial disease is common in periparturient dairy cows and increases the severity of diseases such as Escherichia coli mastitis. Tissue inflammation is partly orchestrated by macrophage responses to bacterial infection. Studies in monogastric species showed classical phenotype macrophages have proinflammatory responses and alternative phenotype macrophages have protective and restorative responses during disease. However, responses of diverse bovine macrophage phenotypes to lipopolysaccharide are unclear. The objective of this research was to compare the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response in several phenotypes of bovine primary monocyte-derived macrophages. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from whole blood using Ficoll (n = 8 cows). Monocytes were identified using mouse anti-bovine CD172α monoclonal antibody and separated from lymphocytes using magnetic assisted cell sorting. Monocytes were cultured with interferon-γ or interleukins (IL) 4 and 13 to induce a classical or alternative macrophage phenotype, respectively, then stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. Macrophage mRNA was quantified in adipose using qPCR. Fold changes in mRNA concentration were calculated by 2(-ΔΔCt), using the untreated cells as calibrator and three endogenous control mRNA. Treatment differences in mRNA expression were identified using Fisher pairwise comparisons and ANOVA (P ≤ 0.05). Flow cytometry showed magnetic assisted cell sorting increased CD172α(+) cells from 22.3 ± 1.9 to 81.6 ± 2.8%. After 48 h in vitro, CD68 expression increased and CD172α(+) was 95.2 ± 0.4%. Lipopolysaccharide increased IL6, IL10, TNF, and CCL2 expression. Lipopolysaccharide stimulated IL6 and IL10 expression was decreased in alternative macrophages, whereas lipopolysaccharide stimulated TNF expression was increased in classical macrophages. Lipopolysaccharide stimulated CCL2 expression was not different between macrophage types. Together these results show an exacerbated proinflammatory cytokine profile in a model of classical bovine macrophages during gram negative bacterial disease. Results suggest that macrophage phenotype could be involved with severe inflammatory responses seen during dairy cow periparturient periods characterized by prolonged and exacerbated lipolysis and increased disease susceptibility. Ongoing research will describe macrophage phenotype during bovine disease and identify factors contributing to phenotype change. Such factors could ultimately be manipulated to control the bovine macrophage inflammatory response.

title: Inflammation Profiling of Critically Ill Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 infection to which there is no community immunity. Patients admitted to ICUs have high mortality, with only supportive therapies available. Our aim was to profile plasma inflammatory analytes to help understand the host response to coronavirus disease 2019.  Daily blood inflammation profiling with immunoassays.  Tertiary care ICU and academic laboratory.  All patients admitted to the ICU suspected of being infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2, using standardized hospital screening methodologies, had daily blood samples collected until either testing was confirmed negative on ICU day 3 (coronavirus disease 2019 negative), or until ICU day 7 if the patient was positive (coronavirus disease 2019 positive).  None.  Age- and sex-matched healthy controls and ICU patients that were either coronavirus disease 2019 positive or coronavirus disease 2019 negative were enrolled. Cohorts were well-balanced with the exception that coronavirus disease 2019 positive patients were more likely than coronavirus disease 2019 negative patients to suffer bilateral pneumonia. Mortality rate for coronavirus disease 2019 positive ICU patients was 40%. We measured 57 inflammatory analytes and then analyzed with both conventional statistics and machine learning. Twenty inflammatory analytes were different between coronavirus disease 2019 positive patients and healthy controls (p < 0.01). Compared with coronavirus disease 2019 negative patients, coronavirus disease 2019 positive patients had 17 elevated inflammatory analytes on one or more of their ICU days 1–3 (p < 0.01), with feature classification identifying the top six analytes between cohorts as tumor necrosis factor, granzyme B, heat shock protein 70, interleukin-18, interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10, and elastase 2. While tumor necrosis factor, granzyme B, heat shock protein 70, and interleukin-18 were elevated for all seven ICU days, interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10 transiently elevated on ICU days 2 and 3 and elastase 2 increased over ICU days 2–7. Inflammation profiling predicted coronavirus disease 2019 status with 98% accuracy, whereas elevated heat shock protein 70 was strongly associated with mortality.  While many inflammatory analytes were elevated in coronavirus disease 2019 positive ICU patients, relative to healthy controls, the top six analytes distinguishing coronavirus disease 2019 positive ICU patients from coronavirus disease 2019 negative ICU patients were tumor necrosis factor, granzyme B, heat shock protein 70, interleukin-18, interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10, and elastase 2.

title: Serum amyloid A is a predictor for prognosis of COVID‐19

title: Lipopolysaccharide and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Inhibit Interferon Signaling in Hepatocytes by Increasing Ubiquitin-Like Protease 18 (USP18) Expression
abstract: Inflammation may be maladaptive to the control of viral infection when it impairs interferon (IFN) responses, enhancing viral replication and spread. Dysregulated immunity as a result of inappropriate innate inflammatory responses is a hallmark of chronic viral infections such as, hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that expression of an IFN-stimulated gene (ISG), ubiquitin-like protease (USP)18 is upregulated in chronic HCV infection, leading to impaired hepatocyte responses to IFN-α. We examined the ability of inflammatory stimuli, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-10 to upregulate hepatocyte USP18 expression and blunt the IFN-α response. Human hepatoma cells and primary murine hepatocytes were treated with TNF-α/LPS/IL-6/IL-10 and USP18, phosphorylated (p)-STAT1 and myxovirus (influenza virus) resistance 1 (Mx1) expression was determined. Treatment of Huh7.5 cells and primary murine hepatocytes with LPS and TNF-α, but not IL-6 or IL-10, led to upregulated USP18 expression and induced an IFN-α refractory state, which was reversed by USP18 knockdown. Liver inflammation was induced in vivo using a murine model of hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury. Hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury led to an induction of USP18 expression in liver tissue and promotion of lymphocytic choriomeningitis replication. These data demonstrate that certain inflammatory stimuli (TNF-α and LPS) but not others (IL-6 and IL-10) target USP18 expression and thus inhibit IFN signaling. These findings represent a new paradigm for how inflammation alters hepatic innate immune responses, with USP18 representing a potential target for intervention in various inflammatory states.  Inflammation may prevent the control of viral infection when it impairs the innate immune response, enhancing viral replication and spread. Blunted immunity as a result of inappropriate innate inflammatory responses is a common characteristic of chronic viral infections. Previous studies have shown that expression of certain interferon-stimulated genes is upregulated in chronic HCV infection, leading to impaired hepatocyte responses. In this study, we show that multiple inflammatory stimuli can modulate interferon stimulated gene expression and thus inhibit hepatocyte interferon signaling via USP18 induction. These findings represent a new paradigm for how inflammation alters hepatic innate immune responses, with the induction of USP18 representing a potential target for intervention in various inflammatory states.

title: Immune‐related Factors Associated with Pneumonia in 127 Children with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan
abstract: Information regarding the association of immune‐related factors with pneumonia in children with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is scarce. This study aims to summarize the immune‐related factors and their association with pneumonia in children with COVID‐19.  Children with COVID‐19 at Wuhan Children's Hospital from January 28 to March 12, 2020 were enrolled. Pneumonia due to causes other than COVID‐19 were excluded. The clinical and laboratory information including routine blood tests, blood biochemistry, lymphocyte subsets, immunoglobulins, cytokines and inflammatory factors were analyzed retrospectively in 127 patients. Normal ranges and mean values of laboratory markers were applied as parameters for logistic regression analyses of their association with pneumonia.  In non‐intensive care unit patients, 48.8% and 22.4% of patients had increased levels of procalcitonin and hypersensitive C‐reactive protein (hs‐CRP) respectively. 12.6% and 18.1% of patients had decreased levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) A and interleukin (IL)‐10 respectively. Approximately 65.8% of patients had pneumonia. These patients had decreased levels of globulin (odds ratio [OR] 3.13, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.41‐6.93, P=0.005), IgA (OR 4.00, 95% CI 1.13‐14.18, P=0.032), and increased levels of hs‐CRP (OR 3.14, 95% CI 1.34‐7.36, P=0.008), procalcitonin (OR 3.83, 95% CI 2.03‐7.24, P<0.001), IL‐10 (OR 7.0, 95% CI 1.59‐30.80, P=0.010), and CD4+CD25+ T lymphocyte < 5.0 % (OR 1.93, 95% CI 1.04‐3.61, P=0.038).  Decreased IgA and CD4+CD25+ T lymphocyte percentage, and increased hs‐CRP, procalcitonin and IL‐10 were associated with pneumonia, suggesting that the immune‐related factors may participate in the pathogenesis of pneumonia in children with COVID‐19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Is COVID-19 a New Hematologic Disease?
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 viruses are positive single-stranded RNA viruses, whose infection can be asymptomatic or lead to the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19). Covid-19 is a respiratory infection with a significant impact on the hematopoietic system and hemostasis leading to several cardiovascular complications. Hematologic consequences of this new infection allowed medical community to start new treatment approaches concerning infection going from targeted anti-inflammatory drugs to anticoagulation or stem cell therapies. A better understanding of Covid-19 pathophysiology, in particular hematological disorders, will help to choose appropriate treatment strategies.

title: Treatment of Severe COVID-19 with Tocilizumab Mitigates Cytokine Storm and Averts Mechanical Ventilation During Acute Respiratory Distress: A Case Report and Literature Review
abstract: COVID-19, caused by the novel severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), emerged in Wuhan, China, in 2019 and has resulted in the current pandemic The disease continues to pose a major therapeutic challenge Patient mortality is ultimately caused by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Cytokine release syndrome (or "cytokine storm") is likely to be a contributing factor to ARDS in many patients Because interleukin 6 (IL-6) is known to play a key role in inflammation, IL-6 receptor inhibitors such as tocilizumab may potentially treat COVID-19 by attenuating cytokine release We present the case of a 48-year-old male with severe COVID-19, on the verge of meeting intubation requirements, who needed progressive oxygen support for respiratory distress The patient was treated with a non-weight-based dosage of tocilizumab to prevent the onset of a cytokine storm We chose to administer an IL-6 inhibitor because of the gradually increasing levels of acute phase reactants identified on serial blood draws, as well as his declining respiratory status The treatment was well-tolerated in conjunction with standard drug therapies for COVID-19 (hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, and zinc) The patient subsequently experienced marked improvements in his respiratory symptoms and overall clinical status over the following days We believe that tocilizumab played a substantial role in his ability to avert clinical decline, particularly the need for mechanical ventilation Ultimately, the patient was downgraded from the ICU and discharged within days We highlight the potential of IL-6 inhibitors to prevent the progression of respiratory disease to a point requiring ventilator support This case underscores the potential importance of early serial measurements of IL-6 and cytokine storm-associated acute phase reactants, such as ferritin, D-dimer, and C-reactive protein, in guiding clinical decision-making in the management of patients with suspected COVID-19  The early, proactive identification of serum acute phase reactants should be implemented in the treatment of COVID-19 in order to screen for a primary contributor to mortality-the cytokine storm This screening, when followed by aggressive early treatment for cytokine storm, may have optimal therapeutic benefits and obviate the need for mechanical ventilation, thereby decreasing mortality Additionally, we review current evidence regarding cytokine release syndrome in COVID-19 and the use of IL-6 receptor inhibition as a therapeutic strategy, and examine other reported cases in the literature describing IL-6 antagonist treatment for patients with COVID-19

title: An inflammatory profile correlates with decreased frequency of cytotoxic cells in COVID-19
abstract: Increased production of inflammatory cytokines and myeloid-derived suppressor cells occur in COVID-19 patients. These inversely correlated with perforin-expressing NK and CD3+T-cells. We observed a lower perforin+ NK cells number in intensive care unit (ICU) compared to non-ICU patients, suggesting an impairment of the immune cytotoxic arm as a pathogenic mechanism.

title: Cytokine Polymorphisms and Susceptibility to Severe Infectious Diseases
abstract: Cytokines are key regulators of the host response to infection, controlling the inflammatory reaction which is an essential component of the defense mechanisms. The major importance of these proteins in the pathogenesis and outcome of infectious diseases has been clearly demonstrated. In humans, there is increasing evidence that the host's cytokine response is genetically determined and that the genetic variability of cytokines underlies the complexity of interindividual differences in the immune response to micro organism invasions. We review the influence of host cytokine gene on the susceptibility to and the severity of parasitic, bacterial and viral infections. Proinflammatory cytokine polymorphisms are discussed in detail because of their importance in the course of severe infections such as meningococcal disease, cerebral malaria and septic shock. Genetic variants of the IL-10 gene, an antiinflammatory cytokine appear to be responsible for an uncontrolled and intense CARS and may have also dramatic consequences as an overwhelming inflammatory response. Our greater understanding of the genetic factors that influence mortality and morbidity of infectious diseases will permit identification of genomic markers which may be required for risk stratification of patients targeted for novel immunomodulatory treatments helping clinicians to select the most appropriate treatment options for their patients.

title: A systems approach to inflammation identifies therapeutic targets in SARS-CoV-2 infection
abstract: Infection with SARS-CoV-2 manifests itself as a mild respiratory tract infection in the majority of individuals, which progresses to a severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in 10-15% of patients. Inflammation plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of ARDS, with immune dysregulation in severe COVID-19 leading to a hyperinflammatory response. A comprehensive understanding of the inflammatory process in COVID-19 is lacking.  In this prospective, multicenter observational study, patients with PCR-proven or clinically presumed COVID-19 admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) or clinical wards were included. Demographic and clinical data were obtained and plasma was serially collected. Concentrations of IL-6, TNF-, complement components C3a, C3c and the terminal complement complex (TCC) were determined in plasma by ELISA. Additionally, 269 circulating biomarkers were assessed using targeted proteomics. Results were compared between ICU and non ICU patients.  A total of 119 (38 ICU and 91 non ICU) patients were included. IL-6 plasma concentrations were elevated in COVID-19 (ICU vs. non ICU, median 174.5 pg/ml [IQR 94.5-376.3 vs. 40.0 pg/ml [16.5-81.0]), whereas TNF- concentrations were relatively low and not different between ICU and non ICU patients (median 24.0 pg/ml [IQR 16.5-33.5] and 21.5 pg/ml [IQR 16.0-33.5], respectively). C3a and terminal complement complex (TCC) concentrations were significantly higher in ICU vs. non ICU patients (median 556.0 ng/ml [IQR 333.3-712.5]) vs. 266.5 ng/ml [IQR 191.5-384.0 for C3a and 4506 mAU/ml [IQR 3661-6595 vs. 3582 mAU/ml [IQR 2947-4300] for TCC) on the first day of blood sampling. Targeted proteomics demonstrated that IL-6 (logFC 2.2), several chemokines and hepatocyte growth factor (logFC 1.4) were significantly upregulated in ICU vs. non ICU patients. In contrast, stem cell factor was significantly downregulated (logFC -1.3) in ICU vs. non ICU patients, as were DPP4 (logFC -0.4) and protein C inhibitor (log FC -1.0), the latter two factors also being involved in the regulation of the kinin-kallikrein pathway. Unsupervised clustering pointed towards a homogeneous pathogenetic mechanism in the majority of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, with patient clustering mainly based on disease severity.  We identified important pathways involved in dysregulation of inflammation in patients with severe COVID-19, including the IL-6, complement system and kinin-kallikrein pathways. Our findings may aid the development of new approaches to host-directed therapy.

title: COVID-19: The Inflammation Link and the Role of Nutrition in Potential Mitigation
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has engulfed the world, affecting more than 180 countries. As a result, there has been considerable economic distress globally and a significant loss of life. Sadly, the vulnerable and immunocompromised in our societies seem to be more susceptible to severe COVID-19 complications. Global public health bodies and governments have ignited strategies and issued advisories on various handwashing and hygiene guidelines, social distancing strategies, and, in the most extreme cases, some countries have adopted “stay in place” or lockdown protocols to prevent COVID-19 spread. Notably, there are several significant risk factors for severe COVID-19 infection. These include the presence of poor nutritional status and pre-existing noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes mellitus, chronic lung diseases, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), obesity, and various other diseases that render the patient immunocompromised. These diseases are characterized by systemic inflammation, which may be a common feature of these NCDs, affecting patient outcomes against COVID-19. In this review, we discuss some of the anti-inflammatory therapies that are currently under investigation intended to dampen the cytokine storm of severe COVID-19 infections. Furthermore, nutritional status and the role of diet and lifestyle is considered, as it is known to affect patient outcomes in other severe infections and may play a role in COVID-19 infection. This review speculates the importance of nutrition as a mitigation strategy to support immune function amid the COVID-19 pandemic, identifying food groups and key nutrients of importance that may affect the outcomes of respiratory infections.

title: Rapid Review: Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Agents and Aminosalicylates in COVID-19 Infections
abstract: In the current COVID-19 pandemic, there has been concern regarding the use of ibuprofen and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents by COVID-19 infected patients. Aminosalicylates (5-ASAs) are structurally similar and have anti-inflammatory functions that resemble those of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents. Since 5-ASAs are a mainstay treatment for inflammatory bowel disease, the authors review the pharmacology of both classes of drugs and discuss the potential relevance of 5-ASAs in the ongoing discussion of medication use in patients infected with COVID-19.

title: Cytokines and the still-baffling clinical biology of COVID-19.

title: Amelioration of COVID-19 related cytokine storm syndrome: Parallels to chimeric antigen receptor-T cell cytokine release syndrome
abstract: Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) severity appears to parallel the host immune response, with a subset of patients developing COVID-19 cytokine storm syndrome (CSS).(1) Serum inflammatory cytokines are elevated in COVID-19,(2-5) and interleukin (IL)-6 appears to play a central role in COVID-19 related CSS.(6-8) Based on the success of IL-6 receptor blockade for chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy associated cytokine release syndrome (CAR T-cell CRS), similar strategies using tocilizumab are being investigated in COVID-19.

title: [Drugs that aggravate the course of COVID-19 : really ?]
abstract: The safety of NSAIDs, corticosteroids and renin-angiotensin inhibitors in COVID-19 is challenged NSAIDs may interfere with the defense process against viral infection and are best avoided Systemic corticosteroids have not shown benefit in viral infection, including other coronavirus;thus they should be avoided, unless prescribed for another indication The benefit-risk ratio is however clearly in favor of continuing inhaled corticosteroids in patients with asthma or COPD ACE inhibitors and sartans upregulate the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the pulmonary receptor for SARS-CoV-2 Any possible clinical impact of these treatments on COVID-19 infection remains to be clarified;in the meantime, they should be continued

title: Brain microbiota disruption within inflammatory demyelinating lesions in multiple sclerosis
abstract: Microbial communities reside in healthy tissues but are often disrupted during disease. Bacterial genomes and proteins are detected in brains from humans, nonhuman primates, rodents and other species in the absence of neurological disease. We investigated the composition and abundance of microbiota in frozen and fixed autopsied brain samples from patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and age- and sex-matched nonMS patients as controls, using neuropathological, molecular and bioinformatics tools. 16s rRNA sequencing revealed Proteobacteria to be the dominant phylum with restricted diversity in cerebral white matter (WM) from MS compared to nonMS patients. Both clinical groups displayed 1,200–1,400 bacterial genomes/cm(3) and low bacterial rRNA:rDNA ratios in WM. RNAseq analyses showed a predominance of Proteobacteria in progressive MS patients’ WM, associated with increased inflammatory gene expression, relative to a broader range of bacterial phyla in relapsing-remitting MS patients’ WM. Although bacterial peptidoglycan (PGN) and RNA polymerase beta subunit immunoreactivities were observed in all patients, PGN immunodetection was correlated with demyelination and neuroinflammation in MS brains. Principal component analysis revealed that demyelination, PGN and inflammatory gene expression accounted for 86% of the observed variance. Thus, inflammatory demyelination is linked to an organ-specific dysbiosis in MS that could contribute to underlying disease mechanisms.

title: Proliferation of Cells in the Oral Mucosa, the Ear Skin and the Regional Lymph Nodes in Mice Sensitized and Elicited with a Hapten
abstract: During contact sensitivity reaction, immune cells proliferate. In order to study the histological picture of these proliferation phases, we used a mouse model of contact sensitivity in the oral mucosa and on skin. We also used bromodeoxyuridin (BrdU, an analogue to thymidin) that is incorporated into the nucleus during cell replication. The hapten oxazolone (OXA) was used to sensitize and elicit the oral mucosa and/or the ear skin. Mice were killed at various times after elicitation, and unsensitized animals were also exposed to the hapten as controls. BrdU (25 mg/kg animal) was injected i.p. 2 h before the kill. Specimens from the oral mucosa, ear skin and submandibular and auricular lymph nodes were cut and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde. They were then treated with acid and biotinylated anti‐BrdU antibody and developed using ABC‐kit and DAB. The analyses were performed using a Leica light microscope and the computer program analysis. In the oral mucosa, the frequency of proliferating cells were increasing during the observation period, 4–24 h after elicitation, regardless of site of sensitization. The proliferating cells were found mainly in the basal cell layer of the epithelium. Similar patterns were found in ear skin. The regional lymph nodes demonstrated a few scattered proliferating cells 4 h after elicitation. After 24 h, these cells were found frequently in the whole lymph node. Control animals exhibited considerable less proliferating cells at all times. We conclude that most proliferating cells were found 24 h after elicitation locally at the hapten‐exposed sites (the oral mucosa or the ear skin) as well as in the regional lymph nodes.

title: COVID-19, chronic inflammatory rheumatic disease and anti-rheumatic treatments
abstract: Since December 2019, the pandemic caused by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) raises a real public health problem. COVID-19 appeared in Wuhan (Hubei province) in China. Drugs that have been used in rheumatology for decades seem to be effective in this infection and are for the most part being studied. The rational use of these anti-rheumatic drugs is based on the cytokinic storm (hyperproduction of IL1, IL6, TNF α) in the body by COVID-19 in its severe form. In this review, the authors make the difference between the infectious and auto-inflammatory part of COVID-19; the disease does not seem to be a risk factor for admission to the intensive care unit for patients suffering from inflammatory rheumatism; however, the poverty of studies on this subject should be noted. The authors also review anti-rheumatic drugs while studying COVID-19 treatment.

title: Implications of COVID-19 for the management of patients with inflammatory rheumatic diseases

title: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Rheumatological Prospects/Relevance
abstract: In December 2019, an outbreak of a novel infection under the working name 2019-nCoV was registered in Wuhan (the Hubei Province located in China's central region), which has quickly spread throughout almost the entire world and become pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a new name coronavirus disease (COVID-19) for this disease, whereas the International Committee on Virus Taxonomy renamed 2019-nCov as SARS-Cov-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2). The development of the COVID-19 pandemic is not only of great social importance, but also draws the attention of a medical community to the fundamentally new clinical and fundamental problems of the immunopathology of human diseases that are yet to be formulated. The unique experience gained in rheumatology from studies of the pathogenetic mechanisms and pharmacotherapy of immune-mediated inflammatory rheumatic diseases (IMIRDs) can be of great importance for deciphering the nature of the pathological processes that underlie the severe, potentially fatal complications of COVID-19, and may assist in improving their therapy. As for prospects in patients with IMIRDs, although the development of COVID-19 in the presence of IMIRDs has not yet fortunately been described, infection with SARS-CoV-2, like other viruses, can be assumed to cause an exacerbation of the pathological process, whereas severe immune system pathology and comorbidities can worsen the course of infection. Since, according to the current concepts, it is the «hyperimmune» response, and not just the effect only of the virus itself, that underlies lung damage and deaths from COVID-19, special attention is drawn to the effects of antirheumatic therapy that includes glucocorticoids, disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), biological agents, and targeted DMARDs, which can have a multidirectional effect on the course of COVID-19. There are significant theoretical prerequisites for the repurposing of some drugs widely used in rheumatology for the treatment of COVID-19 and its complications. Consideration is given to the prospects of studying the immunopathology of COVID-19 and to the theoretical justifications for the use of antimalarial 4-aminoquinolines, anti-cytokine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), and Janus kinase inhibitors for the prevention of complications and for the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Treatment with Arbidol and Moxifloxacin in Ordinary and Severe Adult Patients Infected with COVID-19
abstract: An outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been widely spread. We aim to investigate the therapeutic effect of arbidol and moxifloxacin in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2.  We collected and analyzed data on 94 patients with COVID-19 including 27 severe patients at the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and 74 ordinary patients at general isolation ward in Wuhan Xiehe Hospital, from February 15, 2020 to March 15, 2020. All patients were treated with arbidol (100mg each time, three times a day for 14 days) and moxifloxacin (0.4g each time, once a day for 7-14 days). Other data was also collected including demographic data, symptoms, laboratory findings, treatments and clinical outcomes.  In basic characteristics, compared with the ordinary patients, the severe patients were older (median age was 63.0 years V.S 57.0 years, p=0.03), had higher proportion of hypertension (30% V.S 9%, p=0.03), higher possibility of getting fatigue and/or myalgia (26% V.S 6%, p=0.03), and had more obvious dyspnea symptom (26% V.S 3%, p=0.006). In regarding to laboratory results, we found the severe patients have higher white blood cell counts (p=0.003), neutrophil counts (p=0.007), higher levels of D-dimer (p<0.001), ALT (p<0.001) and AST (p=0.013) than the ordinary patients. After treatment of arbidol and moxifloxacin for one week, the rates of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid turning negative were 69.2% in the severe group and 77.8% in the ordinary group. A peculiar phenomenon was that IL-6 stands out among the cytokines in both groups, and higher in severe group than the ordinary one (p=0.011). After treating with arbidol and moxifloxacin for one week, IL-6 decreased significantly in severe group (p=0.023).  In summary, we proved the treatment of arbidol and moxifloxacin could be helpful in reducing viral load and inflammation during SARS-CoV2 infection, especially for negatively regulating fatal inflammation in severe COVID-19 patients. However, more evidence awaits further clinical verification.

title: The impact of COVID-19 on ischemic stroke
abstract: The outbreak of a novel coronavirus since December 2019, became an emergency of major international concern. As of June 21, 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has caused 8,769,844 confirmed infections with 463,745 fatal cases worldwide. The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak is a major challenge for clinicians. In our clinic, we found a rare case that a COVID-19 patient combined with ischemic stroke.  A 79-year-old man was admitted to the Hubei Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine due to right limb weakness for 1 day and slight cough for 1 week. At presentation, his oxygen saturation was 94.2% on room air and body temperature was 37.3 °C (99.0 °F) with some moist rales. Neurological examination showed right limb weakness, and the limb muscle strength was grade 4. The left leg and arms were unaffected. In addition, runs of speech were not fluent enough with tongue deviation. Laboratory studies showed lymphopenia and eosinophilic granulocytopenia. Chest CT revealed bilateral pulmonary parenchymal ground-glass and consolidative pulmonary opacities, with a peripheral lung distribution. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from throat swab sample was positive for SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid. This patient was treated with antiviral drugs and anti-inflammatory drugs with supportive care until his discharge. Clopidogrel (75 mg) and atorvastatin (20 mg) were administered orally to treat acute ischemic stroke. After 12 days of treatment, he can walk normally and communicate with near fluent language.  We report an even more unusual case, a patient who was hospitalized for right limb weakness and was later diagnosed with COVID-19. Here, SARS-CoV-2 infection caused hypoxemia and excessive secretion of inflammatory cytokines, which contribute to the occurrence and development of ischemic stroke. Once COVID-19 patients show acute ischemic stroke, neurologists should cooperate with infectious disease doctors to help patients.

title: Identification and analysis of long non-coding RNAs that are involved in inflammatory process in response to transmissible gastroenteritis virus infection
abstract: Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) infection can cause acute inflammation. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play important roles in a number of biological process including inflammation response. However, whether lncRNAs participate in TGEV-induced inflammation in porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPECs) is largely unknown.  In this study, the next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology was used to analyze the profiles of lncRNAs in Mock and TGEV-infected porcine intestinal epithelial cell-jejunum 2 (IPEC-J2) cell line. A total of 106 lncRNAs were differentially expressed. Many differentially expressed lncRNAs act as elements to competitively attach microRNAs (miRNAs) which target to messenger RNA (mRNAs) to mediate expression of genes that related to toll-like receptors (TLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) pathways. Functional analysis of the binding proteins and the up/down-stream genes of the differentially expressed lncRNAs revealed that lncRNAs were principally related to inflammatory response. Meanwhile, we found that the differentially expressed lncRNA TCONS_00058367 might lead to a reduction of phosphorylation of transcription factor p65 (p-p65) in TGEV-infected IPEC-J2 cells by negatively regulating its antisense gene promyelocytic leukemia (PML).  The data showed that differentially expressed lncRNAs might be involved in inflammatory response induced by TGEV through acting as miRNA sponges, regulating their up/down-stream genes, or directly binding proteins.

title: COVID-19 Emergence and Social and Health Determinants in Colorado: A Rapid Spatial Analysis
abstract: The aim of this rapid analysis was to investigate the spatial patterns of COVID-19 emergence across counties in Colorado. In the U.S. West, Colorado has the second highest number of cases and deaths, second only to California. Colorado is also reporting, like other states, that communities of color and low-income persons are disproportionately affected by COVID-19. Using GIS and correlation analysis, this study explored COVID-19 incidence and deaths from March 14 to April 8, 2020, with social determinants and chronic conditions. Preliminary results demonstrate that COVID-19 incidence intensified in mountain communities west of Denver and along the Urban Front Range, and evolved into new centers of risk in eastern Colorado. Overall, the greatest increase in COVID-19 incidence was in northern Colorado, i.e., Weld County, which reported the highest rates in the Urban Front Range. Social and health determinants associated with higher COVID-19-related deaths were population density and asthma, indicative of urban areas, and poverty and unemployment, suggestive of rural areas. Furthermore, a spatial overlap of high rates of chronic diseases with high rates of COVID-19 may suggest a broader syndemic health burden, where comorbidities intersect with inequality of social determinants of health.

title: Current status of potential therapeutic candidates for the COVID-19 crisis
abstract: As of April 15, 2020, the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019) pandemic has swept through 213 countries and infected more than 1,870,000 individuals, posing an unprecedented threat to international health and the economy. There is currently no specific treatment available for patients with COVID-19 infection. The lessons learned from past management of respiratory viral infections have provided insights into treating COVID-19. Numerous potential therapies, including supportive intervention, immunomodulatory agents, antiviral therapy, and convalescent plasma transfusion, have been tentatively applied in clinical settings. A number of these therapies have provided substantially curative benefits in treating patients with COVID-19 infection. Furthermore, intensive research and clinical trials are underway to assess the efficacy of existing drugs and identify potential therapeutic targets to develop new drugs for treating COVID-19. Herein, we summarize the current potential therapeutic approaches for diseases related to COVID-19 infection and introduce their mechanisms of action, safety, and effectiveness.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Complicated by Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: An Internist’s Perspective
abstract: A pandemic outbreak of a novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) that began in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 has spread rapidly to multiple countries. In the United States, the first confirmed case was reported on January 20, 2020, and since then, the number of cases is rising exponentially on a daily basis. We report a case of COVID-19 infection that presented with symptoms suggestive of pneumonia. Due to the major backlog with an immense number of pending tests, it took 48 hours for the result to come back positive, while the patient went into acute respiratory distress syndrome. We provide an internist’s perspective of the difficulties encountered in terms of the available management options, as the patient progressively deteriorated on the regular medical floor prompting transfer to the intensive care unit.

title: Potential Immunotherapeutic Targets For Hypoxia Due to COVI-FLU
abstract: The world is currently embroiled in a pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a respiratory illness caused by the novel betacoronavirus SARS-CoV-2. The severity of COVID-19 disease ranges from asymptomatic to fatal acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In few patients, the disease undergoes phenotypic differentiation between 7-14 days of acute illness, either resulting in full recovery or symptom escalation. However, the mechanism of such variation is not clear, but the facts suggest that patient's immune status, co-morbidities, and the systemic effects of the viral infection (potentially depending on the SARS-CoV-2 strain involved) play a key role. Subsequently, patients with the most severe symptoms tend to have poor outcomes, manifest severe hypoxia, and possess elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (including IL-1ß, IL-6, IFN-Î³, and TNF-&#945;) along with elevated levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, marked lymphopenia, and elevated neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios. Based on the available evidence, we propose a mechanism wherein SARS-CoV-2 infection induces direct organ damage while also fueling an IL-6-mediated cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and hypoxia, resulting in escalating systemic inflammation, multi-organ damage, and end-organ failure. Elevated IL-6 and hypoxia together predisposes patients to pulmonary hypertension, and the presence of asymptomatic hypoxia in COVID-19 further compounds this problem. Due to the similar downstream mediators, we discuss the potential synergistic effects and systemic ramifications of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus during co-infection, a phenomenon we have termed "COVI-Flu." Additionally, the differences between CRS and cytokine storm are highlighted. Finally, novel management approaches, clinical trials, and therapeutic strategies toward both SARS-CoV-2 and COVI-Flu infection are discussed, highlighting host response optimization and systemic inflammation reduction.

title: Association of hypertension, diabetes, stroke, cancer, kidney disease, and high-cholesterol with COVID-19 disease severity and fatality: a systematic review
abstract: To undertake a review and critical appraisal of published/ reports that offer methods of determining the effects of hypertension, diabetes, stroke, cancer, kidney issues, and high-cholesterol on COVID-19 disease severity.  Google Scholar, PubMed, COVID-19 Open Research Dataset: a resource of over 128,000 scholarly articles, including over 59,000 articles with full text related to COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, and coronaviruses.  A search was conducted by two authors independently on the freely available COVID-19 Open Research Dataset (CORD-19). We developed an automated search engine to screen a total of 59,000 articles in a few seconds. The search engine was built using a retrieval function that ranks a set of documents based on the query terms appearing in each document regardless of their proximity within the document. Filtering of the articles was then undertaken using keywords and questions, e.g. "Effects of diabetes on COVID/normal coronavirus/SARS-CoV-2/nCoV/COVID-19 disease severity, mortality?". The search terms were repeated for all the comorbidities considered in this paper. Additional articles were retrieved by searching via Google Scholar and PubMed.  A total of 54 articles were considered for a full review. It was observed that diabetes, hypertension, and cholesterol levels possess an apparent relation to COVID-19 severity. Other comorbidities, such as cancer, kidney disease, and stroke, must be further evaluated to determine a strong relationship to the virus. Reports associating cancer, kidney disease, and stroke with COVID-19 should be carefully interpreted, not only because of the size of the samples, but also because patients could be old, have a history of smoking, or have any other clinical condition suggesting that these factors might be associated with the poor COVID-19 outcomes rather than the comorbidity itself. Such reports could lead many oncologists and physicians to change their treatment strategies without solid evidence and recommendations. Further research regarding this relationship and its clinical management is warranted. Additionally, treatment options must be examined further to provide optimal treatment and ensure better outcomes for patients suffering from these comorbidities. It should be noted that, whether definitive measurements exist or not, the care of patients as well as the research involved should be largely prioritized to tackle this deadly pandemic.

title: Antenatal corticosteroid therapy and COVID‐19: Pathophysiological considerations
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has presented many challenges in healthcare, including obstetrics. Therefore, we read with great interest the special editorial published in the AOGS regarding clinical recommendations for the management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in pregnant women.1 As illustrated by the authors, the usefulness and safety of corticosteroids as an adjuvant therapy for COVID-19 pneumonia remains controversial. Corticosteroids may diminish the inflammatory response, a major factor for lung damage and acute respiratory distress syndrome in viral respiratory tract infection. However, previous studies on corticosteroid therapy in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus illustrated delayed viral clearance, with no survival benefit and perhaps even adverse outcomes.2 Some patients with COVID-19 exhibit biphasic disease evolution with a mild presentation followed by a secondary respiratory deterioration due to a cytokine storm, despite decreasing viral  Therefore, timing of corticosteroid therapy might be particularly consequential, with early administration reducing inflammatory response and viral clearance during the initial phase.

title: Targeting the inflammatory cascade with anakinra in moderate to severe COVID-19 pneumonia: case series.

title: Natural antiviral compound silvestrol modulates human monocyte‐derived macrophages and dendritic cells
abstract: Outbreaks of infections with viruses like Sars‐CoV‐2, Ebola virus and Zika virus lead to major global health and economic problems because of limited treatment options. Therefore, new antiviral drug candidates are urgently needed. The promising new antiviral drug candidate silvestrol effectively inhibited replication of Corona‐, Ebola‐, Zika‐, Picorna‐, Hepatis E and Chikungunya viruses. Besides a direct impact on pathogens, modulation of the host immune system provides an additional facet to antiviral drug development because suitable immune modulation can boost innate defence mechanisms against the pathogens. In the present study, silvestrol down‐regulated several pro‐ and anti‐inflammatory cytokines (IL‐6, IL‐8, IL‐10, CCL2, CCL18) and increased TNF‐α during differentiation and activation of M1‐macrophages, suggesting that the effects of silvestrol might cancel each other out. However, silvestrol amplified the anti‐inflammatory potential of M2‐macrophages by increasing expression of anti‐inflammatory surface markers CD206, TREM2 and reducing release of pro‐inflammatory IL‐8 and CCL2. The differentiation of dendritic cells in the presence of silvestrol is characterized by down‐regulation of several surface markers and cytokines indicating that differentiation is impaired by silvestrol. In conclusion, silvestrol influences the inflammatory status of immune cells depending on the cell type and activation status.

title: Pediatric Crohn's Disease and Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) and COVID-19 Treated with Infliximab
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) may lead to a severe inflammatory response referred to as a cytokine storm. We describe a case of severe COVID-19 infection in a recently diagnosed pediatric Crohn's disease patient successfully treated with Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) blockade. The patient presented with five days of fever, an erythematous maculopapular facial rash, and abdominal pain without respiratory symptoms. SARS-CoV-2 PCR was positive. Despite inpatient treatment for COVID-19 and a perianal abscess, the patient acutely decompensated, with worsening fever, tachycardia, fluid-refractory hypotension, elevation of liver enzymes, and transformation of the rash into purpura extending from the face to the trunk, upper and lower extremities, including the palmar and plantar surfaces of the hands and feet. Cytokine profile revealed rising levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, higher than those described in either inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or severe COVID-19 alone. The patient was treated with infliximab for TNF-α blockade to address both moderately to severely active Crohn's disease and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) temporally related to COVID-19. Within hours of infliximab treatment, fever, tachycardia and hypotension resolved. Cytokine profile improved with normalization of TNF-α, a decrease in IL-6, and IL-8 concentrations. This case supports a role for blockade of TNF-α in the treatment of COVID-19 inflammatory cascade. The role of anti-TNF agents in patients with MIS-C temporally related to COVID-19 requires further investigation.

title: Stimulator of IFN genes mediates neuroinflammatory injury by suppressing AMPK signal in experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage
abstract: Neuroinflammation is closely associated with the poor prognosis in subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) patients. This study was aimed to determine the role of stimulator of IFN genes (STING), an essential regulator to innate immunity, in the context of SAH.  A total of 344 male C57BL/6 J mice were subjected to endovascular perforation to develop a model of SAH. Selective STING antagonist C-176 and STING agonist CMA were administered at 30 min or 1 h post-modeling separately. To investigate the underlying mechanism, the AMPK inhibitor compound C was administered intracerebroventricularly at 30 min before surgery. Post-SAH assessments included SAH grade, neurological test, brain water content, western blotting, RT-PCR, and immunofluorescence. Oxygenated hemoglobin was introduced into BV2 cells to establish a SAH model in vitro.  STING was mainly distributed in microglia, and microglial STING expression was significantly increased after SAH. Administration of C-176 substantially attenuated SAH-induced brain edema and neuronal injury. More importantly, C-176 significantly alleviated both short-term and persistent neurological dysfunction after SAH. Meanwhile, STING agonist CMA remarkably exacerbated neuronal injury and deteriorated neurological impairments. Mechanically, STING activation aggravated neuroinflammation via promoting microglial activation and polarizing into M1 phenotype, evidenced by microglial morphological changes, as well as the increased level of microglial M1 markers including IL-1β, iNOS, IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome, while C-176 conferred a robust anti-inflammatory effect. However, all the mentioned beneficial effects of C-176 including alleviated neuroinflammation, attenuated neuronal injury and the improved neurological function were reversed by AMPK inhibitor compound C. Meanwhile, the critical role of AMPK signal in C-176 mediated anti-inflammatory effect was also confirmed in vitro.  Microglial STING yielded neuroinflammation after SAH, while pharmacologic inhibition of STING could attenuate SAH-induced inflammatory injury at least partly by activating AMPK signal. These data supported the notion that STING might be a potential therapeutic target for SAH.

title: Anti-inflammatory therapy may ameliorate the clinical picture of COVID-19

title: TANK-Binding Kinase 1-Dependent Responses in Health and Autoimmunity
abstract: The pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is driven by genetic predisposition and environmental triggers that lead to dysregulated immune responses. These include the generation of pathogenic autoantibodies and aberrant production of inflammatory cytokines. Current therapies for RA and other autoimmune diseases reduce inflammation by targeting inflammatory mediators, most of which are innate response cytokines, resulting in generalized immunosuppression. Overall, this strategy has been very successful, but not all patients respond, responses can diminish over time and numerous side effects can occur. Therapies that target the germinal center (GC) reaction and/or antibody-secreting plasma cells (PC) potentially provide a novel approach. TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) is an IKK-related serine/threonine kinase best characterized for its involvement in innate antiviral responses through the induction of type I interferons. TBK1 is also gaining attention for its roles in humoral immune responses. In this review, we discuss the role of TBK1 in immunological pathways involved in the development and maintenance of antibody responses, with particular emphasis on its potential relevance in the pathogenesis of humoral autoimmunity. First, we review the role of TBK1 in the induction of type I IFNs. Second, we highlight how TBK1 mediates inducible T cell co-stimulator signaling to the GC T follicular B helper population. Third, we discuss emerging evidence on the contribution of TBK1 to autophagic pathways and the potential implications for immune cell function. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic potential of TBK1 inhibition in autoimmunity.

title: Asian Pacific Association of Gastroenterology (APAGE) Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Working Party guidelines on IBD management during the COVID‐19 pandemic
abstract: The COVID‐19 pandemic, secondary to SARS‐CoV‐2, has resulted in high mortality and morbidity worldwide. As inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic disease, and most patients are on long‐term immunosuppressive agents, there is understandable concern, particularly in terms of therapy. In view of this, experts in IBD across the Asia Pacific region were invited to put together recommendations based on their experience and the currently available data. In general, most IBD therapies (with a few exceptions) can be continued safely, and the general consensus is that maintaining disease control should remain the main principle of management. In addition, social distancing measures and the appropriate use of personal protective equipment should be strictly adhered to. During the current pandemic, face‐to‐face clinic follow ups and non‐urgent procedures should be kept to a minimum.

title: Role and mechanism of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in acute lung injury in coronavirus disease 2019
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 is a major threat to public health globally. Though its pathogenesis has not been fully elucidated, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been recently identified as a receptor for the entry of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) into the cell. Here, we aimed to clarify the potential role of ACE2 in SARS-CoV-2-induced acute lung injury and its underlying mechanism. As a receptor for coronavirus, ACE2 mediates the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into cells in a similar way as for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). The high binding affinity of SARS-CoV-2 to ACE2 correlates with its efficient spread among humans. On the other hand, ACE2 negatively regulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) primarily by converting angiotensin II to angiotensin 1–7, which exerts a beneficial effect on coronavirus-induced acute lung injury. Human recombinant ACE2 has been considered as a potential therapy for SARS-CoV-2 by blocking virus entry and redressing the imbalance of RAAS in SARS-CoV-2 infection. The level of ACE2 expression can be upregulated by treatment with an ACE inhibitor (ACEI) or angiotensin Ⅱ type 1 receptor blocker (ARB). To date, no evidence shows that ACEIs or ARBs increase the susceptibility and mortality of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, and hence, it is not advisable to discontinue such drugs in patients with cardiovascular disease.

title: Low dose radiation therapy as a potential life saving treatment for COVID-19-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
abstract: The new coronavirus COVID-19 disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 was declared as global public health emergency by WHO on Jan 30, 2020. Despite massive efforts from various governmental, health and medical organizations, the disease continues to spread globally with increasing fatality rates. Several experimental drugs have been approved by FDA with unknown efficacy and potential adverse effects. The exponentially spreading pandemic of COVID-19 deserves prime public health attention to evaluate yet unexplored arenas of management. We opine that one of these treatment options is low dose radiation therapy for severe and most critical cases. There is evidence in literature that low dose radiation induces an anti-inflammatory phenotype that can potentially afford therapeutic benefit against COVID-19- related complications that are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Herein, we review the effects and putative mechanisms of low dose radiation that may be viable, useful and of value in counter-acting the acute inflammatory state induced by critical stage COVID-19.

title: The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Alongside investigations into the virology of SARS-CoV-2, understanding the fundamental physiological and immunological processes underlying the clinical manifestations of COVID-19 is vital for the identification and rational design of effective therapies. Here, we provide an overview of the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We describe the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with the immune system and the subsequent contribution of dysfunctional immune responses to disease progression. From nascent reports describing SARS-CoV-2, we make inferences on the basis of the parallel pathophysiological and immunological features of the other human coronaviruses targeting the lower respiratory tract - severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Finally, we highlight the implications of these approaches for potential therapeutic interventions that target viral infection and/or immunoregulation.

title: Cytokine and Growth Factor Activation In Vivo and In Vitro after Spinal Cord Injury
abstract: Spinal cord injury results in a life-disrupting series of deleterious interconnected mechanisms encompassed by the primary and secondary injury. These events are mediated by the upregulation of genes with roles in inflammation, transcription, and signaling proteins. In particular, cytokines and growth factors are signaling proteins that have important roles in the pathophysiology of SCI. The balance between the proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects of these molecules plays a critical role in the progression and outcome of the lesion. The excessive inflammatory Th1 and Th17 phenotypes observed after SCI tilt the scale towards a proinflammatory environment, which exacerbates the deleterious mechanisms present after the injury. These mechanisms include the disruption of the spinal cord blood barrier, edema and ion imbalance, in particular intracellular calcium and sodium concentrations, glutamate excitotoxicity, free radicals, and the inflammatory response contributing to the neurodegenerative process which is characterized by demyelination and apoptosis of neuronal tissue.

title: Cyclooxygenase-2-prostaglandin E2-eicosanoid receptor inflammatory axis: a key player in Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus associated malignancies
abstract: The role of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), its lipid metabolite prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and Eicosanoid (EP) receptors (EP; 1-4) underlying the proinflammatory mechanistic aspects of Burkitt’s lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, cervical cancer, prostate cancer, colon cancer, and Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) is an active area of investigation. The tumorigenic potential of COX-2 and PGE2 through EP receptors forms the mechanistic context underlying the chemotherapeutic potential of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Although role of the COX-2 is described in several viral associated malignancies, the biological significance of the COX-2/PGE2/EP receptor inflammatory axis is extensively studied only in Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV/HHV-8) associated malignancies such as KS, a multifocal endothelial cell tumor and primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), a B cell-proliferative disorder. The purpose of this review is to summarize the salient findings delineating the molecular mechanisms downstream of COX-2 involving PGE2 secretion and its autocrine and paracrine interactions with EP receptors (EP1-4), COX-2/PGE2/EP receptor signaling regulating KSHV pathogenesis and latency. KSHV infection induces COX-2, PGE2 secretion, and EP receptor activation. The resulting signal cascades modulate the expression of KSHV latency genes (latency associated nuclear antigen-1 [LANA-1] and viral-Fas (TNFRSF6)-associated via death domain like interferon converting enzyme-like- inhibitory protein [vFLIP]). vFLIP was also shown to be crucial for the maintenance of COX-2 activation. The mutually interdependent interactions between viral proteins (LANA-1/vFLIP) and COX-2/PGE2/EP receptors was shown to play key roles in the biological mechanisms involved in KS and PEL pathogenesis such as blockage of apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, transformation, proliferation, angiogenesis, adhesion, invasion, and immune-suppression. Understanding the COX-2/PGE2/EP axis is very important to develop new safer and specific therapeutic modalities for KS and PEL. In addition to COX-2 being a therapeutic target, EP receptors represent ideal targets for pharmacologic agents as PGE2 analogues and their blockers/antagonists possess antineoplastic activity, without the reported gastrointestinal and cardiovascular toxicity observed with few a NSAIDs.

title: Potential Role of ACE2 in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Prevention and Management
abstract: COVID-19 is the current public health threat all over the world. Unfortunately, there is no specific prevention and treatment strategy for this disease. We aim to explore the potential role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in this regard through this literature review. As a crucial enzyme of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), ACE2 not only mediates the virus entry but also affects the pathophysiological process of virus-induced acute lung injury (ALI), as well as other organs’ damage. As interaction of COVID-19 virus spike and ACE2 is essential for virus infection, COVID-19-specific vaccine based on spike protein, small molecule compound interrupting their interaction, human monoclonal antibody based on receptor-binding domain, and recombinant human ACE2 protein (rhuACE2) have aroused the interests of researchers. Meanwhile, ACE2 could catalyze angiotensin II (Ang II) to form angiotensin 1-7 (Ang 1-7), thus alleviates the harmful effect of Ang II and amplifies the protection effect of Ang1-7. ACE inhibitor and angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) have been shown to increase the level of expression of ACE2 and could be potential strategies in protecting lungs, heart, and kidneys. ACE2 plays a very important role in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of COVID-19 infection. Strategies targeting ACE2 and its ligand, COVID-19 virus spike protein, may provide novel method in the prevention and management of novel coronavirus pneumonia.

title: Mesenchymal stem cells as a potential therapy for COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) worldwide is becoming rapidly a major concern. The number of severe cases has increased dramatically worldwide, while specific treatment options are scarce. The main pathologic features of severe or critical COVID-19 were consistent with acute lung injure (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), characterized by cellular fibromyxoid exudates, extensive pulmonary inflammation, pulmonary edema, and hyaline membrane formation. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can balance the inflammatory response and has been mentioned to be effective on ALI/ARDS from both infectious and noninfectious causes previously, presenting an important opportunity to be applied to COVID-19. In this commentary, we summarize the clinical trials of MSCs treatments on ALI/ARDS and raise MSCs as a hopefully alternative therapy for severe or critical COVID-19.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Cardiovascular System: A Narrative Review
abstract: At the end of 2019, a viral pneumonia disease called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV2), emerged in Wuhan, China. This novel disease rapidly spread at an alarming rate that as a result, it has now been declared pandemic by the World Health Organization. Although this infective disease is mostly characterized by respiratory tract symptoms, increasing numbers of evidence had shown considerable amounts of patients with cardiovascular involvements and these were associated with higher mortality among COVID-19 patients. Cardiac involvement as a possible late phenomenon of the viral respiratory infection is an issue that should be anticipated in patients with COVID-19. Cardiovascular manifestation in COVID-19 patients include myocardial injury (MI), arrhythmias, cardiac arrests, heart failure and coagulation abnormality, ranging from 7.2% up to 33%. The mechanism of cardiac involvement in COVID-19 patients involves direct injury to myocardial cells mediated by angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors as suggested by some studies, while the other studies suggest that systemic inflammation causing indirect myocyte injury may also play a role. Combination of proper triage, close monitoring, and avoidance of some drugs that have cardiovascular toxicity are important in the management of cardiovascular system involvement in COVID-19 patients. The involvement of the cardiovascular system in COVID-19 patients is prevalent, variable, and debilitating. Therefore, it requires our attention and comprehensive management.

title: Vitamin D deficiency in patients with diabetes and COVID- 19 infection
abstract: Data show that vitamin D deficiency may play a role in patients with diabetes mellitus and COVID-19 infection. In this article, we review evidence of vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 infection in context of diabetes mellitus.  A literature search was carried out by using the key term ‘COVID 19’ combined with ‘Diabetes’, ‘Vitamin D’, ‘Extra skeletal effects’, ‘immunity’, ‘infection’, ‘India’ from Pub Med (National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD and Google Scholar from December 2019 to May 2020. A manual search of the references was also carried out.  Vitamin D deficiency has been linked to increased morbidity and mortality in COVID -19 infections but convincing data on diabetic subgroup of patients in particular is still awaited.  Robust studies are required to ascertain if Vitamin D supplementation could be beneficial in patients with diabetes and COVID-19.

title: MERS-CoV infection is associated with downregulation of genes encoding Th1 and Th2 cytokines/chemokines and elevated inflammatory innate immune response in the lower respiratory tract
abstract: CoV, a highly pathogenic virus in humans, is associated with high morbidity and case fatality. Inflammatory responses have a significant impact on MERS-CoV pathogenesis and disease outcome. However, CD4+ T-cell induced immune responses during acute MERS-CoV infection are barely detectable, with potent inhibition of effector T cells and downregulation of antigen presentation. The local pulmonary immune response, particularly the Th1 and Th2-related immune response during acute severe MERS-CoV infection is not fully understood. In this study, we offer the first insights into the pulmonary gene expression profile of Th1 and Th2-related cytokines/chemokines (Th1 & Th2 responses) during acute MERS-CoV infection using RT2 Profiler PCR Arrays. We also quantified the expression level of primary inflammatory cytokines/chemokines. Our results showed a downregulation of Th2, inadequate (partial) Th1 immune response and high expression levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-1α and IL-1β and the neutrophil chemoattractant chemokine IL-8 (CXCL8) in the lower respiratory tract of MERS-CoV infected patients. Moreover, we identified a high viral load in all included patients. We also observed a correlation between inflammatory cytokines, Th1, and Th2 downregulation and the case fatality rate. Th1 and Th2 response downregulation, high expression of inflammatory cytokines, and high viral load may contribute to lung inflammation, severe infection, the evolution of pneumonia and ARDS, and a higher case fatality rate. Further study of the molecular mechanisms underlying the Th1 and Th2 regulatory pathways will be vital for active vaccine development and the identification of novel therapeutic strategies.

title: Decoding the enigma of antiviral crisis: Does one target molecule regulate all?
abstract: Disease fatality associated with Ebola, SARS-CoV and dengue infections in humans is attributed to a cytokine storm that is triggered by excessive pro-inflammatory responses. Interleukin (IL)-6 acts as a mediator between pro- and anti-inflammatory reactivity by initiating trans- and classical-signaling, respectively. Hence, IL-6 is assumed to provide a target for a broad range of antiviral agents. Available immunosuppressive antivirals are directed to control an often exaggerated pro-inflammatory response that gives rise to complex clinical conditions such as lymphocytopenia. It is known that IL-6, via its soluble receptor (sIL-6R), initiates a pro-inflammatory response while an anti-inflammatory response is triggered by the membrane-bound IL-6 receptor (IL-6R). Future antivirals should thus aim to target the mechanism that regulates switching between IL-6 trans- and classical-signaling. In this review, we propose that the tumour necrosis factor-α converting enzyme ADAM-17 could be the master molecule involved in regulating IL-6 class switching and through this in controlling pro- and anti-inflammatory responses to viral antigenic stimuli. Therefore, ADAM-17 should be considered as a potential target molecule for novel antiviral drug discovery that would regulate host reactivity to infection and thereby limit or prevent fatal outcomes.

title: A new normal for hypertension medicine with coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): proposal from the president of the Japanese Society of Hypertension

title: Ideas and the origin of evidence during the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Paradigm Shift for COVID-19 Response: Identifying High-risk Individuals and Treating Inflammation

title: SARS-CoV-2 infection complicated by inflammatory syndrome. Could high-dose human immunoglobulin for intravenous use (IVIG) be beneficial?

title: Transcriptional Analysis of PRRSV-Infected Porcine Dendritic Cell Response to Streptococcus suis Infection Reveals Up-Regulation of Inflammatory-Related Genes Expression
abstract: The porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is one of the most important swine pathogens and often serves as an entry door for other viral or bacterial pathogens, of which Streptococcus suis is one of the most common. Pre-infection with PRRSV leads to exacerbated disease caused by S. suis infection. Very few studies have assessed the immunological mechanisms underlying this higher susceptibility. Since antigen presenting cells play a major role in the initiation of the immune response, the in vitro transcriptional response of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and monocytes in the context of PRRSV and S. suis co-infection was investigated. BMDCs were found to be more permissive than monocytes to PRRSV infection; S. suis phagocytosis by PRRSV-infected BMDCs was found to be impaired, whereas no effect was found on bacterial intracellular survival. Transcription profile analysis, with a major focus on inflammatory genes, following S. suis infection, with and without pre-infection with PRRSV, was then performed. While PRRSV pre-infection had little effect on monocytes response to S. suis infection, a significant expression of several pro-inflammatory molecules was observed in BMDCs pre-infected with PRRSV after a subsequent infection with S. suis. While an additive effect could be observed for CCL4, CCL14, CCL20, and IL-15, a distinct synergistic up-regulatory effect was observed for IL-6, CCL5 and TNF-α after co-infection. This increased pro-inflammatory response by DCs could participate in the exacerbation of the disease observed during PRRSV and S. suis co-infection.

title: Featuring COVID-19 cases via screening symptomatic patients with epidemiologic link during flu season in a medical center of central Taiwan
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CO-V-2), was first reported in Wuhan, Hubei province, China has now rapidly spread over 50 countries. For the prevention and control of infection, Taiwan Centers for Disease Control initiated testing of SARS-CoV-2 on January 24th 2020 for persons suspected with this disease. Until February 28th, 43 flu-like symptomatic patients were screened in China Medical University Hospital.  Two patients were confirmed positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection by rRT-PCR as COVID-19 patients A and B. Causative pathogens for included patients were detected using FilmArray™ Respiratory Panel. We retrospectively analyzed the clinical presentations, laboratory data, radiologic findings, and travel and exposure contact histories, of the COVID-19 patients in comparison to those with other respiratory infections.  Through contact with Taiwan No. 19 case patient on 27th January, COVID-19 patients A and B were infected. Both patients had no identified comorbidities and developed mild illness with temporal fever, persistent cough, and lung interstitial infiltrates. Owing to the persistence of positive SARS-CoV-2 in respiratory specimen, the two COVID-19 patients are still in the isolation rooms despite recovery until 10th of March. The results of FilmArrayTM Respiratory Panel revealed 22 of the 41 non-COVID-19 patients were infected by particular pathogens. In general, seasonal respiratory pathogens are more prevalent than SARS-CoV-2 in symptomatic patients in non- COVID-19 endemic area during the flu season. Since all patients shared similar clinical and laboratory findings, expanded surveillance of detailed exposure history for suspected patients and application of rapid detection tools are highly recommended.

title: COVID-19 and NSAIDS: A Narrative Review of Knowns and Unknowns
abstract: Concern about the appropriate role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in COVID-19 speculate that NSAIDs, in particular ibuprofen, may upregulate the entry point for the virus, the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) 2 receptors and increase susceptibility to the virus or worsen symptoms in existing disease. Adverse outcomes with COVID-19 have been linked to cytokine storm but the most effective way to address exaggerated inflammatory response is complex and unclear. The Expert Working Group on the Commission of Human Medicines in the UK and other organizations have stated that there is insufficient evidence to establish a link between ibuprofen and susceptibility to or exacerbation of COVID-19. NSAID use must also be categorized by whether the drugs are relatively low-dose over-the-counter oral products taken occasionally versus higher-dose or parenteral NSAIDs. Even if evidence emerged arguing for or against NSAIDs in this setting, it is unclear if this evidence would apply to all NSAIDs at all doses in all dosing regimens. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) has been proposed as an alternative to NSAIDs but there are issues with liver toxicity at high doses. There are clearly COVID-19 cases where NSAIDs should not be used, but there is no strong evidence that NSAIDs must be avoided in all patients with COVID-19; clinicians must weigh these choices on an individual basis.

title: Primary biliary cirrhosis
abstract: Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is an immune-mediated chronic cholestatic liver disease with a slowly progressive course. Without treatment, most patients eventually develop fibrosis and cirrhosis of the liver and may need liver transplantation in the late stage of disease. PBC primarily affects women (female preponderance 9–10:1) with a prevalence of up to 1 in 1,000 women over 40 years of age. Common symptoms of the disease are fatigue and pruritus, but most patients are asymptomatic at first presentation. The diagnosis is based on sustained elevation of serum markers of cholestasis, i.e., alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl transferase, and the presence of serum antimitochondrial antibodies directed against the E2 subunit of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Histologically, PBC is characterized by florid bile duct lesions with damage to biliary epithelial cells, an often dense portal inflammatory infiltrate and progressive loss of small intrahepatic bile ducts. Although the insight into pathogenetic aspects of PBC has grown enormously during the recent decade and numerous genetic, environmental, and infectious factors have been disclosed which may contribute to the development of PBC, the precise pathogenesis remains enigmatic. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is currently the only FDA-approved medical treatment for PBC. When administered at adequate doses of 13–15 mg/kg/day, up to two out of three patients with PBC may have a normal life expectancy without additional therapeutic measures. The mode of action of UDCA is still under discussion, but stimulation of impaired hepatocellular and cholangiocellular secretion, detoxification of bile, and antiapoptotic effects may represent key mechanisms. One out of three patients does not adequately respond to UDCA therapy and may need additional medical therapy and/or liver transplantation. This review summarizes current knowledge on the clinical, diagnostic, pathogenetic, and therapeutic aspects of PBC.

title: Histopathological comparative analysis of periimplant bone inflammatory response after dental implant insertion using flap and flapless surgical technique. An experimental study in pigs.
abstract: To evaluate by histopathological analysis the peri-implant bone inflammation degree, in certain time intervals (7, 14, 21 and 28 days), following mini-incision flapless and flap implant placement.  The experiment was conducted on four domestic pigs. Nine weeks prior to implant insertion, second and third mandibular premolars were extracted. Each animal received six implants in lower jaw. On one randomly chosen side of jaw flapless technique using mini-incision was performed, while on the other side implants were inserted after flap raising. After 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, the experimental animals were sacrificed. Following mandibular resection and decalcification, the samples for histopathological analysis of the peri-implant bone were obtained in the empty implant bed area, from the buccal side of the mandible, adjacent to implant neck region and parallel to crestal edge of implant bed. The degree of inflammatory response of the peri-implant bone was estimated through ordinal scores from 0 to 2.  Seven days after the surgery all samples in the flap group had score 2 indicating high inflammation degree, in contrast to lower inflammatory reaction in flapless group. On the 14th and 21st postoperative day decreasing of inflammation degree was noted in all samples of the flapless group (score 1), while in flap group samples presented scores 1 and 2. Twenty-eight days after the implant placement, further reduction of inflammation in the flapless group (33% of samples had score 0) was observed.  Flapless technique in comparison to conventional flap procedure minimizes postoperative bone inflammatory reactions.

title: Infection and the etiology and pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis
abstract: Multiple sclerosis (MS) currently defies clinical and scientific definitions, and carries a prognosis that remains practically unchanged despite many years of intensive research. Although the prevailing dogma is that MS is an immune-mediated condition, it fulfills none of the criteria of an autoimmune disease. On the other hand, there is enough significant data to suggest that infectious agents(s) could be involved in either direct damage to the white matter or induce inflammatory responses that secondarily affect the brain. Our goal here is to review the data supporting the possibility that infection has a critical role in the disease, examine the list of potential candidates that have been suggested, and outline an approach regarding the potential role of infectious agents in the etiology and pathogenesis of MS.

title: COVID-19. Immunothrombosis and the gastrointestinal tract
abstract: Mönkemüller et al. brilliantly describe the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) in the gastrointestinal tract. Their findings highlight the local and systemic inflammatory response generated by the coronavirus. After having the opportunity to observe three cases of severe colonic ischemia and elevation of D-dimer levels in patients with COVID-19 and severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (SARS) due to SARS-CoV-2, we would like to highlight the thromboembolic complications in COVID-19, which are related to those reported by Mönkemüller and which have been mentioned by other authors.

title: Innate Immunity and Pathogenesis of Biliary Atresia
abstract: Biliary atresia (BA) is a devastating fibro-inflammatory disease characterized by the obstruction of extrahepatic and intrahepatic bile ducts in infants that can have fatal consequences, when not treated in a timely manner. It is the most common indication of pediatric liver transplantation worldwide and the development of new therapies, to alleviate the need of surgical intervention, has been hindered due to its complexity and lack of understanding of the disease pathogenesis. For that reason, significant efforts have been made toward the development of experimental models and strategies to understand the etiology and disease mechanisms and to identify novel therapeutic targets. The only characterized model of BA, using a Rhesus Rotavirus Type A infection of newborn BALB/c mice, has enabled the identification of key cellular and molecular targets involved in epithelial injury and duct obstruction. However, the establishment of an unleashed chronic inflammation followed by a progressive pathological wound healing process remains poorly understood. Like T cells, macrophages can adopt different functional programs [pro-inflammatory (M1) and resolutive (M2) macrophages] and influence the surrounding cytokine environment and the cell response to injury. In this review, we provide an overview of the immunopathogenesis of BA, discuss the implication of innate immunity in the disease pathogenesis and highlight their suitability as therapeutic targets.

title: Interpreting COVID-19 and Virtual Care Trends: Cohort Study
abstract: The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is rapidly spreading across the world. As of March 26, 2020, there are more than 500,000 cases and more than 25,000 deaths related to COVID-19, and the numbers are increasing by the hour.  The aim of this study was to explore the trends in confirmed COVID-19 cases in North Carolina, and to understand patterns in virtual visits related to symptoms of COVID-19.  We conducted a cohort study of confirmed COVID-19 cases and patients using an on-demand, statewide virtual urgent care center. We collected data from February 1, 2020, to March 15, 2020. Institutional Review Board exemption was obtained prior to the study.  As of March, 18 2020, there were 92 confirmed COVID-19 cases and 733 total virtual visits. Of the total visits, 257 (35.1%) were related to COVID-19-like symptoms. Of the COVID-19-like visits, the number of females was 178 (69.2%). People in the age groups of 30-39 years (n=67, 26.1%) and 40-49 years (n=64, 24.9%) were half of the total patients. Additionally, approximately 96.9% (n=249) of the COVID-like encounters came from within the state of North Carolina. Our study shows that virtual care can provide efficient triaging in the counties with the highest number of COVID-19 cases. We also confirmed that the largest spread of the disease occurs in areas with a high population density as well as in areas with major airports.  The use of virtual care presents promising potential in the fight against COVID-19. Virtual care is capable of reducing emergency room visits, conserving health care resources, and avoiding the spread of COVID-19 by treating patients remotely. We call for further adoption of virtual care by health systems across the United States and the world during the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: COVID-19. Immunothrombosis and the gastrointestinal tract.
abstract: Mönkemüller et al. brilliantly describe the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) in the gastrointestinal tract. Their findings highlight the local and systemic inflammatory response generated by the coronavirus. After having the opportunity to observe three cases of severe colonic ischemia and elevation of D-dimer levels in patients with COVID-19 and severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (SARS) due to SARS-CoV-2, we would like to highlight the thromboembolic complications in COVID-19, which are related to those reported by Mönkemüller and which have been mentioned by other authors.

title: A Critical Blimp-1-Dependent IL-10 Regulatory Pathway in T Cells Protects From a Lethal Pro-inflammatory Cytokine Storm During Acute Experimental Trypanosoma brucei Infection
abstract: In many infectious diseases, the immune response operates as a double-edged sword. While required for protective immunity, infection-induced inflammation can be detrimental if it is not properly controlled, causing collateral body damage and potentially leading to death. It is in this context that the potent anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) is required to dampen the pro-inflammatory immune response that hallmarks trypanosomosis. Effective control of this infection requires not just the action of antibodies specific for the parasite's variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat antigens, but also a pro-inflammatory immune response mediated mainly by IFNγ, TNF, and NO. However, strict control of inflammation is mandatory, as IL-10-deficient mice succumb from an unrestrained cytokine storm within 10 days of a Trypanosome brucei infection. The relevant cellular source of IL-10 and the associated molecular mechanisms implicated in its trypanosomosis associated production are poorly understood. Using an IL-10 reporter mouse strain (Vert-X), we demonstrate here that NK cells, CD8(+) T cells and CD4(+) T cells as well as B cells and plasma cells constitute potential cellular sources of IL-10 within the spleen and liver during acute infection. The IL-10 wave follows peak pro-inflammatory cytokine production, which accompanied the control of peak parasitemia. Similar results were observed following conventional experimental needle infection and physiological infections via T. brucei-infected tsetse flies. Our results show that conditional T cell-specific ablation of the IL-10 regulating Prdm1 gene (encoding for the Blimp-1 transcription factor), leads to an uncontrolled trypanosome-induced pro-inflammatory syndrome like the one observed in infected IL-10-deficient mice. This result indicates that the biological role of IL-10-derived from non-T cells, including NK cells, is of minor importance when considering host survival. The cytokine IL-27 that is also considered to be an IL-10 regulator, did not affect IL-10 production during infection. Together, these data suggest that T. brucei activates a Blimp-1-dependent IL-10 regulatory pathway in T cells that acts as a critical anti-inflammatory rheostat, mandatory for host survival during the acute phase of parasitemia.

title: In Vitro Response of Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC) to Collagen Films Treated with Cold Plasma.
abstract: The implantation of biomedical devices, including collagen-based implants, evokes an inflammatory response. Despite inflammation playing an important role in the early stages of wound healing, excessive and non-resolving inflammation may lead to the poor performance of biomaterial implants in some patients. Therefore, steps should be taken to control the level and duration of an inflammatory response. In this study, oxygen and nitrogen gas plasmas were employed to modify the surface of collagen film, with a view to modifying the surface properties of a substrate in order to induce changes to the inflammatory response, whilst maintaining the mechanical integrity of the underlying collagen film. The effects of cold plasma treatment and resultant changes to surface properties on the non-specific inflammatory response of the immune system was investigated in vitro in direct contact cell culture by the measurement of protein expression and cytokine production after one and four days of human peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) culture. The results indicated that compared to oxygen plasma, nitrogen plasma treatment produced an anti-inflammatory effect on the collagen film by reducing the initial activation of monocytes and macrophages, which led to a lower production of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNFα, and higher production of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. This was attributed to the combination of the amino chemical group and the significant reduction in roughness associated with the introduction of the nitrogen plasma treatment, which had an effect on the levels of activation of the adherent cell population.

title: Dysregulated type I interferon and inflammatory monocyte-macrophage responses cause lethal pneumonia in SARS-CoV-infected mice
abstract: Highly pathogenic human respiratory coronaviruses cause acute lethal disease characterized by exuberant inflammatory responses and lung damage. However, the factors leading to lung pathology are not well understood. Using mice infected with SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)-CoV, we show that robust virus replication accompanied by delayed type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling orchestrates inflammatory responses and lung immunopathology with diminished survival. IFN-I remains detectable until after virus titers peak but early IFN-I administration ameliorates immunopathology. This delayed IFN-I signaling promotes the accumulation of pathogenic inflammatory monocyte-macrophages (IMMs), resulting in elevated lung cytokine/chemokine levels, vascular leakage and impaired virus-specific T cell responses. Genetic ablation of the IFN-αβ receptor (IFNAR) or IMM depletion protects mice from lethal infection, without affecting viral load. These results demonstrate that IFN-I and IMM promote lethal SARS-CoV infection and identify IFN-I and IMMs as potential therapeutic targets in patients infected with pathogenic coronavirus and perhaps other respiratory viruses.

title: Potential Effects of Coronaviruses on the Cardiovascular System: A Review
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has reached a pandemic level. Coronaviruses are known to affect the cardiovascular system. We review the basics of coronaviruses, with a focus on COVID-19, along with their effects on the cardiovascular system.  Coronavirus disease 2019 can cause a viral pneumonia with additional extrapulmonary manifestations and complications. A large proportion of patients have underlying cardiovascular disease and/or cardiac risk factors. Factors associated with mortality include male sex, advanced age, and presence of comorbidities including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and cerebrovascular diseases. Acute cardiac injury determined by elevated high-sensitivity troponin levels is commonly observed in severe cases and is strongly associated with mortality. Acute respiratory distress syndrome is also strongly associated with mortality.  Coronavirus disease 2019 is associated with a high inflammatory burden that can induce vascular inflammation, myocarditis, and cardiac arrhythmias. Extensive efforts are underway to find specific vaccines and antivirals against SARS-CoV-2. Meanwhile, cardiovascular risk factors and conditions should be judiciously controlled per evidence-based guidelines.

title: Diagnosis and treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Laboratory, PCR, and chest CT imaging findings
abstract: Since December 2019, more than 3 million cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and about 200,000 deaths have been reported worldwide. The outbreak of this novel disease has become a global health emergency and continues to rapidly spread around the world. Based on the clinical data, approved cases are divided into four classes including mild, moderate, severe, and critical. About 5% of cases were considered critically ill and 14% were considered to have the severe classification of the disease. In China, the fatality rate of this infection was about 4%. This review focuses on currently available information on the etiology, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, and mechanism of action of COVID-19. Furthermore, we present an overview of diagnostic approaches and treatment of this disease according to available findings. This review paper will help the physician to diagnose and successfully treat COVID-19.

title: Immunomodulators as an antimicrobial tool
abstract: The spectrum of infectious diseases has shifted in the past 50 years to include those caused by microbes that cause disease predominantly in immunocompromised individuals. This phenomenon has underscored the dependence of microbial virulence on the immune status of the host. The limited efficacy of the available antimicrobial armamentarium in immunocompromised individuals, combined with increasing resistance to these agents, has led to an urgent need for new therapies for infectious diseases. Immunomodulation represents a novel approach to antimicrobial therapy that depends on bolstering host immunity, rather than direct antimicrobial activity. Immunomodulators can be divided into those that are specific to pathogens (pathogen-specific) and those that are not specific to pathogens (non-specific). However, to date only a few immunomodulators have been evaluated for their efficacy as antimicrobial tools.

title: Early Diagnosis and Clinical Significance of Acute Cardiac Injury - Under the Iceberg: A Retrospective Cohort Study of 619 Non-critically Ill Hospitalized COVID-19 Pneumonia Patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can cause a viral pneumonia together with other extrapulmonary complications. Acute cardiac related injury (ACRI) is common in hospitalized COVID-19 patients.  To explain the pathological mechanism of ACRI and improve the treatment strategy by retrospectively observing the factors associated with ACRI and factors affecting the prognosis of ACRI with COVID-19 at an early stage.  619 COVID-19 patients were from Tongji Hospital, Wuhan. T test was used for continuous variables while Chi-square test for categorical factors. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were applied to estimate odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI).  Among the 619 OOS Level-I hospitalized COVID-19 patients, 102 (16.5%) were defined as ACRI (stage-1: 59 cases, stage-2: 43 cases). 50% of ACRI patients developed into severe cases and 25 patients died (CFR=24.5%), 42 times that of non-ACRI patients. Elderly (OR=2.83, P<0.001) , HTN (OR=2.09, P=0.005), {gamma}-globulin (OR=2.08, P=0.004), TCM (OR=0.55, P=0.017), PLT (OR=2.94, P<0.001) and NLR (OR=2.20, P=0.004) were independently correlated with ACRI. SBP[≥]140, dyspnea, DM, smoking history were correlated with ACRI-stage2 only. In the prognostic subgroup analysis of ACRI patients,{gamma}-globulin treatment could prolong LOS. TCM (OR=0.26, P=0.006), SBP[≥]160 (OR= 22.70, P=0.005), male (OR=2.66, P=0.044) were associated with severe illness while corticosteroids treatment (OR=3.34, P=0.033) and male (OR=4.303, P=0.008) with death. Surprisingly, we found the mortality of non-elderly patients is higher than elderly (32.4% VS 20.0%, P=0.164), and both IKF and RASI treatment were not correlated with any prognostic indicators including severe, death and LOS.  This study observed that several non-traditional issues were associated with early cardiac injury in COVID-19 while many traditional cardiovascular risk factors were not. Besides elderly and male, hypertension was confirmed to be the most important risk factor.

title: The possible mechanisms of action of 4-aminoquinolines (chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine) against Sars-Cov-2 infection (COVID-19): A role for iron homeostasis?
abstract: The anti-malarial drugs chloroquine (CQ) and primarily the less toxic hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) are currently used to treat autoimmune diseases for their immunomodulatory and anti-thrombotic properties. They have also been proposed for the treatment of several viral infections, due to their anti-viral effects in cell cultures and animal models, and, currently, for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the pandemic severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by coronavirus 2 (Sars-Cov-2) infection that is spreading all over the world. Although in some recent studies a clinical improvement in COVID-19 patients has been observed, the clinical efficacy of CQ and HCQ in COVID-19 has yet to be proven with randomized controlled studies, many of which are currently ongoing, also considering pharmacokinetics, optimal dosing regimen, therapeutic level and duration of treatment and taking into account patients with different severity degrees of disease. Here we review what is currently known on the mechanisms of action of CQ and HCQ as anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic drugs and discuss the up-to-date experimental evidence on the potential mechanisms of action of CQ/HCQ in Sars-Cov2 infection and the current clinical knowledge on their efficacy in the treatment of COVID-19 patients. Given the role of iron in several human viral infections, we also propose a different insight into a number of CQ and HCQ pharmacological effects, suggesting a potential involvement of iron homeostasis in Sars-Cov-2 infection and COVID-19 clinical course.

title: Pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2: targeting of endothelial cells renders a complex disease with thrombotic microangiopathy and aberrant immune response. The Mount Sinai COVID-19 autopsy experience
abstract: and its associated clinical syndrome COVID-19 are causing overwhelming morbidity and mortality around the globe, disproportionately affecting New York City. A comprehensive, integrative autopsy series that advances the mechanistic discussion surrounding this disease process is still lacking.  Autopsies were performed at the Mount Sinai Hospital on 67 COVID-19 positive patients and data from the clinical records were obtained from the Mount Sinai Data Warehouse. The experimental design included a comprehensive microscopic examination carried out by a team of expert pathologists, along with transmission electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, RNA in situ hybridization, as well as immunology and serology assays.  Laboratory results of our COVID-19 cohort show elevated inflammatory markers, abnormal coagulation values, and elevated cytokines IL-6, IL-8 and TNF. Autopsies revealed large pulmonary emboli in four cases. We report microthrombi in multiple organ systems including the brain, as well as conspicuous hemophagocytosis and a secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis-like syndrome in many of our patients. We provide electron microscopic, immunofluorescent and immunohistochemical evidence of the presence of the virus and the ACE2 receptor in our samples.  We report a comprehensive autopsy series of 67 COVID-19 positive patients revealing that this disease, so far conceptualized as a primarily respiratory viral illness, also causes endothelial dysfunction, a hypercoagulable state, and an imbalance of both the innate and adaptive immune responses. Novel findings reported here include an endothelial phenotype of ACE2 in selected organs, which correlates with clotting abnormalities and thrombotic microangiopathy, addressing the prominent coagulopathy and neuropsychiatric symptoms. Another original observation is that of macrophage activation syndrome, with hemophagocytosis and a hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis-like disorder, underlying the microangiopathy and excessive cytokine release. We discuss the involvement of critical regulatory pathways.

title: Targeting innate immunity by blocking CD14: Novel approach to control inflammation and organ dysfunction in COVID-19 illness
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has produced an unprecedented rush to develop new therapies, ranging from immunizations and antivirals to host-directed therapies to dampen potentially deleterious host inflammatory responses. With a sense of urgency, many groups have proposed repurposing approved drugs for other indications that might be deployed rapidly to control the viral infection or improve host responses. However, many of these therapies are based on drug availability rather than on a rational understanding of important steps in pathogenesis, particularly in the lungs, that lead to critical illness and life-threatening acute respiratory failure. Here we propose that the viral infection initially triggers a profound activation of innate immunity in the lungs that generates a self-perpetuating cytokine storm affecting the entire body. Inhibiting key proximal points in innate immunity pathways is feasible and offers a science-based approach to improving outcomes in moderate to severe COVID-19 illness.

title: COVID-19: unanswered questions on immune response and pathogenesis
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has rapidly increased in pandemic scale since it first appeared in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. In these troubled days the scientific community is asking rapid replies to prevent and combat the emergency. It is generally accepted that only achieving a better understanding of the interactions between the virus and host immune response and of the pathogenesis of infection is crucial to identify valid therapeutic tools to control virus entry, replication and spread as well as to impair its lethal effects. Based on the recent research progress of SARS-CoV-2 and the results on previous coronaviruses, in this contribution we underscore some of the main unsolved problems, mostly focusing on pathogenetic aspects and host immunity to the virus. On this basis, we also touch important aspects regarding the immune response in asymptomatic subjects, the immune-evasion of SARS-CoV-2 in severe patients and differences in disease severity by age and gender.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 in older adults: what we may expect regarding pathogenesis, immune responses, and outcomes
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 virus, the causative agent of the coronavirus infectious disease-19 (COVID-19), is taking the globe by storm, approaching 500,000 confirmed cases and over 21,000 deaths as of March 25, 2020. While under control in some affected Asian countries (Taiwan, Singapore, Vietnam), the virus demonstrated an exponential phase of infectivity in several large countries (China in late January and February and many European countries and the USA in March), with cases exploding by 30-50,000/day in the third and fourth weeks of March, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 has proven to be particularly deadly to older adults and those with certain underlying medical conditions, many of whom are of advanced age. Here, we briefly review the virus, its structure and evolution, epidemiology and pathogenesis, immunogenicity and immune, and clinical response in older adults, using available knowledge on SARS-CoV-2 and its highly pathogenic relatives MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-1. We conclude by discussing clinical and basic science approaches to protect older adults against this disease.

title: Clinical course of COVID-19 in a liver transplant recipient on hemodialysis and response to tocilizumab therapy: A case report
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly infectious and rapidly spreading disease. There are limited published data on the epidemiology and outcomes of COVID-19 infection among organ transplant recipients. After initial flulike symptoms, progression to an inflammatory phase may occur, characterized by cytokine release rapidly leading to respiratory and multiorgan failure. We report the clinical course and management of a liver transplant recipient on hemodialysis, who presented with COVID-19 pneumonia, and despite completing a 5-day course of hydroxychloroquine, later developed marked inflammatory manifestations with rapid improvement after administration of off-label, single-dose tocilizumab. We also highlight the role of lung ultrasonography in early diagnosis of the inflammatory phase of COVID-19. Future investigation of the effects of immunomodulators among transplant recipients with COVID-19 infection will be important.

title: Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews COVID-19 and Ethnicity: A Novel Pathophysiological Role for Inflammation
abstract: There have been recent mounting concerns regarding multiple reports stating a significantly elevated relative-risk of COVID-19 mortality amongst the Black and Minority Ethnic (BAME) population. An urgent national enquiry investigating the possible reasons for this phenomenon has been issued in the UK. Inflammation is at the forefront of COVID-19 research as disease severity appears to correlate with pro-inflammatory cytokine dysregulation. This narrative review aims to shed light on the novel, pathophysiological role of inflammation in contributing towards the increased COVID-19 mortality risk amongst the BAME population.  Searches in PubMed, Medline, Scopus, medRxiv and Google Scholar were performed to identify articles published in English from inception to 18(th) June 2020. These databases were searched using keywords including: ‘COVID-19’ or ‘Black and Minority Ethnic’ or ‘Inflammation’. A narrative review was synthesized using these included articles.  We suggest a novel pathophysiological mechanism by which acute inflammation from COVID-19 may augment existing chronic inflammation, in order to potentiate a ‘cytokine storm’ and thus the more severe disease phenotype observed in the BAME population. Obesity, insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, psychological stress, chronic infections and genetic predispositions are all relevant factors which may be contributing to elevated chronic systemic inflammation amongst the BAME population.  Overall, this review provides early insights and directions for ongoing research regarding the pathophysiological mechanisms that may explain the severe COVID-19 disease phenotype observed amongst the BAME population. We suggest ‘personalization’ of chronic disease management, which can be used with other interventions, in order to tackle this.

title: COVID-19 and heart failure: from infection to inflammation and angiotensin II stimulation. Searching for evidence from a new disease
abstract: Patients with cardiovascular disease and, namely, heart failure are more susceptible to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and have a more severe clinical course once infected. Heart failure and myocardial damage, shown by increased troponin plasma levels, occur in at least 10% of patients hospitalized for COVID-19 with higher percentages, 25% to 35% or more, when patients critically ill or with concomitant cardiac disease are considered. Myocardial injury may be elicited by multiple mechanisms, including those occurring with all severe infections, such as fever, tachycardia, adrenergic stimulation, as well as those caused by an exaggerated inflammatory response, endotheliitis and, in some cases, myocarditis that have been shown in patients with COVID-19. A key role may be that of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infects human cells binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), an enzyme responsible for the cleavage of angiotensin II into angiotensin 1-7, which has vasodilating and anti-inflammatory effects. Virus-mediated down-regulation of ACE2 may increase angiotensin II stimulation and contribute to the deleterious hyper-inflammatory reaction of COVID-19. On the other hand, ACE2 may be up-regulated in patients with cardiac disease and treated with ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers. ACE2 up-regulation may increase the susceptibility to COVID-19 but may be also protective vs. angiotensin II-mediated vasoconstriction and inflammatory activation. Recent data show the lack of untoward effects of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers for COVID-19 infection and severity. Prospective trials are needed to ascertain whether these drugs may have protective effects.

title: Dysregulation of type I interferon responses in COVID-19
abstract: Infection with SARS-CoV-2 can lead to excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, but the production of type I interferons, which are key antiviral mediators, is reportedly blunted. Here, we discuss how imbalanced interferon responses may contribute to the pathology of COVID-19.

title: Inflammatory and Coagulative Considerations for the Management of Orthopaedic Trauma Patients with COVID-19: A Review of the Current Evidence and Our Surgical Experience
abstract: Mounting evidence suggests that the pathogenesis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) involves a hyperinflammatory response predisposing patients to thromboembolic disease and acute respiratory distress. In the setting of severe blunt trauma, damaged tissues induce a local and systemic inflammatory response through similar pathways to COVID-19. As such, patients with COVID-19 sustaining orthopaedic trauma injuries may have an amplified response to the traumatic insult due to their baseline hyperinflammatory and hypercoagulable state. These patients may have compromised physiological reserve to withstand the insult of surgical intervention before reaching clinical instability. Herein, we review the current evidence regarding pathogenesis of COVID-19 and its implications on the management of orthopaedic trauma patients by discussing a case and the most recent literature.

title: Does the newly observed inflammatory syndrome in children demonstrate a link between uncontrolled neutrophil extracellular traps formation and COVID-19?

title: Impact of energy devices on the post-operative systemic immune response in women undergoing total laparoscopic hysterectomy for benign disease of the uterus.
abstract: Laparoscopic surgery is associated with reduced surgical stress response, lesser post- operative immune function, and consequent early recovery compared with conventional open surgery. There is a lack of evidence regarding the inflammatory stress response with the use of different energy devices. The present study was conducted to evaluate and compare the inflammatory response in total laparoscopic hysterectomy (TLH) using three different energy devices.  A prospective randomized controlled study was conducted in 60 women with abnormal uterine bleeding undergoing TLH. They were divided into three groups based on the energy devices used, namely integrated bipolar and ultrasonic energy (Thunderbeat), ultrasonic (Harmonic) and electrothermal bipolar vessel sealing system (Ligasure). Cytokines and chemokines were measured in all three groups at different time points.  Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) increased postsurgery in all three groups and gradually declined by 72 hours. The geometric mean serum (IL)-6 levels was highest with Ligasure at 24 hours as compared with the other groups. Levels of TNF-α, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP-1) α, MIP-1 β were also higher at 3 hours in the Ligasure group. When the differences between the groups were measured at different time points, there was a significantly greater increase in serum IL-6 levels in the Ligasure group at 24 hours (p=0.010). No significant difference was found in the post-operative course between the groups.  A greater inflammatory response was seen after the use of Ligasure indicating greater tissue damage. However, this response was not correlated with any difference in postoperative recovery.

title: Links between air pollution and COVID-19 in England
abstract: In December 2019 a novel disease [coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) emerged in the Wuhan province of the People's Republic of China. COVID-19 is caused by a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) thought to have jumped species, from another mammal to humans. A pandemic caused by this virus is running rampant throughout the world. Thousands of cases of COVID-19 are reported in England and over 10,000 patients have died. Whilst there has been progress in managing this disease, it is not clear which factors, besides age, affect the severity and mortality of COVID-19. A recent analysis of COVID-19 in Italy identified links between air pollution and death rates. Here, we explored the correlation between three major air pollutants linked to fossil fuels and SARS-CoV-2 lethality in England. We compare up-to-date, real-time SARS-CoV-2 cases and death measurements from public databases to air pollution data monitored across over 120 sites in different regions. We found that the levels of some markers of poor air quality, nitrogen oxides and ozone, are associated with COVID-19 lethality in different English regions. We conclude that the levels of some air pollutants are linked to COVID-19 cases and morbidity. We suggest that our study provides a useful framework to guide health policy in countries affected by this pandemic.

title: Zoonotic origins of human coronaviruses
abstract: Mutation and adaptation have driven the co-evolution of coronaviruses (CoVs) and their hosts, including human beings, for thousands of years. Before 2003, two human CoVs (HCoVs) were known to cause mild illness, such as common cold. The outbreaks of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) have flipped the coin to reveal how devastating and life-threatening an HCoV infection could be. The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in central China at the end of 2019 has thrusted CoVs into the spotlight again and surprised us with its high transmissibility but reduced pathogenicity compared to its sister SARS-CoV. HCoV infection is a zoonosis and understanding the zoonotic origins of HCoVs would serve us well. Most HCoVs originated from bats where they are non-pathogenic. The intermediate reservoir hosts of some HCoVs are also known. Identifying the animal hosts has direct implications in the prevention of human diseases. Investigating CoV-host interactions in animals might also derive important insight on CoV pathogenesis in humans. In this review, we present an overview of the existing knowledge about the seven HCoVs, with a focus on the history of their discovery as well as their zoonotic origins and interspecies transmission. Importantly, we compare and contrast the different HCoVs from a perspective of virus evolution and genome recombination. The current CoV disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic is discussed in this context. In addition, the requirements for successful host switches and the implications of virus evolution on disease severity are also highlighted.

title: Alveolar macrophage dysfunction and cytokine storm in the pathogenesis of two severe COVID-19 patients
abstract: The novel coronavirus pneumonia COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection could lead to a serious of clinical symptoms and severe illness, including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and fatal organ failure. We report the fundamental pathological investigation in the lungs and other organs of fatal cases for the mechanistic understanding of severe COVID-19 and the development of specific therapy in these cases.  The autopsy and pathological investigations of specimens were performed on bodies of two deceased cases with COVID-19. Gross anatomy and histological investigation by Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) stained were reviewed on each patient. Alcian blue/periodic acid-Schiff (AB-PAS) staining and Masson staining were performed for the examinations of mucus, fibrin and collagen fiber in lung tissues. Immunohistochemical staining were performed on the slides of lung tissues from two patients. Real-time PCR was performed to detect the infection of SARS-CoV-2. Flow cytometry analyses were performed to detect the direct binding of S protein and the expression of ACE2 on the cell surface of macrophages.  The main pathological features in lungs included extensive impairment of type I alveolar epithelial cells and atypical hyperplasia of type II alveolar cells, with formation of hyaline membrane, focal hemorrhage, exudation and pulmonary edema, and pulmonary consolidation. The mucous plug with fibrinous exudate in the alveoli and the dysfunction of alveolar macrophages were characteristic abnormalities. The type II alveolar epithelial cells and macrophages in alveoli and pulmonary hilum lymphoid tissue were infected by SARS-CoV-2. S protein of SARS-CoV-2 directly bound to the macrophage via the S-protein-ACE2 interaction.  Infection of Alveolar macrophage by SARS-CoV-2 might be drivers of the “cytokine storm”, which might result in damages in pulmonary tissues, heart and lung, and leading to the failure of multiple organs .

title: Neurological Involvement in COVID-19 and Potential Mechanisms: A Review
abstract: As the current understanding of COVID-19 continues to evolve, a synthesis of the literature on the neurological impact of this novel virus may help inform clinical management and highlight potentially important avenues of investigation. Additionally, understanding the potential mechanisms of neurologic injury may guide efforts to better detect and ameliorate these complications. In this review, we synthesize a range of clinical observations and initial case series describing potential neurologic manifestations of COVID-19 and place these observations in the context of coronavirus neuro-pathophysiology as it may relate to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Reported nervous system manifestations range from anosmia and ageusia, to cerebral hemorrhage and infarction. While the volume of COVID-19-related case studies continues to grow, previous work examining related viruses suggests potential mechanisms through which the novel coronavirus may impact the CNS and result in neurological complications. Namely, animal studies examining the SARS-CoV have implicated the angiotensin-converting-enzyme-2 receptor as a mediator of coronavirus-related neuronal damage and have shown that SARS-CoV can infect cerebrovascular endothelium and brain parenchyma, the latter predominantly in the medial temporal lobe, resulting in apoptosis and necrosis. Human postmortem brain studies indicate that human coronavirus variants and SARS-CoV can infect neurons and glia, implying SARS-CoV-2 may have similar neurovirulence. Additionally, studies have demonstrated an increase in cytokine serum levels as a result of SARS-CoV infection, consistent with the notion that cytokine overproduction and toxicity may be a relevant potential mechanism of neurologic injury, paralleling a known pathway of pulmonary injury. We also discuss evidence that suggests that SARS-CoV-2 may be a vasculotropic and neurotropic virus. Early reports suggest COVID-19 may be associated with severe neurologic complications, and several plausible mechanisms exist to account for these observations. A heightened awareness of the potential for neurologic involvement and further investigation into the relevant pathophysiology will be necessary to understand and ultimately mitigate SARS-CoV-2-associated neurologic injury.

title: COVID-19: Therapeutics and Their Toxicities
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is a novel coronavirus that emerged in 2019 and is causing the COVID-19 pandemic. There is no current standard of care. Clinicians need to be mindful of the toxicity of a wide variety of possibly unfamiliar substances being tested or repurposed to treat COVID-19. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has provided emergency authorization for the use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine. These two medications may precipitate ventricular dysrhythmias, necessitating cardiac and electrolyte monitoring, and in severe cases, treatment with epinephrine and high-doses of diazepam. Recombinant protein therapeutics may cause serum sickness or immune complex deposition. Nucleic acid vaccines may introduce mutations into the human genome. ACE inhibitors and ibuprofen have been suggested to exacerbate the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Here, we review the use, mechanism of action, and toxicity of proposed COVID-19 therapeutics.

title: Thrombotic microangiopathy, DIC-syndrome and COVID-19: link with pregnancy prothrombotic state
abstract: For last months, humanity has faced a formidable unknown enemy, which is presented as a new coronavirus infection. Despite the fact that the causative agents of new diseases appear at a certain frequency and that the virus SARS-CoV-2 has certain common properties with its predecessors, at the moment we are dealing with a new unknown pathogenesis of the development of severe complications in patients with risk factors. A final understanding of pathological process mechanisms is the goal of the scientific community. Summarizing research data from different countries, it became obvious that in severe cases of viral infection, we are dealing with a combination of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome, disseminated intravascular coagulation and thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA). Thrombotic microangiopathy is represented by a group of different conditions in which thrombocytopenia, hemolytic anemia, and multiple organ failure occur. The article reflects the main types of TMA, pathogenesis and principles of therapy. The main participants in the process are described in detail, including the von Willebrand factor and ADAMTS-13. Based on the knowledge available, as well as new data obtained from patients with COVID-19, we proposed possible models for the implementation of conditions such as sepsis, TMA, and DIC in patients with severe new coronavirus infection. Through a deeper understanding of pathogenesis, it will be possible to develop more effective diagnosis and therapy.

title: Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in an Adolescent Boy with Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
abstract: Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) related to coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is an emergent syndrome affecting children globally in the wake of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The clinical presentation has similarities to Kawasaki disease and toxic shock syndrome. As knowledge of the cardiac and gastrointestinal manifestations has been emerging, little is known about the impact on the brain.  This case describes a 14-year-old boy who developed prominent neuropsychiatric symptoms including delirium followed by impairments in executive functioning in the context of MIS-C with positive SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. These symptoms improved in correlation with improvements in inflammatory markers.  Neuropsychiatric manifestations including confusion, irritability, and headaches have been reported in pediatric patients with MIS-C. Potential mechanisms include direct neurotropic effect of SARS-CoV-2, secondary effects of systemic inflammation, and/or adverse side effects of treatment.  MIS-C is a novel and poorly understood syndrome related to SARS-CoV-2 with effects on multiple organ systems including the central nervous system. As additional cases are reported and research expands, so too will our understanding of the neuropsychiatric manifestations. Better understanding of the underlying pathophysiology would aid in determining targeted interventions.

title: COVID-19, an opportunity to reevaluate the correlation between long-term effects of anthropogenic pollutants on viral epidemic/pandemic events and prevalence
abstract: Occupational, residential, dietary and environmental exposures to mixtures of synthetic anthropogenic chemicals after World War II have a strong relationship with the increase of chronic diseases, health cost and environmental pollution. The link between environment and immunity is particularly intriguing as it is known that chemicals and drugs can cause immunotoxicity (e.g., allergies and autoimmune diseases). In this review, we emphasize the relationship between long-term exposure to xenobiotic mixtures and immune deficiency inherent to chronic diseases and epidemics/pandemics. We also address the immunotoxicologic risk of vulnerable groups, taking into account biochemical and biophysical properties of SARS-CoV-2 and its immunopathological implications. We particularly underline the common mechanisms by which xenobiotics and SARS-CoV-2 act at the cellular and molecular level. We discuss how long-term exposure to thousand chemicals in mixtures, mostly fossil fuel derivatives, exposure toparticle matters, metals, ultraviolet (UV)–B radiation, ionizing radiation and lifestyle contribute to immunodeficiency observed in the contemporary pandemic, such as COVID-19, and thus threaten global public health, human prosperity and achievements, and global economy. Finally, we propose metrics which are needed to address the diverse health effects of anthropogenic COVID-19 crisis at present and those required to prevent similar future pandemics.

title: Ibudilast, a Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibitor, Ameliorates Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Neonatal Mice by Alleviating Inflammation and Apoptosis.
abstract: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a sudden and serious disease with increasing morbidity and mortality rates. Phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) is a novel target for inflammatory disease, and ibudilast (IBU), a PDE4 inhibitor, inhibits inflammatory response. Our study investigated the effect of IBU on the pathogenesis of neonatal ARDS and the underlying mechanism related to it.  Western blotting was performed to analyze the expression levels of PDE4, CXCR4, SDF-1, CXCR5, CXCL1, inflammatory cytokines, and proteins related to cell apoptosis. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was performed to observe the pathological morphology of lung tissue. Pulmonary edema score was used to assess the degree of lung water accumulation after pulmonary injury. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to assess levels of inﬂammatory factors (TNF-alpha, IL-1ß, IL-6, and MCP-1) in serum. TUNEL assay was used to detect apoptotic cells.  Increased expression of PDE4 was observed in an LPS-induced neonatal ARDS mouse model, and IBU ameliorated LPS-induced pathological manifestations and pulmonary edema in lung tissue. In addition, IBU attenuated the secretion of inflammatory cytokines by inactivating the chemokine axis in the LPS-induced neonatal ARDS mouse model. Finally, IBU significantly reduced LPS-induced cell apoptosis in lung tissue.  IBU, a PDE4 inhibitor, protected against ARDS by interfering with pulmonary inflammation and apoptosis. Our findings provide a novel and promising strategy to regulate pulmonary inflammation in ARDS.

title: SARS-CoV-2 infection pathogenesis is related to oxidative stress as a response to aggression
abstract: Since the WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic, a great effort has been made to understand this serious disease. Thousands of studies are being devoted to understanding its epidemiology, its molecular characteristics, its mechanisms, and the clinical evolution of this viral infection. However, little has been published on its pathogenesis and the host response mechanisms in the progress of the disease. Therefore, we propose a hypothesis based on strong scientific documentation, associating oxidative stress with changes found in patients with COVID-19, such as its participation in the amplification and perpetuation of the cytokine storm, coagulopathy, and cell hypoxia. Finally, we suggest a therapeutic strategy to reduce oxidative stress using antioxidants, NFkB inhibitors, Nrf2 activators, and iron complexing agents. We believe that this hypothesis can guide new studies and therapeutic strategies on this topic.

title: Management of Patients with Crohn’s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of an International Meeting

title: Going viral: A brief history of Chilblain-like skin lesions (“COVID toes”) amidst the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the cause of the respiratory illness COVID-19, has led to a global pandemic. In a rapidly evolving medical literature its manifestations are expanding and now include coagulopathies renal dysfunction, cardiac arrests, multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children as well as cutaneous manifestations commonly observed with viral illnesses and chilblain-like skin lesions often referred to as “COVID toes”. Driven in large part by the internet-facilitated communication, dermatologists around the world now report a marked increase in the frequency of chilblain-like diagnoses, not infrequently in members of the same family, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. While a mechanistic explanation has yet to be proven a robust antiviral immune response in young patients that simultaneously truncates the clinical course and induces the microangiopathic changes could lead to chilblain-like skin lesions. This or a similar explanation would then posit that chilblain-like lesions would be most likely to appear only after a successful viral response is mounted with lesions detected only when symptoms are likely to be subsiding. We review the rapid evolution of the chilblain-like presentation in patients with COVID 19 beginning with its first description in early March 2020 and summarize the evolving but rapidly self-confirming data.

title: COVID-19 outbreak: less stethoscope, more ultrasound

title: Novel Corona Virus 2019 pneumonia in a kidney transplant recipient
abstract: COVID 19 pandemic is spreading worldwide and the impact of the disease in transplant patients is evolving. In this case report, we presented a 63 years old female kidney transplant recipient who presented with dyspnea and cough and diagnosed with COVID 19 pneumonia. On the 4(th) day of admission, the patient’s condition worsened. Therefore, the immunosuppressive medications were discontinued, and hydrocortisone started. The patient died on the 5(th) day.

title: Weathering the Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: Therapeutic Implications
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) recently emerged in Wuhan, Hubei-China, as responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and then spread rapidly worldwide. While most individuals remain asymptomatic or develop only mild symptoms, approximately 5% develop severe forms of COVID-19 characterized by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiple-organ failure (MOF) that usually require intensive-care support and often yield a poor prognosis.  The pathophysiology of COVID-19 is far from being completely understood, and the lack of effective treatments leads to a sense of urgency to develop new therapeutic strategies based on pathophysiological assumptions. The exaggerated cytokine release in response to viral infection, a condition known as cytokine release syndrome (CRS) or cytokine storm, is emerging as the mechanism leading to ARDS and MOF in COVID-19, thus endorsing the hypothesis that properly timed anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategies could improve patients' clinical outcomes and prognosis.  The objective of this article is to explore and comment on the potential role of the promising immunomodulatory therapies using pharmacological and nonpharmacological approaches to overcome the dysregulated proinflammatory response in COVID-19.

title: COVID-19: the vasculature unleashed
abstract: On the basis of emerging evidence from patients with COVID-19, we postulate that endothelial cells are essential contributors to the initiation and propagation of severe COVID-19. Here, we discuss current insights into the link between endothelial cells, viral infection and inflammatory changes and propose novel therapeutic strategies.

title: Sex Hormones and Novel Corona Virus Infectious Disease (COVID-19)
abstract: Given the rapid spread of the COVID-19 pandemic and its overwhelming impact on health care systems and the global economy, innovative therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. The proposed primary culprit of COVID-19 is the intense inflammatory response—an augmented immune response and cytokine storm—severely damaging the lung tissue and rendering some patients’ conditions severe enough to require assisted ventilation. Sex differences in the response to inflammation have been documented and can be attributed, at least in part, to sex steroid hormones. Moreover, age associated decreases in sex steroid hormones, namely estrogen and testosterone, may mediate pro-inflammatory increases in older adults that could increase their risk for COVID-19 adverse outcomes. Sex hormones can mitigate the inflammation response and might provide promising therapeutic potential for COVID-19 patients. In this article, we explore the possible anti-inflammatory effects of estrogen and testosterone and the anabolic effect of testosterone, with particular attention to the potential therapeutic role of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in older men and women with COVID-19.

title: CD11b immunophenotyping identifies inflammatory profiles in the mouse and human lungs
abstract: The development of easily accessible tools for human immunophenotyping to classify patients into discrete disease endotypes is advancing personalized therapy. However, no systematic approach has been developed for the study of inflammatory lung diseases with often complex and highly heterogeneous disease etiologies. We have devised an internally standardized flow cytometry approach that can identify parallel inflammatory alveolar macrophage phenotypes in both the mouse and human lungs. In mice, lung innate immune cell alterations during endotoxin challenge, influenza virus infection, and in two genetic models of chronic obstructive lung disease could be segregated based on the presence or absence of CD11b alveolar macrophage upregulation and lung eosinophilia. Additionally, heightened alveolar macrophage CD11b expression was a novel feature of acute lung exacerbations in the SHIP-1(−/−) model of chronic obstructive lung disease, and anti-CD11b antibody administration selectively blocked inflammatory CD11b(pos) but not homeostatic CD11b(neg) alveolar macrophages in vivo. The identification of analogous profiles in respiratory disease patients highlights this approach as a translational avenue for lung disease endotyping and suggests that heterogeneous innate immune cell phenotypes are an underappreciated component of the human lung disease microenvironment.  The online version of this article (doi:10.1038/mi.2015.84) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

title: Respiratory inflammation and infections in high‐performance athletes
abstract: Upper respiratory illness is the most common reason for non‐injury‐related presentation to a sports medicine clinic, accounting for 35–65% of illness presentations. Recurrent or persistent respiratory illness can have a negative impact on health and performance of athletes undertaking high levels of strenuous exercise. The cause of upper respiratory symptoms (URS) in athletes can be uncertain but the majority of cases are related to common respiratory viruses, viral reactivation, allergic responses to aeroallergens and exercise‐related trauma to the integrity of respiratory epithelial membranes. Bacterial respiratory infections are uncommon in athletes. Undiagnosed or inappropriately treated asthma and/or allergy are common findings in clinical assessments of elite athletes experiencing recurrent URS. High‐performance athletes with recurrent episodes of URS should undergo a thorough clinical assessment to exclude underlying treatable conditions of respiratory inflammation. Identifying athletes at risk of recurrent URS is important in order to prescribe preventative clinical, training and lifestyle strategies. Monitoring secretion rates and falling concentrations of salivary IgA can identify athletes at risk of URS. Therapeutic interventions are limited by the uncertainty of the underlying cause of inflammation. Topical anti‐inflammatory sprays can be beneficial for some athletes. Dietary supplementation with bovine colostrum, probiotics and selected antioxidants can reduce the incidence or severity of URS in some athletes. Preliminary studies on athletes prone to URS indicate a genetic predisposition to a pro‐inflammatory response and a dysregulated anti‐inflammatory cytokine response to intense exercise as a possible mechanism of respiratory inflammation. This review focuses on respiratory infections and inflammation in elite/professional athletes.

title: Characteristics of and Important Lessons From the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Outbreak in China: Summary of a Report of 72 314 Cases From the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.

title: Neurological Consequences of 2019-nCoV Infection: A Comprehensive Literature Review
abstract: First identified in November 2019 in Hubei Province, the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 soon spread worldwide to become a global health pandemic. The COVID-19 preferentially damages the respiratory system that produces symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath. However, the infection often tends to disseminate to involve various organ systems. Recent evidence indicates that SARS-CoV-2 can cause significant neurological damage and resultant neurological symptoms and complications. Here, we provide a comprehensive and thorough review of original articles, case reports, and case series to delineate the possible mechanisms of nervous system invasion and damage by SARS-CoV-2 and subsequent consequences. We divided the neurological manifestations into three categories: (1) Central Nervous System involvement, (2) Peripheral Nervous System manifestations, and (3) Skeletal Muscle Injury. Headache and dizziness were found to be the most prevalent symptoms followed by impaired consciousness. Among the symptoms indicating peripheral nervous system invasion, anosmia and dysgeusia were commonly reported. Skeletal muscle injury predominantly presents as myalgia. In addition, encephalitis, myelitis, cerebrovascular disease, Guillain-Barre syndrome, and Miller Fischer syndrome were among the commonly noted complications. We also emphasized the association of pre-existing comorbidities with neurological manifestations. The aim of this review is to provide a deeper understanding of the potential neurological implications to help neurologists have a high index of clinical suspicion allowing them to manage the patient appropriately.

title: Focus on Receptors for Coronaviruses with Special Reference to Angiotensin-converting Enzyme 2 as a Potential Drug Target - A Perspective
abstract: Coronaviruses (CoVs) possess an enveloped, single, positive-stranded RNA genome which encodes for four membrane proteins, namely spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins 3-5 . With regard to pathogenicity, S proteins are essential for viral entry into host cells [2, 3]. SARS-CoV binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)2 which is present on nonimmune cells, such as respiratory and intestinal epithelial cells, endothelial cells, kidney cells (renal tubules) and cerebral neurons and immune cells, such as alveolar monocytes/macrophages [4-6]. Of note, CD209L or liver/lymph node special intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin (SIGN) and dendritic cell (DC)-SIGN are alternative receptors for SARS-CoV but with lower affinity [7]. In the case of MERS-CoV, S proteins bind to the host cell receptor dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4 or CD26) which is broadly expressed on intestinal, alveolar, renal, hepatic and prostate cells as well as on activated leukocytes . Then, viruses replicate in target cells with release of mature virions, which, in turn, invade new target cells . Evidence has been provided that SARSCoV proteins are cleaved into two subunits, S1 and S2, respectively, and the amino acids 318-510 of the S1 represent the receptor-binding domain (RBD) which binds to ACE2 [10, 11]. Quite importantly, in the context of RBD there is the receptor-binding motif (RBM) (amino acids 424- 494), which accounts for complete binding to ACE2 [11]. Moreover, by means of two residues at positions 479 and 487 RBD allows virus progression and tropism [10, 11]. In the case of MERSCoV, its RBM binds to DPP4 with residues 484-567, thus, suggesting that its RBD differs from that of SARS-CoV [12, 13]. In a very recent paper, Wan and associates  have investigated the receptor recognition by COVID-19 (a new term to indicate the 2019-nCoV in Wuhan) on the bases of structural studies. In this respect, the sequence of COVID-19 RBM is similar to that of SARSCoV, thus, implicating that ACE2 may represent the binding receptors for COVID-19. Furthermore, gln493 residue of COVID-19 RBM seems to allow interaction with human ACE2, thus, suggesting the ability of this virus to infect human cells. According, to Wan and associates structural analysis , COVID-19 binds to human ACE2 with a lesser efficiency than human SARS-CoV (2002) but with higher affinity than human SARS-CoV (2003). Furthermore, same authors predicted that a single mutation at the 501 position may enhance the COVID-19 RBD binding capacity to human ACE2 and this evolution should be monitored in infected patients . These predictive findings by Wan and associates  are confirmed by two contemporary studies by Letko and Muster  and Peng and associates [16]. In particular, the report by Peng and associates [16], points out the possible origin of COVID-19 from bats [16]. From a pathogenic point of view, evidence has been provided that binding of S2 to ACE2 receptor leads to its down-regulation with subsequent lung damage in the course of SARS-CoV infection . Down-regulation of ACE2 causes excessive production of angiotensin (ANG) II by the related enzyme ACE with stimulation of ANG type 1a receptor (AT1R) and enhanced lung vascular permeability [18]. In particular, same authors have reported that recombinant ACE2 could attenuate severe acute lung injury in mice [18]. Moreover, Battle and associates [19] also proposed to use already available recombinant ACE2 for intercepting COVID-19 and attenuating infection. In the previous paragraphs, the presence of ACE2 on immune cells has been pointed out and, by analogy to epithelial cells, this receptor may also be down-regulated following viral entry. Therefore, in CoV-infected animal models and in infected humans further investigations are required to clarify a possible reduced expression of ACE2 on immune cells. In fact, in the course of SARS-CoV infection, a number of immune disorders have been detected. Three reports have demonstrated the ability of CoV to inhibit interferon (IFN)-ï¢ production in the course of SARS acting as IFN antagonist [20-22]. In senescent Balb/c mice, depletion of T lymphocytes is associated to more severe interstitial pneumonitis and delayed clearance of SARS-CoV, thus, suggesting a protective role played by these cells [23]. In this connection, both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV have been shown to induce T cell apoptosis, thus, aggravating the clinical course of disease [24, 25]. Quite interestingly, memory CD8+ T cells specific for SARS-CoV M and N proteins have been detected up to 11 years post-infection [26]. As far as humoral immune responsiveness is concerned, evidence has been provided that S1 subunit from MERS-CoV is highly immunogenic in mice [27]. Moreover, monoclonal antibodies have been shown to be highly neutralizing against MERS-CoV replication and endowed with post exposure effectiveness in susceptible mice [28, 29]. Human neutralizing antibodies have also been isolated from a recovered patient, thus, suggesting the role of humoral immunity in the control of the persistence of CoV in the host [30]. In particular, IgG response occurs early in infection and its prolonged production may serve for virus clearance during recovery also in view of the absence of viremia in convalescent sera from SARS patients . According to current literature, severity of COVID-19 infection correlates with lymphopenia and patients who died from COVID-19 had lower lymphocyte counts when compared to survivors [32, 33]. These data suggest that lymphocyte-mediated anti-viral activity is poorly effective against COVID-19. Despite lymphopenia, evidence for an exaggerate release of proinflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6] has been reported in the course acute respiratory syndrome in COVID19 infected patients, thus, aggravating the clinical course of disease [34]. As recently reported, during COVID-19 pandemic in both Italy and China higher frequency of fatalities have been observed in the frail elderly population with previous comorbidities [35]. It is well known that decline of immunity occurs in ageing and, therefore, COVID-19 may gain easier access to the respiratory tract in frail elderly patients [36]. There is evidence that ACE2 protects from severe acute lung failure and operates as a negative regulator of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) [18, 37]. It is well known that ANG II via activation of the AT1R promotes detrimental effects on the host, such as, vasoconstriction, reactive oxygen species generation, inflammation and matrix remodelling [38]. ACE2 counterbalances the noxious effects exhibited by ANG II and AT1R via activation of AT2R which arrests cell growth, inflammation and fibrosis [39]. In this framework, Gurwitz [40] proposed to use AT1R blockers, such as losartan, as a potential treatment of COVID-19 infection. In fact, losartan as well as olmesartan, used for treating hypertension in patients, were able to increase ACE2 expression after 28 days treatment of rats with myocardial infarction [41]. Then, Gurwitz suggests to evaluate severity of symptoms in COVID-19 infected patients under previous chronic treatment with AT1R blockers in comparison to COVID-19 infected patients who did not take AT1R blockers [40]. Quite interestingly, 75% of aged COVID-19 infected patients admitted to Italian hospitals had hypertension [unpublished data]. However, the putative effects of ACE-2 down-regulation on the cardiovascular system in the course of COVID-19 pandemic need more intensive studies. Taken together, these evidences suggest that CoV-induced down-regulation of ACE2 activates RAS with collateral damage to organs, such as lungs, in the course of SARS-related pneumonia. Then, putative therapeutic measures aimed at increasing ACE2 levels on respiratory epithelial cells should be taken into serious consideration. Quite interestingly, over the past few years, three key papers have demonstrated the ability of a polyphenol, resveratrol (RES), to experimentally deactivate the RAS system in maternal and post-weaning high fat diet, arterial ageing and high fat diet, respectively [42-44]. In all these experimental models, RES led to an increase of ACE2 with reduction of organ damage, such as liver steatosis and aorta media thickness and decrease of adipose tissue mass, respectively. As far as the mechanism of action of RES is concerned, this polyphenol is able to activate sirtuin (Sirt)1 [45-47]. In turn, Sirt1 down-regulates AT1R expression via ACE2 up-regulation [43, 48]. Of importance, Lin and associates [48] have demonstrated the ability of RES to in vitro inhibit MERS-CoV infection of Vero E6 cells, thus, prolonging cell survival in virtue of an anti-apoptotic mechanism. These findings suggest a direct antiviral effect exerted by RES. It would be very interestingly to evaluate the direct effects of RES on COVID-19, in vitro. The data above discussed strongly suggest, that RES, as an activators of ACE2, should be investigated in animal models of CoV-induced severe pneumonia, also taking into account the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating effects exerted by polyphenols . Then, successful animal studies may pave the way for RES-based human trials in COVID-infected patients. Note added in proof During the reviewing process of this perspective other related papers have been published. Hanff and associates [50] have discussed the possible association between COVID-19-associated cardiovascular mortality and dysregulation of the Renin Angiotensin System (RAS). From a pharmacologic point of view, RAS inhibition leads to upregulation of ACE2, thus, attenuating acute respiratory syndrome and myocarditis in COVID-19-infected patients. Conversely, increase in ACE2 expression may facilitate the access into the host of COVID-19, thus, aggravating the clinical picture. Such a dilemma would be solved byclinical trials based on RAS blockade or initiation and monitoring related effects. Contemporarily, Danser and associates [51] claim that there is no evidence to stop RAS blockers in the course of COVID-19 infection. In fact, there are no available data which support that ACE inhibitors or ANG II type I receptor blockers increase COVID-19 infection via its binding to ACE2. Finally, Kuster and associates [52] write that there are no data on the strict relationship between ACE2 activity and SARS-CoV2 mortality. Moreover, in the SARSCoV2, cells expressing ACE2 were not attacked by the virus, while cells lacking ACE2 were bound by the SARS-CoV2 virus [53]. These findings suggest that also in the case of RES effects on COVID-19 infection, the dual role of ACE2 should be taken into serious consideration.

title: The COVID-19 Pandemic and Physical Activity
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2-caused COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a devastating threat to human society in terms of health, economy, and lifestyle. Although the virus usually first invades and infects the lung and respiratory track tissue, in extreme cases, almost all major organs in the body are now known to be negatively impacted often leading to severe systemic failure in some people. Unfortunately, there is currently no effective treatment for this disease. Pre-existing pathological conditions or comorbidities such as age are a major reason for premature death and increased morbidity and mortality. The immobilization due to hospitalization and bed rest and the physical inactivity due to sustained quarantine and social distancing can downregulate the ability of organs systems to resist to viral infection and increase the risk of damage to the immune, respiratory, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal systems and the brain. The cellular mechanisms and danger of this “second wave” effect of COVID-19 to the human body, along with the effects of aging, proper nutrition, and regular physical activity, are reviewed in this editorial article.

title: SARS‐CoV‐2 infection‐induced immune responses: friends or foes?
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) is an emerging coronavirus that belongs to the β genus, causing the outbreak of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID‐19). SARS‐CoV‐2 infection can stimulate a pronounced immune response in the host, which embodies in the decrease of lymphocytes and aberrant increase of cytokines in COVID‐19 patients. SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA and proteins interact with various pattern recognition receptors that switch on antiviral immune responses to regulate viral replication and spreading within the host in vivo. However, overactive and impaired immune responses also cause immune damage and subsequent tissue inflammation. This article focuses on the dual roles of immune system during SARS‐CoV‐2 infection, providing a theoretical basic for identifying therapeutic targets in a situation with an unfavorable immune reaction.

title: Coagulation dysfunction: A hallmark in COVID-19
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Coagulation dysfunction is a hallmark in patients with COVID-19. Fulminant thrombotic complications emerge as critical issues in patients with severe COVID-19.  To present a review of the literature and discuss the mechanisms of COVID-19 underlying coagulation activation and the implications for anticoagulant and thrombolytic treatment in the management of COVID-19.  We performed a systemic review of scientific papers on the topic of COVID-19, online available via the PubMed NCBI, medRxiv, and Preprints as of May 15, 2020. We also shared our experience on the management of thrombotic events in patients with COVID-19.  COVID-19-associated coagulopathy ranges from mild laboratory alterations to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) with a predominant phenotype of thrombotic/multiple organ failure. Characteristically, high D-dimer levels on admission and/or continuously increasing concentrations of D-dimer is associated with disease progression and poor overall survival. SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers the immune-hemostatic response. Drastic inflammatory responses including, but not limited to, cytokine storm, vasculopathy, and NETosis may contribute to an overwhelming activation of coagulation. Hypercoagulability and systemic thrombotic complications necessitate anticoagulant and thrombolytic interventions, which provide opportunities to prevent or reduce "excessive" thrombin generation, while preserving "adaptive" hemostasis and bring additional benefit via their anti-inflammatory effect in the setting of COVID-19.

title: Immune response in COVID-19: addressing a pharmacological challenge by targeting pathways triggered by SARS-CoV-2
abstract: To date, no vaccines or effective drugs have been approved to prevent or treat COVID-19 and the current standard care relies on supportive treatments. Therefore, based on the fast and global spread of the virus, urgent investigations are warranted in order to develop preventive and therapeutic drugs. In this regard, treatments addressing the immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 infection have become a major focus. Notably, while a rapid and well-coordinated immune response represents the first line of defense against viral infection, excessive inflammatory innate response and impaired adaptive host immune defense may lead to tissue damage both at the site of virus entry and at systemic level. Several studies highlight relevant changes occurring both in innate and adaptive immune system in COVID-19 patients. In particular, the massive cytokine and chemokine release, the so-called "cytokine storm", clearly reflects a widespread uncontrolled dysregulation of the host immune defense. Although the prospective of counteracting cytokine storm is compelling, a major limitation relies on the limited understanding of the immune signaling pathways triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The identification of signaling pathways altered during viral infections may help to unravel the most relevant molecular cascades implicated in biological processes mediating viral infections and to unveil key molecular players that may be targeted. Thus, given the key role of the immune system in COVID-19, a deeper understanding of the mechanism behind the immune dysregulation might give us clues for the clinical management of the severe cases and for preventing the transition from mild to severe stages.

title: Prevalence of obesity among adult inpatients with COVID-19 in France

title: Elucidating the Pivotal Role of Immune Players in the Management of COVID-19: Focus on Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Inflammation
abstract: The world is currently engulfed with a viral disease with no cure. So, far, millions of people are infected with the virus across the length and breadth of world with thousand losing their lives each passing day. The WHO is February 2020 classified the virus as a coronavirus and the name Coronavirus-19 (CoV-19) was offered to the virus. The disease caused by the virus was termed coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). The pathogenesis of COVID-19 is associated with elevation of several immune plays as well as inflammatory factors which contributes to cytokine storms. Currently, the detection of CoV-19 RNA is through reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are capable of suppressing several kinds of cytokines via the paracrine secretion system. Therefore, MSCs therapy could be game charges in the treatment of the current COVID-19 pandemic. Also, intravenous IG may be capable of suppressing the high expression of IL-6 by the CoV-19 resulting in lessen disease burden. Anti-inflammatory medications like, corticosteroids, tocilizumab, glycyrrhetinic acid, as well as etoposide may be very advantageous in decreasing the COVID-19 burden because, their mode of action targets the cytokine storms initiated by the CoV-19. It is important to indicate that, these medication does not target the virus itself. Therefore, potent CoV-19 anti-viral medications are needed to completely cure patients with COVID-19. Also, a vaccine is urgently needed to stop the spread of the virus. This review therefore elucidates the immune players in the management of COVID-19; focusing principally on MSCs and inflammatory mediators.

title: Intestinal inflammation modulates the expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and potentially overlaps with the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 related disease
abstract: Immune dysregulation and cytokine release syndrome have emerged as pathological hallmarks of severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), leading to the evaluation of cytokine antagonists as therapeutic agents. A number of immune-directed therapies being considered for COVID-19 patients are already in clinical use in chronic inflammatory conditions like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). These considerations led us to systematically examine the intersections between COVID-19 and the GI tract during health and intestinal inflammation. We have observed that IBD medications, both biologic and non-biologic, do not significantly impact ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression in the uninflamed intestines. Additionally, by comparing SARS CoV2-induced epithelial gene signatures with IBD-associated genes, we have identified a shared molecular subnetwork between COVID-19 and IBD. These data generate a novel appreciation of the confluence of COVID-19- and IBD-associated inflammation and provide mechanistic insights supporting further investigation of specific IBD drugs in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: The first case of COVID-19 treated with the complement C3 inhibitor AMY-101
abstract: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a devastating clinical manifestation of COVID-19 pneumonia and is mainly based on an immune-driven pathology. Mounting evidence suggests that COVID-19 is fueled by a maladaptive host inflammatory response that involves excessive activation of innate immune pathways. While a "cytokine storm" involving IL-6 and other cytokines has been documented, complement C3 activation has been implicated as an initial effector mechanism that exacerbates lung injury in preclinical models of SARS-CoV infection. C3-targeted intervention may provide broader therapeutic control of complement-mediated inflammatory damage in COVID-19 patients. Herein, we report the clinical course of a patient with severe ARDS due to COVID-19 pneumonia who was safely and successfully treated with the compstatin-based complement C3 inhibitor AMY-101.

title: COVID-19: Review on latest available drugs and therapies against SARS-CoV-2. Coagulation and inflammation cross-talking
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is the agent responsible for COVID-19. The infection can be dived into three phases: mild infection, the pulmonary phase and the inflammatory phase. Treatment options for the pulmonary phase include: Hydroxychloroquine, Remdesivir,  The inflammatory phase includes therapeutic options like Tocilizumab, Anakinra, Baricitinib, Eculizumab, Emapalumab and Heparin. Human clinical trials are starting to show some results, in some cases like that of Remdesivir and corticosteroids these are controversial. Coagulopathy is a common complication in severe cases, inflammation and coagulation are intertwined and cross-talking between these two responses is known to happen. A possible amplification of this cross-talking is suggested to be implicated in the severe cases that show both a cytokine storm and coagulopathy.

title: Severe COVID-19: A Review of Recent Progress With a Look Toward the Future
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an acute infectious disease caused by infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Currently, the World Health Organization has confirmed that COVID-19 is a global infectious disease pandemic. This is the third acute infectious disease caused by coronavirus infection in this century, after sudden acute respirator syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome. The damage mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 is still unclear. It is possible that protein S binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptors and invades alveolar epithelial cells, causing direct toxic effects and an excessive immune response. This stimulates a systemic inflammatory response, thus forming a cytokine storm, which leads to lung tissue injury. In severe cases, the disease can lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome, septic shock, metabolic acidosis, coagulation dysfunction, and multiple organ dysfunction syndromes. Patients with severe COVID-19 have a relatively high mortality rate. Currently, there are no specific antiviral drugs for the treatment of COVID-19. Most patients need to be admitted to the intensive care unit for intensive monitoring and supportive organ function treatments. This article reviews the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment methods of severe COVID-19 and puts forward some tentative ideas, aiming to provide some guidance for the diagnosis and treatment of severe COVID-19.

title: Papular-Purpuric Exanthem in a COVID-19 Patient: Clinical and Dermoscopic Description
abstract: Acute Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global health concern associated with a broad spectrum of clinical presentations. Cutaneous lesions in COVID-19 are still under continuous study. We report a case of COVID-19 (+) patient with late-onset cutaneous rash associated with a systemic inflammatory response during the second hospitalization.

title: Potential role of incretins in diabetes and COVID-19 infection: a hypothesis worth exploring
abstract: Patients with diabetes mellitus have been reported to be at a high risk of complications from SARS-CoV2 virus infection (COVID-19). In type 2 diabetes, there is a change in immune system cells, which shift from an anti-inflammatory to a predominantly pro-inflammatory pattern. This altered immune profile may induce important clinical consequences, including increased susceptibility to lung infections; and enhanced local inflammatory response. Furthermore, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) enzyme is highly expressed in the lung, and that it may have additional actions besides its effects on glucose metabolism, which might exert profound pro-inflammatory effects. We briefly review the impact on the inflammatory system of DPP4 for its possible detrimental effect on COVID-19 syndrome, and of DPP4 inhibitors (gliptins), currently used as glucose lowering agents, which may have the potential to exert positive pleiotropic effect on inflammatory diseases, in addition to their effects on glucose metabolism. Thanks to these ancillary effects, gliptins could potentially be “repurposed” as salutary drugs against COVID-19 syndrome, even in non-diabetic subjects. Clinical studies should be designed to investigate this possibility.

title: The first case of COVID-19 treated with the complement C3 inhibitor AMY-101
abstract: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a devastating clinical manifestation of COVID-19 pneumonia and is mainly based on an immune-driven pathology. Mounting evidence suggests that COVID-19 is fueled by a maladaptive host inflammatory response that involves excessive activation of innate immune pathways. While a “cytokine storm” involving IL-6 and other cytokines has been documented, complement C3 activation has been implicated as an initial effector mechanism that exacerbates lung injury in preclinical models of SARS-CoV infection. C3-targeted intervention may provide broader therapeutic control of complement-mediated inflammatory damage in COVID-19 patients. Herein, we report the clinical course of a patient with severe ARDS due to COVID-19 pneumonia who was safely and successfully treated with the compstatin-based complement C3 inhibitor AMY-101.

title: Does vitamin D deficiency increase the severity of COVID-19?
abstract: The severity of coronavirus 2019 infection (COVID-19) is determined by the presence of pneumonia, severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), myocarditis, microvascular thrombosis and/or cytokine storms, all of which involve underlying inflammation. A principal defence against uncontrolled inflammation, and against viral infection in general, is provided by T regulatory lymphocytes (Tregs). Treg levels have been reported to be low in many COVID-19 patients and can be increased by vitamin D supplementation. Low vitamin D levels have been associated with an increase in inflammatory cytokines and a significantly increased risk of pneumonia and viral upper respiratory tract infections. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with an increase in thrombotic episodes, which are frequently observed in COVID-19. Vitamin D deficiency has been found to occur more frequently in patients with obesity and diabetes. These conditions are reported to carry a higher mortality in COVID-19. If vitamin D does in fact reduce the severity of COVID-19 in regard to pneumonia/ARDS, inflammation, inflammatory cytokines and thrombosis, it is our opinion that supplements would offer a relatively easy option to decrease the impact of the pandemic.

title: Mesenchymal stromal cell treatment prevents H9N2 avian influenza virus-induced acute lung injury in mice
abstract: The avian influenza virus (AIV) can cross species barriers and expand its host range from birds to mammals, even humans. Avian influenza is characterized by pronounced activation of the proinflammatory cytokine cascade, which perpetuates the inflammatory response, leading to persistent systemic inflammatory response syndrome and pulmonary infection in animals and humans. There are currently no specific treatment strategies for avian influenza.  We hypothesized that mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) would have beneficial effects in the treatment of H9N2 AIV-induced acute lung injury in mice. Six- to 8-week-old C57BL/6 mice were infected intranasally with 1 × 10(4) MID(50) of A/HONG KONG/2108/2003 [H9N2 (HK)] H9N2 virus to induce acute lung injury. After 30 min, syngeneic MSCs were delivered through the caudal vein. Three days after infection, we measured the survival rate, lung weight, arterial blood gas, and cytokines in both bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and serum, and assessed pathological changes to the lungs.  MSC administration significantly palliated H9N2 AIV-induced pulmonary inflammation by reducing chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines levels, as well as reducing inflammatory cell recruit into the lungs. Thus, H9N2 AIV-induced lung injury was markedly alleviated in mice treated with MSCs. Lung histopathology and arterial blood gas analysis were improved in mice with H9N2 AIV-induced lung injury following MSC treatment.  MSC treatment significantly reduces H9N2 AIV-induced acute lung injury in mice and is associated with reduced pulmonary inflammation. These results indicate a potential role for MSC therapy in the treatment of clinical avian influenza.

title: Down Syndrome and COVID-19: A Perfect Storm?
abstract: People with Down syndrome show signs of chronic immune dysregulation, including a higher prevalence of autoimmune disorders, increased rates of hospitalization during respiratory viral infections, and higher mortality rates from pneumonia and sepsis. At the molecular and cellular levels, they show markers of chronic autoinflammation, including interferon hyperactivity, elevated levels of many inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and changes in diverse immune cell types reminiscent of inflammatory conditions observed in the general population. However, the impact of this immune dysregulation in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and CoV disease of 2019 (COVID-19) remains unknown. This Perspective outlines why individuals with Down syndrome should be considered an at-risk population for severe COVID-19. Specifically, the immune dysregulation caused by trisomy 21 may result in an exacerbated cytokine release syndrome relative to that observed in the euploid population, thus justifying additional monitoring and specialized care for this vulnerable population.

title: Positional clustering improves computational binding site detection and identifies novel cis-regulatory sites in mammalian GABA(A) receptor subunit genes
abstract: Understanding transcription factor (TF) mediated control of gene expression remains a major challenge at the interface of computational and experimental biology. Computational techniques predicting TF-binding site specificity are frequently unreliable. On the other hand, comprehensive experimental validation is difficult and time consuming. We introduce a simple strategy that dramatically improves robustness and accuracy of computational binding site prediction. First, we evaluate the rate of recurrence of computational TFBS predictions by commonly used sampling procedures. We find that the vast majority of results are biologically meaningless. However clustering results based on nucleotide position improves predictive power. Additionally, we find that positional clustering increases robustness to long or imperfectly selected input sequences. Positional clustering can also be used as a mechanism to integrate results from multiple sampling approaches for improvements in accuracy over each one alone. Finally, we predict and validate regulatory sequences partially responsible for transcriptional control of the mammalian type A γ-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABA(A)R) subunit genes. Positional clustering is useful for improving computational binding site predictions, with potential application to improving our understanding of mammalian gene expression. In particular, predicted regulatory mechanisms in the mammalian GABA(A)R subunit gene family may open new avenues of research towards understanding this pharmacologically important neurotransmitter receptor system.

title: STAT2 signaling as double-edged sword restricting viral dissemination but driving severe pneumonia in SARS-CoV-2 infected hamsters
abstract: Since the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 causing COVID-19, the world is being shaken to its core with numerous hospitalizations and hundreds of thousands of deaths. In search for key targets of effective therapeutics, robust animal models mimicking COVID-19 in humans are urgently needed. Here, we show that productive SARS-CoV-2 infection in the lungs of mice is limited and restricted by early type I interferon responses. In contrast, we show that Syrian hamsters are highly permissive to SARS- CoV-2 and develop bronchopneumonia and a strong inflammatory response in the lungs with neutrophil infiltration and edema. Moreover, we identify an exuberant innate immune response as a key player in pathogenesis, in which STAT2 signaling plays a dual role, driving severe lung injury on the one hand, yet restricting systemic virus dissemination on the other. Finally, we assess SARS-CoV- 2-induced lung pathology in hamsters by micro-CT alike used in clinical practice. Our results reveal the importance of STAT2-dependent interferon responses in the pathogenesis and virus control during SARS-CoV-2 infection and may help rationalizing new strategies for the treatment of COVID-19 patients.

title: Heightened Innate Immune Responses in the Respiratory Tract of COVID-19 Patients
abstract: The outbreaks of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection have posed a severe threat to global public health. It is unclear how the human immune system responds to this infection. Here, we used metatranscriptomic sequencing to profile immune signatures in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of eight COVID-19 cases. The expression of proinflammatory genes, especially chemokines, was markedly elevated in COVID-19 cases compared to community-acquired pneumonia patients and healthy controls, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 infection causes hypercytokinemia. Compared to SARS-CoV, which is thought to induce inadequate interferon (IFN) responses, SARS-CoV-2 robustly triggered expression of numerous IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). These ISGs exhibit immunopathogenic potential, with overrepresentation of genes involved in inflammation. The transcriptome data was also used to estimate immune cell populations, revealing increases in activated dendritic cells and neutrophils. Collectively, these host responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection could further our understanding of disease pathogenesis and point toward antiviral strategies.

title: E-cigarette-induced pulmonary inflammation and dysregulated repair are mediated by nAChR α7 receptor: role of nAChR α7 in SARS-CoV-2 Covid-19 ACE2 receptor regulation
abstract: Electronic cigarette (e-cig) vaping is increasing rapidly in the United States, as e-cigs are considered less harmful than combustible cigarettes. However, limited research has been conducted to understand the possible mechanisms that mediate toxicity and pulmonary health effects of e-cigs. We hypothesized that sub-chronic e-cig exposure induces inflammatory response and dysregulated repair/extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, which occur through the &#945;7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR&#945;7). Adult wild-type (WT), nAChR&#945;7 knockout (KO), and lung epithelial cell-specific KO (nAChR&#945;7 CreCC10) mice were exposed to e-cig aerosol containing propylene glycol (PG) with or without nicotine. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) and lung tissues were collected to determine e-cig induced inflammatory response and ECM remodeling, respectively. Sub-chronic e-cig exposure with nicotine increased inflammatory cellular influx of macrophages and T-lymphocytes including increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in BALF and increased SARS-Cov-2 Covid-19 ACE2 receptor, whereas nAChR&#945;7 KO mice show reduced inflammatory responses associated with decreased ACE2 receptor. Interestingly, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as MMP2, MMP8 and MMP9, were altered both at the protein and mRNA transcript levels in female and male KO mice, but WT mice exposed to PG alone showed a sex-dependent phenotype. Moreover, MMP12 was increased significantly in male mice exposed to PG with or without nicotine in a nAChR&#945;7-dependent manner. Additionally, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine altered the abundance of ECM proteins, such as collagen and fibronectin, significantly in a sex-dependent manner, but without the direct role of nAChR&#945;7 gene. Overall, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine affected lung inflammation and repair responses/ECM remodeling, which were mediated by nAChR&#945;7 in a sex-dependent manner.

title: Anti-inflammatory therapy may ameliorate the clinical picture of COVID-19.

title: Prognostic value of C-reactive protein in patients with COVID-19
abstract: Elevated serum C-reactive protein (CRP) level was observed in most patients with COVID-19.  Data of COVID-19 patients with clinical outcome in a designated hospital in Wuhan, China, were retrospectively collected and analyzed from Jan 30 to Feb 20, 2020. The prognostic value of admission CRP was evaluated in patients with COVID-19.  Out of 298 patients enrolled, 84 died and 214 recovered. Most non-survivors tended to be males, old aged, or with chronic diseases. Compared to survivors, non-survivors showed significantly higher white blood cell and neutrophil count, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR), systemic immune-inflammation index (SII, defined by platelet count multiply by NLR), CRP, procalcitonin, and D-dimer, and lower red blood cell, lymphocyte, and platelet count. Age, neutrophil count, platelet count, and CRP were identified as independent predictors of adverse outcome. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) of CRP (0.896) was significantly higher than that of age (0.833), neutrophil count (0.820), and platelet count (0.678) in outcome prediction (all p<0.05). With a cut-off value of 41.4, CRP exhibited sensitivity 90.5%, specificity 77.6%, positive predictive value 61.3%, and negative predictive value 95.4%. Subgroup analysis revealed that CRP remained robust accuracy in adverse outcome prediction in patients with different disease severity (AUC 0.832, z=10.23, p<0.001; AUC 0.989, z=44.04, p<0.001). CRP was also an independent discriminator of severe/critical illness on admission (AUC 0.783, z=10.69, p<0.001).  In patients with COVID-19, admission CRP correlated with disease severity and tended to be a good predictor of adverse outcome.

title: Relapsing viral keratoconjunctivitis in COVID-19: a case report
abstract: Since the outbreak of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in December 2019, many studies have reported the presence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the conjunctival sac of patients infected with this virus, with several patients displaying symptoms of viral conjunctivitis. However, to our best knowledge, there is no in-depth report on the course of patients with COVID-19 complicated by relapsing viral conjunctivitis or keratoconjunctivitis.  A 53-year-old man confirmed with COVID-19 developed symptoms of viral conjunctivitis in the left eye approximately 10 days after the onset of COVID-19. The results of a nucleic acid test were positive for SARS-CoV-2 in the conjunctival sac of the left eye. The symptoms were relieved 6 days after treatment. However, the patient was subsequently diagnosed with viral keratoconjunctivitis in both eyes 5 days after the symptoms in the left eye were satisfactorily relieved. The disease progressed rapidly, with spot staining observed at the periphery of the corneal epithelium. Although SARS-CoV-2 could not be detected in conjunctival secretions, the levels of inflammatory factors, such as interleukin-6, were increased in both eyes. Both eyes were treated with glucocorticoids, and symptoms were controlled within 5 days. There was no recurrence.  In this case report, the pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, treatment, and outcome of a case with COVID-19 complicated by relapsing viral keratoconjunctivitis is described, and the involvement of topical cytokine surge in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 as it relates to viral keratoconjunctivitis is reported.

title: SARS‐CoV‐2: A comprehensive review from pathogenicity of the virus to clinical consequences
abstract: Nowadays, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), which caused novel coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) pandemic, is the worldwide challenge. The virus is highly contagious, and clinical consequences were very divers. It is estimated that if no effective action is taken, COVID‐19 could plague 90% of the world's population and kill over 40 million people. So, it is essential to understand the virus pathogenicity and follow the preventive methods to control the high morbidity and mortality rates. Meanwhile our current knowledge of COVID‐19 is still limited, despite hard efforts of scientists and clinicians during last few months. In this review article, we have collected the latest data about characteristics, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and diagnostic methods of SARS‐CoV‐2. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: The Association of Lymphocyte count and levels of CRP, D-Dimer, and LDH with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Meta-Analysis
abstract: The rapid progression of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its increasing burden on health systems necessitate the identification of parameters of severe infection to help in monitoring, prognoses and development of treatment algorithms. This review aims to investigate the association of lymphocyte count, CRP, LDH, and D-Dimer with the severe form of COVID-19. This review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The databases of MEDLINE/PubMed, WHO-Virtual Health Library (VHL), and ScienceDirect were used for the systematic search. Random effects model was used to estimate the pooled standardized mean differences (SMD) with the corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI), using OpenMeta Analyst software. A total of 11 studies, with 2437 COVID-19 patients, which fulfilled the eligibility criteria were included in the meta-analysis. The analysis revealed that lymphocyte count was significantly lower in patients with the severe form of COVID-19 (SMD = - 1.025, P value <.001). Also, the analysis of SMD showed that patients with severe COVID-19 have a significantly higher serum levels of CRP (SMD = 3.363, P value <.001), D-Dimer (SMD = 1.073, P value <.001), and LDH (SMD = 3.345, P value <.001). Low lymphocyte count and high levels of CRP, LDH, and D-Dimer are associated with severe COVID-19. These laboratory markers could be used as clinical indicators of worsening illness and poor prognosis of COVID-19.

title: Does the newly observed inflammatory syndrome in children demonstrate a link between uncontrolled neutrophil extracellular traps formation and COVID-19?

title: Clinical approach to the inflammatory etiology of cardiovascular diseases
abstract: Inflammation is an obligatory marker of arterial disease, both stemming from the inflammatory activity of cholesterol itself and from well-established molecular mechanisms. Raised progenitor cell recruitment after major events and clonal hematopoiesis related mechanisms have provided an improved understanding of factors regulating inflammatory phenomena. Trials with inflammation antagonists have led to an extensive evaluation of biomarkers such as the high sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP), not exerting a causative role, but frequently indicative of the individual cardiovascular (CV) risk. Aim of this review is to provide indication on the anti-inflammatory profile of agents of general use in CV prevention, i.e. affecting lipids, blood pressure, diabetes as well nutraceuticals such as n-3 fatty acids. A crucial issue in the evaluation of the benefit of the anti-inflammatory activity is the frequent discordance between a beneficial activity on a major risk factor and associated changes of hsCRP, as in the case of statins vs PCSK9 antagonists. In hypertension, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors exert an optimal anti-inflammatory activity, vs the case of sartans. The remarkable preventive activity of SLGT-2 inhibitors in heart failure is not associated with a clear anti-inflammatory mechanism. Finally, icosapent ethyl has been shown to reduce the CV risk in hypertriglyceridemia, with a 27% reduction of hsCRP. The inflammation-based approach to arterial disease has considerably gained from an improved understanding of the clinical diagnostic strategy and from a better knowledge on the mode of action of numerous agents, including nutraceuticals.

title: COVID-19 randomised trial protocols: rapid publication without barriers

title: The immunology of COVID-19: is immune modulation an option for treatment?
abstract: In December, 2019, an outbreak of COVID-19 emerged in Wuhan, China and quickly spread globally. As of May 7, 2020, there were 3 672 238 confirmed infections and 254 045 deaths attributed to COVID-19. Evidence has shown that there are asymptomatic carriers of COVID-19 who can transmit the disease to others. The virus incubation time shows a wide range (0–24 days) and the virus displays a high infectivity. It is therefore urgent to develop an effective therapy to treat patients with COVID-19 and to control the spread of the causative agent, severe respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Repurposing of approved drugs is widely adopted to fight newly emerged diseases such as COVID-19, as these drugs have known pharmacokinetic and safety profiles. As pathological examination has confirmed the involvement of immune hyperactivation and acute respiratory distress syndrome in fatal cases of COVID-19, several disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDS), such as hydroxychloroquine and tocilizumab, have been proposed as potential therapies for the treatment of COVID-19. In this Review, we discuss the immunological aspects of COVID-19 and the potential implication of DMARDs in treating this disease.

title: Doxycycline: From Ocular Rosacea to COVID-19 Anosmia. New Insight Into the Coronavirus Outbreak

title: Sepsis and septic shock: endothelial molecular pathogenesis associated with vascular microthrombotic disease
abstract: In addition to protective “immune response”, sepsis is characterized by destructive “endothelial response” of the host, leading to endotheliopathy and its molecular dysfunction. Complement activation generates membrane attack complex (MAC). MAC causes channel formation to the cell membrane of pathogen, leading to death of microorganisms. In the host, MAC also may induce channel formation to innocent bystander endothelial cells (ECs) and ECs cannot be protected. This provokes endotheliopathy, which activates two independent molecular pathways: inflammatory and microthrombotic. Activated inflammatory pathway promotes the release of inflammatory cytokines and triggers inflammation. Activated microthrombotic pathway mediates platelet activation and exocytosis of unusually large von Willebrand factor multimers (ULVWF) from ECs and initiates microthrombogenesis. Excessively released ULVWF become anchored to ECs as long elongated strings and recruit activated platelets to assemble platelet-ULVWF complexes and form “microthrombi”. These microthrombi strings trigger disseminated intravascular microthrombosis (DIT), which is the underlying pathology of endotheliopathy-associated vascular microthrombotic disease (EA-VMTD). Sepsis-induced endotheliopathy promotes inflammation and DIT. Inflammation produces inflammatory response and DIT orchestrates consumptive thrombocytopenia, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, and multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is a combined phenotype of inflammation and endotheliopathy-associated (EA)-VMTD. Successful therapeutic design for sepsis can be achieved by counteracting the pathologic microthrombogenesis.

title: Clinical and Immune Features of Hospitalized Pediatric Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China
abstract: The epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of pediatric patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been reported, but information on immune features associated with disease severity is scarce.  To delineate and compare the immunologic features of mild and moderate COVID-19 in pediatric patients.  This single-center case series included 157 pediatric patients admitted to Wuhan Children’s Hospital with laboratory-confirmed severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Data were collected from January 25 to April 18, 2020.  Documented SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Clinical and immunologic characteristics were collected and analyzed. Outcomes were observed until April 18, 2020.  Of the 157 pediatric patients with COVID-19, 60 (38.2%) had mild clinical type with pneumonia, 88 (56.1%) had moderate cases, 6 (3.8%) had severe cases, and 3 (1.9%) were critically ill. The 148 children with mild or moderate disease had a median (interquartile range [IQR]) age of 84 (18-123) months, and 88 (59.5%) were girls. The most common laboratory abnormalities were increased levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (median [IQR], 16.0 [12.0-26.0] U/L), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (median [IQR], 30.0 [23.0-41.8] U/L), creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) activity (median [IQR], 24.0 [18.0-34.0] U/L), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (median [IQR], 243.0 [203.0-297.0] U/L), which are associated with liver and myocardial injury. Compared with mild cases, levels of inflammatory cytokines including interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor α, and interferon γ were unchanged, whereas the level of immune suppressive interleukin 10 was markedly increased in moderate cases compared with mild cases (median [IQR], 3.96 [3.34-5.29] pg/mL vs 3.58 [3.10-4.36] pg/mL; P = .048). There was no statistically significant difference in absolute number of lymphocytes (including T cells and B cells) between mild and moderate cases, but moderate cases were associated with a decrease in neutrophil levels compared with mild cases (median [IQR], 2310/μL [1680/μL-3510/μL] vs 3120/μL [2040/μL-4170/μL]; P = .01). Immunoglobin G and the neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio were negatively associated with biochemical indices related to liver and myocardial injury (immunoglobulin G, ALT: r, −0.3579; AST: r, −0.5280; CK-MB activity: r, −0.4786; LDH: r, −0.4984; and neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, ALT: r, −0.1893; AST: r, −0.3912; CK-MB activity: r, −0.3428; LDH: r, −0.3234), while counts of lymphocytes, CD4(+) T cells, and interleukin 10 showed positive associations (lymphocytes, ALT: r, 0.2055; AST: r, 0.3615; CK-MB activity: r, 0.338; LDH: r, 0.3309; CD4(+) T cells, AST: r, 0.4701; CK-MB activity: r, 0.4151; LDH: r, 0.4418; interleukin 10, ALT: r, 0.2595; AST: r, 0.3386; CK-MB activity: r, 0.3948; LDH: r, 0.3794).  In this case series, systemic inflammation rarely occurred in pediatric patients with COVID-19, in contrast with the lymphopenia and aggravated inflammatory responses frequently observed in adults with COVID-19. Gaining a deeper understanding of the role of neutrophils, CD4(+) T cells, and B cells in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection could be important for the clinical management of COVID-19.

title: Immune dysfunction leads to mortality and organ injury in patients with COVID-19 in China: insights from ERS-COVID-19 study

title: Clinical Course and Risk Factors for Recurrence of Positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA: A Retrospective Cohort Study from Wuhan, China
abstract: Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has developed into a full-blown global pandemic. It has been reported that patients with COVID-19 meeting the criteria for hospital discharge (including two consecutive negative RT-PCR results) have experienced recurrent PCR positivity. However, the clinical course and risk factors for these patients have not been well described.  In this retrospective cohort study, consecutive patients with COVID-19 confirmed by RT-PCR from the Guanggu Branch of Hubei Province Maternity and Childcare Hospital from February 24, 2020 to March 31, 2020 were enrolled. The epidemiological, radiographic, laboratory, treatment, and outcome data were extracted from medical records. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression methods were used to elucidate risk factors for patients with recurrence of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA.  COVID-19 patients were included in this study. Of these, 20 (1.8%) died and 1067 (98.2%) were discharged from the hospital. Among the discharged cases, there were 81 (7.6%) patients found to develop a repeat positive SARS-Cov-2 RNA result. Older age was obviously associated with death. For patients with recurrent RT-PCR positivity, the median duration from illness onset to onset of complete RNA negative was 33.0 days (range, 6.0-82.0 days; IQR, 20.0-41.0 days), while that from illness onset to recurrence was 50.0 days (range, 21.0-95.0 days; IQR, 36.5-59.5 days). Multivariate regression analysis identified recurrence of positive SARS-Cov-2 RNA was associated with elevated IL-6 levels (P=0.004, OR=3.050; 95% CI, 1.432-6.499), increased lymphocyte count (P=0.038, OR=2.321; 95% CI, 1.048-5.138) and CT imaging features of lung consolidation (P=0.038, OR=1.641; 95% CI, 1.028-2.620) during hospitalization.  Elevated lymphocyte counts and IL-6 levels in blood, and consolidation features on CT imaging are useful risk factors for clinicians to identify patients at risk of developing recurrent positivity of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. This is speculated to be caused by a balance in immune regulation when fighting virus toxicity. For patients with a high risk of recurrent positivity, a prolonged observation and additional preventative measures should be implemented for at least 50 days after illness onset to prevent future outbreaks.

title: COVID-19 severity correlates with airway epithelium-immune cell interactions identified by single-cell analysis.
abstract: To investigate the immune response and mechanisms associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), we performed single-cell RNA sequencing on nasopharyngeal and bronchial samples from 19 clinically well-characterized patients with moderate or critical disease and from five healthy controls. We identified airway epithelial cell types and states vulnerable to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In patients with COVID-19, epithelial cells showed an average three-fold increase in expression of the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2, which correlated with interferon signals by immune cells. Compared to moderate cases, critical cases exhibited stronger interactions between epithelial and immune cells, as indicated by ligand-receptor expression profiles, and activated immune cells, including inflammatory macrophages expressing CCL2, CCL3, CCL20, CXCL1, CXCL3, CXCL10, IL8, IL1B and TNF. The transcriptional differences in critical cases compared to moderate cases likely contribute to clinical observations of heightened inflammatory tissue damage, lung injury and respiratory failure. Our data suggest that pharmacologic inhibition of the CCR1 and/or CCR5 pathways might suppress immune hyperactivation in critical COVID-19.

title: Insight into the relationship between obesity-induced low-level chronic inflammation and COVID-19 infection

title: The course of Covid 19 in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: protective role of TNF antagonists Response to: Corticosteroids, but not TNF Antagonists, are Associated with Adverse COVID-19 Outcomes in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Results from an International Registry

title: Aspects of inflammatory bowel disease during the COVID-19 pandemic and general considerations
abstract: So far, available evidence suggests that patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are not at greater risk for developing COVID-19 infection. In regard to patients with IBD remission: 5-aminosalycylates (5-ASAs) do not increase the risk for infection and should be continued. There is no need to suspend them or lower the dose. Immunomodulating drugs, such as thiopurines and methotrexate, should be continued, without modifying doses (even in patients with positive SARS-CoV-2 infection). No type of biologic therapy should be suspended, unless there are signs of COVID-19. Regarding patients with IBD activity: the oral and/or topical 5-ASA dose should be optimized in cases of disease relapse. Budesonide MMX should be considered in cases of mild-to-moderate activity, to avoid systemic steroid use. Systemic steroids should be avoided whenever possible because doses above 20 mg per day have an immunosuppressive effect, which could increase susceptibility to any type of infection, including COVID-19. The combined use of thiopurines with steroids and/or tumor necrosis factor (TNF) monoclonal antibodies should also be avoided because those combinations can increase the risk for infections, including COVID-19. Finally, biologic treatment with anti-TNF-alpha agents or any other mechanism of action, such as anti-integrins or anti-interleukins, should be suspended if patients become infected with SARS-CoV-2. The drugs can be restarted once the infectious process is resolved.

title: [Dynamic inflammatory response in a critically ill COVID-19 patient treated with corticosteroids]
abstract: To investigate the effect of corticosteroids therapy on the inflammatory response in a critically ill coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patient.  A 55-year old female patient with critical ill COVID-19 was admitted in Taizhou Hospital on January 19, 2020. The patient was treated with methylprednisolone 80 mg on the 2nd day after admission. Thereafter, the dose was adjusted in a timely manner and the therapy lasted for 13 days. The peripheral lymphocyte subsets (CD3+T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T, NK cells, B cells), as well as serum levels of lymphocyte factors (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-&#945;, IFN-Î³) were dynamically monitored.  On D1 of admission, the numbers of peripheral blood CD3+ T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T, and NK cells were significantly lower than the normal range. With the improvement of the disease, the numbers of CD3+ T, CD8+ T and CD4 + T cells gradually recovered and showed a linear growth trend (linear fitting equation: Y=18.59X+109.4, P<0.05). On D2 of admission, the patient's IL-6 and IL-10 levels were significantly higher than normal values, IFN-Î³ was at a normal high value, and then rapidly decreased; IL-2, IL-4, and TNF-&#945; were all in the normal range. On the D6 and D7, the IL-6 and IL-10 decreased to the normal range for the first time. On the D18, the sputum virus nucleic acid test was negative for the first time, and the fecal virus nucleic acid test was still positive; on the D20 the sputum and fecal virus nucleic acid test were both negative. On D34, the patient recovered and was discharged. At the discharge the muscle strength score of the patient was 44 and the daily life ability evaluation was 90.  In the absence of effective antiviral drugs, early use of appropriate doses of corticosteroids in critically ill patient with COVID-19 can quickly alleviate inflammatory response and improve clinical symptoms, however, it may reduce the number of T cells, and to adjust the dose in time is necessary.

title: Lianhuaqingwen exerts anti-viral and anti-inflammatory activity against novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)
abstract: Lianhuaqingwen (LH) as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula has been used to treat influenza and exerted broad-spectrum antiviral effects on a series of influenza viruses and immune regulatory effects Ding et al. (2017). The goal of this study is to demonstrate the antiviral activity of LH against the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus and its potential effect in regulating host immune response.  The antiviral activity of LH against SARS-CoV-2 was assessed in Vero E6 cells using CPE and plaque reduction assay. The effect of LH on virion morphology was visualized under transmission electron microscope. Pro-inflammatory cytokine expression levels upon SARS-CoV-2 infection in Huh-7 cells were measured by real-time quantitative PCR assays.  LH significantly inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in Vero E6 cells and markedly reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, CCL-2/MCP-1 and CXCL-10/IP-10) production at the mRNA levels. Furthermore, LH treatment resulted in abnormal particle morphology of virion in cells.  LH significantly inhibits the SARS-COV-2 replication, affects virus morphology and exerts anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. These findings indicate that LH protects against the virus attack, making its use a novel strategy for controlling the COVID-19 disease.

title: SARS-CoV-2-mediated inflammatory response in lungs: should we look at RAGE?
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is placing significant strains on health systems, scientific communities, essential public services, and economies all over the world. In this context, the world´s scientific biomedical establishment is unleashing an unprecedented response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This is a battle against time, considering the thousands of human lives are lost every day. In this commentary, based on a very recent research report, we intend to highlight how a new mechanism describing the RAGE transactivation produced by Ang II-mediated ATR1 activation can run continuously and thus, reinforcing a sustained inflammation in lungs, due to the SARS-Cov-2-mediated imbalance of the ACE/And II/ATR1 pathway.

title: Inflammatory pattern recognition receptors and their ligands: factors contributing to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia
abstract: Preeclampsia, a pregnancy-specific hypertensive syndrome, is one of the leading causes of premature births as well as fetal and maternal death. Preeclampsia lacks effective therapies because of the poor understanding of disease pathogenesis. The aim of this paper is to review molecular signaling pathways that could be responsible for the pathogenesis of preeclampsia.  This article reviews the English-language literature for pathogenesis and pathophysiological mechanisms of preeclampsia based on genome-wide gene expression profiling and proteomic studies.  We show that the expression of the genes and proteins involved in response to stress, host-pathogen interactions, immune system, inflammation, lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, growth and tissue remodeling was increased in preeclampsia. Several significant common pathways observed in preeclampsia overlap the datasets identified in TLR (Toll-like receptor)- and RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products)-dependent signaling pathways. Placental oxidative stress and subsequent chronic inflammation are considered to be major contributors to the development of preeclampsia.  This review summarizes recent advances in TLR- and RAGE-mediated signaling and the target molecules, and provides new insights into the pathogenesis of preeclampsia.

title: Blocking of the CD80/86 axis as a therapeutic approach to prevent progression to more severe forms of COVID-19
abstract: In its more severe forms, COVID-19 progresses towards an excessive immune response, leading to the systemic overexpression of proinflammatory cytokines like IL6, mostly from the infected lungs. This cytokine storm can cause multiple organ damage and death. Consequently, there is a pressing need to identify therapies to treat and prevent severe symptoms during COVID-19. Based on previous clinical evidence, we hypothesized that inhibiting T cell co-stimulation by blocking CD80/86 could be an effective therapeutic strategy against progression to severe proinflammatory states. To support this hypothesis, we performed an analysis integrating blood transcriptional data we generated from rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with abatacept -- a CD80/86 co-stimulation inhibitor -- with the pathological features associated with COVID-19, particularly in its more severe forms. We have found that many of the biological processes that have been consistently associated with COVID-19 pathology are reversed by CD80/86 co-stimulation inhibition, including the downregulation of IL6 production. Also, analysis of previous transcriptional data from blood of SARS-CoV-infected patients showed that the response to abatacept has a very high level of antagonism to that elicited by COVID-19. Finally, analyzing a recent single cell RNA-seq dataset from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cells from COVID-19 patients, we found a significant correlation along the main elements of the C80/86 axis: CD86+/80+ antigen presenting cells, activated CD4+ T cells and IL6 production. Our in-silico study provides additional support to the hypothesis that blocking of the CD80/CD86 signaling axis may be protective of the excessive proinflammatory state associated with COVID-19 in the lungs.

title: Gendered effects on inflammation reaction and outcome of COVID‐19 patients in Wuhan
abstract: The rapid outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) has turned into a public health emergency of international concern. Epidemiological research showed that gender was associated with the severity of COVID‐19, but the underlying mechanism of gender predisposition remains poorly understood. We aim to study the gendered differences in inflammation reaction, and the association with severity and mortality of COVID‐19.  In this retrospective study, we enrolled 548 COVID‐19 inpatients from Tongji Hospital from January 26 to February 5, 2020, and followed up to March 3, 2020. Epidemiological, demographic and clinical features, and inflammatory indexes were collected and compared between males and females. Cox proportional hazard regression model was applied to identify gendered effect on mortality of COVID‐19 after adjusting age, comorbidity and smoking history. Multiple linear regression method was used to explore the influence of sex on inflammation reaction.  Males had higher mortality than females did (22.2% vs. 10.4%), with the HR of 1.923 (95% CI, 1.181‐3.130); elder age and comorbidity were significantly associated with decease of COVID‐19 patients. Excess inflammation reaction was related to severity of COVID‐19. Male patients had greater inflammation reaction, with higher levels of IL‐10, TNF‐α, LDH, ferritin and hsCRP, but lower lymphocyte count than females adjusted by age and comorbidity.  Gender, age, and comorbidity are critical risk factors for mortality of COVID‐19. Excess innate immunity and proinflammation activity, and deficiency in adaptive immunity response promote males especially elder males to develop cytokine storm, causing potential ARDS, multiple organ failure and decease. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells: the therapeutic effects in animal models of acute pulmonary diseases
abstract: The pulmonary diseases are one of the most important causes of death in the world. The successful therapies in the field of lung diseases are very limited and the medical treatments available are ineffective in many of the lung diseases. Many studies have evaluated the new therapies in the acute pulmonary diseases, and the transplantation of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), which is a branch of cell therapy, has a special place among the new medical techniques. The MSCs are present throughout the body and are thought to play a role in tissue regeneration and inflammation control. In the event of injury, the local MSCs traverse the shortest possible distance from the tissue or blood vessels to reach the affected site. But, there are few undifferentiated cells in the tissues. The exogenous MSCs are used to immunity modify or regenerative treatments in preclinical models of acute pulmonary diseases. Several studies have shown the positive effects of MSCs replacement in the acute lung disorders. The effection mechanism of the MSCs include the differentiation ability and the secretion of paracrine agents such as the anti-inflammatory mediators. Many studies suggest that this treatment method is safe and is probably to be widely used in future clinical trials. This review will describe the therapeutic effects of the MSCs in the experimental models of the acute pulmonary diseases for use as a method of treatment in clinical trials in future.

title: Association of inflammatory markers with the severity of COVID-19
abstract: The ongoing worldwide epidemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has posed a huge threat to global public health. However, with regard to the effects of inflammatory markers on the severity of COVID-19, studies have reported associations that vary in strength and direction.  In the meta-analysis, we aimed to provide an overview of the association of inflammatory markers with severity of COVID-19.  The following databases were searched: PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Wanfang database and CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) database until March 20, 2020. Weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were pooled using random or fixed-effects models.  A total of 16 studies were included in our analysis comprising of 3962 patients with COVID-19. Random-effects results demonstrated that patients with COVID-19 in non-severe group had lower levels for CRP (WMD = -41.78 mg/l, 95% CI = [-52.43, -31.13], P < 0.001), PCT (WMD = -0.13 ng/ml, 95% CI = [-0.20, -0.05], P < 0.001), IL-6 (WMD = -21.32 ng/l, 95% CI = [-28.34, -14.31], P < 0.001), ESR (WMD = -8.40 mm/h, 95% CI = [-14.32, -2.48], P = 0.005), SAA (WMD = -43.35 μg/ml, 95% CI = [-80.85, -5.85], P = 0.020) and serum ferritin (WMD = -398.80 mg/l, 95% CI = [-625.89, -171.71], P < 0.001), compared with those in severe group. Moreover, survivors had lower level for IL-6 than non-survivors with COVID-19 (WMD = -4.80 ng/ml, 95% CI = [-5.87, -3.73], P < 0.001). These results were consistent through sensitivity analysis and publication bias assessment.  The meta-analysis highlights the association of inflammatory markers with the severity of COVID-19. Measurement of inflammatory markers might help clinicians to monitor and evaluate the severity and prognosis of COVID-19.

title: Possible Role of Adipose Tissue and Endocannabinoid System in COVID-19 Pathogenesis: Can Rimonabant Return?
abstract: This is the main conclusion of a recent study describing a strong relationship between the degree of obesity and the severity of COVID-19 infection. Obesity has various negative consequences relative to the course of COVID-19, including adverse effects on lung physiology, and induces comorbidities such as type II diabetes or hypertension. However, additional mechanisms involving the low-grade inflammatory state accompanying obesity can also be suggested.

title: Anti-TNF-α Agents in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Course of COVID-19

title: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory treatment during covid-19: friend or foe? Response to: 'Coronavirus disease 19 (Covid-19) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID)' by Giollo et al

title: Effectiveness of Tocilizumab in a COVID-19 Patient with Cytokine Release Syndrome
abstract: Cytokine release syndrome (CRS) is a systemic inflammatory response that can be triggered by many factors such as infections. CRS in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is life-threatening and can occur very rapidly after COVID-19 diagnosis. Tocilizumab (TCZ), an interleukin-6 (IL-6) inhibitor, may ameliorate the CRS associated with severe COVID-19 and thus improve clinical outcomes. We present a case of life-threatening CRS caused by COVID-19 infection successfully treated with TCZ.  Cytokine release syndrome (CRS) is a systemic inflammatory response that can be triggered by COVID-19. CRS can be life-threatening in severe COVID-19. Tocilizumab may have a role in treating severe COVID-19 patients with CRS.

title: Pathological Role of Angiotensin II in Severe COVID-19
abstract: The activated renin–angiotensin system induces a prothrombotic state resulting from the imbalance between coagulation and fibrinolysis. Angiotensin II is the central effector molecule of the activated renin–angiotensin system and is degraded by the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 to angiotensin (1–7). The novel coronavirus infection (classified as COVID-19) is caused by the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 and is characterized by an exaggerated inflammatory response that can lead to severe manifestations such as acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis, and death in a proportion of patients, mostly elderly patients with preexisting comorbidities. SARS-CoV-2 uses the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor to enter the target cells, resulting in activation of the renin–angiotensin system. After downregulating the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II is increasingly produced and its counterregulating molecules angiotensin (1–7) reduced. Angiotensin II increases thrombin formation and impairs fibrinolysis. Elevated levels were strongly associated with viral load and lung injury in patients with severe COVID-19. Therefore, the complex clinical picture of patients with severe complications of COVID-19 is triggered by the various effects of highly expressed angiotensin II on vasculopathy, coagulopathy, and inflammation. Future treatment options should focus on blocking the thrombogenic and inflammatory properties of angiotensin II in COVID-19 patients.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and viral sepsis: observations and hypotheses
abstract: Since the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), clinicians have tried every effort to understand the disease, and a brief portrait of its clinical features have been identified. In clinical practice, we noticed that many severe or critically ill COVID-19 patients developed typical clinical manifestations of shock, including cold extremities and weak peripheral pulses, even in the absence of overt hypotension. Understanding the mechanism of viral sepsis in COVID-19 is warranted for exploring better clinical care for these patients. With evidence collected from autopsy studies on COVID-19 and basic science research on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and SARS-CoV, we have put forward several hypotheses about SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis after multiple rounds of discussion among basic science researchers, pathologists, and clinicians working on COVID-19. We hypothesise that a process called viral sepsis is crucial to the disease mechanism of COVID-19. Although these ideas might be proven imperfect or even wrong later, we believe they can provide inputs and guide directions for basic research at this moment.

title: Characteristics of Peripheral Lymphocyte Subset Alteration in COVID-19 Pneumonia
abstract: In December 2019, novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) pneumonia (COVID-19) was reported in Wuhan and has since rapidly spread throughout China. We aimed to clarify the characteristics and clinical significance of peripheral lymphocyte subset alteration in COVID-19.  The levels of peripheral lymphocyte subsets were measured by flow cytometry in 60 hospitalized COVID-19 patients before and after treatment, and their association with clinical characteristics and treatment efficacy was analyzed.  Total lymphocytes, CD4(+) T cells, CD8(+) T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells decreased in COVID-19 patients, and severe cases had a lower level than mild cases. The subsets showed a significant association with inflammatory status in COVID-19, especially CD8(+) T cells and CD4(+)/CD8(+) ratio. After treatment, 37 patients (67%) showed clinical response, with an increase in CD8(+) T cells and B cells. No significant change in any subset was detected in nonresponsive cases. In multivariate analysis, posttreatment decrease in CD8(+) T cells and B cells and increase in CD4(+)/CD8(+) ratio were indicated as independent predictors of poor efficacy.  Peripheral lymphocyte subset alteration was associated with clinical characteristics and treatment efficacy of COVID-19. CD8(+) T cells tended to be an independent predictor for COVID-19 severity and treatment efficacy.

title: The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak – an update on the status
abstract: An acute respiratory disease, caused by a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2, previously known as 2019-nCoV), the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread throughout China and received worldwide attention. On 30 January 2020, World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared the COVID-19 epidemic as a public health emergency of international concern. The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, since the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2002 and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012, marked the third introduction of a highly pathogenic and large-scale epidemic coronavirus into the human population in the twenty-first century. As of 1 March 2020, a total of 87,137 confirmed cases globally, 79,968 confirmed in China and 7169 outside of China, with 2977 deaths (3.4%) had been reported by WHO. Meanwhile, several independent research groups have identified that SARS-CoV-2 belongs to β-coronavirus, with highly identical genome to bat coronavirus, pointing to bat as the natural host. The novel coronavirus uses the same receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as that for SARS-CoV, and mainly spreads through the respiratory tract. Importantly, increasingly evidence showed sustained human-to-human transmission, along with many exported cases across the globe. The clinical symptoms of COVID-19 patients include fever, cough, fatigue and a small population of patients appeared gastrointestinal infection symptoms. The elderly and people with underlying diseases are susceptible to infection and prone to serious outcomes, which may be associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and cytokine storm. Currently, there are few specific antiviral strategies, but several potent candidates of antivirals and repurposed drugs are under urgent investigation. In this review, we summarized the latest research progress of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical characteristics of COVID-19, and discussed the current treatment and scientific advancements to combat the epidemic novel coronavirus.

title: Clinical Characteristics of COVID‐19 in patients with pre‐existing ILD: A retrospective study in a single center in Wuhan, China
abstract: Since the outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS‐CoV‐2) pneumonia, many patients with underlying disease, such as interstitial lung disease (ILD), were admitted to Tongji hospital in Wuhan, China. To date, no data have ever been reported to reflect the clinical features of Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19) among these patients with pre‐existing ILD.  We analyzed the incidence and severity of COVID‐19 patients with ILD among 3201 COVID‐19 inpatients, and compared two independent cohorts of COVID‐19 patients with pre‐existing ILD (n=28) and non‐ILD COVID‐19 patients (n=130).  Among those 3201 COVID‐19 inpatients, 28 of whom were COVID‐19 with ILD (0.88%). Fever was the predominant symptom both in COVID‐19 with ILD (81.54%) and non‐ILD COVID‐19 patients (72.22%). However, COVID‐19 patients with ILD were more likely to have cough, sputum, fatigue, dyspnea, and diarrhea. Very significantly higher number of neutrophils, monocytes, IL‐8, IL‐10, IL‐1β and D‐Dimer was characterized in COVID‐19 with ILD as compared to those of non‐ILD COVID‐19 patients. Furthermore, logistic regression models showed neutrophils counts, pro‐inflammatory cytokines (TNF‐α, IL6, IL1β, IL2R), and coagulation dysfunction biomarkers (D‐Dimer, PT, Fbg) were significantly associated with the poor clinical outcomes of COVID‐19.  ILD patients could be less vulnerable to SARS‐CoV‐2. However, ILD patients tend to severity condition after being infected with SARS‐CoV‐2. The prognosis of COVID‐19 patients with per‐existing ILD is significantly worse than that of non‐ILD patients. And more, aggravated inflammatory responses and coagulation dysfunction appear to be the critical mechanisms in the COVID‐19 patients with ILD. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Perspective: Vitamin D deficiency and COVID‐19 severity – plausibly linked by latitude, ethnicity, impacts on cytokines, ACE2, and thrombosis (R1)
abstract: SARS‐CoV‐2 coronavirus infection ranges from asymptomatic through to fatal COVID‐19 characterised by a “cytokine storm” and lung failure. Vitamin D deficiency has been postulated as a determinant of severity.  To review the evidence relevant to vitamin D and COVID‐19   Regression modelling shows that more northerly countries in the Northern Hemisphere are currently (May 2020) showing relatively high COVID‐19 mortality, with an estimated 4.4% increase in mortality for each 1 degree latitude north of 28 degrees North (P=0.031) after adjustment for age of population. This supports a role for ultraviolet B acting via vitamin D synthesis. Factors associated with worse COVID‐19 prognosis include old age, ethnicity, male sex, obesity, diabetes and hypertension and these also associate with deficiency of vitamin D or its response. Vitamin D deficiency is also linked to severity of childhood respiratory illness. Experimentally, vitamin D increases the ratio of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to ACE, thus increasing angiotensin II hydrolysis and reducing subsequent inflammatory cytokine response to pathogens and lung injury.  Substantial evidence supports a link between vitamin D deficiency and COVID‐19 severity but it is all indirect. Community‐based placebo‐controlled trials of vitamin D supplementation may be difficult. Further evidence could come from study of COVID‐19 outcomes in large cohorts with information on prescribing data for vitamin D supplementation or assay of serum unbound 25(OH) vitamin D levels. Meanwhile vitamin D supplementation should be strongly advised for people likely to be deficient.

title: COVID-19 - toward a comprehensive understanding of the disease.
abstract: The evidence on the pathophysiology of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infection is rapidly growing. Understanding why some patients suffering from COVID-19 are getting so sick, while others are not, has become an informal imperative for researchers and clinicians around the globe. The answer to this question would allow rationalizing the fear surrounding this pandemic. Understanding of the pathophysiology of COVID-19 relies on an understanding of interplaying mechanisms, including SARS-CoV-2 virulence, human immune response, and complex inflammatory reactions with coagulation playing a major role. An interplay with bacterial co-infections, as well as the vascular system and microcirculation affected throughout the body should also be examined. More importantly, a comprehensive understanding of pathological mechanisms of COVID-19 will increase the efficacy of therapy and decrease mortality. Herewith, presented is the current state of knowledge on COVID-19: beginning from the virus, its transmission, and mechanisms of entry into the human body, through the pathological effects on the cellular level, up to immunological reaction, systemic and organ presentation. Last but not least, currently available and possible future therapeutic and diagnostic options are briefly commented on.

title: Extracorporeal Blood Purification Treatment Options for COVID-19: The Role of Immunoadsorption
abstract: The activation of theinnate and adaptive immune systems by SARS-CoV-2 causes the release of several inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6. The inflammatory hypercytokinemia causes immunopathological changes in the lungs including vascular leakage, and alveolar edema. As a result of these changes in the lungs, hypoxia and acute respiratory distress syndrome occur in patients with COVID-19. Even though there are clinical trials on the development of therapeutics and vaccines, there are currently no licensed vaccines or therapeutics for COVID-19. Pharmacological approaches have shown poor results in sepsis-like syndromes caused by the hypercytokinemia. Suppressing the cytokine storm is an important way to prevent the organ damage in patients with COVID-19. Extracorporeal blood purification could be proposed as an adjunctive therapy for sepsis, aiming to control the associated dysregulation of the immune system, which is known to protect organ functions. Several extracorporeal blood purification therapies are now available, and most of them target endotoxins and/or the cytokines and aim improving the immune response. For this purpose, plasmapheresis and immunoadsorption may be an important adjunctive treatment option to manage the complications caused by cytokine storm in critically ill patients with COVID-19.

title: Immune-related factors associated with pneumonia in 127 children with coronavirus disease 2019 in Wuhan
abstract: Information regarding the association of immune-related factors with pneumonia in children with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is scarce. This study aims to summarize the immune-related factors and their association with pneumonia in children with COVID-19.  Children with COVID-19 at Wuhan Children's Hospital from 28 January to 12 March 2020 were enrolled. Pneumonia due to causes other than COVID-19 were excluded. The clinical and laboratory information including routine blood tests, blood biochemistry, lymphocyte subsets, immunoglobulins, cytokines, and inflammatory factors were analyzed retrospectively in 127 patients. Normal ranges and mean values of laboratory markers were applied as parameters for logistic regression analyses of their association with pneumonia.  In nonintensive care unit patients, 48.8% and 22.4% of patients had increased levels of procalcitonin and hypersensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) respectively. A total 12.6% and 18.1% of patients had decreased levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) and interleukin 10 (IL-10), respectively. Approximately 65.8% of patients had pneumonia. These patients had decreased levels of globulin (odds ratio [OR], 3.13; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.41-6.93; P = .005), IgA (OR, 4.00; 95% CI, 1.13-14.18; P = .032), and increased levels of hs-CRP (OR, 3.14; 95% CI, 1.34-7.36; P = .008), procalcitonin (OR, 3.83; 95% CI, 2.03-7.24; P < .001), IL-10 (OR, 7.0; 95% CI, 1.59-30.80; P = .010), and CD4+ CD25+ T lymphocyte less than 5.0% (OR, 1.93; 95% CI, 1.04-3.61; P = 0.038).  Decreased IgA and CD4+ CD25+ T lymphocyte percentage, and increased hs-CRP, procalcitonin, and IL-10 were associated with pneumonia, suggesting that the immune-related factors may participate in the pathogenesis of pneumonia in children with COVID-19.

title: SARS-CoV-2, which induces COVID-19, causes kawasaki-like disease in children: role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.
abstract: Acute severe respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused a global pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In humans, SARS-CoV-2 infection leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome which presents edema, hemorrhage, intra-alveolar fibrin deposition, and vascular changes characterized by thrombus formation, micro-angiopathy and thrombosis. These clinical signs are mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines. In recent studies it has been noted that COVID-19 pandemic can affect patients of all ages, including children (even if less severely) who were initially thought to be immune. Kawasaki disease is an autoimmune acute febrile inflammatory condition, which primarily affects young children. The disease can present immunodeficiency with the inability of the immune system to fight inflammatory pathogens and leads to fever, rash, alterations of the mucous membranes, conjunctiva infection, pharyngeal erythema, adenopathy, and inflammation. In the COVID-19 period, virus infection aggravates the condition of Kawasaki disease, but it has also been noted that children affected by SARS-V-2 may develop a disease similar to Kawasaki's illness. However, it is uncertain whether the virus alone can give Kawasaki disease-like forms. As in COVID-19, Kawasaki disease and its similar forms are mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines produced by innate immunity cells such as macrophages and mast cells (MCs). In light of the above, it is therefore pertinent to think that by blocking pro-inflammatory cytokines with new anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-37 and IL-38, it is possible to alleviate the symptoms of the disease and have a new available therapeutic tool. However, since Kawasaki and Kawasaki-like diseases present immunodeficiency, treatment with anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressant molecules must be applied very carefully.

title: What We Know So Far (As of March 26, 2020) About COVID-19 – An MRT Point of View

title: Descriptive Statistics for Summarising Data
abstract: This chapter discusses and illustrates descriptive statistics. The purpose of the procedures and fundamental concepts reviewed in this chapter is quite straightforward: to facilitate the description and summarisation of data. By ‘describe’ we generally mean either the use of some pictorial or graphical representation of the data (e.g. a histogram, box plot, radar plot, stem-and-leaf display, icon plot or line graph) or the computation of an index or number designed to summarise a specific characteristic of a variable or measurement (e.g., frequency counts, measures of central tendency, variability, standard scores). Along the way, we explore the fundamental concepts of probability and the normal distribution. We seldom interpret individual data points or observations primarily because it is too difficult for the human brain to extract or identify the essential nature, patterns, or trends evident in the data, particularly if the sample is large. Rather we utilise procedures and measures which provide a general depiction of how the data are behaving. These statistical procedures are designed to identify or display specific patterns or trends in the data. What remains after their application is simply for us to interpret and tell the story.

title: A Randomized, Single-blind, Group sequential, Active-controlled Study to evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of Î±-Lipoic acid for critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)
abstract: To evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of -Lipoic acid (ALA) for critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).  A randomized, single-blind, group sequential, active-controlled trial was performed at JinYinTan Hospital, Wuhan, China. Between February 2020 and March 2020, 17 patients with critically ill COVID-19 were enrolled in our study. Eligible patients were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive either ALA (1200 mg/d, intravenous infusion) once daily plus standard care or standard care plus equal volume saline infusion (placebo) for 7 days. All patients were monitored within the 7 days therapy and followed up to day 30 after therapy. The primary outcome of this study was the Sequential Organ Failure Estimate (SOFA) score, and the secondary outcome was the all-cause mortality within 30 days.  Nine patients were randomized to placebo group and 8 patients were randomized to ALA group. SOFA score was similar at baseline, increased from 4.3 to 6.0 in the placebo group and increased from 3.8 to 4.0 in the ALA group (P=0.36) after 7 days. The 30-day all-cause mortality tended to be lower in the ALA group (3/8, 37.5%) compared to that in the placebo group (7/9, 77.8%, P=0.09).  In our study, ALA use is associated with lower SOFA score increase and lower 30-day all-cause mortality as compared with the placebo group. Although the mortality rate was two-folds higher in placebo group than in ALA group, only borderline statistical difference was evidenced due to the limited patient number. Future studies with larger patient cohort are warranted to validate the role of ALA in critically ill patients with COVID-19.  Pneumonia; COVID-19; SARS-CoV-2 ; -Lipoic acid

title: A study of non-prescription usage of antibiotics in the upper respiratory tract infections in the urban population

title: Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors Usage is Associated with Improved Inflammatory Status and Clinical Outcomes in COVID-19 Patients With Hypertension
abstract: With the capability of inducing elevated expression of ACE2, the cellular receptor for SARS-CoV-2, angiotensin II receptor blockers or angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ARBs/ACEIs) treatment may have a controversial role in both facilitating virus infection and reducing pathogenic inflammation. We aimed to evaluate the correlation of ARBs/ACEIs usage with the pathogenesis of COVID-19 in a retrospective, single-center study. 126 COVID-19 patients with preexisting hypertension at Hubei Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine (HPHTCM) in Wuhan from January 5 to February 22, 2020 were retrospectively allocated to ARBs/ACEIs group (n=43) and non-ARBs/ACEIs group (n=83) according to their antihypertensive medication. 125 age- and sex-matched COVID-19 patients without hypertension were randomly selected as non-hypertension controls. In addition, the medication history of 1942 hypertension patients that were admitted to HPHTCM from November 1 to December 31, 2019 before COVID-19 outbreak were also reviewed for external comparison. Epidemiological, demographic, clinical and laboratory data were collected, analyzed and compared between these groups. The frequency of ARBs/ACEIs usage in hypertension patients with or without COVID-19 were comparable. Among COVID-19 patients with hypertension, those received either ARBs/ACEIs or non-ARBs/ACEIs had comparable blood pressure. However, ARBs/ACEIs group had significantly lower concentrations of CRP (p=0.049) and procalcitonin (PCT, p=0.008). Furthermore, much lower proportion of critical patients (9.3% vs 22.9%; p=0.061), and a lower death rate (4.7% vs 13.3%; p=0.216) were observed in ARBs/ACEIs group than non-ARBs/ACEIs group, although these differences failed to reach statistical significance. Our findings thus support the use of ARBs/ACEIs in COVID-19 patients with preexisting hypertension.

title: 2019 Novel-coronavirus: Cardiovascular Insights about Risk Factors, Myocardial Injury, Therapy and Clinical Implications
abstract: From December 31th, 2019, a novel highly pathogenic coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spread worldwide, reaching at present the dimension of a pandemic. In addition to damaging the lungs, SARS-CoV-2 may also damage the heart and this is corroborated by the evidence that cardiovascular comorbidities are associated with a higher mortality and poor clinical outcomes in patient infected by the virus. During the infection myocardial injury, myocarditis and arrhythmias have also been reported, but the pathophysiological mechanisms of these complications are yet to be understood. Great attention is also being posed on the potential beneficial/harmful role of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, as far as the virus binds to angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to infect cells, but evidences lack. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 can also affect the aspect of acute coronary syndromes, not only because these two distinct pathological entities share pathogenic aspects (such as the systemic inflammatory state and cytokine release), but also and above all for the consequences that the need to contain the infection has on the management of cardiological urgencies. Aim of this review is therefore to summarize the relationship between the virus and the cardiovascular system.

title: COVID-19 infection: the perspectives on immune responses

title: The impact of the interferon-lambda family on the innate and adaptive immune response to viral infections
abstract: Type-III interferons (IFN-λ, IFNL) are the most recently described family of IFNs. This family of innate cytokines are increasingly being ascribed pivotal roles in host–pathogen interactions. Herein, we will review the accumulating evidence detailing the immune biology of IFNL during viral infection, and the implications of this novel information on means to advance the development of therapies and vaccines against existing and emerging pathogens. IFNLs exert antiviral effects via induction of IFN-stimulated genes. Common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IFNL3, IFNL4 and the IFNL receptor α-subunit genes have been strongly associated with IFN-α-based treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection. The clinical impact of these SNPs may be dependent on the status of viral infection (acute or chronic) and the potential to develop viral resistance. Another important function of IFNLs is macrophage and dendritic cell polarization, which prime helper T-cell activation and proliferation. It has been demonstrated that IFNL increase Th1- and reduce Th2-cytokines. Therefore, can such SNPs affect the IFNL signaling and thereby modulate the Th1/Th2 balance during infection? In turn, this may influence the subsequent priming of cytotoxic T cells versus antibody-secreting B cells, with implications for the breadth and durability of the host response.

title: COVID-19 Hyperinflammation: What about Neutrophils?
abstract: COVID-19 is often related to hyperinflammation that drives lung or multiorgan injury. The immunopathological mechanisms that cause excessive inflammation are under investigation and constantly updated. Here, a gene network approach was used on recently published data sets to identify possible COVID-19 inflammatory mechanisms and bioactive genes. First, network analysis of putative SARS-CoV-2 cellular receptors led to the mining of a neutrophil-response signature and relevant inflammatory genes. Second, analysis of RNA-seq data sets of lung cells infected with SARS-CoV-2 revealed that infected cells expressed neutrophil-attracting chemokines. Third, analysis of RNA-seq data sets of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cells from COVID-19 patients identified upregulation of neutrophil genes and chemokines. Different inflammatory genes mined here, including TNFR, IL-8, CXCR1, CXCR2, ADAM10, GPR84, MME, ANPEP, and LAP3, might be druggable targets in efforts to limit SARS-CoV-2 inflammation in severe clinical cases. The possible role of neutrophils in COVID-19 inflammation needs to be studied further.

title: SFED recommendations for IBD endoscopy during COVID-19 pandemic: Italian and French experience
abstract: The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has required a complete change in the management of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) who need to undergo endoscopic procedures. Several preventive measures must be taken to avoid the spread of infection among health-care professionals and patients with IBD, including the use of personal protective equipment, greater attention to endoscopic room hygiene and rescheduling of non-urgent procedures. This Perspective aims to provide a guide based on the Italian and French experience to better face the difficulties encountered by endoscopists during this global health emergency. In particular, recommendations regarding the use of personal protective equipment to prevent COVID-19 transmission, both for patients and health-care professionals, are proposed and different scenarios in endoscopic IBD management are evaluated to suggest when endoscopy could be rescheduled and replaced by alternative biomarkers.

title: Release of sVEGF and sVEGFR1 from White Blood Cells and Platelets During Surgery and Stimulation with Bacterial Antigens
abstract: The influence of surgery on release of soluble vascular endothelial growth factor (sVEGF) and the soluble vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitory receptor 1 (sVEGFR1) is unknown. We studied the effect of major and minor surgery on potential variations in sVEGF and sVEGFR1 concentrations in vivo and on bacterial antigen‐induced release of sVEGF and sVEGFR1 from whole blood in vitro.  Sixty‐one patients with abdominal diseases undergoing five different surgical procedures were included. Blood samples were drawn from anaesthetized patients before and after the operation. White blood cells and platelets were counted, and plasma sVEGF and sVEGFR1 was determined by an ELISA method. Whole blood from each blood sample was stimulated in vitro with bacteria‐derived antigens (LPS or protein‐A) and sVEGF and sVEGFR1 levels were subsequently determined in the supernatants. Stimulation with isotonic saline served as control assay.  Neither sVEGF or sVEGFR1 in plasma changed during surgery. In vitro stimulation of blood samples with bacteria‐derived antigens resulted in a significant increase in sVEGF (P < 0.0001) and a less pronounced but still significant increase in sVEGFR1. Release of sVEGF due to stimulation was significantly higher after the operation (nonsignificant), whereas sVEGFR1 release remained largely unchanged after surgery. Correlation between bacterial antigen‐induced release of sVEGF and neutrophile cell count was highly significant (P < 0.0001). There was no correlation between sVEGF and platelet cell count, and bacterial antigen‐induced sVEGFR1 release did not correlate with counts of neutrophils and platelets.  Plasma sVEGF and sVEGFR1 concentrations did not change during surgery. In vitro bacterial stimulation led to increased release of sVEGF and sVEGFR1, which was not significantly amplified during surgery and which may be related to number of circulating neutrophils.

title: SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 susceptibility and lung inflammatory storm by smoking and vaping
abstract: The current pandemic of COVID-19 has caused severe morbidity and mortality across the globe. People with a smoking history have severe disease outcomes by COVID-19 infection. Epidemiological studies show that old age and pre-existing disease conditions (hypertension and diabetes) result in severe disease outcome and mortality amongst COVID-19 patients. Evidences suggest that the S1 domain of the SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of COVID-19) membrane spike has a high affinity towards the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor found on the host’s lung epithelium. Likewise, TMPRSS2 protease has been shown to be crucial for viral activation thus facilitating the viral engulfment. The viral entry has been shown to cause ‘cytokine storm’ involving excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines including IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-7, IP-10, MCP-3 or GM-CSF, which is augmented by smoking. Future research could target these inflammatory-immunological responses to develop effective therapy for COVID-19. This mini-review provides a consolidated account on the role of inflammation and immune responses, proteases, and epithelial permeability by smoking and vaping during SARS-CoV2 infection with future directions of research, and provides a list of the potential targets for therapies particularly controlling cytokine storms in the lung.

title: Coronavirus research before 2020 is more relevant than ever, especially when interpreted for COVID-19
abstract: The speed with which biomedical researchers were able to identify and characterise COVID-19 was clearly due to prior research with other coronaviruses. Early epidemiological comparisons with two previous coronaviruses, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), also made it easier to predict COVID-19's likely spread and lethality. This article assesses whether academic interest in prior coronavirus research has translated into interest in the primary source material, using Mendeley reader counts for early academic impact evidence. The results confirm that SARS and MERS research 2008-2017 experienced anomalously high increases in Mendeley readers in April-May 2020. Nevertheless, studies learning COVID-19 lessons from SARS and MERS or using them as a benchmark for COVID-19 have generated much more academic interest than primary studies of SARS or MERS. Thus, research that interprets prior relevant research for new diseases when they are discovered seems to be particularly important to help researchers to understand its implications in the new context.

title: Clinical and pathological investigation of patients with severe COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has become a pandemic. This study addresses the clinical and immunopathological characteristics of severe COVID-19.  Sixty-nine patients with COVID-19 were classified into severe and nonsevere groups to analyze their clinical and laboratory characteristics. A panel of blood cytokines was quantified over time. Biopsy specimens from 2 deceased cases were obtained for immunopathological, ultrastructural, and in situ hybridization examinations.  Circulating cytokines, including IL-8, IL-6, TNF-&#945;, IP10, MCP1, and RANTES, were significantly elevated in patients with severe COVID-19. Dynamic IL-6 and IL-8 were associated with disease progression. SARS-CoV-2 was demonstrated to infect type II and type I pneumocytes and endothelial cells, leading to severe lung damage through cell pyroptosis and apoptosis. In severe cases, lymphopenia, neutrophilia, depletion of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, and massive macrophage and neutrophil infiltrates were observed in both blood and lung tissues.  A panel of circulating cytokines could be used to predict disease deterioration and inform clinical interventions. Severe pulmonary damage was predominantly attributed to both cytopathy caused by SARS-CoV-2 and immunopathologic damage. Strategies that prohibit pulmonary recruitment and overactivation of inflammatory cells by suppressing cytokine storm might improve the outcomes of patients with severe COVID-19.

title: COVID 19: a clue from innate immunity
abstract: The recent COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on our lives and has rapidly expanded to reach more than 4 million cases worldwide by May 2020. These cases are characterized by extreme variability, from a mild or asymptomatic form lasting for a few days up to severe forms of interstitial pneumonia that may require ventilatory therapy and can lead to patient death. Several hypotheses have been drawn up to understand the role of the interaction between the infectious agent and the immune system in the development of the disease and the most severe forms; the role of the cytokine storm seems important. Innate immunity, as one of the first elements of guest interaction with different infectious agents, could play an important role in the development of the cytokine storm and be responsible for boosting more severe forms. Therefore, it seems important to study also this important arm of the immune system to adequately understand the pathogenesis of the disease. Research on this topic is also needed to develop therapeutic strategies for treatment of this disease.

title: Role of viruses in asthma
abstract: Respiratory viral infections are the most important triggers of asthma exacerbations. Rhinovirus (RV), the common cold virus, is clearly the most prevalent pathogen constantly circulating in the community. This virus also stands out from other viral factors due to its large diversity (about 170 genotypes), very effective replication, a tendency to create Th2-biased inflammatory environment and association with specific risk genes in people predisposed to asthma development (CDHR3). Decreased interferon responses, disrupted airway epithelial barrier, environmental exposures (including biased airway microbiome), and nutritional deficiencies (low in vitamin D and fish oil) increase risk to RV and other virus infections. It is intensively debated whether viral illnesses actually cause asthma. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading causative agent of bronchiolitis, whereas RV starts to dominate after 1 year of age. Breathing difficulty induced by either of these viruses is associated with later asthma, but the risk is higher for those who suffer from severe RV-induced wheezing. The asthma development associated with these viruses has unique mechanisms, but in general, RV is a risk factor for later atopic asthma, whereas RSV is more likely associated with later non-atopic asthma. Treatments that inhibit inflammation (corticosteroids, omalizumab) effectively decrease RV-induced wheezing and asthma exacerbations. The anti-RSV monoclonal antibody, palivizumab, decreases the risk of severe RSV illness and subsequent recurrent wheeze. A better understanding of personal and environmental risk factors and inflammatory mechanisms leading to asthma is crucial in developing new strategies for the prevention and treatment of asthma.

title: Is Hypertension a Real Risk Factor for Poor Prognosis in the COVID-19 Pandemic?
abstract: There is increasing evidence indicating an association between several risk factors and worse prognosis in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), including older age, hypertension, heart failure, diabetes, and pulmonary disease. Hypertension is of particular interest because it is common in adults and there are concerns related to the use of renin-angiotensin system (RAS) inhibitors in patients with hypertension infected with COVID-19. Levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a protein that facilitates entry of coronavirus into cells, may increase in patients using RAS inhibitors. Thus, chronic use of RAS inhibition could potentially lead to a more severe and fatal form of COVID-19. In this review, we provide a critical review to the following questions: (1) Does hypertension influence immunity or ACE2 expression favoring viral infections? (2) Are the risks of complications in hypertension mediated by its treatment? (3) Is aging a major factor associated with worse prognosis in patients with COVID-19 and hypertension?  Despite the potential involvement of immune responses in the pathogenesis of hypertension, there is no evidence supporting that hypothesis that hypertension or RAS inhibitors contributes to unfavorable outcomes in viral infections. Future investigations adopting a strict protocol for confirming hypertension status as well as assessing associated comorbidities that may influence outcomes are necessary. From the therapeutic perspective, recombinant ACE2 may serve as a potential therapy, but relevant studies in humans are lacking. Definitive evidence regarding the use of RAS inhibitors in patients with COVID-19 is needed; 5 randomized trials examining this issue are currently underway.  There is no current scientific support for claiming that hypertension or its treatment with RAS inhibitors contribute to unfavorable outcomes in COVID-19.

title: Association of inflammatory markers with the severity of COVID-19: a meta-analysis
abstract: Studies reported associations of inflammatory markers with the severity of COVID-19, but conclusions were inconsistent. We aimed to provide an overview of the association of inflammatory markers with severity of COVID-19.  We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Wanfang and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database until March 20, 2020. Weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were pooled using random or fixed-effects models.  A total of 16 studies comprising of 3962 patients with COVID-19 were included in our analysis. Random-effect results demonstrated that patients with COVID-19 in nonsevere group had lower levels for CRP (WMD = -41.78 mg/l, 95% CI = [-52.43, -31.13], P < 0.001), PCT (WMD = -0.13 ng/ml, 95% CI = [-0.20, -0.05], P < 0.001), IL-6 (WMD = -21.32 ng/l, 95% CI = [-28.34, -14.31], P < 0.001), ESR (WMD = −8 mm/h, 95% CI = [-14, -2], P = 0.005), SAA (WMD = -43.35 μg/ml, 95% CI = [-80.85, -5.85], P = 0.020) and serum ferritin (WMD = -398.80 mg/l, 95% CI = [-625.89, -171.71], P < 0.001), compared with those in severe group. Moreover, survivors had a lower level for IL-6 than non-survivors (WMD = -4.80 ng/ml, 95% CI = [-5.87, -3.73], P < 0.001). These results were consistent through sensitivity analysis and publication bias assessment.  The meta-analysis highlights the association of inflammatory markers with the severity of COVID-19. Measurement of inflammatory markers might assist clinicians to monitor and evaluate the severity and prognosis of COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 and pneumonia: a role for the uPA/uPAR system
abstract: Here, we highlight recent findings on the urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA)/uPA receptor (uPAR) system that suggest its potential role as a main orchestrator of fatal progression to pulmonary, kidney, and heart failure in patients with coronavirus. Patients with prolonged background inflammation can present with aberrant inflammatory reactions, well recognized as the main factors that can result in death and probably sustained by a dysregulated uPA/uPAR system. SuPAR, the soluble form of uPAR, represents a biomarker of disease progression, and its levels correlate well with comorbidities associated with the death of patients with coronavirus. New drugs that regulate the uPA/uPAR system could help treat the severe complications of highly pathogenic human coronaviruses (hCoVs), including pandemic coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19).

title: Glial response during cuprizone-induced de- and remyelination in the CNS: lessons learned
abstract: Although astrogliosis and microglia activation are characteristic features of multiple sclerosis (MS) and other central nervous system (CNS) lesions the exact functions of these events are not fully understood. Animal models help to understand the complex interplay between the different cell types of the CNS and uncover general mechanisms of damage and repair of myelin sheaths. The so called cuprizone model is a toxic model of demyelination in the CNS white and gray matter, which lacks an autoimmune component. Cuprizone induces apoptosis of mature oligodendrocytes that leads to a robust demyelination and profound activation of both astrocytes and microglia with regional heterogeneity between different white and gray matter regions. Although not suitable to study autoimmune mediated demyelination, this model is extremely helpful to elucidate basic cellular and molecular mechanisms during de- and particularly remyelination independently of interactions with peripheral immune cells. Phagocytosis and removal of damaged myelin seems to be one of the major roles of microglia in this model and it is well known that removal of myelin debris is a prerequisite of successful remyelination. Furthermore, microglia provide several signals that support remyelination. The role of astrocytes during de- and remyelination is not well defined. Both supportive and destructive functions have been suggested. Using the cuprizone model we could demonstrate that there is an important crosstalk between astrocytes and microglia. In this review we focus on the role of glial reactions and interaction in the cuprizone model. Advantages and limitations of as well as its potential therapeutic relevance for the human disease MS are critically discussed in comparison to other animal models.

title: Current strategies against COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) recently was declared a pandemic by world health organization (WHO) Due to sudden outbreaks, currently, no completely effective vaccine or drug is clinically approved. Several therapeutic strategies can be envisaged to prevent further mortality and morbidity. Based on the past contribution of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) and immune-based therapies as a treatment option in crucial pathogen outbreaks, we aimed to summarize potential therapeutic strategies that could be helpful to stop further spread of SARS-CoV-2 by effecting its structural components or modulation of immune responses. Several TCM with or without modification could be effective against the structural protein, enzymes, and nucleic acid should be tested from available libraries or to identify their immune-stimulatory activities to enhance several antiviral biological agents for effective elimination of SARS-CoV-2 from the host. TCM is not only effective in the direct inhibition of virus attachment and internalization in a cell but can also prevent their replication and can also help to boost up host immune response. Immune-modulatory effects of TCMs may lead to new medications and can guide us for the scientific validity of drug development. Besides, we also summarized the effective therapies in clinical for controlling inflammation. This review will be not only helpful for the current situation of COVID-19, but can also play a major role in such epidemics in the future.

title: Can Vitamins, as Epigenetic Modifiers, Enhance Immunity in COVID-19 Patients with Non-communicable Disease?
abstract: The highly infectious transmissible disease, the novel SARS-CoV-2, causing the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), has a median incubation time of 5 to 15 days. The symptoms vary from person to person and many are “hidden carriers.” Few people experience immediate reaction and even death within 48 h of infection. However, many show mild to chronic symptoms and recover. Nevertheless, the death rate due to COVID-19 transmission is high especially among patients with non-communicable diseases. The purpose of this review is to provide evidence to consider vitamins as epigenetic modifiers to enhance immunity and reduce inflammatory response in COVID-19 patients with non-communicable diseases.  Clinical evidence has suggested the risk of getting infected is high among individuals with non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type-2 diabetes, cancer, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and renal disease, as well as the elderly with high mortality rate among the cohort. The impact is due to an already compromised immune system of patients. Every patient has a different response to COVID-19, which shows that the ability to combat the deadly virus varies individually. Thus, treatment can be personalized and adjusted to help protect and combat COVID-19 infections, especially in individuals with non-communicable diseases.  Based on current published scientific and medical evidence, the suggestions made in this article for combination of vitamin therapy as epigenetic modifiers to control the unregulated inflammatory and cytokine marker expressions, further needs to be clinically proven. Future research and clinical trials can apply the suggestions given in this article to support metabolic activities in patients and enhance the immune response.

title: SARS-CoV-2 Infection and High-Risk Non-Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer: Are There Any Common Features?
abstract: The new severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-2) outbreak is a huge health, social and economic issue and has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. Bladder cancer, on the contrary, is a well-known disease burdened by a high rate of affected patients and risk of recurrence, progression and death.  The coronavirus disease (COVID-19 or 2019-nCoV) often involves mild clinical symptoms but in some cases, it can lead to pneumonia with acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiorgan dysfunction. Factors associated with developing a more severe disease are increased age, obesity, smoking and chronic underlying comorbidities (including diabetes mellitus). High-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) progression and worse prognosis are also characterized by a higher incidence in patients with risk factors similar to COVID-19. Immune system response and inflammation have been found as a common hallmark of both diseases. Most severe cases of COVID-19 and high-risk NMIBC patients at higher recurrence and progression risk are characterized by innate and adaptive immune activation followed by inflammation and cytokine/chemokine storm (interleukin [IL]-2, IL-6, IL-8). Alterations in neutrophils, lymphocytes and platelets accompany the systemic inflammatory response to cancer and infections. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio for example have been recognized as factors related to poor prognosis for many solid tumors, including bladder cancer, and their role has been found important even for the prognosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection.  All these mechanisms should be further analyzed in order to find new therapeutic agents and new strategies to block infection and cancer progression. Further than commonly used therapies, controlling cytokine production and inflammatory response is a promising field.

title: Edaravone: A potential treatment for the COVID-19-induced inflammatory syndrome?

title: Manipulation of acute inflammatory lung disease
abstract: Inflammatory lung disease to innocuous antigens or infectious pathogens is a common occurrence and in some cases, life threatening. Often, the inflammatory infiltrate that accompanies these events contributes to pathology by deleterious effects on otherwise healthy tissue and by compromising lung function by consolidating (blocking) the airspaces. A fine balance, therefore, exists between a lung immune response and immune-mediated damage, and in some the “threshold of ignorance” may be set too low. In most cases, the contributing, potentially offending, cell population or immune pathway is known, as are factors that regulate them. Why then are targeted therapeutic strategies to manipulate them not more commonplace in clinical medicine? This review highlights immune homeostasis in the lung, how and why this is lost during acute lung infection, and strategies showing promise as future immune therapeutics.  The online version of this article (doi:10.1038/mi.2008.16) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

title: COVID-19 diagnostics in context.
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has highlighted the need for different types of diagnostics, comparative validation of new tests, faster approval by federal agencies, and rapid production of test kits to meet global demands. In this Perspective, we discuss the utility and challenges of current diagnostics for COVID-19.

title: The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): The Perspectives of clinical immunologists from China
abstract: The pandemic outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is rapidly spreading all over the world. Reports from China showed that about 20% of patients developed severe disease, resulting in a fatality of 4%. In the past two months, we clinical immunologists participated in multi-rounds of MDT (multidiscipline team) discussion on the anti-inflammation management of critical COVID-19 patients, with our colleagues dispatched from Chinese leading PUMC Hospital to Wuhan to admit and treat the most severe patients. Here, from the perspective of clinical immunologists, we will discuss the clinical and immunological characteristics of severe patients, and summarize the current evidence and share our experience in anti-inflammation treatment, including glucocorticoids, IL-6 antagonist, JAK inhibitors and choloroquine/hydrocholoroquine, of patients with severe COVID-19 that may have an impaired immune system.

title: Elevated troponin in patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): possible mechanisms
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic that has affected more than 1.8 million people worldwide, overwhelmed health care systems due to the high proportion of critical presentations, and resulted in over 100,000 deaths. Since the first data analyses in China, elevated cardiac troponin has been noted in a substantial proportion of patients, implicating myocardial injury as a possible pathogenic mechanism contributing to severe illness and mortality. Accordingly, high troponin levels are associated with increased mortality in patients with COVID-19. This brief review explores the available evidence regarding the association between COVID-19 and myocardial injury.

title: Interleukin-6 in COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
abstract: Coronaviruses may activate dysregulated host immune responses. As exploratory studies have suggested that interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels are elevated in cases of complicated COVID-19 and that the anti-IL-6 biologic tocilizumab may be beneficial, we undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the evidence in this field.  We systematically searched MEDLINE and EMBASE for studies investigating the immunological response in COVID-19 or its treatment with tocilizumab; additional grey literature searches were undertaken. Meta-analysis was undertaken using random effects models.  Eight published studies, three pre-prints, and five registered trials were eligible. Meta-analysis of mean IL-6 concentrations demonstrated 2.9-fold higher levels in patients with complicated COVID-19 compared with patients with non-complicated disease (six studies; n=1302; 95%CI, 1.17-7.19; I2=100%). A single non-randomized, single-arm study assessed tocilizumab in patients with severe COVID-19, demonstrating decreased oxygen requirements, resolution of radiographic abnormalities, and clinical improvement. No adverse events or deaths were observed.  In patients with COVID-19, IL-6 levels are significantly elevated and associated with adverse clinical outcomes. While inhibition of IL-6 with tocilizumab appears to be efficacious and safe in preliminary investigation, the results of several ongoing clinical trials should be awaited to better define the role of tocilizumab in COVID-19 prior to routine clinical application.

title: The course of Covid 19 in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: protective role of TNF antagonists Response to: Corticosteroids, but not TNF Antagonists, are Associated with Adverse COVID-19 Outcomes in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Results from an International Registry

title: The association of race and COVID-19 mortality
abstract: COVID-19 mortality disproportionately affects the Black population in the United States (US). To explore this association a cohort study was undertaken.  We assembled a cohort of 505,992 patients receiving ambulatory care at Bronx Montefiore Health System (BMHS) between 1/1/18 and 1/1/20 to evaluate the relative risk of hospitalization and death in two time-periods, the pre-COVID time-period (1/1/20–2/15/20) and COVID time-period (3/1/20–4/15/20). COVID testing, hospitalization and mortality were determined with the Black and Hispanic patient population compared separately to the White population using logistic modeling. Evaluation of the interaction of pre-COVID and COVID time periods and race, with respect to mortality was completed.  A total of 9,286/505,992 (1.8%) patients were hospitalized during either or both pre-COVID or COVID periods. Compared to Whites the relative risk of hospitalization of Black patients did not increase in the COVID period (p for interaction=0.12). In the pre- COVID period, compared to Whites, the odds of death for Blacks and Hispanics adjusted for comorbidity was statistically equivalent. In the COVID period compared to Whites the adjusted odds of death for Blacks was 1.6 (95% CI 1.2–2.0, p = 0.001). There was a significant increase in Black mortality risk from pre-COVID to COVID periods (p for interaction=0.02). Adjustment for relevant clinical and social indices attenuated but did not fully explain the observed difference in Black mortality.  The BMHS COVID experience demonstrates that Blacks do have a higher mortality with COVID incompletely explained by age, multiple reported comorbidities and available metrics of sociodemographic disparity.

title: Comparison of the COVID-2019 (SARS-CoV-2) pathogenesis with SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first identified in several patients who traveled to Wuhan or went to a seafood wholesale market in Wuhan. The phylogenetic tree showed that SARS-CoV-2 was 96.2% identical to bat β-coronaviruses from lineage B. Also, several studies reported that SARS-CoV-2 uses the SARS-CoV receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, for entry to target cells. Lung alveolar and small intestine are potential targets for SARS-CoV-2 due to the high expression of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor. In this review, we focused on the zoonotic β-coronaviruses and given there is no specific drug or vaccine for coronavirus disease 2019, we reviewed the literature on the therapy options for SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection, in order to discover their possible use in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infections.

title: The cytokine storm of severe influenza and development of immunomodulatory therapy
abstract: Severe influenza remains unusual in its virulence for humans. Complications or ultimately death arising from these infections are often associated with hyperinduction of proinflammatory cytokine production, which is also known as ‘cytokine storm'. For this disease, it has been proposed that immunomodulatory therapy may improve the outcome, with or without the combination of antiviral agents. Here, we review the current literature on how various effectors of the immune system initiate the cytokine storm and exacerbate pathological damage in hosts. We also review some of the current immunomodulatory strategies for the treatment of cytokine storms in severe influenza, including corticosteroids, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists, sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 agonists, cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors, antioxidants, anti-tumour-necrosis factor therapy, intravenous immunoglobulin therapy, statins, arbidol, herbs, and other potential therapeutic strategies.

title: The COVID-19 Cytokine Storm; What We Know So Far
abstract: COVID-19 is a rapidly spreading global threat that has been declared as a pandemic by the WHO. COVID-19 is transmitted via droplets or direct contact and infects the respiratory tract resulting in pneumonia in most of the cases and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in about 15 % of the cases. Mortality in COVID-19 patients has been linked to the presence of the so-called “cytokine storm” induced by the virus. Excessive production of proinflammatory cytokines leads to ARDS aggravation and widespread tissue damage resulting in multi-organ failure and death. Targeting cytokines during the management of COVID-19 patients could improve survival rates and reduce mortality.

title: Smell and taste symptom‐based predictive model for COVID‐19 diagnosis
abstract: The presentation of COVID‐19 overlaps with common influenza symptoms. There is limited data on whether a specific symptom or collection of symptoms may be useful to predict test positivity.  An anonymous electronic survey was publicized through social media to query participants with COVID‐19 testing. Respondents were questioned regarding 10 presenting symptoms, demographic information, comorbidities and COVID‐19 test results. Stepwise logistic regression was used to identify predictors for COVID positivity. Selected classifiers were assessed for prediction performance using receiver operating characteristic analysis (ROC).  One‐hundred and forty‐five participants with positive COVID‐19 testing and 157 with negative results were included. Participants had a mean age of 39 years, and 214 (72%) were female. Smell or taste change, fever, and body ache were associated with COVID‐19 positivity, and shortness of breath and sore throat were associated with a negative test result (p<0.05). A model using all 5 diagnostic symptoms had the highest accuracy with a predictive ability of 82% in discriminating between COVID‐19 results. To maximize sensitivity and maintain fair diagnostic accuracy, a combination of 2 symptoms, change in sense of smell or taste and fever was found to have a sensitivity of 70% and overall discrimination accuracy of 75%.  Smell or taste change is a strong predictor for a COVID‐19 positive test result. Using the presence of smell or taste change with fever, this parsimonious classifier correctly predicts 75% of COVID‐19 test results. A larger cohort of respondents will be necessary to refine classifier performance. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

title: Multi-System Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Review of Clinical Presentation, Hypothetical Pathogenesis, and Proposed Management
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection may result in the multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) The clinical presentation of MIS-C includes fever, severe illness, and the involvement of two or more organ systems, in combination with laboratory evidence of inflammation and laboratory or epidemiologic evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection Some features of MIS-C resemble Kawasaki Disease, toxic shock syndrome, and secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis/macrophage activation syndrome The relationship of MIS-C to SARS-CoV-2 infection suggests that the pathogenesis involves post-infectious immune dysregulation Patients with MIS-C should ideally be managed in a pediatric intensive care environment since rapid clinical deterioration may occur Specific immunomodulatory therapy depends on the clinical presentation The relationship between the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in development and MIS-C requires further study

title: Emergence of Low-density Inflammatory Neutrophils Correlates with Hypercoagulable State and Disease Severity in COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel viral pathogen that causes a clinical disease called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Approximately 20% of infected patients experience a severe manifestation of the disease, causing bilateral pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Severe COVID-19 patients also have a pronounced coagulopathy with approximately 30% of patients experiencing thromboembolic complications. However, the etiology driving the coagulopathy remains unknown. Here, we explore whether the prominent neutrophilia seen in severe COVID-19 patients contributes to inflammation-associated coagulation. We found in severe patients the emergence of a CD16IntCD44lowCD11bInt low-density inflammatory band (LDIB) neutrophil population that trends over time with changes in disease status. These cells demonstrated spontaneous neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation, phagocytic capacity, enhanced cytokine production, and associated clinically with D-dimer and systemic IL-6 and TNF- levels, particularly for CD40+ LDIBs. We conclude that the LDIB subset contributes to COVID-19-associated coagulopathy (CAC) and could be used as an adjunct clinical marker to monitor disease status and progression. Identifying patients who are trending towards LDIB crisis and implementing early, appropriate treatment could improve all-cause mortality rates for severe COVID-19 patients.

title: Repurposing and reshaping of hospitals during the COVID-19 outbreak in South Korea
abstract: During the extensive outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in South Korea, many strategies in the hospital setting, such as stratified patient care, the assignment of hospitals/beds by a task force team, and the establishment of dedicated COVID-19 hospitals, dedicated COVID-19 emergency centers, COVID-19 community facilities, and respiratory care split hospitals, were adopted to mitigate community transmission and prevent nosocomial infection. Most of these strategies were used during the Middle East Respiratory syndrome outbreak and were applied again successfully during the COVID-19 outbreak. The reallocation of health care capacity, repurposing of hospitals, and close collaboration between the government and the health care committee might have been the key to successfully addressing the crisis of COVID-19 given the shortage of health care resources.

title: Type 3 hypersensitivity in COVID-19 vasculitis
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an ongoing public health emergency and new knowledge about its immunopathogenic mechanisms is deemed necessary in the attempt to reduce the death burden around the world. For the first time in worldwide literature, we provide scientific evidence that in COVID-19 vasculitis a life-threatening escalation from type 2 T-helper immune response (humoral immunity) to type 3 hypersensitivity (immune complex disease) takes place. The subsequent deposition of immune complexes inside the vascular walls is supposed to induce a severe inflammatory state and a cytokine release syndrome, whose interleukin-6 is the key myokine, from the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels.

title: Rheumatologists’ perspective on coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) and potential therapeutic targets
abstract: The ongoing pandemic coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a matter of global concern. Environmental factors such as air pollution and smoking and comorbid conditions (hypertension, diabetes mellitus and underlying cardio-respiratory illness) likely increase the severity of COVID-19. Rheumatic manifestations such as arthralgias and arthritis may be prevalent in about a seventh of individuals. COVID-19 can result in acute interstitial pneumonia, myocarditis, leucopenia (with lymphopenia) and thrombocytopenia, also seen in rheumatic diseases like lupus and Sjogren’s syndrome. Severe disease in a subset of patients may be driven by cytokine storm, possibly due to secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), akin to that in systemic onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis or adult-onset Still’s disease. In the absence of high-quality evidence in this emerging disease, understanding of pathogenesis may help postulate potential therapies. Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) appears important for viral entry into pneumocytes; dysbalance in ACE2 as caused by ACE inhibitors or ibuprofen may predispose to severe disease. Preliminary evidence suggests potential benefit with chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine. Antiviral drugs like lopinavir/ritonavir, favipiravir and remdesivir are also being explored. Cytokine storm and secondary HLH might require heightened immunosuppressive regimens. Current international society recommendations suggest that patients with rheumatic diseases on immunosuppressive therapy should not stop glucocorticoids during COVID-19 infection, although minimum possible doses may be used. Disease-modifying drugs should be continued; cessation may be considered during infection episodes as per standard practices. Development of a vaccine may be the only effective long-term protection against this disease.

title: Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2), SARS-CoV-2 and pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
abstract: Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) has been established as the functional host receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus responsible for the current devastating worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). ACE2 is abundantly expressed in a variety of cells residing in many different human organs. In human physiology, ACE2 is a pivotal counter-regulatory enzyme to ACE by the breakdown of angiotensin II, the central player in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) and the main substrate of ACE2. Many factors have been associated with both altered ACE2 expression and COVID-19 severity and progression, including age, sex, ethnicity, medication and several co-morbidities, such as cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome. Although ACE2 is widely distributed in various human tissues and many of its determinants have been well recognised, ACE2-expressing organs do not equally participate in COVID-19 pathophysiology, implying that other mechanisms are involved in orchestrating cellular infection resulting in tissue damage. Reports of pathologic findings in tissue specimens of COVID-19 patients are rapidly emerging and confirm the established role of ACE2 expression and activity in disease pathogenesis. Identifying pathologic changes caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection is crucially important as it has major implications for understanding COVID-19 pathophysiology and the development of evidence-based treatment strategies. Currently, many interventional strategies are being explored in ongoing clinical trials, encompassing many drug classes and strategies, including antiviral drugs, biological response modifiers and RAAS inhibitors. Ultimately, prevention is key to combat COVID-19 and appropriate measures are being taken accordingly, including development of effective vaccines. In this review, we describe the role of ACE2 in COVID-19 pathophysiology, including factors influencing ACE2 expression and activity in relation to COVID-19 severity. In addition, we discuss the relevant pathological changes resulting from SARS-CoV-2 infection. Finally, we highlight a selection of potential treatment modalities for COVID-19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Implications of the virus-encoded miRNA and host miRNA in the pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 has rapidly spread worldwide and has caused over 1,400,000 infections and 80,000 deaths. There are currently no drugs or vaccines with proven efficacy for its prevention and little knowledge was known about the pathogenicity mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Previous studies showed both virus and host-derived MicroRNAs (miRNAs) played crucial roles in the pathology of virus infection. In this study, we use computational approaches to scan the SARS-CoV-2 genome for putative miRNAs and predict the virus miRNA targets on virus and human genome as well as the host miRNAs targets on virus genome. Furthermore, we explore miRNAs involved dysregulation caused by the virus infection. Our results implicated that the immune response and cytoskeleton organization are two of the most notable biological processes regulated by the infection-modulated miRNAs. Impressively, we found hsa-miR-4661-3p was predicted to target the S gene of SARS-CoV-2, and a virus-encoded miRNA MR147-3p could enhance the expression of TMPRSS2 with the function of strengthening SARS-CoV-2 infection in the gut. The study may provide important clues for the mechisms of pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2.

title: COVID-19 infection induces readily detectable morphological and inflammation-related phenotypic changes in peripheral blood monocytes, the severity of which correlate with patient outcome
abstract: Excessive monocyte/macrophage activation with the development of a cytokine storm and subsequent acute lung injury, leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a feared consequence of infection with COVID-19. The ability to recognize and potentially intervene early in those patients at greatest risk of developing this complication could be of great clinical utility.  We performed detailed flow cytometric analysis of peripheral blood samples from 28 COVID-19 patients treated at Xian No.8 Hospital and the First Affiliated Hospital of Xian Jiaotong University in early 2020 in an attempt to identify factors that could help predict severity of disease and patient outcome.  While we did not detect significant differences in the number of monocytes between patients with COVID-19 and normal healthy individuals,we did identify significant morphological and functional differences, which are more pronounced in patients requiring prolonged hospitalization and ICU admission. Patients with COVID-19 have larger than normal monocytes, easily identified on forward scatter, side scatter analysis by routine flow cytometry,with the presence of a distinct population of monocytes with high forward scatter (FSC-high). On more detailed analysis, these FSC-high monocytes are CD11b+, CD14+, CD16+, CD68+, CD80+, CD163+, CD206+ and secrete IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-alpha, consistent with an inflammatory phenotype.  The detection and serial monitoring of this subset of inflammatory monocytes using flow cytometry could be of great help in guiding the prognostication and treatment of patients with COVID-19 and merits further evaluation.

title: COVID-19, chronic inflammatory respiratory diseases and eosinophils-Observations from reported clinical case series

title: The hallmarks of COVID-19 disease
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel coronavirus that has caused a worldwide pandemic of the human respiratory illness COVID-19, resulting in a severe threat to public health and safety. Analysis of the genetic tree suggests that SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the same Betacoronavirus group as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Although the route for viral transmission remains a mystery, SARS-CoV-2 may have originated in an animal reservoir, likely that of bat. The clinical features of COVID-19, such as fever, cough, shortness of breath, and fatigue, are similar to those of many acute respiratory infections. There is currently no specific treatment for COVID-19, but antiviral therapy combined with supportive care is the main strategy. Here, we summarize recent progress in understanding the epidemiological, virological, and clinical characteristics of COVID-19 and discuss potential targets with existing drugs for the treatment of this emerging zoonotic disease.

title: Cytokine storm and leukocyte changes in mild versus severe SARS-CoV-2 infection: Review of 3939 COVID-19 patients in China and emerging pathogenesis and therapy concepts
abstract: Clinical evidence indicates that the fatal outcome observed with severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 infection often results from alveolar injury that impedes airway capacity and multi-organ failure-both of which are associated with the hyperproduction of cytokines, also known as a cytokine storm or cytokine release syndrome. Clinical reports show that both mild and severe forms of disease result in changes in circulating leukocyte subsets and cytokine secretion, particularly IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-10, TNF, GM-CSF, IP-10 (IFN-induced protein 10), IL-17, MCP-3, and IL-1ra. Not surprising, therapies that target the immune response and curtail the cytokine storm in coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) patients have become a focus of recent clinical trials. Here we review reports on leukocyte and cytokine data associated with COVID-19 disease in 3939 patients in China and describe emerging data on immunopathology. With an emphasis on immune modulation, we also look at ongoing clinical studies aimed at blocking proinflammatory cytokines; transfer of immunosuppressive mesenchymal stem cells; use of convalescent plasma transfusion; as well as immunoregulatory therapy and traditional Chinese medicine regimes. In examining leukocyte and cytokine activity in COVID-19, we focus in particular on how these levels are altered as the disease progresses (neutrophil NETosis, macrophage, T cell response, etc.) and proposed consequences to organ pathology (coagulopathy, etc.). Viral and host interactions are described to gain further insight into leukocyte biology and how dysregulated cytokine responses lead to disease and/or organ damage. By better understanding the mechanisms that drive the intensity of a cytokine storm, we can tailor treatment strategies at specific disease stages and improve our response to this worldwide public health threat.

title: Recommendations for coronavirus infection in rheumatic diseases treated with biologic therapy
abstract: The Coronavirus-associated disease, that was first identified in 2019 in China (CoViD-19), is a pandemic caused by a bat-derived beta-coronavirus, named SARS-CoV2. It shares homology with SARS and MERS-CoV, responsible for past outbreaks in China and in Middle East. SARS-CoV2 spread from China where the first infections were described in December 2019 and is responsible for the respiratory symptoms that can lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome. A cytokine storm has been shown in patients who develop fatal complications, as observed in past coronavirus infections. The management includes ventilatory support and broad-spectrum antiviral drugs, empirically utilized, as a targeted therapy and vaccines have not been developed. Based upon our limited knowledge on the pathogenesis of CoViD-19, a potential role of some anti-rheumatic drugs may be hypothesized, acting as direct antivirals or targeting host immune response. Antimalarial drugs, commonly used in rheumatology, may alter the lysosomal proteases that mediates the viral entry into the cell and have demonstrated efficacy in improving the infection. Anti-IL-1 and anti-IL-6 may interfere with the cytokine storm in severe cases and use of tocilizumab has shown good outcomes in a small cohort. Baricitinib has both antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. Checkpoints inhibitors such as anti-CD200 and anti-PD1 could have a role in the treatment of CoViD-19. Rheumatic disease patients taking immunosuppressive drugs should be recommended to maintain the chronic therapy, prevent infection by avoiding social contacts and pausing immunosuppressants in case of infection. National and international registries are being created to collect data on rheumatic patients with CoViD-19.

title: Guillain Barre syndrome associated with COVID-19 infection: A case report
abstract: Novel outbreak with coronavirus 2019 began since 31 December 2019. Coronaviruses can cause multiple systemic infections that respiratory complications are the most obvious symptoms. In this report, we describe the symptoms of Guillain Barre syndrome (GBS) in one infected patient with COVID-19, for the first time. We reported a 65-years- old male patient with complaints of acute progressive symmetric ascending quadriparesis. Two weeks prior to hospitalization, the patient suffered from cough, fever, and RT-PCR was reported positive for COVID-19 infection. The electrodiagnostic test showed that the patient is an AMSAN variant of GBS. COVID-19 stimulates inflammatory cells and produces various inflammatory cytokines and as a result, it creates immune-mediated processes. GBS is an immune-mediated disorder and molecular mimicry as a mechanism of autoimmune disorder plays an important role in creating it. It is unclear whether COVID-19 induces the production of antibodies against specific gangliosides. Further investigations should be conducted about the mechanism of GBS in patients with COVID-19, in the future.

title: Evolution of COVID‐19 infection in 4 psoriatic patients treated with biological drugs
abstract: Since December 2019, the pandemic coronavirus disease (2019‐nCoV; COVID‐19) has changed the approach to all dermatological diseases; in particular, psoriatic patients undergoing immunosuppressive drugs, such as biologics, can potentially show an increase risk of infection (1). However, few reports are available on the course of COVID‐19 infection in psoriatic patients treated with biological drugs (2). We describe a case series of four psoriatic patients treated with biologics who had a risk contact with COVID‐19.

title: Critically ill SARS-CoV-2 patients display lupus-like hallmarks of extrafollicular B cell activation
abstract: Wide heterogeneity of disease course ranging from asymptomatic spread to respiratory failure and death has become a hallmark of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. While this clinical spectrum is well documented, its immunologic underpinnings are less clear. We have therefore, initiated studies of the B cell responses as they would participate in both early effector responses and in the initiation of memory formation. In terms of effector responses, we were particularly interested in the engagement and clinical correlates of the extra-follicular pathway (EF), we recently described in flaring SLE. In this systemic autoimmune disease, the EF pathway is initiated by newly activated naive B cell (aN) leading to large expansion of autoantibody-producing antibody-secreting cells through the generation of an epigenetically primed B cell precursor which are double negative (DN) for naive (IgD) and memory markers (CD27) and lacking expression of CXCR5 and CD21 (DN2). These highly activated D2 cells are also distinguished by high expression of CD11c and T-bet and are TLR7-driven. Both, TLR7-stimulation which is triggered by ssRNA and the central role played by their murine counterparts (typically characterized as Age-Associated B cells), in viral clearance, strongly supported the hypothesis that DN2 cells and the global EF pathway could be prominently engaged in COVID-19 patients. Also of note, EF B cell activation is particularly prominent in SLE patients of African-American ancestry, a population disproportionately represented in severe COVID-19. In this study we find that critically-ill patients with COVID-19 robustly upregulate constituents of the extrafollicular pathway, produce enormous numbers of antibody secreting cells, and lose unique transitional B cell populations that correlate with positive prognosis. This patient cluster associates tightly with biomarkers of poor outcomes and exhibits high rates of mortality. Thus, this B cell phenotype might serve as an immunological marker of severe COVID infection at early stages and could therefore identify a patient subset likely to benefit from targeted immunomodulatory therapy aimed at alleviating disease burden.

title: Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2: SARS-CoV-2 Receptor and Regulator of the Renin-Angiotensin System: Celebrating the 20th Anniversary of the Discovery of ACE2
abstract: ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) has a multiplicity of physiological roles that revolve around its trivalent function: a negative regulator of the renin-angiotensin system, facilitator of amino acid transport, and the severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2 receptor. ACE2 is widely expressed, including, in the lungs, cardiovascular system, gut, kidneys, central nervous system, and adipose tissue. ACE2 has recently been identified as the SARS-CoV-2 receptor, the infective agent responsible for coronavirus disease 2019, providing a critical link between immunity, inflammation, ACE2, and cardiovascular disease. Although sharing a close evolutionary relationship with SARS-CoV, the receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 differs in several key amino acid residues, allowing for stronger binding affinity with the human ACE2 receptor, which may account for the greater pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2. The loss of ACE2 function following binding by SARS-CoV-2 is driven by endocytosis and activation of proteolytic cleavage and processing. The ACE2 system is a critical protective pathway against heart failure with reduced and preserved ejection fraction including, myocardial infarction and hypertension, and against lung disease and diabetes mellitus. The control of gut dysbiosis and vascular permeability by ACE2 has emerged as an essential mechanism of pulmonary hypertension and diabetic cardiovascular complications. Recombinant ACE2, gene-delivery of Ace2, Ang 1–7 analogs, and Mas receptor agonists enhance ACE2 action and serve as potential therapies for disease conditions associated with an activated renin-angiotensin system. rhACE2 (recombinant human ACE2) has completed clinical trials and efficiently lowered or increased plasma angiotensin II and angiotensin 1-7 levels, respectively. Our review summarizes the progress over the past 20 years, highlighting the critical role of ACE2 as the novel SARS-CoV-2 receptor and as the negative regulator of the renin-angiotensin system, together with implications for the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and associated cardiovascular diseases.

title: COVID-19 and Mesenchymal Stem Cell Treatment; Mystery or Not
abstract: On December 31, 2019, novel SARS-CoV2 spread from Wuhan China to more than 200 territories around world and the World Health Organization declared a COVID-19 pandemic on January 30, 2020. At this time there is no particular therapy, drug or vaccine available to deal with COVID-19. Today actual data indicates that about 17% of closed COVID-19 cases died. Health care professionals, ministry of health in countries and the public are trying to read the runes to see when the COVID-19 pandemic will be over. Although mild cases of COVID-19 can be controlled with antiviral, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory treatment, severe cases may need intensive care unit support and ventilation. Cytokine storms cause high inflammatory responses and pneumonia in severe cases. Mesenchymal stem cells are immunomodulatory and they have regenerative capacity. In this sense, mesenchymal stem cells may improve the patient's clinical and immunological response to COVID-19.

title: Rational Use of Tocilizumab in the Treatment of Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia
abstract: Since December 2019, a novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) has broken out in Wuhan, China and spread rapidly. Recent studies have found that ⁓ 15.7% of patients develop severe pneumonia, and cytokine storm is an important factor leading to rapid disease progression. Currently, there are no specific drugs for COVID-19 and the cytokine storm it causes. IL-6 is one of the key cytokines involved in infection-induced cytokine storm. Tocilizumab, which is the IL-6 receptor antagonist, has been approved by the US FDA for the treatment of cytokine release syndrome (CRS), is expected to treat cytokine storm caused by COVID-19 and is now in clinical trials. In this paper, we will elaborate the role of cytokine storm in COVID-19, the mechanism of tocilizumab on cytokine storm and the key points of pharmaceutical care based on the actual clinical application for COVID-19 in our hospital, the latest research reports, clinical trial progress of tocilizumab, drug instruction from the US FDA, and “Diagnosis and Treatment Plan of Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia (seventh trial edition)” in China, so as to provide reference for the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Stimulator of IFN genes mediates neuroinflammatory injury by suppressing AMPK signal in experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage
abstract: Neuroinflammation is closely associated with the poor prognosis in subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) patients. This study was aimed to determine the role of stimulator of IFN genes (STING), an essential regulator to innate immunity, in the context of SAH.  A total of 344 male C57BL/6 J mice were subjected to endovascular perforation to develop a model of SAH. Selective STING antagonist C-176 and STING agonist CMA were administered at 30 min or 1 h post-modeling separately. To investigate the underlying mechanism, the AMPK inhibitor compound C was administered intracerebroventricularly at 30 min before surgery. Post-SAH assessments included SAH grade, neurological test, brain water content, western blotting, RT-PCR, and immunofluorescence. Oxygenated hemoglobin was introduced into BV2 cells to establish a SAH model in vitro.  STING was mainly distributed in microglia, and microglial STING expression was significantly increased after SAH. Administration of C-176 substantially attenuated SAH-induced brain edema and neuronal injury. More importantly, C-176 significantly alleviated both short-term and persistent neurological dysfunction after SAH. Meanwhile, STING agonist CMA remarkably exacerbated neuronal injury and deteriorated neurological impairments. Mechanically, STING activation aggravated neuroinflammation via promoting microglial activation and polarizing into M1 phenotype, evidenced by microglial morphological changes, as well as the increased level of microglial M1 markers including IL-1ß, iNOS, IL-6, TNF-&#945;, MCP-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome, while C-176 conferred a robust anti-inflammatory effect. However, all the mentioned beneficial effects of C-176 including alleviated neuroinflammation, attenuated neuronal injury and the improved neurological function were reversed by AMPK inhibitor compound C. Meanwhile, the critical role of AMPK signal in C-176 mediated anti-inflammatory effect was also confirmed in vitro.  Microglial STING yielded neuroinflammation after SAH, while pharmacologic inhibition of STING could attenuate SAH-induced inflammatory injury at least partly by activating AMPK signal. These data supported the notion that STING might be a potential therapeutic target for SAH.

title: Harnessing resolving‐based therapeutics to treat pulmonary viral infections: What can the future offer to COVID‐19?
abstract: Inflammation is generally believed to be a protective response in the context of infectious diseases. However, altered inflammatory responses can contribute to disease in infected individuals. Multiple mediators that drive the resolution of inflammation have been described. Overall, mediators of resolution tend to decrease inflammatory responses and provide normal or greater ability of the host to deal with infection. In the lung, it seems that pro‐resolving molecules or strategies that promote their increase tend to decrease inflammation and lung injury and facilitate control of bacterial or viral burden. Here, we argue that the demonstrated anti‐inflammatory, pro‐resolving, anti‐thrombogenic and anti‐microbial effects of pro‐resolution mediators may be useful in the treatment of the late stages of disease in patients with COVID‐19.

title: A MultiSite Gateway(TM )vector set for the functional analysis of genes in the model Saccharomyces cerevisiae
abstract: Recombinatorial cloning using the Gateway(TM) technology has been the method of choice for high-throughput omics projects, resulting in the availability of entire ORFeomes in Gateway(TM) compatible vectors. The MultiSite Gateway(TM) system allows combining multiple genetic fragments such as promoter, ORF and epitope tag in one single reaction. To date, this technology has not been accessible in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, one of the most widely used experimental systems in molecular biology, due to the lack of appropriate destination vectors.  Here, we present a set of three-fragment MultiSite Gateway(TM) destination vectors that have been developed for gene expression in S. cerevisiae and that allow the assembly of any promoter, open reading frame, epitope tag arrangement in combination with any of four auxotrophic markers and three distinct replication mechanisms. As an example of its applicability, we used yeast three-hybrid to provide evidence for the assembly of a ternary complex of plant proteins involved in jasmonate signalling and consisting of the JAZ, NINJA and TOPLESS proteins.  Our vectors make MultiSite Gateway(TM) cloning accessible in S. cerevisiae and implement a fast and versatile cloning method for the high-throughput functional analysis of (heterologous) proteins in one of the most widely used model organisms for molecular biology research.

title: Dual Role of Th17 Cytokines, IL-17A,F, and IL-22 in Allergic Asthma
abstract: The proinflammatory role of T helper (Th) 17 cells and therefore of its cytokines, IL-17 (IL-17A), IL-17F, and IL-22, in autoimmune disorders has been favored, although there is evidence that not only IL-17A but also IL-17F and IL-22 have a dual role as negative regulators. Here we review the concept of the dual function of IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-22 in the light of recent strategies to use neutralization of these cytokines as potential alternative to neutralizing TNF and IL-1 treatments in chronic inflammatory disorders. Expectedly, in allergic lung inflammation, neutralization of IL-17A inhibited neutrophil recruitment. However, this IL-17A antibody treatment concomitantly increased eosinophil recruitment by neutralizing IL-17A’s dual role as negative regulator. IL-17A negatively regulated dendritic cell function and activation of T helper cell (Th)2 cytokine production. Furthermore, IL-17A inhibited Th2-characteristic chemokine and adhesion molecule expression. On a mechanistic level, IL-17A acted on IκB-β by preventing degradation and in turn leading to reduced NF-κB activation or IL-17A inhibited transcription factor IRF-1. Therefore, anti-IL-17A therapy, although presenting a promising lead in chronic inflammatory disorders, bears a potential risk of exacerbating allergic asthma.

title: A Critical Juncture in Fiscal Federalism? Canada's Response to COVID-19
abstract: The COVID-19 crisis could trigger a critical juncture for several institutional arrangements in Canada, potentially leading to notable changes in fiscal federalism. This research note combines insights from historical institutionalism with recent economic and fiscal projections to explore avenues for reform in response to the COVID-19 crisis. Given the magnitude of the crisis, provincial governments may be unable to absorb the fiscal costs on their own. But vast differences in fiscal and economic circumstances across provinces make federal arrangements difficult to design. We argue that intergovernmental power dynamics and the principle of provincial autonomy are particularly important considerations in thinking about fiscal federalism post–COVID-19.

title: Immunologic aspects of characteristics, diagnosis, and treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
abstract: On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the worldwide spread of the infectious disease COVID-19, caused by a new strain of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, as a pandemic. Like in all other infectious diseases, the host immune system plays a key role in our defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, viruses are able to evade the immune attack and proliferate and, in susceptible individuals, cause severe inflammatory response known as cytokine storm, particularly in the lungs. The advancement in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the host immune responses promises to facilitate the development of approaches for prevention or treatment of diseases. Components of immune system, such as antibodies, can also be used to develop sensitive and specific diagnostic methods as well as novel therapeutic agents. In this review, we summarize our knowledge about how the host mounts immune responses to infection by SARS-CoV-2. We also describe the diagnostic methods being used for COVID-19 identification and summarize the current status of various therapeutic strategies, including vaccination, being considered for treatment of the disease.

title: Activated macrophages are the main inflammatory cell in COVID-19 interstitial pneumonia infiltrates. Is it possible to show their metabolic activity and thus the grade of inflammatory burden with 18F-Fluorocholine PET/CT?
abstract: The recent outbreak of Covid-19 has represented a major challenge for the countries affected by the disease, not only in terms of loss of human life, economic downturn, and constraint on individual freedom, but also for the great pressure on the national health systems and hospitals. The 380 kDa virus has been a perfect storm, especially for those national health systems used to working with limited resources and high intensity rhythms, such as Italy. For the first time in the new century, a virtually unknown fast-spreading disease has caused a public health emergency thus forcing most countries to deal with an insurmountable logistic gap. Hence, every branch of Medicine, even though not directly involved in the treatment, has been called upon to provide its contribution to resolve the crisis. It is now becoming more apparent that Covid-19 is not solely a lung disease, but a complex systemic disease involving several organs and systems. This is due to an abnormal inflammatory response which eventually leads to multisystemic coagulopathy which mainly, but not uniquely, targets the lungs. Although the pathophysiology of this syndrome is still not fully understood, macrophages and their immune complex system seem to play a key role. It is not yet clear why some patients develop the violent immune response which results in pneumonitis while others do not. There are clues indicating that the systemic hyper-inflammation defined as macrophage activation syndrome (MAS), or cytokine storm, requires an increase in choline consumption to synthesize phosphatidylcholine and stimulate phagocytosis, organelle biogenesis, secretory functions, and endocytosis. 18F-Fluorocholine is a synthetic analog of the naturally occurring choline normally used for PET/CT imaging of prostate cancer patients. 18F-Fluorocholine could image and quantify the macrophage activity in pulmonary interstitial infiltrates of Covid-19 pneumonia. If the hypothesis is confirmed experimentally, 18F-Fluorocholine PET/CT could be used to in vivo image and quantify the degree of lung inflammation and potentially stratify the gravity of this disease.

title: Low-dose radiation therapy: could it be a game-changer for COVID-19?

title: A Novel Combination of Vitamin C, Curcumin and Glycyrrhizic Acid Potentially Regulates Immune and Inflammatory Response Associated with Coronavirus Infections: A Perspective from System Biology Analysis
abstract: Novel coronaviruses (CoV) have emerged periodically around the world in recent years. The recurrent spreading of CoVs imposes an ongoing threat to global health and the economy. Since no specific therapy for these CoVs is available, any beneficial approach (including nutritional and dietary approach) is worth investigation. Based on recent advances in nutrients and phytonutrients research, a novel combination of vitamin C, curcumin and glycyrrhizic acid (VCG Plus) was developed that has potential against CoV infection. System biology tools were applied to explore the potential of VCG Plus in modulating targets and pathways relevant to immune and inflammation responses. Gene target acquisition, gene ontology and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment were conducted consecutively along with network analysis. The results show that VCG Plus can act on 88 hub targets which are closely connected and associated with immune and inflammatory responses. Specifically, VCG Plus has the potential to regulate innate immune response by acting on NOD-like and Toll-like signaling pathways to promote interferons production, activate and balance T-cells, and regulate the inflammatory response by inhibiting PI3K/AKT, NF-&#954;B and MAPK signaling pathways. All these biological processes and pathways have been well documented in CoV infections studies. Therefore, our findings suggest that VCG Plus may be helpful in regulating immune response to combat CoV infections and inhibit excessive inflammatory responses to prevent the onset of cytokine storm. However, further in vitro and in vivo experiments are warranted to validate the current findings with system biology tools. Our current approach provides a new strategy in predicting formulation rationale when developing new dietary supplements.

title: Potential Effects of Coronaviruses on the Cardiovascular System: A Review
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has reached a pandemic level. Coronaviruses are known to affect the cardiovascular system. We review the basics of coronaviruses, with a focus on COVID-19, along with their effects on the cardiovascular system.  Coronavirus disease 2019 can cause a viral pneumonia with additional extrapulmonary manifestations and complications. A large proportion of patients have underlying cardiovascular disease and/or cardiac risk factors. Factors associated with mortality include male sex, advanced age, and presence of comorbidities including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and cerebrovascular diseases. Acute cardiac injury determined by elevated high-sensitivity troponin levels is commonly observed in severe cases and is strongly associated with mortality. Acute respiratory distress syndrome is also strongly associated with mortality.  Coronavirus disease 2019 is associated with a high inflammatory burden that can induce vascular inflammation, myocarditis, and cardiac arrhythmias. Extensive efforts are underway to find specific vaccines and antivirals against SARS-CoV-2. Meanwhile, cardiovascular risk factors and conditions should be judiciously controlled per evidence-based guidelines.

title: Compounds with Therapeutic Potential against Novel Respiratory 2019 Coronavirus
abstract: Currently, the expansion of the novel human respiratory coronavirus (known as SARS-CoV-2 [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2], COVID-2019 [coronavirus disease 2019], or 2019-nCoV [2019 novel coronavirus]) has stressed the need for therapeutic alternatives to alleviate and stop this new epidemic. The previous epidemics of infections by high-morbidity human coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV in 2003 and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012, prompted the characterization of compounds that could be potentially active against the currently emerging novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2. The most promising compound is remdesivir (GS-5734), a nucleotide analog prodrug currently in clinical trials for treating Ebola virus infections. Remdesivir inhibited the replication of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV in tissue cultures, and it displayed efficacy in nonhuman animal models. In addition, a combination of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) protease inhibitors lopinavir/ritonavir and interferon beta (LPV/RTV–IFN-β) was shown to be effective in patients infected with SARS-CoV. LPV/RTV–IFN-β also improved clinical parameters in marmosets and mice infected with MERS-CoV. Remarkably, the therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir appeared to be superior to that of LPV/RTV–IFN-β against MERS-CoV in a transgenic humanized mouse model. The relatively high mortality rates associated with these three novel human coronavirus infections, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2, have suggested that proinflammatory responses might play a role in the pathogenesis. It remains unknown whether the generated inflammatory state should be targeted. Therapeutics that target the coronavirus alone might not be able to reverse highly pathogenic infections. This minireview aims to provide a summary of therapeutic compounds that have shown potential in fighting SARS-CoV-2 infections.

title: Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 in children compared with adults in Shandong Province, China
abstract: The COVID-19 outbreak spread in China and is a threat to the world. We reported on the epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics of children cases to help health workers better understand and provide timely diagnosis and treatment.  Retrospectively, two research centers’ case series of 67 consecutive hospitalized cases including 53 adult and 14 children cases with COVID-19 between 23 Jan 2020 and 15 Feb 2020 from Jinan and Rizhao were enrolled in this study. Epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics of children and adults were analyzed and compared.  Most cases in children were mild (21.4%) and conventional cases (78.6%), with mild clinical signs and symptoms, and all cases were of family clusters. Fever (35.7%) and dry cough (21.4%) were described as clinical manifestations in children cases. Dry cough and phlegm were not the most common symptoms in children compared with adults (p = 0.03). In the early stages of the disease, lymphocyte counts did not significantly decline but neutrophils count did in children compared with adults (p = 0.02). There was a lower level of CRP (p = 0.00) in children compared with adults. There were 8 (57.1%) asymptomatic cases and 6 (42.9%) symptomatic cases among the 14 children cases. The age of asymptomatic patients was younger than that of symptomatic patients (p = 0.03). Even among asymptomatic patients, 5 (62.5%) cases had lung injuries including 3 (60%) cases with bilateral involvement, which was not different compared with that of symptomatic cases (p = 0.58, p = 0.74).  The clinical symptoms of children are mild, there is substantial lung injury even among children, but that there is less clinical disease, perhaps because of a less pronounced inflammatory response, and that the occurrence of this pattern appears to inversely correlate with age.

title: Mysterious Virus: A Review on Behavior and Treatment Approaches of the Novel Coronavirus, 2019-nCoV
abstract: At the end of the year 2019, the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) was spreading in Wuhan, China, and the outbreak process has a high speed. It was recognized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020. Coronaviruses are enveloped and single-stranded RNA that have several families including Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). The pathogenesis mechanism and disease outcomes of SARS and MERS are now clear to some extent, but little information is available for 2019-nCoV. This newly identified corona virus infection represents flu-like symptoms, but usually the first symptoms are fever and dry cough. There has been no specific treatment against 2019-nCoV up to now, and physicians only apply supportive therapy. In the present article, we made an attempt to review the behavior of the virus around the world, epidemiology, a pathway for influx into the host cells, clinical presentation, as well as the treatments currently in use and future approaches; nitazoxanide may be our dream drug. We hope that this review has a positive impact on public knowledge for helping to deal with the 2019-nCoV and move one step forward toward its treatment in the near future.

title: COVID-19 severity is associated with immunopathology and multi-organ damage
abstract: COVID-19 is characterised by dysregulated immune responses, metabolic dysfunction and adverse effects on the function of multiple organs. To understand how host responses contribute to COVID-19 pathophysiology, we used a multi-omics approach to identify molecular markers in peripheral blood and plasma samples that distinguish COVID-19 patients experiencing a range of disease severities. A large number of expressed genes, proteins, metabolites and extracellular RNAs (exRNAs) were identified that exhibited strong associations with various clinical parameters. Multiple sets of tissue-specific proteins and exRNAs varied significantly in both mild and severe patients, indicative of multi-organ damage. The continuous activation of IFN-I signalling and neutrophils, as well as a high level of inflammatory cytokines, were observed in severe disease patients. In contrast, COVID-19 in mild patients was characterised by robust T cell responses. Finally, we show that some of expressed genes, proteins and exRNAs can be used as biomarkers to predict the clinical outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection. These data refine our understanding of the pathophysiology and clinical progress of COVID-19 and will help guide future studies in this area.

title: Use of the prevented fraction for the population to determine deaths averted by existing prevalence of physical activity: a descriptive study
abstract: Disease and mortality burdens of unhealthy lifestyle behaviours are often reported. In contrast, the positive narrative around the burdens that an existing behaviour have averted is rarely acknowledged. We aimed to estimate the prevented fraction for the population (PFP) for premature mortality averted by physical activity on a global scale.  In this descriptive study, we obtained previously published data on physical activity prevalence (2001–16) and relative risks of all-cause mortality for 168 countries. We combined the data in Monte-Carlo simulations to estimate country-specific, mean PFP values, corresponding to percentage of mortality averted, and their 95% CIs. High prevented fractions indicated an increased proportion of deaths averted due to physical activity. Using mortality data for all people in a country aged 40–74 years, we estimated the number of premature deaths averted for all adults and by gender. We present the median and range of the prevented fractions globally, by WHO region, and by World Bank income classification.  The global median PFP was 15·0% (range 6·6–20·5), conservatively equating to 3·9 million (95% CI 2·5–5·6) premature deaths averted annually. The African region had the highest median prevented fraction (16·6% [range 12·1–20·5]) and the Americas had the lowest (13·1% [10·8–16·6]). Low-income countries tended to have higher prevented fractions (group median 17·9% [12·3–20·5]) than high-income countries (14·1% [6·6–17·8]). Globally, the median prevented fraction was higher for men (16·0% [7·8–20·7] than women (14·1% [5·0–20·4]).  Existing physical activity prevalence has contributed to averting premature mortality across all countries. PFP has utility as an advocacy tool to promote healthy lifestyle behaviours. By making the case of what has been achieved, the prevented fraction can show the value of current investment and services, which might be conducive to political support.

title: The cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system
abstract: In 2019-2020 a new coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2 was identified as the causative agent of a several acute respiratory infection named COVID-19, which is causing a worldwide pandemic. There are still many unresolved questions regarding the pathogenesis of this disease and especially the reasons underlying the extremely different clinical course, ranging from asymptomatic forms to severe manifestations, including the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS). SARS-CoV-2 showed phylogenetic similarities to both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses, and some of the clinical features are shared between COVID-19 and previously identified beta-coronavirus infections. Available evidence indicate that the so called "cytokine storm" an uncontrolled over-production of soluble markers of inflammation which, in turn, sustain an aberrant systemic inflammatory response, is a major responsible for the occurrence of ARDS. Chemokines are low molecular weight proteins with powerful chemoattractant activity which play a role in the immune cell recruitment during inflammation. This review will be aimed at providing an overview of the current knowledge on the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system in the cytokine storm related to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Basic and clinical evidences obtained from previous SARS and MERS epidemics and available data from COVID-19 will be taken into account.

title: COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: what we know, how our patients should be treated now, and what should happen next

title: Tocilizumab administration in a refractory case of COVID-19
abstract: Novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pneumonia as a pandemic disease leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute cardiac injury, multi organ failure, and shock. In the absence of specific treatment for COVID-19, there is an urgent need to find the alternative treatments to manage this pandemic. Pathophysiological studies have demonstrated the role of inflammatory mediators in COVID-19 pneumonia. It appears that imbalances between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines are the probable underlying mechanism. Since, there is no specific treatment for the inflammatory phase of COVID-19 pneumonia, consideration of treatments, such as tocilizumab, as salvage therapy is necessary. Here, we reported a challenging case of COVID-19 who was successfully treated with tocilizumab.

title: Prevalence of comorbidities in the novel Wuhan coronavirus (COVID-19) infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis
abstract: An outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (COVID -19) in Wuhan, China, the epidemic is more widespread than initially estimated, with cases now confirmed in multiple countries.  The aim of the meta-analysis was to assess the prevalence of comorbidities in the COVID-19 infection patients and the risk of underlying diseases in severe patients compared to non-severe patients.  A literature search was conducted using the databases PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of sciences until February 25, 2020. Risk ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were pooled using random-effects models.  Eight studies were included in the meta- analysis, including 46248 infected patients. The result showed the most prevalent clinical symptom was fever ( 91 ± 3, 95% CI 86-97% ), followed by cough (67 ± 7, 95% CI 59-76%), fatigue ( 51 ± 0, 95% CI 34-68% ) and dyspnea ( 30 ± 4, 95% CI 21-40%). The most prevalent comorbidity were hypertension (17 ± 7, 95% CI 14-22%) and diabetes ( 8 ± 6, 95% CI 6-11% ), followed by cardiovascular diseases ( 5 ± 4, 95% CI 4-7% ) and respiratory system disease( 2 ± 0, 95% CI 1-3% ). Compared with the Non-severe patient, the pooled odds ratio of hypertension, respiratory system disease, cardiovascular disease in severe patients were (OR 2.36, 95% CI: 1.46-3.83), (OR 2.46, 95% CI: 1.76-3.44) and (OR 3.42, 95% CI: 1.88-6.22)respectively.  We assessed the prevalence of comorbidities in the COVID-19 infection patients and found underlying disease, including hypertension, respiratory system disease and cardiovascular, may be a risk factor for severe patients compared with Non-severe patients.

title: COVID-19: clinical issues from the Japan Surgical Society
abstract: In this unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, several key issues must be addressed to ensure safe treatment and prevent rapid spread of the virus and a consequential medical crisis. Careful evaluation of a patient’s condition is crucial for deciding the triage plan, based on the status of the disease and comorbidities. As functionality of the medical care system is greatly affected by the environmental situation, the treatment may differ according to the medical and infectious disease circumstances of the institution. Importantly, all medical staff must prevent nosocomial COVID-19 by minimizing the effects of aerosol spread and developing diagnostic and surgical procedures. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening for COVID-19 infection, particularly in asymptomatic patients, should be encouraged as these patients are prone to postoperative respiratory failure. In this article, the Japan Surgical Society addresses the general principles of surgical treatment in relation to COVID-19 infection and advocates preventive measures against viral transmission during this unimaginable COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Inhibitory effects of glycopyrronium, formoterol, and budesonide on coronavirus HCoV-229E replication and cytokine production by primary cultures of human nasal and tracheal epithelial cells
abstract: Coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E), one of the causes of the common cold, exacerbates chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and bronchial asthma. Long-acting muscarinic antagonists and ß2-agonists and inhaled corticosteroids inhibit the exacerbation of COPD and bronchial asthma caused by infection with viruses, including HCoV-229E. However, the effects of these drugs on HCoV-229E replication and infection-induced inflammation in the human airway are unknown.  Primary human nasal (HNE) and tracheal (HTE) epithelial cell cultures were infected with  Pretreatment of HNE and HTE cells with glycopyrronium or formoterol decreased viral RNA levels and/or titers, the expression of the HCoV-229E receptor CD13, the number and fluorescence intensity of acidic endosomes where HCoV-229E RNA enters the cytoplasm, and the infection-induced production of cytokines, including IL-6, IL-8, and IFN-ß. Treatment of the cells with the CD13 inhibitor 2'2'-dipyridyl decreased viral titers. Pretreatment of the cells with a combination of three drugs (glycopyrronium, formoterol, and budesonide) exerted additive inhibitory effects on viral titers and cytokine production. Pretreatment of HNE cells with glycopyrronium or formoterol reduced the susceptibility to infection, and pretreatment with the three drugs inhibited activation of nuclear factor-kappa B p50 and p65 proteins. Pretreatment with formoterol increased cAMP levels and treatment with cAMP decreased viral titers, CD13 expression, and the fluorescence intensity of acidic endosomes.  These findings suggest that glycopyrronium, formoterol, and a combination of glycopyrronium, formoterol, and budesonide inhibit HCoV-229E replication partly by inhibiting receptor expression and/or endosomal function and that these drugs modulate infection-induced inflammation in the airway.

title: COVID-19 – Does This Disease Kill Due to Imbalance of the Renin Angiotensin System (RAS) Caused by Genetic and Gender Differences in the Response to Viral ACE 2 Attacks?
abstract: Debate continues in the medical literature on the role of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) in Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pathophysiology and the implications for the use of cardiovascular drugs acting on the RAS. Could these drugs – which include angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptors blockers (ARBs) – be harmful or potential key therapeutic agents in COVID-19?

title: A Precision Medicine Approach to SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic Management
abstract: Precision medicine (PM) represents a new paradigm in disease diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. To apply PM premises in an emerging coronavirus pandemic acquires potentially greater relevance in order to allow the selection of specific preventive measures as well as biomarkers that will be useful in disease management.  The identification of the new coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as the responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic had led to a plethora of strategies to contain viral dissemination, affecting life styles and personal behaviors. Viral genomic sequencing has shown that SARS-CoV-2 spike protein utilizes angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) found on ciliated epithelial cells of the human lungs as its specific receptor. Neutralizing antibodies to the receptor-binding domain of the spike protein were detected in patients recovered from COVID-19; however, both T cells and NK cells were reduced in severe cases. Excessive and uncontrolled releases of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1B, IL-1RA, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) were increased in severe patients. These cytokines might be useful biomarkers of disease worsening and potential targets for new biological therapies currently under investigation.  Present knowledge and recent developments in PM approach to COVID-19 disease prevention, evaluation, and management are pointed out. Better understanding of pathogenic pathways together with an accurate phenotype classification of patients presented with SARS-CoV-2 infection and symptoms might contribute to a more accurate definition of biomarkers and other diagnostic tools, which may lead to more precise mitigation strategies, personalized pharmacologic options, as well as new biological therapy developments.

title: Impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases: A delayed pandemic?
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 was first detected in December 2019 in the Chinese city of Wuhan and has since spread across the world. At present, the virus has infected over 1.7 million people and caused over 100000 deaths worldwide. Research is currently focused on understanding the acute infection and developing effective treatment strategies. In view of the magnitude of the epidemic, we conducted a speculative review of possible medium- and long-term neurological consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection, with particular emphasis on neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases of neuroinflammatory origin, based on the available evidence on neurological symptoms of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Development We systematically reviewed the available evidence about the pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the immediate and lasting effects of the cytokine storm on the central nervous system, and the consequences of neuroinflammation for the central nervous system.  SARS-CoV-2 is a neuroinvasive virus capable of triggering a cytokine storm, with persistent effects in specific populations. Although our hypothesis is highly speculative, the impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the onset and progression of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases of neuroinflammatory origin should be regarded as the potential cause of a delayed pandemic that may have a major public health impact in the medium to long term. Cognitive and neuropsychological function should be closely monitored in COVID-19 survivors.

title: COVID-19 and the Digestive System
abstract: The outbreak of novel coronavirus pneumonia in 2019 (Coronavirus disease 2019  is now threatening global public health. Although COVID-19 is principally defined by its respiratory symptoms, it is now clear that the virus can also affect the digestive system. In this review, we elaborate on the close relationship between COVID-19 and the digestive system, focusing on both the clinical findings and potential underlying mechanisms of COVID-19 gastrointestinal pathogenesis.

title: Impaired type I interferon activity and exacerbated inflammatory responses in severe Covid-19 patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) is a major global threat that has already caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide. It is characterized by distinct patterns of disease progression implying a diverse host immune response. However, the immunological features and molecular mechanisms involved in Covid-19 severity remain so far poorly known.  We performed an integrated immune analysis that included in-depth phenotypical profiling of immune cells, whole-blood transcriptomic and cytokine quantification on a cohort of fifty Covid19 patients with a spectrum of disease severity. All patient were tested 8 to 12 days following first symptoms and in absence of anti-inflammatory therapy.  A unique phenotype in severe and critically ill patients was identified. It consists in a profoundly impaired interferon (IFN) type I response characterized by a low interferon production and activity, with consequent downregulation of interferon-stimulated genes. This was associated with a persistent blood virus load and an exacerbated inflammatory response that was partially driven by the transcriptional factor NFκB. It was also characterized by increased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 production and signaling as well as increased innate immune chemokines.  We propose that type-I IFN deficiency in the blood is a hallmark of severe Covid-19 and could identify and define a high-risk population. Our study provides a rationale for testing IFN administration combined with adapted anti-inflammatory therapy targeting IL-6 or TNF-α in most severe patients. These data also raise concern for utilization of drugs that interfere with the IFN pathway.

title: Molecular Imaging Reveals a Progressive Pulmonary Inflammation in Lower Airways in Ferrets Infected with 2009 H1N1 Pandemic Influenza Virus
abstract: Molecular imaging has gained attention as a possible approach for the study of the progression of inflammation and disease dynamics. Herein we used [(18)F]-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose ([(18)F]-FDG) as a radiotracer for PET imaging coupled with CT (FDG-PET/CT) to gain insight into the spatiotemporal progression of the inflammatory response of ferrets infected with a clinical isolate of a pandemic influenza virus, H1N1 (H1N1pdm). The thoracic regions of mock- and H1N1pdm-infected ferrets were imaged prior to infection and at 1, 2, 3 and 6 days post-infection (DPI). On 1 DPI, FDG-PET/CT imaging revealed areas of consolidation in the right caudal lobe which corresponded with elevated [(18)F]-FDG uptake (maximum standardized uptake values (SUVMax), 4.7–7.0). By days 2 and 3, consolidation (CT) and inflammation ([(18)F]-FDG) appeared in the left caudal lobe. By 6 DPI, CT images showed extensive areas of patchy ground-glass opacities (GGO) and consolidations with the largest lesions having high SUVMax (6.0–7.6). Viral shedding and replication were detected in most nasal, throat and rectal swabs and nasal turbinates and lungs on 1, 2 and 3 DPI, but not on day 7, respectively. In conclusion, molecular imaging of infected ferrets revealed a progressive consolidation on CT with corresponding [(18)F]-FDG uptake. Strong positive correlations were measured between SUVMax and bronchiolitis-related pathologic scoring (Spearman’s ρ = 0.75). Importantly, the extensive areas of patchy GGO and consolidation seen on CT in the ferret model at 6 DPI are similar to that reported for human H1N1pdm infections. In summary, these first molecular imaging studies of lower respiratory infection with H1N1pdm show that FDG-PET can give insight into the spatiotemporal progression of the inflammation in real-time.

title: Lungs as target of COVID-19 infection: Protective common molecular mechanisms of vitamin D and melatonin as a new potential synergistic treatment
abstract: COVID-19 pandemic has a high mortality rate and is affecting practically the entire world population. The leading cause of death is severe acute respiratory syndrome as a consequence of exacerbated inflammatory response accompanied by uncontrolled oxidative stress as well as the inflammatory reaction at the lung level. Until now, there is not a specific and definitive treatment for this pathology that worries the world population, especially the older adults who constitute the main risk group. In this context, it results in a particular interest in the evaluation of the efficacy of existing pharmacological agents that may be used for overcoming or attenuating the severity of this pulmonary complication that has ended the lives of many people worldwide. Vitamin D and melatonin could be good options for achieving this aim, taking into account that they have many shared underlying mechanisms that are able to modulate and control the immune adequately and oxidative response against COVID-19 infection, possibly even through a synergistic interaction. The renin-angiotensin system exaltation with consequent inflammatory response has a leading role in the physiopathology of COVID-19 infection; and it may be down-regulated by vitamin D and melatonin in many organs. Therefore, it is also essential to analyze this potential therapeutic association and their relation with RAS as part of this new approach.

title: Cardiac injuries in patients with coronavirus disease 2019: Not to be ignored
abstract: To describe the clinical features of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).  We recruited 73 patients with COVID-19 [49 men and 24 women; average age: 58.36 years (SD: 14.31)] admitted to the intensive care unit of Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital from December 30, 2019 to February 16, 2020. Demographics, underlying diseases, and laboratory test results on admission were collected and analyzed. Data were compared between survivors and non-survivors.  The non-survivors were older (65.46 [SD 9.74] vs 46.23 [12.01]) and were more likely to have chronic medical illnesses. Non-survivors tend to develop more severe lymphopenia, with higher C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, D-dimer, and hs-Troponin I(hs-TnI) levels. Patients with elevated hs-TnI levels on admission had shorter duration from symptom onset to death. Increased hs-TnI level was related to dismal prognosis. Death risk increased by 20.8% when the hs-TnI level increased by one unit. After adjusting for inflammatory or coagulation index, the independent predictive relationship between hs-TnI and death disappeared.  Cardiac injury may occur at the early stage of COVID-19, which is associated with high mortality. Inflammatory factor cascade and coagulation abnormality may be the potential mechanisms of COVID-19 combined with cardiac injury.

title: Lung under attack by COVID-19-induced cytokine storm: pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic implications
abstract: The lung is a key target of the cytokine storm that can be triggered by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for the widespread clinical syndrome known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Indeed, in some patients, SARS-CoV-2 promotes a dysfunctional immune response that dysregulates the cytokine secretory pattern. Hypercytokinemia underlies the hyperinflammatory state leading to injury of alveolar epithelial cells and vascular endothelial cells, as well as to lung infiltration sustained by neutrophils and macrophages. Within such a pathogenic context, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and other cytokines/chemokines play a pivotal pro-inflammatory role. Therefore, cytokines and their receptors, as well as cytokine-dependent intracellular signalling pathways can be targeted by potential therapies aimed to relieve the heavy burden of cytokine storm. In particular, the anti-IL-6-receptor monoclonal antibody tocilizumab is emerging as one of the most promising pharmacologic treatments. The reviews of this paper are available via the supplemental material section.

title: Potential microenvironment of SARS-CoV-2 infection in airway epithelial cells revealed by Human Protein Atlas database analysis
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 has caused serious epidemic events in China and other countries. With the rapid spread of COVID-19, it is urgent to explore the pathogenesis of this novel coronavirus. However, the foundational research of COVID-19 is very weak. Although angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the reported receptor of SARS-CoV-2, information about SARS-CoV-2 invading airway epithelial cells is very limited. Based on the analysis of the Human Protein Atlas database, we compared the virus-related receptors of epithelial-derived cells from different organs and found potential key molecules in the local microenvironment for SARS-CoV-2 entering airway epithelial cells. In addition, we found that these proteins were associated with virus reactive proteins in host airway epithelial cells, which may promote the activation of the immune system and the release of inflammatory factors. Our findings provide a new research direction for understanding the potential microenvironment required by SARS-CoV-2 infection in airway epithelial, which may assist in the discovery of potential drug targets against SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Treatment of COVID‐19 with pentoxifylline: Could it be a potential adjuvant therapy?
abstract: The world is facing a viral pandemic of a new coronavirus called COVID‐19. Pentoxifylline is a methyl‐xanthine and it inhibits phosphodiesterase IV (PDE IV). This drug is known for its unique features as an immunomodulatory and anti‐inflammatory agent, also it could have antiviral affects. This is a scoping review, in which all related articles on COVID‐19 and the probable benefits of Pentoxifylline against COVID‐19 pathogenesis, in Medline, Scopus, Web of Sciences and Google Scholar up to March 20, 2020 with proper keywords including: pentoxifylline, Pentoxil, COVID‐19, coronavirus, treatment, anti‐inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti‐fibrosis, oxygenation, circulation, bronchodilator, ARDS and organ failure. We found many confirmatory data on proper efficacy of pentoxifylline n controlling COVID‐19 and its consequences. The antiviral, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐oxidative, immune‐modulatory, bronchodilator and respiratory supportive effects and protective roles in organ failures of PTX, along with its main functions means better circulation‐oxygenation properties, low price and safety, make it a promising drug to be considered for covid‐19 treatment, especially as an adjuvant therapy in combination with other drugs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Anti-inflammatory activity of electron-deficient organometallics
abstract: We report an evaluation of the cytotoxicity of a series of electron-deficient (16-electron) half-sandwich precious metal complexes of ruthenium, osmium and iridium ([Os/Ru(η(6)-p-cymene)(1,2-dicarba-closo-dodecarborane-1,2-dithiolato)] (1/2), [Ir(η(5)-pentamethylcyclopentadiene)(1,2-dicarba-closo-dodecarborane-1,2-dithiolato)] (3), [Os/Ru(η(6)-p-cymene)(benzene-1,2-dithiolato)] (4/5) and [Ir(η(5)-pentamethylcyclopentadiene)(benzene-1,2-dithiolato)] (6)) towards RAW 264.7 murine macrophages and MRC-5 fibroblast cells. Complexes 3 and 6 were found to be non-cytotoxic. The anti-inflammatory activity of 1–6 was evaluated in both cell lines after nitric oxide (NO) production and inflammation response induced by bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as the stimulus. All metal complexes were shown to exhibit dose-dependent inhibitory effects on LPS-induced NO production on both cell lines. Remarkably, the two iridium complexes 3 and 6 trigger a full anti-inflammatory response against LPS-induced NO production, which opens up new avenues for the development of non-cytotoxic anti-inflammatory drug candidates with distinct structures and solution chemistry from that of organic drugs, and as such with potential novel mechanisms of action.

title: Mechanism and inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 PLpro
abstract: Coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, encode multifunctional proteases that are essential for viral replication and evasion of host innate immune mechanisms. The papain-like protease PLpro cleaves the viral polyprotein, and reverses inflammatory ubiquitin and anti-viral ubiquitin-like ISG15 protein modifications1,2. Drugs that target SARS-CoV-2 PLpro (hereafter, SARS2 PLpro) may hence be effective as treatments or prophylaxis for COVID-19, reducing viral load and reinstating innate immune responses3. We here characterise SARS2 PLpro in molecular and biochemical detail. SARS2 PLpro cleaves Lys48-linked polyubiquitin and ISG15 modifications with high activity. Structures of PLpro bound to ubiquitin and ISG15 reveal that the S1 ubiquitin binding site is responsible for high ISG15 activity, while the S2 binding site provides Lys48 chain specificity and cleavage efficiency. We further exploit two strategies to target PLpro. A repurposing approach, screening 3727 unique approved drugs and clinical compounds against SARS2 PLpro, identified no compounds that inhibited PLpro consistently or that could be validated in counterscreens. More promisingly, non-covalent small molecule SARS PLpro inhibitors were able to inhibit SARS2 PLpro with high potency and excellent antiviral activity in SARS-CoV-2 infection models.

title: Pathogen Infection Recovery Probability (PIRP) Versus Proinflammatory Anti-Pathogen Species (PIAPS) Levels: Modelling and Therapeutic Strategies
abstract: Current CoVID-19 pandemic is spreading rapidly worldwide, and it may become one of the largest pandemic events in modern history if out of control. It appears most of the SARS-CoV2 virus infection resulted deaths are mainly due to dysfunctions or failures of the lung or multiple organs that could be attributed to hosts immunodysfunctions particularly hyperinflammatory type disorders. In this brief review and study, a math model is proposed to correlate the Pathogen Infection Recovery Probability (PIRP) versus Proinflammatory Anti-Pathogen Species (PIAPS) levels within a host unit, where a maximum PIRP is exhibited when the PIAPS levels are equal to or around PIAPS equilibrium levels at the pathogen elimination or clearance onset. Based on this model, rational or effective therapeutic strategies at right stages or timing, with right type of agents (immuno-stimulators or immuno-suppressors), and right dosages, may be designed and implemented that are expected to effectively achieve maximum PIRP or reduce the mortality.

title: Utilization of deceased donors during a pandemic: An argument against using SARS‐CoV‐2 positive donors
abstract: SARS‐CoV‐2 has rapidly become an unprecedented pandemic that has impacted society, disrupted hospital functions, strained healthcare resources and impacted the lives of transplant professionals. Despite this, organ failure and the need for transplantation continues throughout the United States. Considering the perpetual scarcity of deceased donor organs, Kates et al present a viewpoint that advocates for the utilization of COVID‐19 positive donors in selected cases. We present a review of the current literature that details the potential negative consequences of COVID‐19 positive donors. The factors we consider include: 1) the risk of blood transmission SARS‐CoV‐2, 2) involvement of donor organs, 3) lack of effective therapies, 4) exposure of healthcare and recovery teams, 5) disease transmission and propagation, and 6) hospital resource utilization. While we acknowledge that transplantation fulfills the mission of saving lives, it is imperative to consider the consequences not only to our recipients, but also to the community and to healthcare workers, particularly in the absence of effective preventative or curative therapies. For these reasons, we believe the evidence and risks show that COVID‐19 infection should continue to remain a contraindication for donation, as has been the initial response of donation and transplantation societies.

title: Therapeutic Algorithm for Use of Melatonin in Patients With COVID-19
abstract: The coronavirus, COVID-19, has infected hundreds of thousands and killed tens of thousands of individuals worldwide. This highly infectious condition continues to ravage the world population and has yet to reach it peak infective rate in some countries. Many conventional drugs including hydroxychloroquine/chloroquine, lopinavir, remdesivir, etc., have been repurposed as treatments for this often deadly disease, but there is no specifically-designed effective drug available; also, the drugs mentioned have significant side effects and their efficacy is unknown. New drugs and vaccines are being designed as COVID-19 treatment, but their development and testing will require months to years. Time is not a luxury that this crisis has. Thus, there is a serious unmet need for the identification of currently-available and safe molecules which can be used to slow or treat COVID-19 disease. Here, we suggest melatonin be given consideration for prophylactic use or treatment alone or in combination with other drugs. Melatonin's multiple actions as an anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-viral (against other viruses) make it a reasonable choice for use. Melatonin is readily available, can be easily synthesized in large quantities, is inexpensive, has a very high safety profile and can be easily self-administered. Melatonin is endogenously-produced molecule in small amounts with its production diminishing with increased age. Under the current critical conditions, large doses of melatonin alone or in combination with currently-recommended drugs, e.g., hydroxychloroquine/chloroquine, to resist COVID-19 infection would seem judicious.

title: Role of pH in syncytium induction and genome uncoating of avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus (IBV).
abstract: Syncytium formation induced in Vero cells by IBV-Beaudette was optimal at pH 6.7 and absent at pH 7.5. Reduction of IBV-Beaudette replication by ammonium chloride, which raises the pH in endosomes, further indicated that uncoating of the virus genome probably occurred within the acidic environment of endosomes. However, this would not appear to apply to all IBV strains, since one was unaffected by the drug. It would appear that some strains of IBV have the capacity to fuse with the plasma membrane at neutral pH, thereby leading to genome uncoating at that site. Other strains of IBV might also uncoat at the plasma membrane when the extracellular environment is slightly less than pH7.

title: COVID-19: a collision of complement, coagulation and inflammatory pathways
abstract: COVID-19 is frequently accompanied by a hypercoagulable inflammatory state with microangiopathic pulmonary changes that can precede the diffuse alveolar damage characteristic of typical ARDS seen in other severe pathogenic infections. Parallels with systemic inflammatory disorders such as atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome (aHUS) have implicated the complement pathway in the pathogenesis of COVID-19, and particularly the anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a released from cleavage of C3 and C5 respectively. C5a is a potent cell signalling protein that activates a cytokine storm - a hyper-inflammatory phenomenon - within hours of infection and the innate immune response. However, excess C5a can result in a pro-inflammatory environment orchestrated through a plethora of mechanisms, that propagates lung injury, lymphocyte exhaustion and an immune paresis. Furthermore, disruption of the homeostatic interactions between complement and extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways contributes to a net pro-coagulant state in the microvasculature of critical organs. Fatal COVID-19 has been associated with a systemic inflammatory response accompanied by a pro-coagulant state and organ damage, particularly microvascular thrombi in the lungs and kidneys. Pathologic studies report strong evidence of complement activation. C5 blockade reduces inflammatory cytokines and their manifestations in animal studies, and has shown benefits in patients with aHUS, prompting investigation of this approach in the treatment of COVID-19. This review describes the role of the complement pathway and particularly C5a and its aberrations in highly pathogenic virus infections, and therefore its potential as a therapeutic target in COVID-19.

title: Inflammatory Mediators in the Mesenteric Lymph Nodes, Site of a Possible Intermediate Phase in the Immune Response to Feline Coronavirus and the Pathogenesis of Feline Infectious Peritonitis?
abstract: Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is an almost invariably fatal feline coronavirus (FCoV)-induced disease thought to arise from a combination of viral mutations and an overexuberant immune response. Natural initial enteric FCoV infection may remain subclinical, or result in mild enteric signs or the development of FIP; cats may also carry the virus systemically with no adverse effect. This study screened mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs), the presumed first site of FCoV spread from the intestine regardless of viraemia, for changes in the transcription of a panel of innate immune response mediators in response to systemic FCoV infection and with FIP, aiming to identify key pathways triggered by FCoV. Cats with and without FIP, the latter with and without FCoV infection in the MLN, were compared. Higher expression levels in FIP were found for toll-like receptors (TLRs) 2, 4 and 8. These are part of the first line of defence and suggest a response to both viral structural proteins and viral nucleic acid. Expression of genes encoding inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-15, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, CXCL10, CCL8, interferon (IFN)-α, IFN-β and IFN-γ, was higher in cats with FIP, consistent with inflammatory pathway activation. Expression of genes encoding transcription factors STAT1 and 2, regulating signalling pathways, particularly of the interferons, was also higher. Among cats without FIP, there were few differences between virus-positive and virus-negative MLNs; however, TLR9 and STAT2 expression were higher with infection, suggesting a direct viral effect. The study provides evidence for TLR involvement in the response to FCoV. This could open up new avenues for therapeutic approaches.

title: Inflammation resolution: a dual-pronged approach to averting cytokine storms in COVID-19?
abstract: Severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is characterized by pulmonary hyper-inflammation and potentially life-threatening “cytokine storms”. Controlling the local and systemic inflammatory response in COVID-19 may be as important as anti-viral therapies. Endogenous lipid autacoid mediators, referred to as eicosanoids, play a critical role in the induction of inflammation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. SARS-CoV-2 may trigger a cell death (“debris”)-induced “eicosanoid storm”, including prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which in turn initiates a robust inflammatory response. A paradigm shift is emerging in our understanding of the resolution of inflammation as an active biochemical process with the discovery of novel endogenous specialized pro-resolving lipid autacoid mediators (SPMs), such as resolvins. Resolvins and other SPMs stimulate macrophage-mediated clearance of debris and counter pro-inflammatory cytokine production, a process called inflammation resolution. SPMs and their lipid precursors exhibit anti-viral activity at nanogram doses in the setting of influenza without being immunosuppressive. SPMs also promote anti-viral B cell antibodies and lymphocyte activity, highlighting their potential use in the treatment of COVID-19. Soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) inhibitors stabilize arachidonic acid-derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), which also stimulate inflammation resolution by promoting the production of pro-resolution mediators, activating anti-inflammatory processes, and preventing the cytokine storm. Both resolvins and EETs also attenuate pathological thrombosis and promote clot removal, which is emerging as a key pathology of COVID-19 infection. Thus, both SPMs and sEH inhibitors may promote the resolution of inflammation in COVID-19, thereby reducing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and other life-threatening complications associated with robust viral-induced inflammation. While most COVID-19 clinical trials focus on “anti-viral” and “anti-inflammatory” strategies, stimulating inflammation resolution is a novel host-centric therapeutic avenue. Importantly, SPMs and sEH inhibitors are currently in clinical trials for other inflammatory diseases and could be rapidly translated for the management of COVID-19 via debris clearance and inflammatory cytokine suppression. Here, we discuss using pro-resolution mediators as a potential complement to current anti-viral strategies for COVID-19.

title: Toll-like receptors in immunity and inflammatory diseases: Past, present, and future
abstract: The immune system is a very diverse system of the host that evolved during evolution to cope with various pathogens present in the vicinity of environmental surroundings inhabited by multicellular organisms ranging from achordates to chordates (including humans). For example, cells of immune system express various pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that detect danger via recognizing specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and mount a specific immune response. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are one of these PRRs expressed by various immune cells. However, they were first discovered in the Drosophila melanogaster (common fruit fly) as genes/proteins important in embryonic development and dorso-ventral body patterning/polarity. Till date, 13 different types of TLRs (TLR1-TLR13) have been discovered and described in mammals since the first discovery of TLR4 in humans in late 1997. This discovery of TLR4 in humans revolutionized the field of innate immunity and thus the immunology and host-pathogen interaction. Since then TLRs are found to be expressed on various immune cells and have been targeted for therapeutic drug development for various infectious and inflammatory diseases including cancer. Even, Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) among various TLR genes have been identified among the different human population and their association with susceptibility/resistance to certain infections and other inflammatory diseases. Thus, in the present review the current and future importance of TLRs in immunity, their pattern of expression among various immune cells along with TLR based therapeutic approach is reviewed.

title: Vitamin D can prevent COVID-19 infection-induced multiple organ damage
abstract: Vitamin D is an immunomodulator hormone with an anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effect with a high safety profile. A lot of COVID-19 infected patients develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which may lead to multiple organ damage. These symptoms are associated with a cytokine storm syndrome. The aim of this letter is to note the 5 crucial points that vitamin D could have protective and therapeutic effects against COVID-19. For that reason, COVID-19 infection-induced multiple organ damage might be prevented by vitamin D.

title: Ruxolitinib for tocilizumab-refractory severe COVID-19 infection
abstract: Whilst the majority of patients with COVID-19 infection have mild self-limiting symptoms, for some the SARS-CoV2 virus can trigger a severe hyperinflammatory syndrome which is life threatening. Anti-IL6 therapy has shown promise in restraining the hyperinflammatory syndrome and while IL-6 is a pleiotropic mediatory of the inflammatory response, redundancy within inflammatory pathways means that the use of such targeted monoclonal therapy may have too restricted a repertoire in some patients. We present the case of a 53-year-old haematopoetic stem cell transplant recipient who developed a severe COVID-19 that was refractory to anti-IL6 therapy, but responded to Jak-Stat inhibition with ruxolitinib, demonstrating its safety and efficacy in this setting.

title: Bilateral anterior uveitis as a part of a multisystem inflammatory syndrome secondary to COVID-19 infection
abstract: During the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, there is a global concern about patients presenting with inflammatory syndrome with variable clinical features. Colanfrancesco et al. described COVID-19 systemic inflammatory reaction that are characterized by a life-threatening hyper-inflammation sustained by a cytokines storm which eventually leads to multi-organ failure. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: COVID-19 and Headache Medicine: A Narrative Review of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) and Corticosteroid Use.
abstract: To summarize the current literature on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug and corticosteroid use during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, recognizing that these are commonly used treatments in the field of headache medicine.  The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and corticosteroids in patients during the COVID-19 pandemic has been a controversial topic within the medical community and international and national health organizations. Lay press and social media outlets have circulated opinions on this topic despite the fact that the evidence for or against the use of these medications is sparse. In the field of headache medicine, these medications are used commonly and both patients and clinicians may have questions or hesitations pertaining to their use during the COVID-19 pandemic.  A detailed search of the scientific and popular literature was performed.  There is limited literature pertaining to the safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and corticosteroids during the COVID-19 pandemic. To date, there are no clear scientific data that preclude the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the general population who may acquire COVID-19 or in those acutely infected with the virus. Several health organizations have concluded that treatment with corticosteroids during active infection should be avoided due to concerns of prolonged viral shedding in the respiratory tract and the lack of survival benefit based on the data from past coronaviruses and influenza virus; specific exceptions exist including treatment for underlying asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, septic shock, and acute respiratory distress syndrome.  Scientific information regarding the COVID-19 pandemic is constantly evolving, and limited or contradictory information can lead to confusion for both patients and clinicians. It is recommended that prior to prescribing non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and steroids for the treatment of headache, clinicians have open discussions with their patients about the potential risks and benefits of using these medications during the COVID-19 pandemic. This manuscript summarizes the currently available evidence and understanding about these risks and benefits to help clinicians navigate such discussions.

title: Biosensors for Managing the COVID-19 Cytokine Storm: Challenges Ahead
abstract: see text] The global COVID-19 pandemic has oversaturated many intensive care units to the point of collapse, leading to enormous spikes in death counts. Before critical care becomes a necessity, identifying patients who are likely to become critically ill and providing prompt treatment is a strategy to avoid ICU oversaturation. There is a consensus that a hyperinflammatory syndrome or a “cytokine storm” is responsible for poor outcomes in COVID-19. Measuring cytokine levels at the point of care is required in order to better understand this process. In this Perspective, we summarize the main events behind the cytokine storm in COVID-19 as well as current experimental treatments. We advocate for a new biosensor-enabled paradigm to personalize the management of COVID-19 and stratify patients. Biosensor-guided dosing and timing of immunomodulatory therapies could maximize the benefits of these anti-inflammatory treatments while minimizing deleterious effects. Biosensors will also be essential in order to detect complications such as coinfections and sepsis, which are common in immunosuppressed patients. Finally, we propose the ideal features of these biosensors using some prototypes from the recent literature as examples. Multisensors, lateral flow tests, mobile biosensors, and wearable biosensors are seen as key players for precision medicine in COVID-19.

title: Short-Term Corticosteroids in SARS-CoV2 Patients: Hospitalists' Perspective
abstract: Dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid, has anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. There is a hyperinflammatory response involved in the clinical course of patients with pneumonia due to SARS-CoV2. To date, there has been no definite therapy for COVID-19. We reviewed the charts of SARS-CoV2 patients with pneumonia and moderate to severely elevated CRP and worsening hypoxemia who were treated with early, short-term dexamethasone.  We describe a series of 21 patients who tested positive for SARS-CoV2 and were admitted to The Miriam Hospital in Providence and were treated with a short course of dexamethasone, either alone or in addition to current investigative therapies.  CRP levels decreased significantly following the start of dexamethasone from mean initial levels of 129.52 to 40.73 mg/L at time of discharge. 71% percent of the patients were discharged home with a mean length of stay of 7.8 days. None of the patients had escalation of care, leading to mechanical ventilation. Two patients were transferred to inpatient hospice facilities on account of persistent hypoxemia, in line with their documented goals of care.  A short course of systemic corticosteroids among inpatients with SARS-CoV2 with hypoxic respiratory failure was well tolerated, and most patients had improved outcomes. This limited case series may not offer concrete evidence towards the benefit of corticosteroids in COVID-19. However, patients positive response to short-term corticosteroids demonstrates that they may help blunt the severity of inflammation and prevent a severe hyperinflammatory phase, in turn reducing the length of stay, ICU admissions, and healthcare costs.

title: COVID-19: Pathogenesis, Genetic Polymorphism, Clinical Features and Laboratory Findings.
abstract: COVID-19 caused by a novel agent SARS-CoV-2 progressed to a pandemic condition and resulted in a major public health concern worldwide, leading to social and economic issues at the same time. The pathogenesis of COVID-19 starts with the bonding of the virus to ACE-2 receptors expressed in many tissues, and the triggered excessive immune response plays a critical role in the course of the disease. The cytokine storm that occurs upon excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines is considered responsible for the severe progression of the disease and the organ damage. However, the accurate pathophysiological mechanism of the disease, which progresses with various clinical presentations, is still substantially unknown. While various studies have been conducted on the effect of genetic polymorphism on the course and severity of the disease, the presence of a significant effect has not been proven yet. The clinical course of the disease is variable, with clinical representation ranging from 81% mild course to 14% severe course along with 5% critical course in patients. Asymptomatic course is considered to be higher than expected, although its frequency is not known exactly. Older adults and those with comorbidities are exposed to a more severe disease course. The disease progress with various symptoms, such as fever, cough, dyspnea, malaise, myalgia, taste and smell dysfunctions, diarrhea, and headache. A range of complications (Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, thromboembolic conditions, arrhythmia and cardiac events, secondary infections) could be seen during the course of the disease. Varied laboratory tests are vital to determine the severity and prognosis of the disease, along with the condition and exposure of the affected systems during the course of COVID-19.

title: Does vitamin D deficiency increase the severity of COVID-19?
abstract: The severity of coronavirus 2019 infection (COVID-19) is determined by the presence of pneumonia, severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), myocarditis, microvascular thrombosis and/or cytokine storms, all of which involve underlying inflammation. A principal defence against uncontrolled inflammation, and against viral infection in general, is provided by T regulatory lymphocytes (Tregs). Treg levels have been reported to be low in many COVID-19 patients and can be increased by vitamin D supplementation. Low vitamin D levels have been associated with an increase in inflammatory cytokines and a significantly increased risk of pneumonia and viral upper respiratory tract infections. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with an increase in thrombotic episodes, which are frequently observed in COVID-19. Vitamin D deficiency has been found to occur more frequently in patients with obesity and diabetes. These conditions are reported to carry a higher mortality in COVID-19. If vitamin D does in fact reduce the severity of COVID-19 in regard to pneumonia/ARDS, inflammation, inflammatory cytokines and thrombosis, it is our opinion that supplements would offer a relatively easy option to decrease the impact of the pandemic.

title: Glutathione and inflammatory disorders of the lung
abstract: Glutathione (GSH) is an essential tripeptide present in most eukaryotic cells. Because of its sulfhydryl group, GSH is a versatile molecule capable of protecting cells against oxidants and toxic xenobiotics. However, it also plays key roles in multiple metabolic pathways, such as the synthesis of certain leukotrienes, proteins, and DNA precursors as well as the activation of enzymes, the regulation of immune responses and others. Not only is GSH synthesized by cells for local use but it also participates in an elaborate intercellular exchange process regulated by theγ-glutamyl cycle. Extracellular GSH in plasma and in alveolar epithelial lining fluid is thus subject to variations according to the degree of expression ofγ-glutamyl cycle enzymes and the rate of consumption of GSH by electrophilic molecules. Bronchoalveolar lavage has allowed us to observe many of these variations of GSH within the extracellular environment of the normal and diseased human lung. Studies of lung GSH have lead to a better understanding of pathogenic processes and have stimulated investigations of novel therapeutic approaches in lung inflammatory disorders.

title: Pentoxifylline and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a drug to be considered.
abstract: The recent outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) as a new viral disease is causing a great concern for health authorities and general population. Very little is known about the infectious agent (a coronavirus) and its etiopathogeny, having no specific treatment yet. Proinflammatory cytokines released by stimulated macrophages in the alveoli could have a prominent role in pathogenesis of SARS. Current treatment of SARS with antiviral agents such as ribavirin and corticosteroids have not achieved very satisfactory results. Corticosteroids exert an antiinflammatory effect and are indicated for the treatment of respiratory distress, but, in the other hand, they exert an immunosuppressor effect on humoral and cellular arms of Immune System. Based on previous reports and on our own experience in HIV, we propose here pentoxifylline (PTX), a drug commonly used in vascular indications, as a possible treatment for SARS due to its interesting properties. PTX would feature a possible antiviral activity along with a well-known cytokine-modulating activity not as immunosuppressant as that of the corticoids, down-regulating proinflammatory cytokines but leaving functional the rest of the immune response. Other effects of PTX are discussed, as bronchodilation.  The antiinflammatory, antiviral, immunomodulatory and bronchodilatory effects of PTX, along with its low cost and toxicity, make it a promising drug to be considered for SARS treatment, alone or as an adjuvant therapy in combination with other drugs. The classical antiviral approach as single treatment for viral diseases should be reviewed in this occasion; immunomodulatory therapies could play an important role in SARS therapy.

title: The epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19
abstract: In December 2019, the outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in China spread worldwide, becoming an emergency of major international concern. SARS-CoV-2 infection causes clusters of severe respiratory illness similar to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Human-to-human transmission via droplets, contaminated hands or surfaces has been described, with incubation times of 2-14 days. Early diagnosis, quarantine, and supportive treatments are essential to cure patients. This paper reviews the literature on all available information about the epidemiology, diagnosis, isolation and treatments of COVID-19. Treatments, including antiviral agents, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, corticosteroids, antibodies, convalescent plasma transfusion and vaccines, are discussed in this article. In addition, registered trials investigating treatment options for COVID-19 infection are listed.

title: [Dynamic changes of plasma cytokine levels in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome].
abstract: To elucidate the mechanism of strong inflammatory response in severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) patients.  24 patients managed with a standard corticosteroid protocol developed by Peking Union Medical College Hospital were followed up for 2 months and their clinical outcomes were documented. Plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 p70, interferon gamma (IFN gamma), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) were determined by quantitative ELISA during the course of disease respectively. 12 healthy blood donors were used as normal controls.  All SARS patients had remarkably increased plasma IL-8 concentrations (median 31.23 ng/L) at the onset of disease compared with those of normal controls (6.28 ng/L, P < 0.01). Along with the course of disease IL-8 concentration kept going up and 75% (18/24) patients reached a peak median concentration of 149.65 ng/L (P < 0.01) at the third and fourth weeks. IL-8 came back to normal control levels one month after discharged from hospital. Meanwhile, SARS patients also showed high a TNF alpha level (median 23.12 ng/L) (P < 0.01) at the second week and reached a peak median of 136.35 ng/L (P < 0.05) at the third an fourth weeks. One month after discharged from hospital the plasma TNF alpha concentration fell down to a median of 94.88 ng/L, but it was still much higher than normal controls (3.77 ng/L, P < 0.01).  The SARS-associated coronovirus infection may cause complex cytokine cascade. IL-8 and TNF alpha probably play important roles in mediating strong inflammatory response, which are thought to be responsible for lung injury in SARS patients.

title: Management of Kawasaki disease
abstract: Kawasaki disease (KD) is an acute self-limiting inflammatory disorder, associated with vasculitis, affecting predominantly medium-sized arteries, particularly the coronary arteries. In developed countries KD is the commonest cause of acquired heart disease in childhood. The aetiology of KD remains unknown, and it is currently believed that one or more as yet unidentified infectious agents induce an intense inflammatory host response in genetically susceptible individuals. Genetic studies have identified several susceptibility genes for KD and its sequelae in different ethnic populations, including FCGR2A, CD40, ITPKC, FAM167A-BLK and CASP3, as well as genes influencing response to intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and aneurysm formation such as FCGR3B, and transforming growth factor (TGF) β pathway genes. IVIG and aspirin are effective therapeutically, but recent clinical trials and meta-analyses have demonstrated that the addition of corticosteroids to IVIG is beneficial for the prevention of coronary artery aneurysms (CAA) in severe cases with highest risk of IVIG resistance. Outside of Japan, however, clinical scores to predict IVIG resistance perform suboptimally. Furthermore, the evidence base does not provide clear guidance on which corticosteroid regimen is most effective. Other therapies, including anti-TNFα, could also have a role for IVIG-resistant KD. Irrespective of these caveats, it is clear that therapy that reduces inflammation in acute KD, improves outcome. This paper summarises recent advances in the understanding of KD pathogenesis and therapeutics, and provides an approach for managing KD patients in the UK in the light of these advances.

title: Virus spread and voter model on random graphs with multiple type nodes
abstract: When modelling epidemics or spread of information on online social networks, it is crucial to include not just the density of the connections through which infections can be transmitted, but also the variability of susceptibility. Different people have different chance to be infected by a disease (due to age or general health conditions), or, in case of opinions, ones are easier to be convinced by others, or stronger at sharing their opinions. The goal of this work is to examine the effect of multiple types of nodes on various random graphs such as Erd\H{o}s--R\'enyi random graphs, preferential attachment random graphs and geometric random graphs. We used two models for the dynamics: SEIR model with vaccination and a version of voter model for exchanging opinions. In the first case, among others, various vaccination strategies are compared to each other, while in the second case we studied sevaral initial configurations to find the key positions where the most effective nodes should be placed to disseminate opinions.

title: Acute inflammation and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection: Cannabidiol as a potential anti-inflammatory treatment?

title: Hyperinflammation and derangement of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in COVID-19: A novel hypothesis for clinically suspected hypercoagulopathy and microvascular immunothrombosis
abstract: Early clinical evidence suggests that severe cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), are frequently characterized by hyperinflammation, imbalance of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and a particular form of vasculopathy, thrombotic microangiopathy, and intravascular coagulopathy. In this paper, we present an immunothrombosis model of COVID-19. We discuss the underlying pathogenesis and the interaction between multiple systems, resulting in propagation of immunothrombosis, which through investigation in the coming weeks, may lead to both an improved understanding of COVID-19 pathophysiology and identification of innovative and efficient therapeutic targets to reverse the otherwise unfavorable clinical outcome of many of these patients.

title: Re-analysis of SARS-CoV-2-infected host cell proteomics time-course data by impact pathway analysis and network analysis: a potential link with inflammatory response
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by an outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Wuhan, China, has led to an unprecedented health and economic crisis worldwide. To develop treatments that can stop or lessen the symptoms and severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection, it is critical to understand how the virus behaves inside human cells, and so far studies in this area remain scarce. A recent study investigated translatome and proteome host cell changes induced in vitro by SARS-CoV-2. Here, we use the publicly available proteomics data from this study to re-analyze the in vitro cellular consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection by impact pathways analysis and network analysis. Notably, proteins linked to the inflammatory response, but also proteins related to chromosome segregation during mitosis, were found to be altered in response to viral infection. Upregulation of inflammatory response proteins is in line with the propagation of inflammatory reaction and lung injury that is observed in advanced stages of COVID-19 patients and which worsens with age.

title: Vaccines and Drug Therapeutics to Lock Down Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials
abstract: The ongoing novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been responsible for millions of infections and hundreds of thousands of deaths. To date, there is no approved targeted treatment, and many investigational therapeutic agents and vaccine candidates are being considered for the treatment of COVID-19. To extract and summarize information on potential vaccines and therapeutic agents against COVID-19 at different stages of clinical trials from January to March 2020, we reviewed major clinical trial databases such as ClinicalTrials.gov,  Interventional studies at different phases under the COVID-19 pipeline were included. A total of 249 clinical trials were identified between January to March 15, 2020. After filtering observational studies (194 studies), a total of 56 interventional trials were considered. The majority of clinical trials have been conducted on chloroquine (n=10) and traditional Chinese medications (TCMs; n=10), followed by antivirals (n=8), anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressants (n=9), cellular therapies (n=4), combinations of different antivirals therapies (n=3), antibacterial (n=1), and other therapies (n=5). Five vaccines are under phase I, and there are a couple of phase III trials on the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine under investigation among healthcare workers. Many novel compounds and vaccines against COVID-19 are currently under investigation. Some candidates have been tested for other viral infections and are listed for clinical trials against the COVID-19 pipeline. Currently, there are no effective specific antivirals or drug combinations available for the treatment of COVID-19.

title: Genotype and phenotype of COVID-19: Their roles in pathogenesis
abstract: Abstract COVID-19 is a novel coronavirus with an outbreak of unusual viral pneumonia in Wuhan, China, and then pandemic. Based on its phylogenetic relationships and genomic structures the COVID-19 belongs to genera Betacoronavirus. Human Betacoronaviruses (SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV) have many similarities, but also have differences in their genomic and phenotypic structure that can influence their pathogenesis. COVID-19 is containing single-stranded (positive-sense) RNA associated with a nucleoprotein within a capsid comprised of matrix protein. A typical CoV contains at least six ORFs in its genome. All the structural and accessory proteins are translated from the sgRNAs of CoVs. Four main structural proteins are encoded by ORFs 10, 11 on the one-third of the genome near the 3′-terminus. The genetic and phenotypic structure of COVID-19 in pathogenesis is important. This article highlights the most important of these features compared to other Betacoronaviruses.

title: Longitudinal immune profiling reveals distinct features of COVID-19 pathogenesis
abstract: The pathogenesis of COVID-19, caused by a novel strain of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), involves a complex host-virus interaction and is characterised by an exaggerated immune response, the specific components of which are poorly understood. Here we report the outcome of a longitudinal immune profiling study in hospitalised patients during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK and show the relationship between immune responses and severity of the clinical presentation.  The Coronavirus Immune Response and Clinical Outcomes (CIRCO) study was conducted at four hospitals in Greater Manchester. Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, recruited as close to admission as possible, provided peripheral blood samples at enrolment and sequentially thereafter. Fresh samples were assessed for immune cells and proteins in whole blood and serum. Some samples were also stimulated for 3 hours with LPS and analysed for intracellular proteins. Results were stratified based on patient-level data including severity of symptoms and date of reported symptom onset.  Longitudinal analysis showed a very high neutrophil to T cell ratio and abnormal activation of monocytes in the blood, which displayed high levels of the cell cycle marker, Ki67 and low COX-2. These properties all reverted in patient with good outcome. Unexpectedly, multiple aspects of inflammation were diminished as patients progressed in severity and time, even in ITU patients not recovering.  This is the first detailed longitudinal analysis of COVID-19 patients of varying severity and outcome, revealing common features and aspects that track with severity. Patients destined for a severe outcome can be identified at admission when still displaying mild-moderate symptoms. We provide clues concerning pathogenesis that should influence clinical trials and therapeutics. Targeting pathways involved in neutrophil and monocyte release from the bone marrow should be tested in patients with COVID-19.  The Kennedy Trust for Rheumatology Research, The Wellcome Trust, The Royal Society, The BBSRC, National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centres (BRC).

title: The potential insights of Traditional Chinese Medicine on treatment of COVID-19
abstract: Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) broke out in 2019 and spread rapidly around the world. There is still no specific antiviral therapy to the current pandemic. In China, historical records show that Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is effective in prevention and enhancing the resistance to pandemic with unique insights. To fight with COVID-19, National Health and Commission of PRC has recommended some TCM in the guideline, such as HuoxiangZhengqi, LianhuaQingwen ShufengJiedu and XueBijing, and actually displayed a remarkable effect in clinical treatment strategic for COVID-19. We review studies to provide an in-depth understanding into the effect of TCM, and also introduce the possible mechanism involved in COVID-19 treatment.

title: Corticosteroid administration for viral pneumonia: COVID-19 and beyond
abstract: Corticosteroids are commonly used as adjuvant therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) by many clinicians due to their perceived anti-inflammatory effects. However, for patients with severe viral pneumonia, the corticosteroid treatment is highly controversial.  The purpose of this review is to systematically evaluate the effect and potential mechanism of corticosteroid administration in pandemic viral pneumonia.  We comprehensively searched all manuscripts on corticosteroids therapy for influenza, SARS, MERS and SARS-CoV-2 viral pneumonia from the PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases.  We systematic summarized the effects of corticosteroids therapy for pandemic viral pneumonia and the potential mechanism of corticosteroid worked in COVID-19.  Observational studies showed that corticosteroid treatment was associated with increased mortality and nosocomial infections for influenza and delay virus clearance for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. Limited data on corticosteroid therapy for COVID-19 were reported. Corticosteroids were used in about a fifth of patients (670/2995, 22.4%). Although clinical observational studies reported the improvement in symptoms and oxygenation for the severe COVID-19 patients received corticosteroids therapy, case fatality rate in the corticosteroid group was significantly higher than that in the non-corticosteroid group (69/443, 15.6% vs 56/1310, 4.3%). Compared with non-severe patients, severe patients were more likely to receive corticosteroid therapy (201/382, 52.6% vs 201/1310, 15.3%). Although there is no evidence of corticosteroid therapy reduce the mortality of COVID-19 patients, some improvements in clinical symptoms and oxygenation were reported in some clinical observational studies. Excessive inflammatory response and lymphopenia might be critical factors associated with disease severity and mortality of COVID-19. Sufficiently powered randomized controlled trials with rigorous inclusion/exclusion criteria and standardized dose and duration of corticosteroids are needed to verify the effectiveness and safety of corticosteroid therapy.

title: Efficacy of glutathione therapy in relieving dyspnea associated with COVID-19 pneumonia: A report of 2 cases
abstract: Infection with COVID-19 potentially can result in severe outcomes and death from “cytokine storm syndrome”, resulting in novel coronavirus pneumonia (NCP) with severe dyspnea, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), fulminant myocarditis and multiorgan dysfunction with or without disseminated intravascular coagulation. No published treatment to date has been shown to adequately control the inflammation and respiratory symptoms associated with COVID-19, apart from oxygen therapy and assisted ventilation. We evaluated the effects of using high dose oral and/or IV glutathione in the treatment of 2 patients with dyspnea secondary to COVID-19 pneumonia.  Two patients living in New York City (NYC) with a history of Lyme and tick-borne co-infections experienced a cough and dyspnea and demonstrated radiological findings consistent with novel coronavirus pneumonia (NCP). A trial of 2 g of PO or IV glutathione was used in both patients and improved their dyspnea within 1 h of use. Repeated use of both 2000 mg of PO and IV glutathione was effective in further relieving respiratory symptoms.  Oral and IV glutathione, glutathione precursors (N-acetyl-cysteine) and alpha lipoic acid may represent a novel treatment approach for blocking NF-κB and addressing “cytokine storm syndrome” and respiratory distress in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.

title: COVID-19 and the immune system
abstract: A close interaction between the virus SARS-CoV-2 and the immune system of an individual results in a diverse clinical manifestation of the COVID-19 disease While adaptive immune responses are essential for SARS-CoV-2 virus clearance, the innate immune cells, such as macrophages, may contribute, in some cases, to the disease progression Macrophages have shown a significant production of IL-6 suggesting they may contribute to the excessive inflammation in COVID-19 disease Macrophage Activation Syndrome may further explain the high serum levels of CRP, which are normally lacking in viral infections In adaptive immune responses, it has been revealed that cytotoxic CD8+ T cells exhibit functional exhaustion patterns, such as the expression of NKG2A, PD-1, and TIM-3 Since SARS-CoV-2 restrains antigen presentation by downregulating MHC class I and II molecules and, therefore, inhibits the T cell-mediated immune responses, humoral immune responses also play a substantial role Specific IgA response appears to be stronger and more persistent than IgM response Moreover, IgM and IgG antibodies show similar dynamics in COVID-19 disease

title: Pharmacological (or Synthetic) and Nutritional Agonists of PPAR-γ as Candidates for Cytokine Storm Modulation in COVID-19 Disease
abstract: The cytokine storm is an abnormal production of inflammatory cytokines, due to the over-activation of the innate immune response. This mechanism has been recognized as a critical mediator of influenza-induced lung disease, and it could be pivotal for COVID-19 infections. Thus, an immunomodulatory approach targeting the over-production of cytokines could be proposed for viral aggressive pulmonary disease treatment. In this regard, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ, a member of the PPAR transcription factor family, could represent a potential target. Beside the well-known regulatory role on lipid and glucose metabolism, PPAR-γ also represses the inflammatory process. Similarly, the PPAR-γ agonist thiazolidinediones (TZDs), like pioglitazone, are anti-inflammatory drugs with ameliorating effects on severe viral pneumonia. In addition to the pharmacological agonists, also nutritional ligands of PPAR-γ, like curcuma, lemongrass, and pomegranate, possess anti-inflammatory properties through PPAR-γ activation. Here, we review the main synthetic and nutritional PPAR-γ ligands, proposing a dual approach based on the strengthening of the immune system using pharmacological and dietary strategies as an attempt to prevent/treat cytokine storm in the case of coronavirus infection.

title: A Review: Does Complement or the Contact System Have a Role in Protection or Pathogenesis of COVID-19?
abstract: COVID-19 presentation may include a profound increase in cytokines and associated pneumonia, rapidly progressing to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). This so-called cytokine storm often leads to refractory edema, respiratory arrest, and death. At present, anti-IL-6, antiviral therapy, convalescent plasma, hydroxychloroquine, and azithromycin among others are being investigated as potential treatments for COVID-19. As the disease etiology and precise therapeutic interventions are still not definitively defined, we wanted to review the roles that complement and the contact system may have in either the treatment or pathogenesis of the disease.  We searched the recent literature (PubMed) on complement and coronavirus; contact system and coronavirus; bradykinin and coronavirus; and angiotensin receptor and coronavirus. The manuscript complies with ethics guidelines and was deemed exempt from institutional review board approval according to Human Subjects Protection Office guidelines.  Mouse models are available for the study of coronavirus and complement. Although complement is effective in protecting against many viruses, it does not seem to be protective against coronavirus. C3 knockout mice infected with SARS-CoV had less lung disease than wild-type mice, suggesting that complement may play a role in coronavirus pathogenesis. Some evidence suggests that the observed pulmonary edema may be bradykinin-induced and could be the reason that corticosteroids, antihistamines, and other traditional interventions for edema are not effective. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a co-receptor for SARS-CoV-2, and studies thus far have not concluded a benefit or risk associated with the use of either ACE-inhibitors or angiotensin receptor antagonists.  Activation of complement and the contact system, through generation of bradykinin, may play a role in the SARS-CoV-2-induced pulmonary edema, and our search suggests that further work is necessary to confirm our suspicions.

title: COVID-19, Immuno-oncology and Cardiovascular Disease: Viewpoint from the Intersection

title: Acute Lung Injury Results from Innate Sensing of Viruses by an ER Stress Pathway
abstract: Incursions of new pathogenic viruses into humans from animal reservoirs are occurring with alarming frequency. The molecular underpinnings of immune recognition, host responses, and pathogenesis in this setting are poorly understood. We studied pandemic influenza viruses to determine the mechanism by which increasing glycosylation during evolution of surface proteins facilitates diminished pathogenicity in adapted viruses. ER stress during infection with poorly glycosylated pandemic strains activated the unfolded protein response, leading to inflammation, acute lung injury, and mortality. Seasonal strains or viruses engineered to mimic adapted viruses displaying excess glycans on the hemagglutinin did not cause ER stress, allowing preservation of the lungs and survival. We propose that ER stress resulting from recognition of non-adapted viruses is utilized to discriminate “non-self” at the level of protein processing and to activate immune responses, with unintended consequences on pathogenesis. Understanding this mechanism should improve strategies for treating acute lung injury from zoonotic viral infections.

title: Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19
abstract: Viral pandemics, such as the one caused by SARS-CoV-2, pose an imminent threat to humanity. Because of its recent emergence, there is a paucity of information regarding viral behavior and host response following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here we offer an in-depth analysis of the transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 compared with other respiratory viruses. Cell and animal models of SARS-CoV-2 infection, in addition to transcriptional and serum profiling of COVID-19 patients, consistently revealed a unique and inappropriate inflammatory response. This response is defined by low levels of type I and III interferons juxtaposed to elevated chemokines and high expression of IL-6. We propose that reduced innate antiviral defenses coupled with exuberant inflammatory cytokine production are the defining and driving features of COVID-19.

title: Translation: Expert Consensus on the Application of Artificial Liver Blood Purification System in the Treatment of Severe and Critical COVID-19: National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases
abstract: The prevention and treatment of COVID-19 nationwide has entered a tackling phase. Effective treatment of severe and critically ill patients is the key to reducing the fatality of the disease. The artificial liver blood purification system can remove inflammatory factors, alleviate the damage of the inflammatory response to the body, and has important value for the treatment of severe COVID-19. Led by Academician Lanjuan Li, based on the experience of treating patients across the country, integrating the opinions of experts from all over the country, the center summarized and formulated the consensus including the basic principles, treatment indications, relative contraindications, mode selection, monitoring indicators, and efficacy evaluation of artificial liver, which provides reference for treatment of severe COVID-19 patients.

title: COVID-19 and influenza: preparing for the storm

title: Transcriptional profiling of immune and inflammatory responses in the context of SARS-CoV-2 fungal superinfection in a human airway epithelial model
abstract: Superinfections of bacterial/fungal origin are known to affect the course and severity of respiratory viral infections. An increasing number of evidence indicate a relatively high prevalence of superinfections associated with COVID-19, including invasive aspergillosis, but the underlying mechanisms remain to be characterized. In the present study, to better understand the biological impact of superinfection we sought to determine and compare the host transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 versus Aspergillus superinfection, using a model of reconstituted humain airway epithelium. Our analyses reveal that both simple infection and superinfection induce a strong deregulation of core components of innate immune and inflammatory responses, with a stronger response to superinfection in the bronchial epithelial model compared to its nasal counterpart. Our results also highlight unique transcriptional footprints of SARS-CoV-2 Aspergillus superinfection, such as an imbalanced type I/type III IFN, and an induction of several monocyte- and neutrophil associated chemokines, that could be useful for the understanding of Aspergillus-associated COVID-19 and but also management of severe forms of aspergillosis in this specific context.

title: A brief review of liver injury in patients with Corona Virus Disease-19 during the pandemic
abstract: The novel coronavirus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has been mostly leading to respiratory distress syndrome, but liver injury has also been documented. The mechanism of liver injury is limited and poorly understood. However, the hepatic injury could be due to a consequence of systemic inflammatory response, viral infection of hepatocytes, or as a result of intensive care treatment or drug toxicity. Based on the current studies, this review article emphasizes on the demographic and potential mechanisms of Corona Virus Disease (COVID)-19-related liver dysfunction

title: Treatment for emerging viruses: Convalescent plasma and COVID-19
abstract: Use of convalescent plasma transfusions could be of great value in the current pandemic of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), given the lack of specific preventative and therapeutic options. This convalescent plasma therapy is of particular interest when a vaccine or specific therapy is not yet available for emerging viruses, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes COVID-19. This report summarizes existing literature around convalescent plasma as a therapeutic option for COVID-19. It also includes recommendations for establishing a convalescent plasma program, enhancement considerations for convalescent plasma, and considerations around pathogen reduction treatment of convalescent plasma. Time is of the essence to set up protocols for collection, preparation, and administration of apheresis-collected convalescent plasma in response to the current pandemic. The immediate use of convalescent plasma provides prompt availability of a promising treatment while specific vaccines and treatments are evaluated and brought to scale. Further development of improved convalescent plasma, vaccines and other therapeutics depends on quick generation of additional data on pathogenesis and immune response. Additionally, given the lack of information around the natural history of this disease, PRT should be considered to add a layer of safety to protect recipients of convalescent plasma.

title: COVID-19 and diabetes: The why, the what and the how
abstract: The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has taken the world by storm. Alongside COVID-19, diabetes is a long-standing global epidemic. The diabetes population has been reported to suffer adverse outcomes if infected by COVID-19. The aim was to summarise information and resources available on diabetes and COVID-19, highlighting special measures that individuals with diabetes need to follow.  A search using keywords “COVID-19” and “Diabetes” was performed using different sources, including PubMed and World Health Organization.  COVID-19 may enhance complications in individuals with diabetes through an imbalance in angiotension-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) activation pathways leading to an inflammatory response. ACE2 imbalance in the pancreas causes acute β-cell dysfunction and a resultant hyperglycemic state. These individuals may be prone to worsened COVID-19 complications including vasculopathy, coagulopathy as well as psychological stress. Apart from general preventive measures, remaining hydrated, monitoring blood glucose regularly and monitoring ketone bodies in urine if on insulin is essential. All this while concurrently maintaining physical activity and a healthy diet. Different supporting entities are being set up to help this population.  COVID-19 is a top priority. It is important to remember that a substantial proportion of the world's population is affected by other co-morbidities such as diabetes. These require special attention during this pandemic to avoid adding on to the burden of countries' healthcare systems.

title: High IL-6/IFN-Î³ ratio could be associated with severe disease in COVID-19 patients

title: Research and Development on Therapeutic Agents and Vaccines for COVID-19 and Related Human Coronavirus Diseases
abstract: Since the outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, this disease has spread rapidly around the globe. Considering the potential threat of a pandemic, scientists and physicians have been racing to understand this new virus and the pathophysiology of this disease to uncover possible treatment regimens and discover effective therapeutic agents and vaccines. To support the current research and development, CAS has produced a special report to provide an overview of published scientific information with an emphasis on patents in the CAS content collection. It highlights antiviral strategies involving small molecules and biologics targeting complex molecular interactions involved in coronavirus infection and replication. The drug-repurposing effort documented herein focuses primarily on agents known to be effective against other RNA viruses including SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. The patent analysis of coronavirusrelated biologics includes therapeutic antibodies, cytokines, and nucleic acid-based therapies targeting virus gene expression as well as various types of vaccines. More than 500 patents disclose methodologies of these four biologics with the potential for treating and preventing coronavirus infections, which may be applicable to COVID-19. The information included in this report provides a strong intellectual groundwork for the ongoing development of therapeutic agents and vaccines.

title: Immune Response, Inflammation, and the Clinical Spectrum of COVID-19
abstract: The current COVID-19 pandemic began in December 2019 in Wuhan (China) and rapidly extended to become a global sanitary and economic emergency. Its etiological agent is the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. COVID-19 presents a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, which ranges from an asymptomatic infection to a severe pneumonia accompanied by multisystemic failure that can lead to a patient's death. The immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is known to involve all the components of the immune system that together appear responsible for viral elimination and recovery from the infection. Nonetheless, such immune responses are implicated in the disease's progression to a more severe and lethal process. This review describes the general aspects of both COVID-19 and its etiological agent SARS-CoV-2, stressing the similarities with other severe coronavirus infections, such as SARS and MERS, but more importantly, pointing toward the evidence supporting the hypothesis that the clinical spectrum of COVID-19 is a consequence of the corresponding variable spectrum of the immune responses to the virus. The critical point where progression of the disease ensues appears to center on loss of the immune regulation between protective and altered responses due to exacerbation of the inflammatory components. Finally, it appears possible to delineate certain major challenges deserving of exhaustive investigation to further understand COVID-19 immunopathogenesis, thus helping to design more effective diagnostic, therapeutic, and prophylactic strategies.

title: Vitamin intervention for cytokine storm in the patients with coronavirus disease 2019

title: Management of inflammatory bowel disease patients in the COVID-19 pandemic era: a Brazilian tertiary referral center guidance
abstract: The world is fighting the COVID-19 outbreak and health workers, including inflammatory bowel diseases specialists, have been challenged to address the specific clinical issues of their patients. We hereby summarize the current literature in the management of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients during the COVID-19 pandemic era that support the rearrangement of our IBD unit and the clinical advice provided to our patients.

title: Distinct and early increase in circulating MMP-9 in COVID-19 patients with respiratory failure

title: Eosinophil Response Against Classical and Emerging Respiratory Viruses: COVID-19.
abstract: Eosinophils were discovered more than 140 years ago. This polymorphonuclear leukocyte has a very active metabolism, containing numerous intracellular secretory granules that allow it exerts multiple functions in both health and disease status. Classically, eosinophils have been considered as important immune cells in the pathogenesis of inflammatory processes such as parasitic helminth infections and allergic or pulmonary diseases like asthma, being always associated to a type 2 immune response; furthermore, in the last years, it has been linked to immune response conferring host protection against fungi, bacteria, and viruses, recognizing them through several molecules such as toll-like receptors (TLRs) or retinoic acid-inducible gene 1 (RIG-1)-like receptor (RLR). The immune protection is exerted through multiple mechanisms and properties of these cells. They contain numerous cytoplasmatic granules that release cationic proteins, cytokines, chemokines and other molecules that contribute to their functions. In addition to their competence as effectors cells, its capabilities like antigen-presenting cell allow them to act in multiple situations promoting diverse aspects of the immune response. This review summarizes diverse aspects of eosinophil biology and mainly, it goes over the mechanisms and roles carried out by eosinophils in host defence against virus infections and vaccines response, focusing the attention in respiratory viruses like the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2.

title: Thrombocytopenia and coagulation disorders due to COVID 19 infection with concomitant cardiovascular diseases requiring anti-platelet and anticoagulant therapy, which strategy?

title: Vascular Life during the COVID-19 Pandemic Reminds Us to Prepare for the Unexpected

title: Smooth or Risky Revisit of an Old Malaria Drug for COVID-19?
abstract: Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is an old medication for malaria. In addition to handling this parasitic disease, HCQ is also used to treat a number of autoimmune disorders including rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus when other medications are not effective. Recently a new viral infection (COVID-19) is rocking the entire world so much that it has already taken more than 200,000 lives throughout the world within the last two months and the World Health Organization was forced to declare it as a pandemic on March 11, 2020. Interestingly, some reports indicate that this wonder drug may be also beneficial for COVID-19 and accordingly, many clinical trials have begun. Here, we discuss different modes of action (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, inhibition of endosomal acidification, suppression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 or ACE2 glycosylation, etc.) of HCQ that might be responsible for its possible anti-COVID-19 effect. On the other hand, this review also makes an honest attempt to delineate mechanisms (increase in vasoconstriction, inhibition of autophagy, depletion of T cells, etc.) indicating how it may aggravate certain conditions and why caution should be taken before granting widespread repurposing of HCQ for COVID-19.

title: Single-cell analysis of severe COVID-19 patients reveals a monocyte-driven inflammatory storm attenuated by Tocilizumab
abstract: Despite the current devastation of the COVID-19 pandemic, several recent studies have suggested that the immunosuppressive drug Tocilizumab can powerfully treating inflammatory responses that occur in this disease. Here, by employing single-cell analysis of the immune cell composition of severe-stage COVID-19 patients and these same patients in post Tocilizumab-treatment remission, we have identified a monocyte subpopulation specific to severe disease that contributes to inflammatory storms in COVID-19 patients. Although Tocilizumab treatment attenuated the strong inflammatory immune response, we found that immune cells including plasma B cells and CD8+ T cells still exhibited an intense humoral and cell-mediated anti-virus immune response in COVID-19 patients after Tocilizumab treatment. Thus, in addition to providing a rich, very high-resolution data resource about the immune cell distribution at multiple stages of the COVID-19 disease, our work both helps explain Tocilizumab’s powerful therapeutic effects and defines a large number of potential new drug targets related to inflammatory storms.

title: Early Insights into Immune Responses during COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the newly emerged virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and was recently declared as a pandemic by the World Health Organization. In its severe form, the disease is characterized by acute respiratory distress syndrome, and there are no targeted intervention strategies to treat or prevent it. The immune response is thought to both contribute to the pathogenesis of disease and provide protection during its resolution. Thus, understanding the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is of the utmost importance for developing and testing vaccines and therapeutics. In this review, we discuss the earliest knowledge and hypotheses of the mechanisms of immune pathology in the lung during acute infection as well at the later stages of disease resolution, recovery, and immune memory formation.

title: Obesity and COVID-19: immune and metabolic derangement as a possible link to adverse clinical outcomes
abstract: Recent reports have shown a strong association between obesity and the severity of COVID-19 infection, even in the absence of other comorbidities. After infecting the host cells, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) may cause a hyperinflammatory reaction through the excessive release of cytokines, a condition known as “cytokine storm,” while inducing lymphopenia and a disrupted immune response. Obesity is associated with chronic low-grade inflammation and immune dysregulation, but the exact mechanisms through which it exacerbates COVID-19 infection are not fully clarified. The production of increased amounts of cytokines such as TNFα, IL-1, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1) lead to oxidative stress and defective function of innate and adaptive immunity, whereas the activation of NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome seems to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of the infection. Endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffness could favor the recently discovered infection of the endothelium by SARS-CoV-2, whereas alterations in cardiac structure and function and the prothrombotic microenvironment in obesity could provide a link for the increased cardiovascular events in these patients. The successful use of anti-inflammatory agents such as IL-1 and IL-6 blockers in similar hyperinflammatory settings, like that of rheumatoid arthritis, has triggered the discussion of whether such agents could be administrated in selected patients with COVID-19 disease.

title: Functional alteration of innate T cells in critically ill Covid-19 patients
abstract: Covid-19 can induce lung infection ranging from mild pneumonia to life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Dysregulated host immune response in the lung is a key feature in ARDS pathophysiology. However, cellular actors in Covid-19-driven ARDS are poorly understood. Here, we dynamically analyzed the biology of innate T cells, a heterogeneous class (MAIT, {gamma}{delta}T and iNKT cells) of T lymphocytes, presenting potent anti-infective and regulatory functions. Patients presented a compartmentalized lung inflammation paralleled with a limited systemic inflammation. Circulating innate T cells of critically ill Covid-19 patients presented a profound and persistent phenotypic and functional alteration. Highly activated innate T cells were detected in airways of patients suggesting a recruitment to the inflamed site and a potential contribution in the regulation of the local inflammation. Finally, the expression of the CD69 activation marker on blood iNKT and MAIT cells at inclusion was predictive of disease severity. Thus, patients present an altered innate T cell biology that may account for the dysregulated immune response observed in Covid-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome.

title: Macrophages of multiple sclerosis patients display deficient SHP-1 expression and enhanced inflammatory phenotype
abstract: Recent studies in mice have demonstrated that the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of pro-inflammatory cytokine signaling, TLR signaling, and inflammatory gene expression. Furthermore, mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display a profound susceptibility to inflammatory CNS demyelination relative to wild type mice. In particular, SHP-1 deficiency may act predominantly in inflammatory macrophages to increase CNS demyelination as SHP-1-deficient macrophages display co-expression of inflammatory effector molecules and increased demyelinating activity in me/me mice. Recently, we reported that PBMCs of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients have a deficiency in SHP-1 expression relative to normal control subjects indicating that SHP-1 deficiency may play a similar role in MS as to that seen in mice. Therefore, it became essential to examine the specific expression and function of SHP-1 in macrophages from MS patients. Herein, we document that macrophages of MS patients have deficient SHP-1 protein and mRNA expression relative to those of normal control subjects. To examine functional consequences of the lower SHP-1, the activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-κB was quantified and macrophages of MS patients showed increased activation of these transcription factors. In accordance with this observation, several STAT6-, STAT1-, and NF-κB-responsive genes that mediate inflammatory demyelination were increased in macrophages of MS patients following cytokine and TLR agonist stimulation. Supporting a direct role of SHP-1 deficiency in altered macrophage function, experimental depletion of SHP-1 in normal subject macrophages resulted in an increased STAT/NF-κB activation and increased inflammatory gene expression to levels seen in macrophages of MS patients. In conclusion, macrophages of MS patients display a deficiency of SHP-1 expression, heightened activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-κB and a corresponding inflammatory profile that may be important in controlling macrophage-mediated demyelination in MS.

title: ELM—the database of eukaryotic linear motifs
abstract: Linear motifs are short, evolutionarily plastic components of regulatory proteins and provide low-affinity interaction interfaces. These compact modules play central roles in mediating every aspect of the regulatory functionality of the cell. They are particularly prominent in mediating cell signaling, controlling protein turnover and directing protein localization. Given their importance, our understanding of motifs is surprisingly limited, largely as a result of the difficulty of discovery, both experimentally and computationally. The Eukaryotic Linear Motif (ELM) resource at http://elm.eu.org provides the biological community with a comprehensive database of known experimentally validated motifs, and an exploratory tool to discover putative linear motifs in user-submitted protein sequences. The current update of the ELM database comprises 1800 annotated motif instances representing 170 distinct functional classes, including approximately 500 novel instances and 24 novel classes. Several older motif class entries have been also revisited, improving annotation and adding novel instances. Furthermore, addition of full-text search capabilities, an enhanced interface and simplified batch download has improved the overall accessibility of the ELM data. The motif discovery portion of the ELM resource has added conservation, and structural attributes have been incorporated to aid users to discriminate biologically relevant motifs from stochastically occurring non-functional instances.

title: MICROVASCULAR THROMBOSIS: EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
abstract: A significant amount of clinical and research interest in thrombosis is focused on large vessels (e.g., stroke, myocardial infarction, deep venous thrombosis, etc.); however, thrombosis is often present in the microcirculation in a variety of significant human diseases, such as disseminated intravascular coagulation, thrombotic microangiopathy, sickle cell disease, and others. Further, microvascular thrombosis has recently been demonstrated in patients with COVID-19, and has been proposed to mediate the pathogenesis of organ injury in this disease. In many of these conditions, microvascular thrombosis is accompanied by inflammation, an association referred to as thromboinflammation. In this review, we discuss endogenous regulatory mechanisms that prevent thrombosis in the microcirculation, experimental approaches to induce microvascular thrombi, and clinical conditions associated with microvascular thrombosis. A greater understanding of the links between inflammation and thrombosis in the microcirculation is anticipated to provide optimal therapeutic targets for patients with diseases accompanied by microvascular thrombosis.

title: Analysis of Genetic Host Response Risk Factors in Severe COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Epidemiological studies indicate that as many as 20% of individuals who test positive for COVID-19 develop severe symptoms that can require hospitalization. These symptoms include low platelet count, severe hypoxia, increased inflammatory cytokines and reduced glomerular filtration rate. Additionally, severe COVID-19 is associated with several chronic co-morbidities, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The identification of genetic risk factors that impact differential host responses to SARS-CoV-2, resulting in the development of severe COVID-19, is important in gaining greater understanding into the biological mechanisms underpinning life-threatening responses to the virus. These insights could be used in the identification of high-risk individuals and for the development of treatment strategies for these patients.  As of June 6, 2020, there were 976 patients who tested positive for COVID-19 and were hospitalized, indicating they had a severe response to SARS-CoV-2. There were however too few patients with a mild form of COVID-19 to use this cohort as our control population. Instead we used similar control criteria to our previous study looking at shared genetic risk factors between severe COVID-19 and sepsis, selecting controls who had not developed sepsis despite having maximum co-morbidity risk and exposure to sepsis-causing pathogens.  Using a combinatorial (high-order epistasis) analysis approach, we identified 68 protein-coding genes that were highly associated with severe COVID-19. At the time of analysis, nine of these genes have been linked to differential response to SARS-CoV-2. We also found many novel targets that are involved in key biological pathways associated with the development of severe COVID-19, including production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, endothelial cell dysfunction, lipid droplets, neurodegeneration and viral susceptibility factors.  The variants we found in genes relating to immune response pathways and cytokine production cascades, were in equal proportions across all severe COVID-19 patients, regardless of their co-morbidities. This suggests that such variants are not associated with any specific co-morbidity, but are common amongst patients who develop severe COVID-19. Among the 68 severe COVID-19 risk-associated genes, we found several druggable protein targets and pathways. Nine are targeted by drugs that have reached at least Phase I clinical trials, and a further eight have active chemical starting points for novel drug development. Several of these targets were particularly enriched in specific co-morbidities, providing insights into shared pathological mechanisms underlying both the development of severe COVID-19, ARDS and these predisposing co-morbidities. We can use these insights to identify patients who are at greatest risk of contracting severe COVID-19 and develop targeted therapeutic strategies for them, with the aim of improving disease burden and survival rates.

title: T-cell hyperactivation and paralysis in severe COVID-19 infection revealed by single-cell analysis
abstract: Severe COVID-19 patients can show respiratory failure, T-cell reduction, and cytokine release syndrome (CRS), which can be fatal in both young and aged patients and is a major concern of the pandemic. However, the pathogenetic mechanisms of CRS in COVID-19 are poorly understood. Here we show single cell-level mechanisms for T-cell dysregulation in severe SARS-CoV-2 infection, and thereby demonstrate the mechanisms underlying T-cell hyperactivation and paralysis in severe COVID-19 patients. By in silico sorting CD4+ T-cells from a single cell RNA-seq dataset, we found that CD4+ T-cells were highly activated and showed unique differentiation pathways in the lung of severe COVID-19 patients. Notably, those T-cells in severe COVID-19 patients highly expressed immunoregulatory receptors and CD25, whilst repressing the expression of the transcription factor FOXP3 and interestingly, both the differentiation of regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and Th17 was inhibited. Meanwhile, highly activated CD4+ T-cells express PD-1 alongside macrophages that express PD-1 ligands in severe patients, suggesting that PD-1-mediated immunoregulation was partially operating. Furthermore, we show that CD25+ hyperactivated T-cells differentiate into multiple helper T-cell lineages, showing multifaceted effector T-cells with Th1 and Th2 characteristics. Lastly, we show that CD4+ T-cells, particularly CD25-expressing hyperactivated T-cells, produce the protease Furin, which facilitates the viral entry of SARS-CoV-2. Collectively, CD4+ T-cells from severe COVID-19 patients are hyperactivated and FOXP3-mediated negative feedback mechanisms are impaired in the lung, while activated CD4+ T-cells continue to promote further viral infection through the production of Furin. Therefore, our study proposes a new model of T-cell hyperactivation and paralysis that drives pulmonary damage, systemic CRS and organ failure in severe COVID-19 patients.

title: Coronavirus (COVID-19) Infection-Induced Chilblains: A Brisk Perieccrine Inflammatory Response.
abstract: The varying cutaneous and pathological manifestations of coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19) may have prognostic implications. Acral ischemic findings present with a hypercoagulable state in critically ill COVID-19 patients. Pathologically confirmed varicella-like exanthem and perniosis COVID-19 cases have correlated with paucisymptomatic and asymptomatic patients in previous reports. We present the second case of biopsy-proven COVID-19 infection-induced chilblains (pernio) in a paucisymptomatic patient with a brisk perieccrine lymphocytic response. Based on an antecedent pathological study, we know coronavirus particles have been seen in the eccrine gland associated with a brisk peri-inflammatory response. The prominent perieccrine inflammation is helpful in the diagnosis of COVID-19 infections. Currently, nonischemic pathological findings correlate with a good prognosis based on the paucisymptomatic or asymptomatic nature of their disease courses. Patients presenting with suspected COVID-19 infection-induced chilblains who are paucisymptomatic or asymptomatic should be isolated and immediately tested with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing (as there is a delay in diagnosis based on the poor sensitivity of the current rapid test). We continue to stress the importance of early diagnosis and quarantining to prevent spread to the older and immunocompromised patients.

title: Global epidemiology, pathogenesis, immune response, diagnosis, treatment, economic and psychological impact, challenges, and future prevention of COVID-19: A scoping review
abstract: Globally, the novel coronavirus, is a public health problem causing respiratory infections. Since the outbreak of severe acute and Middle East respiratory syndromes coronavirus was not reported to cause human infections. Now, it become an epidemic proportion with growing number of cases and deaths.  A scoping review was conducted following the methodological framework. In this scoping review, 50 records published before 28 March, 2020 were included and discussed to better understand the current epidemiology, pathogenesis, immunological response, diagnosis, evasion mechanisms and suggested strategies to boost the immune system, challenges, treatment, and future preventions of the virus. PubMed, BioRxiv, MedRxiv, Global Health and google scholars were searched comprehensively for articles, preprints, grey literatures, reports, websites, conference proceedings and expert information. Studies conducted in human and published in the English language were included in the analysis. All the findings and statements of the review regarding the outbreak are based on published information as listed in citations.  We identified 360 records, of which 50 studies met the inclusion criteria. We synthesized the data from the included records and dig out the deep insights of them and pooled into this review. The burden of the outbreak is worsening due to overcrowding, presence of asymptomatic carriers, scarcity of test kits, the immune escaping ability of the virus and lack of awareness.  Due to the fast-spreading nature of COVID-19 the prevention and control strategies become challenging. It is imposing social, psychological, and socio-economic impacts. We recommended that following social distancing, isolation suspects, using personal protective equipment, health education and introducing handwashing practices, avoiding contact with animals, vaccine development and treatment for controlling and prevention.

title: The COVID-19 Pandemic during the Time of the Diabetes Pandemic: Likely Fraternal Twins?
abstract: An altered immune response to pathogens has been suggested to explain increased susceptibility to infectious diseases in patients with diabetes. Recent evidence has documented several immunometabolic pathways in patients with diabetes directly related to the COVID-19 infection. This also seems to be the case for prediabetic subjects with proinflammatory insulin resistance syndrome accompanied with prothrombotic hyperinsulinemic and dysglycemic states. Patients with frank hyperglycemia, dysglycemia and/or hyperinsulinemia develop systemic immunometabolic inflammation with higher levels of circulating cytokines. This deleterious scenario has been proposed as the underlying mechanism enhancing a cytokine storm-like hyperinflammatory state in diabetics infected with severe COVID-19 triggering multi-organ failure. Compared with moderately affected COVID-19 patients, diabetes was found to be highly prevalent among severely affected patients suggesting that this non-communicable disease should be considered as a risk factor for adverse outcomes. The COVID-19 pandemic mirrors with the diabetes pandemic in many pathobiological aspects. Our interest is to emphasize the ties between the immunoinflammatory mechanisms that underlie the morbidity and lethality when COVID-19 meets diabetes. This review brings attention to two pathologies of highly complex, multifactorial, developmental and environmentally dependent manifestations of critical importance to human survival. Extreme caution should be taken with diabetics with suspected symptoms of COVID-19 infection.

title: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the Central Nervous System
abstract: Emerging evidence indicates that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiologic agent of COVID-19, can cause neurological complications. We provide a brief overview of these recent observations and discuss some of their possible implications. In particular, given the global dimension of the current pandemic, we highlight the need to consider the possible long-term impact of COVID-19, potentially including neurological and neurodegenerative disorders.

title: Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is characterized by distinct patterns of disease progression suggesting diverse host immune responses We performed an integrated immune analysis on a cohort of 50 COVID-19 patients with various disease severity A unique phenotype was observed in severe and critical patients, consisting of a highly impaired interferon (IFN) type I response (characterized by no IFN-β and low IFN-α production and activity), associated with a persistent blood viral load and an exacerbated inflammatory response Inflammation was partially driven by the transcriptional factor NF-κB and characterized by increased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 production and signaling These data suggest that type-I IFN deficiency in the blood could be a hallmark of severe COVID-19 and provide a rationale for combined therapeutic approaches

title: Selectins and Associated Adhesion Proteins in Inflammatory disorders
abstract: Inflammation is defined as the normal response of living tissue to injury or infection. It is important to emphasize two components of this definition. First, that inflammation is a normal response and, as such, is expected to occur when tissue is damaged. Infact, if injured tissue does not exhibit signs of inflammation this would be considered abnormal and wounds and infections would never heal without inflammation. Secondly, inflammation occurs in living tissue, hence there is need for an adequate blood supply to the tissues in order to exhibit an inflammatory response. The inflammatory response may be triggered by mechanical injury, chemical toxins, and invasion by microorganisms, and hypersensitivity reactions. Three major events occur during the inflammatory response: the blood supply to the affected area is increased substantially, capillary permeability is increased, and leucocytes migrate from the capillary vessels into the surrounding interstitial spaces to the site of inflammation or injury. The inflammatory response represents a complex biological and biochemical process involving cells of the immune system and a plethora of biological mediators. Cell-to-cell communication molecules such as cytokines play an extremely important role in mediating the process of inflammation. Inflammation and platelet activation are critical phenomena in the setting of acute coronary syndromes. An extensive exposition of this complex phenomenon is beyond the scope of this article (Rankin 2004).

title: Inhaled innate immune ligands to prevent pneumonia.
abstract: Epithelial surfaces throughout the body continuously sample and respond to environmental stimuli. The accessibility of lung epithelium to inhaled therapies makes it possible to stimulate local antimicrobial defences with aerosolized innate immune ligands. This strategy has been shown to be effective in preclinical models, as delivery of innate immune ligands to the lungs of laboratory animals results in protection from subsequent challenge with microbial pathogens. Survival of the animal host in this setting correlates directly with killing of pathogens within the lungs, indicating the induction of a resistance mechanism. Resistance appears to be mediated primarily by activated epithelial cells rather than recruited leucocytes. Resistance reaches a peak within hours and persists for several days. Innate immune ligands can interact synergistically under some circumstances, and synergistic combinations of innate ligands delivered by aerosol are capable of inducing a high level of broad host resistance to bacteria, fungi and viruses. The induction of innate antimicrobial resistance within the lungs could have clinical applications in the prevention of lower respiratory tract infection in subjects transiently at high risk. These include cancer patients undergoing myeloablative chemotherapy, intubated patients being mechanically ventilated, vulnerable individuals during seasonal influenza epidemics, asthmatic subjects experiencing a respiratory viral infection, and healthy subjects exposed to virulent pathogens from a bioterror attack or emergent pandemic. In summary, stimulation of the lung epithelium to induce localized resistance to infection is a novel strategy whose clinical utility will be assessed in the near future.

title: COVID-19 Psychosis: A Potential New Neuropsychiatric Condition Triggered by Novel Coronavirus Infection and the Inflammatory Response?

title: Exercise-induced immune system response: Anti-inflammatory status on peripheral and central organs
abstract: A wide array of molecular pathways has been investigated during the past decade in order to understand the mechanisms by which the practice of physical exercise promotes neuroprotection and reduces the risk of developing communicable and non-communicable chronic diseases. While a single session of physical exercise may induce a transient imbalance of cell homeostasis, repeated physical exercise sessions will improve immunosurveillance and immunocompetence. Additionally, immune cells from the central nervous system will acquire an anti-inflammatory phenotype, protecting central functions from age-induced cognitive decline. This review highlights the exercise-induced anti-inflammatory effect on the prevention or treatment of common chronic clinical and experimental settings. It also suggests the use of pterins in biological fluids as sensitive biomarkers to follow the anti-inflammatory effect of physical exercise.

title: A longitudinal study of immune cells in severe COVID-19 patients.
abstract: Little is known about the time-dependent immune responses in severe COVID-19. Data of 15 consecutive patients were sequentially recorded from intensive care unit admission. Lymphocyte subsets and total monocyte and subsets counts were monitored as well as the expression of HLA-DR. For 5 patients, SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell polyfunctionality was assessed against Spike and Nucleoprotein SARS-CoV-2 peptides. Non-specific inflammation markers were increased in all patients. Median monocyte HLA-DR expression was below the 8,000 AB/C threshold defining acquired immunodepression. A V trend curve for lymphopenia, monocyte numbers, and HLA-DR expression was observed with a nadir between days 11-14 after the onset of symptoms. Intermediate CD14++CD16+ monocytes increased early with a reduction in classic CD14++CD16- monocytes. Polyfunctional SARS-Cov-2-specific CD4 T-cells were present and functional, whereas virus-specific CD8 T-cells were less frequent and not efficient. We report a temporal variation of both innate and adaptive immunity in severe COVID-19 patients, helpful in guiding therapeutic decisions (e.g. anti-inflammatory vs. immunostimulatory ones). We describe a defect in virus-specific CD8 T-cells, a potential biomarker of clinical severity. These combined data also provide helpful knowledge for vaccine design.

title: Baricitinib: A review of pharmacology, safety and emerging clinical experience in COVID-19
abstract: A hyperinflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, reminiscent of cytokine release syndrome, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome and organ damage in patients with COVID-19. Agents that inhibit components of the pro-inflammatory cascade have garnered interest as potential treatment options with hopes that dampening the pro-inflammatory process may improve clinical outcomes. Baricitinib is a reversible Janus-associated kinase (JAK)-inhibitor that interrupts the signaling of multiple cytokines implicated in COVID-19 immunopathology. It may also have antiviral effects by targeting host factors that viruses rely for cell entry and by suppressing type I interferon driven angiotensin-converting-enzyme-2 up regulation. However, baricitinib's immunosuppressive effects may be detrimental during acute viral infections by delaying viral clearance and increasing vulnerability to secondary opportunistic infections. The lack of reliable biomarkers to monitor patients' immune status as illness evolves complicates deployment of immunosuppressive drugs like baricitinib. Furthermore, baricitinib carries the risk of increased thromboembolic events which is concerning given the proclivity towards a hyper-coagulable state in COVID-19 patients. In this article we review available data on baricitinib with an emphasis on immunosuppressive and antiviral pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, safety and current progress in COVID-19 clinical trials.

title: Eosinophil Response Against Classical and Emerging Respiratory Viruses: COVID-19
abstract: Eosinophils were discovered more than 140 years ago. This polymorphonuclear leukocyte has a very active metabolism, containing numerous intracellular secretory granules that allow it exerts multiple functions in both health and disease status. Classically, eosinophils have been considered as important immune cells in the pathogenesis of inflammatory processes such as parasitic helminth infections and allergic or pulmonary diseases like asthma, being always associated to a type 2 immune response; furthermore, in the last years, it has been linked to immune response conferring host protection against fungi, bacteria, and viruses, recognizing them through several molecules such as toll-like receptors (TLRs) or retinoic acid-inducible gene 1 (RIG-1)-like receptor (RLR). The immune protection is exerted through multiple mechanisms and properties of these cells. They contain numerous cytoplasmatic granules that release cationic proteins, cytokines, chemokines and other molecules that contribute to their functions. In addition to their competence as effectors cells, its capabilities like antigen-presenting cell allow them to act in multiple situations promoting diverse aspects of the immune response. This review summarizes diverse aspects of eosinophil biology and mainly, it goes over the mechanisms and roles carried out by eosinophils in host defence against virus infections and vaccines response, focusing the attention in respiratory viruses like the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2.

title: Broad-spectrum antiviral activity of naproxen: from Influenza A to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus
abstract: There is an urgent need for specific antiviral drugs directed against SARS-CoV-2 both to prevent the most severe forms of COVID-19 and to reduce viral excretion and subsequent virus dissemination; in the present pandemic context, drug repurposing is a priority. Targeting the nucleoprotein N of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in order to inhibit its association with viral RNA could be a strategy to impeding viral replication and possibly other essential functions associated with viral N. The antiviral properties of naproxen, belonging to the NSAID family, previously demonstrated against Influenza A virus, were evaluated against SARS-CoV-2. Naproxen binding to the nucleoprotein of SARS-CoV2 was shown by molecular modeling. In VeroE6 cells and reconstituted human primary respiratory epithelium models of SARS-CoV-2 infection, naproxen inhibited viral replication and protected the bronchial epithelia against SARS-CoV-2 induced-damage. The benefit of naproxen addition to the standard of care is tested in an on-going clinical study.

title: Managing Patients with Multiple Myeloma during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Recommendations from an Expert Panel – ABHH Monoclonal Gammopathies Committe
abstract: Since the World has been facing the COVID-19 pandemic, special attention has been taken concerning cancer patients; related to their immunosuppression status, adding risk for more aggressive COVID-19 and mortality, but also concerns about the access and the quality of care in cancer therapy. The COVID-19 pandemic impacts the number of infected, its related mortality, as well as the care of cancer patients. Multiple myeloma patients are a particular group with several important aspects to be considered during pandemic times. In essence, they are immunosuppressed in different intensities during their treatment. Most of them are elderly and all of them require long-term therapy, with prolonged contact with the health care system, possibly including a stem cell transplant during the treatment. A panel of experts in multiple myeloma and infectious diseases discusses pieces of evidence and the lack of the same in the scenario of COVID-19 in myeloma patients, while also exposing what is expected for the next phases of the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: The in vitro effect of pH on osteoclasts and bone resorption in the cat: Implications for the pathogenesis of FORL
abstract: Dental disease due to osteoclast over‐activity reaches epidemic proportions in older domestic cats and has also been reported in wild cats. Feline osteoclastic resorptive lesions (FORL) involve extensive resorption of the tooth leaving it liable to root fracture and subsequent tooth loss. The aetio‐pathogenesis of FORL is not known. Recent work has shown that systemic acidosis causes increased osteoclast activation and that loci of infection or inflammation in cat mouth are likely to be acidotic. To investigate this, we generated osteoclasts from cat blood and found that they formed in large numbers (∼400) in cultures on bovine cortical bone slices. Acidosis caused an increase in the size of cells—in cultures maintained up to 14 days at basal pH 7.25, mean osteoclast area was 0.01 ± 0.003 mm(2), whereas an 8.6‐fold increase was observed in cells cultured between 11 and 14 days at pH 7.15 (0.086 ± 0.004 mm(2)). Acidosis caused a modest increase in the number of osteoclasts. Exposure to pH 6.92 exhibited a 5‐fold increase in the area of bone slices covered by resorption lacunae (∼70% bone slice resorbed). In line with this finding, significant increases were observed in the expression of cathepsin K and proton pump enzymes (both approximately 3‐fold) that are key enzymes reflective of resorptive activity in osteoclasts. These results demonstrate that acidosis is a major regulator of osteoclast formation and functional activation in the cat, and suggest that local pH changes may play a significant role in the pathogenesis of FORL.

title: Role of oxidized LDL-induced “trained macrophages” in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and benefits of pioglitazone: A hypothesis
abstract: Older adults and people who have cardiovascular disorders (their common pathogenetic mechanism is progressive atherosclerosis) are at higher risk for severe illness from COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019). Their common pathogenetic mechanism is progressive atherosclerosis in which oxLDL (oxidized LDL) plays major role. Receptor-mediated uptake of oxLDL by the monocyte-derived macrophages activates the long-term epigenetic reprogramming of innate immunity, which is termed “trained immunity.” The aim of this work is to investigate the mechanisms and treatment possibilities that can control the activities of these specific macrophages.  Search in Medline and PubMed relevant articles on the trained immunity and cytokine storm of COVID-19.  When oxLDL-trained macrophages encounter SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) in the lung, it causes unregulated cytokine secretion, leading to the alveolar damage. Therefore, blocking macrophage training by pioglitazone, a thiazolidinedione, could control the hyperactivation that the virus would trigger.

title: A fast and simple one-step duplex PCR assay for canine distemper virus (CDV) and canine coronavirus (CCoV) detection
abstract: The one-step polymerase chain reaction (one-step PCR) detection assay is an innovative PCR detection method, eliminating nucleic acid extraction steps, in which samples can be directly added to PCR reagents for testing. For simultaneous detection of CDV and CCoV, a sensitive and specific one-step duplex PCR (one-step dPCR) assay was developed with two pairs of primers that were designed based on H and M gene sequences of CDV and CCoV, respectively. The one-step dPCR with optimized detection conditions has high specificity and sensitivity; independent sequencing assays further verified these results.

title: Coronavirus induced primary demyelination: indications for the involvement of a humoral immune response
abstract: Coronavirus MHV‐JHM infection of rodents can result in demyelinating encephalomyelitis. We analysed histological changes induced by coronavirus MHV‐JHM infection in Lewis rats. Besides an acute disease (AE), chronic panencephalitis (CPE) and subacute demyelinating encephalomyelitis (SDE) were induced. These disease types were differentiated by the incubation period, the localization of lesions, the type of tissue damage and distribution of virus antigen. In AE and CPE, virus antigen was detected in neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, whereas in SDE neurons lacked virus antigen. Viral nucleocapsid protein (N) was present in the cytoplasm and the spike protein (S) was displayed on the surface of infected neural cells. However, expression of S protein relative to N protein was severely impaired in SDE lesions. Quantitative analysis of infiltrating inflammatory cells revealed that the number of macrophages and T cells were similar in lesions of AE, CPE and SDE. In contrast to that, SDE lesions contained a significantly higher number of IgG† B cells and plasma cells. In addition active demyelinating SDE lesions displayed an enhanced IgG content and deposits of complement C9. These results indicate that virus induced primary demyelination could be a consequence of antibody mediated cytotoxicity. Furthermore, a reduction in the number of cells producing spike protein in the chronic forms of the disease indicates down‐regulation of this protein, possibly mediated by anti‐S antibodies.

title: Cardiological Society of India: Document on Acute MI care during COVID-19
abstract: The unprecedented and rapidly spreading Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic has challenged public health care systems globally. Based on worldwide experience, India has initiated a nationwide lockdown to prevent the exponential surge of cases. During COVID-19, management of cardiovascular emergencies like acute Myocardial Infarction (MI) may be compromised. Cardiological Society of India (CSI) has ventured in this moment of crisis to evolve a consensus document for care of acute MI. However, this care should be individualized, based on local expertise and governmental advisories.

title: Doctors race to understand inflammatory condition in kids.

title: Mechanism of Dayuanyin in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 based on network pharmacology and molecular docking
abstract: At present, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, is spreading all over the world, with disastrous consequences for people of all countries. The traditional Chinese medicine prescription Dayuanyin (DYY), a classic prescription for the treatment of plague, has shown significant effects in the treatment of COVID-19. However, its specific mechanism of action has not yet been clarified. This study aims to explore the mechanism of action of DYY in the treatment of COVID-19 with the hope of providing a theoretical basis for its clinical application.  First, the TCMSP database was searched to screen the active ingredients and corresponding target genes of the DYY prescription and to further identify the core compounds in the active ingredient. Simultaneously, the Genecards database was searched to identify targets related to COVID-19. Then, the STRING database was applied to analyse protein–protein interaction, and Cytoscape software was used to draw a network diagram. The R language and DAVID database were used to analyse GO biological processes and KEGG pathway enrichment. Second, AutoDock Vina and other software were used for molecular docking of core targets and core compounds. Finally, before and after application of DYY, the core target gene IL6 of COVID-19 patients was detected by ELISA to validate the clinical effects.  First, 174 compounds, 7053 target genes of DYY and 251 genes related to COVID-19 were selected, among which there were 45 target genes of DYY associated with treatment of COVID-19. This study demonstrated that the use of DYY in the treatment of COVID-19 involved a variety of biological processes, and DYY acted on key targets such as IL6, ILIB, and CCL2 through signaling pathways such as the IL-17 signaling pathway, AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, and cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction. DYY might play a vital role in treating COVID-19 by suppressing the inflammatory storm and regulating immune function. Second, the molecular docking results showed that there was a certain affinity between the core compounds (kaempferol, quercetin, 7-Methoxy-2-methyl isoflavone, naringenin, formononetin) and core target genes (IL6, IL1B, CCL2). Finally, clinical studies showed that the level of IL6 was elevated in COVID-19 patients, and DYY can reduce its levels.  DYY may treat COVID-19 through multiple targets, multiple channels, and multiple pathways and is worthy of clinical application and promotion.

title: Reducing mortality and morbidity in patients with severe COVID-19 disease by advancing ongoing trials of Mesenchymal Stromal (stem) Cell (MSC) therapy - achieving global consensus and visibility for cellular host-directed therapies
abstract: As of May 11th 2020, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused 274,361 deaths out of 3,917,366 (7% case fatality rate). As with the two other novel coronavirus zoonotic diseases of humans, SARS and MERS, no specific treatments for reducing mortality or morbidity are yet available. Deaths from COVID-19 will continue to rise globally until effective and appropriate treatments and vaccines are found. With no specific treatments being available for treating COVID-19 patients, the global medical, scientific, pharma and funding communities have rapidly initiated over 500 COVID-19 clinical on a range of antiviral drug regimens, biologics, repurposed drugs in various combinations. We focus this editorial specifically on the background to, and the rationale for, the use and evaluation of mesenchymal stromal (Stem) cells (MSCs) in treatment trials of patients with severe COVID-19 disease. This is an area which has been eclipsed by the current emphasis the huge number of trials evaluating new anti-viral drugs, repurposed drugs and combinations thereof. MSCs should also be trialed for treatment of severe cases of MERS where mortality rates are upto 34% and MERS-CoV remains a WHO priority Blueprint pathogen. It’s about time funding agencies now invest more into development MSCs per se and other host-directed therapies in combination with other therapeutic interventions. MSC therapy could turn out to be an important contribution to bringing an end to the high COVID-19 and MERS death rates.

title: Current pharmacological treatments for COVID-19: What's next?
abstract: Since December 2019 SARS-Cov-2 was found responsible for the disease COVID-19, which has spread worldwide. No specific therapies/vaccines are yet available for the treatment of COVID-19. Drug repositioning may offer a strategy and a number of drugs have been repurposed, including lopinavir/ritonavir, remdesivir, favipiravir and tocilizumab. This paper describes the main pharmacological properties of such drugs administered to patients with COVID-19, focusing on their antiviral, immune-modulatory and/or anti-inflammatory actions. Where available, data from clinical trials involving patients with COVID-19 are reported. Preliminary clinical trials seem to support their benefit. However, such drugs in COVID-19 patients have peculiar safety profiles. Thus, adequate clinical trials are necessary for these compounds. Nevertheless, while waiting for effective preventive measures i.e. vaccines, many clinical trials on drugs belonging to different therapeutic classes are currently underway. Their results will help us in defining the best way to treat COVID-19 and reducing its symptoms and complications.

title: Strengthening the Immune System and Reducing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress through Diet and Nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 Crisis
abstract: The coronavirus-disease 2019 (COVID-19) was announced as a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. Challenges arise concerning how to optimally support the immune system in the general population, especially under self-confinement. An optimal immune response depends on an adequate diet and nutrition in order to keep infection at bay. For example, sufficient protein intake is crucial for optimal antibody production. Low micronutrient status, such as of vitamin A or zinc, has been associated with increased infection risk. Frequently, poor nutrient status is associated with inflammation and oxidative stress, which in turn can impact the immune system. Dietary constituents with especially high anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacity include vitamin C, vitamin E, and phytochemicals such as carotenoids and polyphenols. Several of these can interact with transcription factors such as NF-kB and Nrf-2, related to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, respectively. Vitamin D in particular may perturb viral cellular infection via interacting with cell entry receptors (angiotensin converting enzyme 2), ACE2. Dietary fiber, fermented by the gut microbiota into short-chain fatty acids, has also been shown to produce anti-inflammatory effects. In this review, we highlight the importance of an optimal status of relevant nutrients to effectively reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, thereby strengthening the immune system during the COVID-19 crisis.

title: Immunologic Features in Coronavirus Disease 2019: Functional Exhaustion of T Cells and Cytokine Storm

title: Inflammation is a major regulator of drug metabolizing enzymes and transporters: Consequences for the personalization of drug treatment
abstract: Inflammation is an evolutionary process that allows survival against acute infection or injury. Inflammation is also a pathophysiological condition shared by numerous chronic diseases. In addition, inflammation modulates important drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters (DMETs), thus contributing to intra- and interindividual variability of drug exposure. A better knowledge of the impact of inflammation on drug metabolism and its related clinical consequences would help to personalize drug treatment. Here, we summarize the kinetics of inflammatory mediators and the underlying transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms by which they contribute to the inhibition of important DMETs. We also present an updated overview of the effect of inflammation on the pharmacokinetic parameters of most of the drugs that are DMET substrates, for which therapeutic drug monitoring is recommended. Furthermore, we provide opinions on how to integrate the inflammatory status into pharmacogenetics, therapeutic drug monitoring, and population pharmacokinetic strategies to improve the personalization of drug treatment for each patient.

title: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Treatment of the Common Cold
abstract: Reading this article will reinforce the reader's knowledge of the pathogenesis of the common cold. The rationale for current and potential therapies for the common cold are reviewed in the context of current concepts of the pathogenesis of these illnesses. Data sources and study selection A MEDLINE literature search was done using the search terms common cold, rhinovirus, and viral respiratory infection. The search was restricted to the English language. Articles were selected for review if the title and/or abstract suggested the content was relevant to the subject of this review. The bibliographies of selected articles were used as a source of additional literature.  Recent studies suggest that the host response to the virus is an important contributor to the pathogenesis of the common cold. Inflammatory mediators, especially the pro-inflammatory cytokines, appear to be an important component of this response and present an attractive target for new interventions for common cold therapies. Currently available treatments for the common cold have limited efficacy against specific symptoms. These therapies should be selected to treat the specific symptoms that are perceived to be the most bothersome by the patient.

title: Towards treatment planning of COVID-19: Rationale and hypothesis for the use of multiple immunosuppressive agents: Anti-antibodies, immunoglobulins, and corticosteroids
abstract: The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV2, can cause a potentially fatal disease, COVID-19, in humans. Here, we will provide an overview of therapeutic options for COVID-19. Plasma from patients recovered from COVID-19 that contains antibodies against SARS-CoV2 has shown promising results in patients with severe COVID-19. Also, IVIG, combined with moderate-dose of corticosteroids, might improve patient outcomes. Evidence links COVID-19 to variable degrees of inflammation. Studies show that the use of corticosteroids might accelerate recovery from COVID-19. There are, however, no controlled clinical trials that show whether the use of corticosteroids can reduce COVID-19-related death. Also, the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL6 is the best-documented cytokine in COVID-19 correlated with severity, criticality, viral load, and prognosis of patients with COVID-19. Tocilizumab, a monoclonal antibody against IL6, could confer clinical benefit in patients with high IL6 levels. Essential elements that process SARS-CoV2 cell entry and specific characteristics that allow SARS-CoV2 to escape the immune system have the potential as targets for COVID-19 therapy.

title: Production of Functionally Active Recombinant HLA Molecules Representing the Supertypes B62 and B58 and the Generation of Corresponding Peptide‐Binding Assays and Tetramers
abstract: Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules monitor the protein content of the cell by binding small derived peptides and presenting them to cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells. The goal of the human MHC project is to predict the binding strength of any given peptide/MHC complex. This prediction allows the design of peptide‐based vaccines. The prediction requires representative binding data from MHC alleles from all the nine HLA supertypes. Here, we describe the genetic construction, protein production and purification as well as the establishment‐binding assays for two recombinant MHC supertype alleles, HLA‐B*1501 and HLA‐B*5801.  Using the Quikchange Multisite Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Stratagene), codon‐optimized genes encoding HLA‐B*1501 and HLA‐B*5801 are created. The two MHC I molecules are fermented and purified by ion exchange chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography and size exclusion chromatography. The binding (KD) of natural T‐cell epitopes, as well as predicted peptide ligands, is described by radioactive immunoassays (RIAs) and enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). The MHC molecules are biotinylated during expression.  The expression of MHC I resulted in multiple disulfide bond isomers, which are separated by hydrophobic interaction chromatography and used in subsequent binding studies resulting in the determination of KD for various peptide ligands ranging from strong binders (KD < 50 nM) to low binders (KD > 5 µM). Tetramerization is visualized by SDS‐PAGE.  An effective method for the production of highly pure MHC I molecules has been applied to HLA‐B*1501 and HLA‐B*5801, and RIA and ELISA binding assays for those alleles have been established, showing the binding of various peptide ligands to the MHC I molecules.

title: Emerging pharmacotherapies for COVID-19
abstract: Novel Corona-virus Disease 2019 (nCOVID 19) is caused by a novel virulent corona virus and leads to potentially fatal virulent pneumonia and severe respiratory distress syndrome. It was initially declared as public health emergency if international concern by WHO followed by Pandemic on 12(th) March 2020. As of 10(th) April 2020, more than 1.5 million people are affected globally with around 95000 deaths. Vaccines for this deadly virus are currently under development and many drugs used for other indications have been repurposed and investigated for prophylaxis and treatment of COVID 19. As per SOLIDARITY trial by WHO, some of the most promising candidates include chloroquine phosphate and hydroxychloroquine which are anti-malarial medications, Remdesivir, Lopinavir-Ritonavir combination with or without interferon which are anti-HIV drugs and convalescent plasma therapy. The current evidence of efficacy and ongoing research has been elaborated in the article. Besides, there has been evidence regarding inflammatory pathogenesis of this virus leading to cytokine storm in susceptible individuals. Thus, anti-proinflammatory cytokine drugs like Anakinra and Tocilizumab are undergoing multiple trials and some results are encouraging. Similarly, use of anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-37 and IL-38 is hypothesised to be useful and is under research. The situation is still evolving and hence there is yet no definitive therapy but to conclude the use of repurposed medications can be a boon till a definitive therapy and vaccines are developed.

title: Psychopharmacology of COVID-19
abstract: With the rapid, global spread of SARS-CoV-2, hospitals have become inundated with patients suffering from COVID-19. Consultation-liaison psychiatrists are actively involved in managing these patients and should familiarize themselves with how the virus and its proposed treatments can affect psychotropic management. The only FDA approved drug to treat COVID-19 is remdesivir, and other off-label medications used include chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, tocilizumab, lopinavir/ritonavir, favipiravir, convalescent plasma therapy, azithromycin, vitamin C, corticosteroids, interferon and colchicine.  To provide an overview of the major safety considerations relevant to clinicians who prescribe psychotropics to patients with COVID-19, both related to the illness and its proposed treatments.  In this targeted review we performed structured literature searches in PubMed to identify articles describing the impacts of COVID-19 on different organ systems, the neuropsychiatric adverse effects of treatments, and any potential drug interactions with psychotropics. The articles most relevant to this manuscript were included.  COVID-19 impacts multiple organ systems, including gastrointestinal, renal, cardiovascular, pulmonary, immunological, and hematological systems. This may lead to pharmacokinetic changes that impact psychotropic medications and increase sensitivity to psychotropic-related adverse effects. Additionally, several proposed treatments for COVID-19 have neuropsychiatric effects and potential interactions with commonly used psychotropics.  Clinicians should be aware of the need to adjust existing psychotropics or avoid using certain medications in some COVID-19 patients. They should also be familiar with neuropsychiatric effects of medications being used to treat this disease. Further research is needed to identify strategies to manage psychiatric issues in this population.

title: Oral cancer and periodontal disease increase the risk of COVID 19? A mechanism mediated through furin and cathepsin overexpression

title: The Invertebrate Defence Molecule Coelomic Cytolytic Factor, a Functional Analog of the Cytokine Tumour Necrosis Factor‐α, Interacts with Mammalian Cells through its Lectin‐Like Domain
abstract: Coelomic cytolytic factor (CCF) is a 42 kDa invertebrate pattern recognition molecule isolated from the coelomic fluid of the earthworm Eisenia foetida (Oligochaeta, Annelida). CCF displays a number of similarities with the mammalian cytokine tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) as a result of a shared N,N′‐diacetylchitobiose lectin‐like domain. However, these similarities are solely functional and are not based on any (DNA or amino acid) sequence homology, thus suggesting a form of convergent evolution. In particular, the lectin‐like domain of TNF‐α has been shown to induce membrane depolarization in various mammalian cell types, through interactions with endogenous amiloride‐sensitive ion channels. This nonreceptor‐mediated activity of TNF‐α has been reported to be involved in the resorption of oedema. Likewise, the lectin‐like domain of CCF also induces membrane depolarization in mammalian cells. Here, we show that CCF appears to be able to induce oedema resorption in an alveolar epithelial cell line through its lectin‐like domain. This lectin‐like domain of CCF interacts (directly or indirectly) with endogenous sodium and/or chloride channels, and not potassium channels, on mammalian cells. Additionally, we suggest that the JNK/SAPK and Erk1/2 pathways are involved in CCF‐induced macrophage activation. These results further establish the functional analogy between an invertebrate pattern recognition molecule and a mammalian cytokine and, from a more applied point of view, suggest the possibility of utilizing CCF in the treatment of oedema.

title: COVID-Net: A Tailored Deep Convolutional Neural Network Design for Detection of COVID-19 Cases from Chest X-Ray Images
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a devastating effect on the health and well-being of the global population. A critical step in the fight against COVID-19 is effective screening of infected patients, with one of the key screening approaches being radiology examination using chest radiography. Motivated by this and inspired by the open source efforts of the research community, in this study we introduce COVID-Net, a deep convolutional neural network design tailored for the detection of COVID-19 cases from chest X-ray (CXR) images that is open source and available to the general public. To the best of the authors' knowledge, COVID-Net is one of the first open source network designs for COVID-19 detection from CXR images at the time of initial release. We also introduce COVIDx, an open access benchmark dataset that we generated comprising of 13,975 CXR images across 13,870 patient patient cases, with the largest number of publicly available COVID-19 positive cases to the best of the authors' knowledge. Furthermore, we investigate how COVID-Net makes predictions using an explainability method in an attempt to not only gain deeper insights into critical factors associated with COVID cases, which can aid clinicians in improved screening, but also audit COVID-Net in a responsible and transparent manner to validate that it is making decisions based on relevant information from the CXR images. By no means a production-ready solution, the hope is that the open access COVID-Net, along with the description on constructing the open source COVIDx dataset, will be leveraged and build upon by both researchers and citizen data scientists alike to accelerate the development of highly accurate yet practical deep learning solutions for detecting COVID-19 cases and accelerate treatment of those who need it the most.

title: SARS-CoV-2 infection and obesity: Common inflammatory and metabolic aspects
abstract: Backround and aims According to the World Obesity Federation, “obesity-related conditions seem to worsen the effect of Covid-19 (SARS-CoV-2)”; additionally the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention reported that “people with heart disease and diabetes are at higher risk of SARS-CoV-2 complications and that severe obesity poses a higher risk for severe illness”. Recent reports have shown elevated levels of cytokines due to increased inflammation in patients with SARS-CoV-2 disease. On the other hand, obesity represents a state of low-grade inflammation, with various inflammatory products directly excreted by adipose tissue. In this concise report we aimed to assess common elements of obesity and SARS-CoV-2 infection.  Literature search on obesity and SARS-CoV-2 infection.  We present “mechanistic” obesity-related problems that aggravate SARS-CoV-2 infection as well as tentative inflammatory/metabolic links between these diseases.  Obesity and SARS-CoV-2 share common elements of the inflammatory process (and possibly also metabolic disturbances), exacerbating SARS-CoV-2 infection in the obese.

title: The role of antibiotics in asthma
abstract: There is increasing evidence that atypical respiratory pathogens such as Chlamydophila pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae may contribute to the pathogenesis of both stable asthma and asthma exacerbations. It is postulated that these organisms may contribute to inflammation in the airways possibly by activating inflammatory mechanisms in the respiratory tract. The macrolide class of antibiotics may have a part to play in the management of asthma by exerting anti-inflammatory effects on the chronically inflamed airways in addition to their anti-infective action. The ketolide antibiotics may also have similar properties. This paper discusses the role of these antibiotics in the management of asthma.

title: p38 MAPK inhibition: A promising therapeutic approach for COVID-19
abstract: COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is a major source of morbidity and mortality due to its inflammatory effects in the lungs and heart. The p38 MAPK pathway plays a crucial role in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and has been implicated in acute lung injury and myocardial dysfunction. The overwhelming inflammatory response in COVID-19 infection may be caused by disproportionately upregulated p38 activity, explained by two mechanisms. First, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) activity is lost during SARS-CoV-2 viral entry. ACE2 is highly expressed in the lungs and heart and converts Angiotensin II into Angiotensin 1–7. Angiotensin II signals proinflammatory, pro-vasoconstrictive, pro-thrombotic activity through p38 MAPK activation, which is countered by Angiotensin 1–7 downregulation of p38 activity. Loss of ACE2 upon viral entry may tip the balance towards destructive p38 signaling through Angiotensin II. Second, SARS-CoV was previously shown to directly upregulate p38 activity via a viral protein, similar to other RNA respiratory viruses that may hijack p38 activity to promote replication. Given the homology between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, the latter may employ a similar mechanism. Thus, SARS-CoV-2 may induce overwhelming inflammation by directly activating p38 and downregulating a key inhibitory pathway, while simultaneously taking advantage of p38 activity to replicate. Therapeutic inhibition of p38 could therefore attenuate COVID-19 infection. Interestingly, a prior preclinical study showed protective effects of p38 inhibition in a SARS-CoV mouse model. A number of p38 inhibitors are in the clinical stage and should be considered for clinical trials in serious COVID-19 infection.

title: Prognostic value of interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin in patients with COVID-19
abstract: The inflammatory response plays a critical role in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and inflammatory cytokine storm increases the severity of COVID-19.  To investigate the ability of interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), and procalcitonin (PCT) to predict mild and severe cases of COVID-19.  This retrospective cohort study included 140 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 from January 18, 2020, to March 12, 2020. The study population was divided into two groups according to disease severity: a mild group (MG) (n = 107) and a severe group (SG) (n = 33). Data on demographic characteristics, baseline clinical characteristics, and the levels of IL-6, CRP, and PCT on admission were collected.  Among the 140 patients, the levels of IL-6, CRP, and PCT increased in 95 (67.9 %), 91 (65.0 %), and 8 (5.7 %) patients on admission, respectively. The proportion of patients with increased IL-6, CRP, and PCT levels was significantly higher in the SG than in the MG. Cox proportional hazard model showed that IL-6 and CRP could be used as independent factors to predict the severity of COVID-19. Furthermore, patients with IL-6 > 32.1 pg/mL or CRP > 41.8 mg/L were more likely to have severe complications.  The serum levels of IL-6 and CRP can effectively assess disease severity and predict outcome in patients with COVID-19.

title: Persistent Viral Presence Determines the Clinical Course of the Disease in COVID-19
abstract: The clinical management of COVID-19 is dependent on understanding the underlying factors that contribute to the disease severity. In the absence of effective antiviral therapies, other host immunomodulatory therapies such as targeting inflammatory response are currently being used without clear evidence of their effectiveness. As inflammation is an essential component of host antiviral mechanisms, therapies targeting inflammation may adversely affect viral clearance and disease outcome.  To understand whether the persistent presence of the virus is a key determinant in the disease severity during COVID-19 and to determine if the viral reactivation in some patients is associated with infectious viral particles.  The data for patients were available including the onset of the disease, duration of viral persistence, measurements of inflammatory markers such as IL-6 and CRP, chest imaging, disease symptoms, and their durations among others. Follow up tests were performed to determine if the viral negative status persists after their recovery.  Our data show that patients with persistent viral presence (>16 days) have more severe disease outcomes including extensive lung involvement and requirement of respiratory support. Two patients who died of COVID-19 were virus-positive at the time of their death. Four patients demonstrated virus-positive status on the follow-up tests and these patient samples were sent to viral culture facility where virus culture could not be established.  These data suggest that viral persistence is the key determining factor of the disease severity. Therapies that may impair the viral clearance may impair the host recovery from the COVID-19.

title: Immune alterations during SARS-CoV-2-related acute respiratory distress syndrome
abstract: We report a longitudinal analysis of the immune response associated with a fatal case of COVID-19. This patient exhibited a rapid evolution towards multiorgan failure. SARS-CoV-2 was detected in multiple nasopharyngeal, blood, and pleural samples, despite antiviral and immunomodulator treatment. Clinical evolution in the blood was marked by an increase (2-3 fold) in differentiated effector T cells expressing exhaustion (PD-1) and senescence (CD57) markers, an expansion of antibody-secreting cells, a 15-fold increase in {gamma}{delta} T-cell and proliferating NK-cell populations, and the total disappearance of monocytes, suggesting lung trafficking. In the serum, waves of a proinflammatory cytokine storm, Th1 and Th2 activation, and markers of T-cell exhaustion, apoptosis, cell cytotoxicity, and endothelial activation were observed until the fatal outcome. This case underscores the need for well-designed studies to investigate complementary approaches to control viral replication, the source of the hyperinflammatory status, and immunomodulation to target the pathophysiological response.

title: COVID-19 diagnostics in context
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has highlighted the need for different types of diagnostics, comparative validation of new tests, faster approval by federal agencies, and rapid production of test kits to meet global demands. In this Perspective, we discuss the utility and challenges of current diagnostics for COVID-19.

title: Regenerative Medicine in COVID-19 Treatment: Real Opportunities and Range of Promises
abstract: Novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has attracted much attention around the world due to its rapid transmission among humans and relatively high mortality rate. Studies are increasing to find the best therapeutic approach for the disease and its management. Regenerative medicine offers various cell-tissue therapeutics and related products, such as stem cell therapy, natural killer (NK) cell therapy, Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy, exosomes, and tissue products. Interestingly, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can reduce inflammatory symptoms and protect against cytokine storm, which critically contributes to the COVID-19 progression. Notably, having the potentials to exert cytotoxic effects on infected cells and induce interferon production probably make NK cells a candidate for COVID-19 cell therapy. Besides, exosomes are one of the crucial products of cells that can exert therapeutic effects through the induction of immune responses and neutralizing antibody titers. The paper aims to briefly consider current options for COVID-19 therapy to show that there is no specific cure for COVID-19, and then assess the real opportunities and range of promises regenerative medicine can provide for specific treatment of COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 in Rheumatic Disease Patients on Immunosuppressive Agents
abstract: To analyze clinical characteristics and outcome of COVID-19 patients with underlying rheumatic diseases (RD) on immunosuppressive agents.  A case series of COVID-19 patients with RD on disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) were studied by a retrospective chart review. A literature search identified 9 similar studies of single cases and case series, which were also included.  There were 4 COVID-19 inpatients with RD from our hospital, and the mean age was 57 ± 21 years. Two patients had a mild infection, and 2 developed severe COVID-19 related respiratory complications, including 1 patient on secukinumab requiring mechanical ventilation and 1 patient on rituximab developing viral pneumonia requiring supplemental oxygenation. All 4 patients had elevated acute phase reactants, 2 patients had mild COVID-19 with lymphopenia, and 2 patients had severe COVID-19 with normal lymphocyte counts, and high levels of IL-6. None of the patients exhibited an exacerbation of their underlying RD. In the literature, there were 9 studies of COVID-19 involving 197 cases of various inflammatory RD. Most patients were on DMARDs or biologics, of which TNFα inhibitors were most frequently used. Two tocilizumab users had a mild infection. Two patients were on rituximab with 1 severe COVID-19 requiring mechanical ventilation. Six patients were on secukinumab with 1 hospitalization. Of the total 201 cases, 12 died, with an estimated mortality of 5.9%  Patients with RD are susceptible to COVID-19. Various DMARDs or biologics may affect the viral disease course differently. Patients on hydroxychloroquine, TNFα antagonists or tocilizumab may have a mild viral illness. Rituximab or secukinumab could worsen the viral disease. Further study is warranted.

title: Isolation, characterization and anti-inflammatory mechanism of probiotics in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.
abstract: Probiotics are known to modulate gut microbiota, intestinal barrier function and host immune response, but due to the species and strain specific response their mechanisms are not clearly understood. Thus, the present study was designed to isolate, assess the anti-inflammatory potential and underlying modulatory mechanisms of indigenous probiotics in murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Forty lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from different sources and monitored for their anti-inflammatory potential against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced inflammatory stress employing RAW 264.7 cells. Among these isolates, only four LAB isolates exhibited more than 90% nitric oxide inhibition and possessed the probiotic attributes. Further, these selected LAB isolates reduced the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, inhibited the phosphorylation of Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) i.e. p38 MAPK, ERK1/2 and SAPK/JNK and expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The in vitro analysis suggested that the selected probiotic isolates attenuated the LPS-induced inflammation by downregulating MAPK pathway vis-a-vis inhibiting COX-2 and can be employed as anti-inflammatory agents in various inflammatory diseases.

title: Cytokine storm in COVID-19 and parthenolide: Preclinical evidence
abstract: A group of patients with pneumonia caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) were reported from China in December 2019. Although several antiviral drugs are widely tested, none of them has been approved as specific antiviral therapy for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Accumulating evidence established a hyperinflammatory states or cytokine storm in COVID-19. Among these cytokines, IL-6 plays a key role in cytokine storm and can predict the adverse clinical outcomes and fatality in these patients. Based on the evidence of the significant role of IL-6 in cytokine storm, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases as principal comorbidities, it seems that anti-cytokine therapy may be useful in patients with severe COVID-19 to reduce mortality. Recent studies demonstrated that herbal-derived natural products had immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties and exhibited exceptional act on mediators of inflammation. Parthenolide is the principal sesquiterpene lactones and the main biologically active constituent Tanacetum parthenium (commonly known as feverfew) which has could significantly reduce IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-&#945; production pathways established in several human cell line models in vitro and in vivo studies. Therefore, parthenolide may be one of the herbal candidates for clinical evaluation.

title: Role of inflammatory markers in corona virus disease (COVID-19) patients: A review
abstract: In late 2019, a novel virus called SARS-CoV-2, expanded globally from Wuhan, China and was declared a pandemic on 11 March 2020 by the WHO. The mechanism of virus entry inside the host cell depends upon the cellular proteases including cathepsins, HAT, and TMPRSS2, which splits up the spike protein and causes further penetration. MERS coronavirus uses DPP4, while coronavirus HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 employ ACE-2 as the key receptor. Cytokine storm syndrome was analyzed in critically ill nCOVID-19 patients and it is presented with high inflammatory mediators, systemic inflammation, and multiple organ failure. Among various inflammatory mediators, the level of interleukins (IL-2, IL-7, IL-10), G-CSF, MIP1A, MCP1, and TNF-&#945; was reported to be higher in critically ill patients. Understanding this molecular mechanism of ILs, T cells, and dendritic cells will be helpful to design immunotherapy and novel drugs for the treatment of nCOVID-19 infection.

title: Searching therapeutic strategy of new coronavirus pneumonia from angiotensin-converting enzyme 2: the target of COVID-19 and SARS-CoV
abstract: Since December 2019, the infection of the new coronavirus (COVID-19) caused an outbreak of new coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China, and caused great public concern. Both COVID-19 and SARS-CoV belong to the coronavirus family and both invade target cells through ACE2. An in-depth understanding of ACE2 and a series of physiological and physiological changes caused by the virus invading the human body may help to discover and explain the corresponding clinical phenomena and then deal with them timely. In addition, ACE2 is a potential therapeutic target. This article will summarize the role of ACE2 in multiple organ damage caused by COVID-19 and SARS-CoV, targeted blocking drugs against ACE2, and drugs that inhibit inflammation in order to provide the basis for subsequent related research, diagnosis and treatment, and drug development.

title: Decreased serum levels of inflammaging marker miR-146a are associated with clinical response to tocilizumab in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Current COVID-19 pandemic poses an unprecedented threat to global health and healthcare systems. At least in western countries, the most amount of the death toll is accounted by old people affected by age-related diseases. In this regard, we proposed that COVID-19 severity may be tightly related to inflammaging, i.e. the age-related onset of inflammation, which is responsible for age-related diseases. It has been reported that systemic hyper-inflammation may turn to be detrimental in COVID-19 patients.  Here, we exploited a recently closed clinical trial (NCT04315480) on the anti-IL-6 drug tocilizumab to assess whether microRNAs regulating inflammaging can be assessed as biomarkers of drug response and outcome.  Serum levels of miR-146a-5p, -21-5p, and -126-3p were quantified by RT-PCR and Droplet Digital PCR by two independent laboratories on 30 patients with virologically confirmed COVID-19, characterized by multifocal interstitial pneumonia confirmed by CT-scan and requiring oxygen therapy, and 29 age- and gender-matched healthy control subjects. COVID-19 patients were treated with a single-dose intravenous infusion of 8 mg/kg tocilizumab and categorized into responders and non-responders.  We showed that COVID-19 patients who did not respond to tocilizumab have lower serum levels of miR-146a-5p after the treatment (p=0.007). Moreover, among non-responders, those with the lowest serum levels of miR-146a-5p experienced the most adverse outcome (p=0.008).  Our data show that blood-based biomarkers, such as miR-146a-5p, can provide a molecular link between inflammaging and COVID-19 clinical course, thus allowing to enlarge the drug armory against this worldwide health threat.

title: Monocyte class switch and hyperinflammation characterise severe COVID-19 in type 2 diabetes
abstract: Early in the COVID-19 pandemic type 2 diabetes (T2D) was marked as a risk factor of severe disease and mortality. Inflammation is central to the aetiology of both conditions where variations in immune responses have the potential to mitigate or aggravate disease course. Identifying at risk groups based on immuno-inflammatory signatures is valuable in directing personalised care and developing potential targets for precision therapy.  This study characterised immunophenotypic variation associated with COVID-19 severity in type 2 diabetes. Broad-spectrum immunophenotyping quantified 15 leukocyte populations in peripheral circulation from a cohort of 45 hospitalised COVID-19 patients with and without type 2 diabetes.  Morphological anomalies in the monocyte pool, monocytopenia specific to quiescent monocytes, and a decreased frequency of cytotoxic lymphocytes were associated with severe COVID-19 in patients with type 2 diabetes requiring intensive care. An aggravated inflammatory gene expression profile, reminiscent of the type-1 interferon pathway, underlaid the immunophenotype associated with severe disease in  Shifts in T-cell and monocyte dynamics underpin a maladaptive response to SARS-CoV-2. These alterations may impact type-1 interferon signalling which is the likely source of the hyperinflammation that increases voracity of COVID-19. These findings allow the identification of type 2 diabetic patients at risk of severe disease as well as providing evidence that the type-1 interferon pathway may be an actionable therapeutic target for future studies.

title: Should we stimulate or suppress immune responses in COVID-19? Cytokine and anti-cytokine interventions
abstract: The coronavirus disease-19 pandemic (COVID-19), which appeared in China in December 2019 and rapidly spread throughout the world, has forced clinicians and scientists to take up extraordinary challenges. This unprecedented situation led to the inception of numerous fundamental research protocols and many clinical trials. It quickly became apparent that although COVID-19, in the vast majority of cases, was a benign disease, it could also develop a severe form with sometimes fatal outcomes. Cytokines are central to the pathophysiology of COVID-19; while some of them are beneficial (type-I interferon, interleukin-7), others appear detrimental (interleukin-1β, -6, and TNF-α) particularly in the context of the so-called cytokine storm. Yet another characteristic of the disease has emerged: concomitant immunodeficiency, notably involving impaired type-I interferon response, and lymphopenia. This review provides an overview of current knowledge on COVID-19 immunopathology. We discuss the defective type-I IFN response, the theoretical role of IL-7 to restore lymphocyte repertoire, as well as we mention the two patterns observed in severe COVID-19 (i.e. interleukin-1β-driven macrophage activation syndrome vs. interleukin-6-driven immune dysregulation). Next, reviewing current evidence drawn from clinical trials, we examine a number of cytokine and anti-cytokine therapies, including interleukin-1, -6, and TNF inhibitors, as well as less targeted therapies, such as corticosteroids, chloroquine, or JAK inhibitors.

title: Therapeutic blockade of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor in COVID-19-associated hyperinflammation: challenges and opportunities.
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic is a global public health crisis, with considerable mortality and morbidity exerting pressure on health-care resources, including critical care. An excessive host inflammatory response in a subgroup of patients with severe COVID-19 might contribute to the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiorgan failure. Timely therapeutic intervention with immunomodulation in patients with hyperinflammation could prevent disease progression to ARDS and obviate the need for invasive ventilation. Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is an immunoregulatory cytokine with a pivotal role in initiation and perpetuation of inflammatory diseases. GM-CSF could link T-cell-driven acute pulmonary inflammation with an autocrine, self-amplifying cytokine loop leading to monocyte and macrophage activation. This axis has been targeted in cytokine storm syndromes and chronic inflammatory disorders. Here, we consider the scientific rationale for therapeutic targeting of GM-CSF in COVID-19-associated hyperinflammation. Since GM-CSF also has a key role in homoeostasis and host defence, we discuss potential risks associated with inhibition of GM-CSF in the context of viral infection and the challenges of doing clinical trials in this setting, highlighting in particular the need for a patient risk-stratification algorithm.

title: Chapter 10 Cyclic Peptides in Neurological Disorders: The Case of Cyclo(His-Pro)
abstract: Communication between and within communities of cells or independent organisms is a crucial prerequisite for species survival. In response to variations in the extracellular environment, the collective behavior of cell populations can be coordinated by regulating community-level gene expression. This mechanism is strongly conserved during evolution, being shared both by bacterial communities and central nervous system cells. Notably, cyclic dipeptides (CDPs) are molecules that are implicated in these quorum sensing behaviors in both settings. Bacteria coordinate their collective behavior by producing CDPs (quorum sensing inducers) that enhance the capacity of individual members of the community to detect these signals and thus amplify the community-level response. In this review, we highlight recent data indicating that strikingly similar molecular mechanisms control communications between glial and neuronal cells to maintain homeostasis in the central nervous system, with a specific focus on the role of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone—derived CDP cyclo(His-Pro) in the protection against neurotoxic insults.

title: Cardiac Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Comprehensive Review
abstract: Since its origin in China, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has become a pandemic and spread to 209 countries. As coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a very rapidly emerging disease, organ-specific studies related to it have been reported. Apart from respiratory findings, some studies have highlighted inflammatory consequences in the heart, kidney, and/or liver as well. Cardiac involvement in COVID-19 seems to be a result of an inflammatory storm in response to the infection. Moreover, direct viral invasion of cardiomyocytes, as well as a myocardial injury due to oxidative stress, may account for acute cardiac injury in COVID-19. Nevertheless, the mechanism of heart injury in COVID-19 is not clear yet. However, multiple studies that highlight the clinical features, laboratory findings, and prognosis of acute myocardial injury (AMI) in COVID-19-affected individuals have been published. In this review, we have summarized the findings of all those studies as well as the clinical features and management of cardiac injury discussed by some case reports.

title: Mechanism of inflammatory response in associated comorbidities in COVID-19
abstract: The outbreak of the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, causes a respiratory disease and individuals with pre-existing cardiometabolic disorders display worse prognosis through the infection course. The aim of this minireview is to present epidemiological data related to metabolic comorbidities in association with the SARS-CoV-2.  This is a narrative mini-review with Pubmed search until April 23, 2020 using the keywords COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, treatment of coronavirus and following terms: diabetes mellitus, obesity, arterial hypertension, ACE-inhibitors, cytokine storm, immune response and vitamin D.  Studies indicate that obese individuals are more likely to develop infections, and that adipose tissue serves as a pathogen reservoir. In diabetic individuals higher rate of inflammatory processes is seen due to constant glucose recognition by C type lectin receptors. Hypertensive individuals, usually grouped with other conditions, are treated with drugs to reduce blood pressure mostly through ACEi and ARB, that leads to increased ACE2 expression, used by SARS-CoV-2 for human's cell entry. Until now, the studies have shown that individuals with those conditions and affected by COVID-19 present an uncontrolled release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and an unbalanced immune response, leading to the cytokine storm phenomenon. Vitamin D is highlighted as a potential therapeutic target, because in addition to acting on the immune system, it plays an important role in the control of cardiometabolic diseases.  Currently, since there is no proven and effective antiviral therapy for SARS-CoV-2, the efforts should focus on controlling inflammatory response and reduce the risks of associated complications.

title: The unleashing of the immune system in COVID-19 and sepsis: the calm before the storm?
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is sorely testing health care systems and economies around the world and is rightly considered as the major health emergency in a century. Despite the course of the disease appearing to be mild in many cases, a significant proportion of symptomatic patients develop pneumonia requiring hospitalisation or progress to manifest respiratory complications leading to intensive care treatment. Potential interventions for SARS-CoV2-associated pneumonia are being tested, some of which holding promise, but as of today none of these has yet demonstrated outstanding efficacy in treating COVID-19. In this article, we discuss fresh perspectives and insights into the potential role of immune dysregulation in COVID-19 as well as similarities with systemic inflammatory response in sepsis and the rationale for exploring novel treatment options affecting host immune response.

title: Managing Cutaneous Immune-Mediated Diseases During the COVID-19 Pandemic
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a clinical syndrome caused by a novel coronavirus called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 has spread rapidly worldwide and has been shown to have a wide spectrum of severity. COVID-19 has become a public health emergency of relevant international concern, and it was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 infection in severe cases involves the host response as an important contributor to the disease process and tissue damage, mainly due to dysregulated and excessive innate immune responses. The primary immune response leads to viral clearance in the majority of cases. However, in a subgroup of patients, the secondary immune response may be exaggerated, leading to inflammatory-induced lung injury and other complications including pneumonitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, respiratory failure, shock, organ failure, and potentially death. Several cutaneous immune-mediated diseases, including psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and hidradenitis suppurativa, are therapeutically managed with biologic and non-biologic immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory drugs. The outbreak of COVID-19 affects the management of these chronic conditions, not only for those who are already receiving treatment but also for those who are about to start a new treatment to control their disease. In this article, the management of cutaneous immune-mediated diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic is discussed.

title: Lessons from dermatology about inflammatory responses in Covid-19
abstract: The SARS-Cov-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus composed of 16 non-structural proteins (NSP 1-16) with specific roles in the replication of coronaviruses. NSP3 has the property to block host innate immune response and to promote cytokine expression. NSP5 can inhibit interferon (IFN) signalling and NSP16 prevents MAD5 recognition, depressing the innate immunity. Dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages are the first cell lineage against viruses' infections. The IFN type I is the danger signal for the human body during this clinical setting. Protective immune responses to viral infection are initiated by innate immune sensors that survey extracellular and intracellular space for foreign nucleic acids. In Covid-19 the pathogenesis is not yet fully understood, but viral and host factors seem to play a key role. Important points in severe Covid-19 are characterized by an upregulated innate immune response, hypercoagulopathy state, pulmonary tissue damage, neurological and/or gastrointestinal tract involvement, and fatal outcome in severe cases of macrophage activation syndrome, which produce a 'cytokine storm'. These systemic conditions share polymorphous cutaneous lesions where innate immune system is involved in the histopathological findings with acute respiratory distress syndrome, hypercoagulability, hyperferritinemia, increased serum levels of D-dimer, lactic dehydrogenase, reactive-C-protein and serum A amyloid. It is described that several polymorphous cutaneous lesions similar to erythema pernio, urticarial rashes, diffuse or disseminated erythema, livedo racemosa, blue toe syndrome, retiform purpura, vesicles lesions, and purpuric exanthema or exanthema with clinical aspects of symmetrical drug-related intertriginous and flexural exanthema. This review describes the complexity of Covid-19, its pathophysiological and clinical aspects.

title: Coronavirus disease 2019: What we know?
abstract: In late December 2019, a cluster of unexplained pneumonia cases has been reported in Wuhan, China. A few days later, the causative agent of this mysterious pneumonia was identified as a novel coronavirus. This causative virus has been temporarily named as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and the relevant infected disease has been named as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) by the World Health Organization, respectively. The COVID‐19 epidemic is spreading in China and all over the world now. The purpose of this review is primarily to review the pathogen, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID‐19, but also to comment briefly on the epidemiology and pathology based on the current evidence.

title: [From SARS to COVID-19: pathogens, receptor, pathogenesis and principles of the treatment].
abstract: COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by 2019-nCoV and characterizes as an atypical pneumonia. Since 2019-nCoV is a newly emerging virus, the pathogenesis of COVID-19 is not well known. Most patients had a self-limited course, and some became severe even death. In this review, the authors compared two coronavirus outbreaks during the past two decades: the SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV. Among the biological nature of the pathogens, viral receptor distribution on the human cells, and the pathological findings in the targeted organs and clinical features of the patients with the diseases, found similarities and differences between the two diseases. Due to the shared receptor ACE2 and the pathological similarities of the SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV diseases. They proposed a pathogenesis model for COVID-19. Like the SARS-CoV disease, COVID-19 is a systematic disease and targets the lungs, vasculatures, and the immune system. The basic pathogenesis involves two interlinked processes: a severe lung inflammation and immune deficiency, both of which are related to an inappropriate immune response and over-production of cytokines. Thus, treatment approaches should include antiviral and anti-proinflammatory cytokines, anti-infectious and life support therapies, especially in patients with severe diseases.

title: Evidence Supporting a Phased Immuno-physiological Approach to COVID-19 From Prevention Through Recovery
abstract: This paper presents an evidence-based strategy for improving clinical outcomes in COVID-19 Recommendations are based on the phases of the disease, because optimal interventions for one phase may not be appropriate for a different phase The four phases addressed are: Prevention, Infection, Inflammation and Recovery Underlying this phased approach is recognition of emerging evidence for two different components of pathophysiology, early infection and late stage severe complications These two aspects of the disease suggest two different patterns of clinical emphasis that seem on the surface to be not entirely concordant We describe the application of therapeutic strategies and appropriate tactics that address four main stages of disease progression for COVID-19 Emerging evidence in COVID-19 suggests that the SARS-CoV-2 virus may both evade the innate immune response and kill macrophages Delayed innate immune response and a depleted population of macrophages can theoretically result in a blunted antigen presentation, delaying and diminishing activation of the adaptive immune response Thus, one clinical strategy involves supporting patient innate and adaptive immune responses early in the time course of illness, with the goal of improving the timeliness, readiness, and robustness of both the innate and adaptive immune responses At the other end of the disease pathology spectrum, risk of fatality in COVID-19 is driven by excessive and persistent upregulation of inflammatory mechanisms associated with cytokine storm Thus, the second clinical strategy is to prevent or mitigate excessive inflammatory response to prevent the cytokine storm associated with high mortality risk Clinical support for immune system pathogen clearance mechanisms involves obligate activation of immune response components that are inherently inflammatory This puts the goals of the first clinical strategy (immune activation) potentially at odds with the goals of the second strategy(mitigation of proinflammatory effects) This creates a need for discernment about the time course of the illness and with that, understanding of which components of an overall strategy to apply at each phase of the time course of the illness We review evidence from early observational studies and the existing literature on both outcomes and mechanisms of disease, to inform a phased approach to support the patient at risk for infection, with infection, with escalating inflammation during infection, and at risk of negative sequelae as they move into recovery

title: Altered cytokine levels and immune responses in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection and related conditions
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a global pandemic in early 2020. The infection has been associated with a wide range of clinical symptoms. In the severely affected patients, it has caused dysregulation of immune responses including over-secretion of inflammatory cytokines and imbalances in the proportion of naïve helper T cells, memory helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Identification of the underlying mechanism of such aberrant function of immune system would help in the prediction of disease course and selection of susceptible patients for more intensive cares. In the current review, we summarize the results of studies which reported alterations in cytokine levels and immune cell functions in patients affected with SARS-CoV-2 and related viruses.

title: Inflammatory Bowel Disease at the Intersection of Autophagy and Immunity: Insights from Human Genetics
abstract: Studies using human genetics have identified more than 160 loci that affect the risk of developing inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Several of these genes have been found to play key roles in the process of autophagy, a lysosome-based degradation pathway. Although historically considered to be a relatively nonselective process of degradation of cytosolic contents, autophagy has recently been revealed to have several selective and immune-specific functions that are relevant to the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis, including xenophagy, mitophagy, antigen presentation, secretion, and inflammasome regulation. In this chapter, we review the evidence that links autophagy-related genes, their immune-specific functions, and possible mechanisms of IBD pathogenesis. We summarize the basic molecular events underlying general and selective autophagy and present evidence suggesting possible pathogenic mechanisms revealed by studies of IBD-associated risk alleles of ATG16L1 and IRGM. Finally, we review chemical biology-based experimental approaches for identifying autophagy regulatory pathways that may have implications for the development of therapeutics.

title: Clinical implications of COVID-19 in patients with chronic liver disease and liver tumor

title: Sodium chromo-glycate and palmitoylethanolamide: A possible strategy to treat mast cell-induced lung inflammation in COVID-19
abstract: A novel human coronavirus SARS‐CoV‐2 (also referred to as CoV-19) that emerged in late 2019 causes Covid-19 disease a respiratory tract infection which provokes about 4 million deaths per year. Unfortunately, to date, there is no specific antiviral treatment for COVID-19. Mast cells (MCs) are immune cells implicated in the pathogenesis of viral infections, where they mediate inflammation. Microbes, including virus, activate MCs through TLR releasing chemical pro-inflammatory compounds and cytokines. Although, in biomedical literature there are only few reports on MCs activation by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by MC viral activation leads to increase pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. Sodium Chromo-Glycate (SCG) described as a MC stabilizer, prevents the release of inflammatory chemical compounds, improve mouse survival and respiratory pathological changes in lung viral infection and suppresses inflammation. Furthermore, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) a nuclear factor agonist, an endogenous fatty acid amide, which exerts a variety of biological effects, related to chronic inflammation and pain, is involved also in MCs homeostasis with an inhibitory and protective effect on the respiratory tract during viral infections. Here, we hypothesize for the first time, that SCG and/or PEA suppress MC activation and pro-inflammatory mediators release, playing an anti-inflammatory therapeutic role in the inflamed lung of patients with COVID-19.

title: Clinical Course of COVID‐19 in a Liver Transplant Recipient on Hemodialysis and Response to Tocilizumab Therapy: A Case Report
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is a highly infectious and rapidly spreading disease. There are limited published data on the epidemiology and outcomes of COVID‐19 infection among organ transplant recipients. After initial flulike symptoms, progression to an inflammatory phase may occur, characterized by cytokine release rapidly leading to respiratory and multiorgan failure. We report the clinical course and management of a liver transplant recipient on hemodialysis, who presented with COVID‐19 pneumonia, and despite completing a 5‐day course of hydroxychloroquine, later developed marked inflammatory manifestations with rapid improvement after administration of off‐label, single‐dose tocilizumab. We also highlight the role of lung ultrasonography in early diagnosis of the inflammatory phase of COVID‐19. Future investigation of the effects of immunomodulators among transplant recipients with COVID‐19 infection will be important.

title: Management of Patients With Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis During the Coronavirus Disease-2019 Pandemic: Results of an International Meeting

title: Evidence Supporting a Phased Immuno-physiological Approach to COVID-19 From Prevention Through Recovery.
abstract: This paper presents an evidence-based strategy for improving clinical outcomes in COVID-19. Recommendations are based on the phases of the disease, because optimal interventions for one phase may not be appropriate for a different phase. The four phases addressed are: Prevention, Infection, Inflammation and Recovery. Underlying this phased approach is recognition of emerging evidence for two different components of pathophysiology, early infection and late stage severe complications. These two aspects of the disease suggest two different patterns of clinical emphasis that seem on the surface to be not entirely concordant. We describe the application of therapeutic strategies and appropriate tactics that address four main stages of disease progression for COVID-19. Emerging evidence in COVID-19 suggests that the SARS-CoV-2 virus may both evade the innate immune response and kill macrophages. Delayed innate immune response and a depleted population of macrophages can theoretically result in a blunted antigen presentation, delaying and diminishing activation of the adaptive immune response. Thus, one clinical strategy involves supporting patient innate and adaptive immune responses early in the time course of illness, with the goal of improving the timeliness, readiness, and robustness of both the innate and adaptive immune responses. At the other end of the disease pathology spectrum, risk of fatality in COVID-19 is driven by excessive and persistent upregulation of inflammatory mechanisms associated with cytokine storm. Thus, the second clinical strategy is to prevent or mitigate excessive inflammatory response to prevent the cytokine storm associated with high mortality risk. Clinical support for immune system pathogen clearance mechanisms involves obligate activation of immune response components that are inherently inflammatory. This puts the goals of the first clinical strategy (immune activation) potentially at odds with the goals of the second strategy(mitigation of proinflammatory effects). This creates a need for discernment about the time course of the illness and with that, understanding of which components of an overall strategy to apply at each phase of the time course of the illness. We review evidence from early observational studies and the existing literature on both outcomes and mechanisms of disease, to inform a phased approach to support the patient at risk for infection, with infection, with escalating inflammation during infection, and at risk of negative sequelae as they move into recovery.

title: Reply to Kesici et al. and Zeng et al.: Blocking the virus and reducing the inflammatory damage in COVID-19

title: Transcriptomic characteristics of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Circulating in China and 158 other countries and areas, the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak has caused devastating mortality and posed a great threat to public health. However, efforts to identify effectively supportive therapeutic drugs and treatments has been hampered by our limited understanding of host immune response for this fatal disease. To characterize the transcriptional signatures of host inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 (HCoV-19) infection, we carried out transcriptome sequencing of the RNAs isolated from the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) specimens of COVID-19 patients. Our results reveal distinct host inflammatory cytokine profiles to SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients, and highlight the association between COVID-19 pathogenesis and excessive cytokine release such as CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL3/MIP-1A, and CCL4/MIP1B. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 induced activation of apoptosis and P53 signalling pathway in lymphocytes may be the cause of patients' lymphopenia. The transcriptome dataset of COVID-19 patients would be a valuable resource for clinical guidance on anti-inflammatory medication and understanding the molecular mechansims of host response.

title: COVID-19 gone bad: A new character in the spectrum of the hyperferritinemic syndrome?
abstract: The severe form of COVID-19 share several clinical and laboratory features with four entities gathered under the term "hyperferritinemic syndromes" and including macrophage activation syndrome (MAS), adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD), catastrophic anti-phospholipid syndrome (CAPS) and septic shock. COVID-19 systemic inflammatory reaction and "hyperferritinemic syndromes" are all characterized by high serum ferritin and a life-threatening hyper-inflammation sustained by a cytokines storm which eventually leads to multi-organ failure. In this review, we analyze the possible epidemiological and molecular mechanisms responsible for hyper-inflammation in patients with severe COVID-19 and we underline the similarities between this condition and "hyperferritinemic syndromes" which would allow considering severe COVID-19 as a fifth member of this spectrum of inflammatory conditions.

title: A contemporary review on pathogenesis and immunity of COVID-19 infection
abstract: Emerging of the COVID-19 pandemic has raised interests in the field of biology and pathogenesis of coronaviruses; including interactions between host immune reactions specific, and viral factors. Deep knowledge about the interaction between coronaviruses and the host factors could be useful to provide a better support for the disease sufferers and be advantageous for managing and treatment of the lung infection caused by the virus. At this study, we reviewed the updated information on the pathogenesis of the COVID-19 and the immune responses toward it, with a special focus on structure, genetics, and viral accessory proteins, viral replication, viral receptors, the human immune reactions, cytopathic effects, and host-related factors.

title: Corticosteroid administration for viral pneumonia: COVID-19 and beyond
abstract: Corticosteroids are commonly used as adjuvant therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome by many clinicians because of their perceived anti-inflammatory effects. However, for patients with severe viral pneumonia, the corticosteroid treatment is highly controversial.  The purpose of this review is to systematically evaluate the effect and potential mechanism of corticosteroid administration in pandemic viral pneumonia.  We comprehensively searched all manuscripts on corticosteroid therapy for influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral pneumonia from the PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases.  We systematically summarized the effects of corticosteroid therapy for pandemic viral pneumonia and the potential mechanism of action for corticosteroids in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).  Observational studies showed that corticosteroid treatment was associated with increased mortality and nosocomial infections for influenza and delayed virus clearance for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. Limited data on corticosteroid therapy for COVID-19 were reported. Corticosteroids were used in about a fifth of patients (670/2995, 22.4%). Although clinical observational studies reported the improvement in symptoms and oxygenation for individuals with severe COVID-19 who received corticosteroid therapy, case fatality rate in the corticosteroid group was significantly higher than that in the non-corticosteroid group (69/443, 15.6% versus 56/1310, 4.3%). Compared individuals with non-severe disease, those with severe disease were more likely to receive corticosteroid therapy (201/382, 52.6% versus 201/1310, 15.3%). Although there is no evidence that corticosteroid therapy reduces mortality in people with COVID-19, some improvements in clinical symptoms and oxygenation were reported in some clinical observational studies. Excessive inflammatory response and lymphopenia might be critical factors associated with severity of and mortality from COVID-19. Sufficiently powered randomized controlled trials with rigorous inclusion/exclusion criteria and standardized dose and duration of corticosteroids are needed to verify the effectiveness and safety of corticosteroid therapy.

title: A global treatments for coronaviruses including COVID‐19
abstract: In late December 2019 in Wuhan, China, several patients with viral pneumonia were identified as 2019 novel coronavirus (2019‐nCoV). So far, there are no specific treatments for patients with coronavirus disease‐19 (COVID‐19), and the treatments available today are based on previous experience with similar viruses such as severe acute respiratory syndrome‐related coronavirus (SARS‐CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV), and Influenza virus. In this article, we have tried to reach a therapeutic window of drugs available to patients with COVID‐19. Cathepsin L is required for entry of the 2019‐nCoV virus into the cell as target teicoplanin inhibits virus replication. Angiotensin‐converting‐enzyme 2 (ACE2) in soluble form as a recombinant protein can prevent the spread of coronavirus by restricting binding and entry. In patients with COVID‐19, hydroxychloroquine decreases the inflammatory response and cytokine storm, but overdose causes toxicity and mortality. Neuraminidase inhibitors such as oseltamivir, peramivir, and zanamivir are invalid for 2019‐nCoV and are not recommended for treatment but protease inhibitors such as lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) inhibit the progression of MERS‐CoV disease and can be useful for patients of COVID‐19 and, in combination with Arbidol, has a direct antiviral effect on early replication of SARS‐CoV. Ribavirin reduces hemoglobin concentrations in respiratory patients, and remdesivir improves respiratory symptoms. Use of ribavirin in combination with LPV/r in patients with SARS‐CoV reduces acute respiratory distress syndrome and mortality, which has a significant protective effect with the addition of corticosteroids. Favipiravir increases clinical recovery and reduces respiratory problems and has a stronger antiviral effect than LPV/r. currently, appropriate treatment for patients with COVID‐19 is an ACE2 inhibitor and a clinical problem reducing agent such as favipiravir in addition to hydroxychloroquine and corticosteroids.

title: Understanding SARS-CoV-2-Mediated Inflammatory Responses: From Mechanisms to Potential Therapeutic Tools
abstract: Currently there is no effective antiviral therapy for SARS-CoV-2 infection, which frequently leads to fatal inflammatory responses and acute lung injury. Here, we discuss the various mechanisms of SARS-CoV-mediated inflammation. We also assume that SARS-CoV-2 likely shares similar inflammatory responses. Potential therapeutic tools to reduce SARS-CoV-2-induced inflammatory responses include various methods to block FcR activation. In the absence of a proven clinical FcR blocker, the use of intravenous immunoglobulin to block FcR activation may be a viable option for the urgent treatment of pulmonary inflammation to prevent severe lung injury. Such treatment may also be combined with systemic anti-inflammatory drugs or corticosteroids. However, these strategies, as proposed here, remain to be clinically tested for effectiveness.

title: Repositioning Chromones for Early Anti-inflammatory Treatment of COVID-19
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic is posing an unprecedented sanitary threat. In the absence of specific vaccines and anti-SARS-CoV-2 drugs, medicines that may assist in tackling the emergency and limiting the high number of fatalities are urgently needed. The repositioning of available drugs to treat COVID-19 is the only and rapid option in the face of the lack of direct antiviral agents and vaccines available. In this light it is important to focus on available drugs, which, based on their pharmacodynamics, could plausibly attenuate viral growth as well as COVID-19’s worst complications. This is the case of chloroquine and tocilizumab which seem to limit virus replication and the severity of interstitial pneumonia, respectively. However, these treatments, particularly those aimed at containing inflammation, are still reserved for the most severe cases. This commentary elaborates on the pharmacological rationale of repositioning the mast cell stabilizer chromones as an adjunctive treatment for SARS‐CoV‐2 infection, and proposes their practical clinical testing as an early, safe, and cost-effective anti-inflammatory intervention in COVID-19 to limit the eventual secondary progression toward life-threatening respiratory complications.

title: The Role of Immune Complexes Consisting of Myelin Basic Protein (MBP), Anti‐MBP Antibodies and Complement in Promoting CD4(+) T‐cell Responses to MBP in Health and Multiple Sclerosis
abstract: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune condition characterized by degeneration of nerve fibre myelin sheets. A candidate autoantigen, myelin basic protein (MBP), has especially attracted attention. The presence of anti‐MBP antibodies is a predictor of definite MS, but their role in the pathogenesis remains obscure. T cells have long been known to play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of MS. Recently, an important role for B cells as autoantigen‐presenting cells has been demonstrated in other autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis and diabetes. The uptake of MBP by B cells and the presentation of MBP‐derive peptides to T helper (Th) cells by B cells may be promoted by the formation of complement (C) activating immune complexes (ICs) between MBP and natural autoantibodies in healthy individuals and disease‐associated anti‐MBP antibodies in MS patients, respectively. We have investigated the formation of MBP‐containing IC, the binding of MBP to B cells, the MBP‐elicited induction of Th‐cell and B‐cell proliferation and the cytokine production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy donors grown in the presence of intact or C‐inactivated serum from healthy donors or patients with MS. While MBP did not induce measurable proliferation of B cells nor CD4(+) T cells, we observed the production of TNF‐α, IFN‐γ and IL‐10 by PBMC in response to incubation with MBP in the presence of sera from healthy controls as well as sera from MS patients. By contrast, no production of IL‐2, IL‐4 and IL‐5 was detected. We are currently investigating the capability of MS sera to promote the formation of MBP‐containing IC and thereby enhance the cytokine responses, by virtue of elevated anti‐MBP contents.

title: Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab
abstract: After analyzing the immune characteristics of patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), we have identified that pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes with large amount of interleukin 6 secreting may incite the inflammatory storm, which may potentially be curbed through monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 pathways. Here, we aimed to assess the efficacy of tocilizumab in severe patients with COVID-19 and seek a therapeutic strategy. The patients diagnosed as severe or critical COVID-19 in The First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China (Anhui Provincial Hospital) and Anhui Fuyang Second People's Hospital were given tocilizumab in addition to routine therapy between 5 and 14 February 2020. The changes of clinical manifestations, computerized tomography (CT) scan image, and laboratory examinations were retrospectively analyzed. Fever returned to normal on the first day, and other symptoms improved remarkably within a few days. Within 5 d after tocilizumab, 15 of the 20 patients (75.0%) had lowered their oxygen intake, and 1 patient needed no oxygen therapy. CT scans manifested that the lung lesion opacity absorbed in 19 patients (90.5%). The percentage of lymphocytes in peripheral blood, which decreased in 85.0% of patients (17/20) before treatment (mean, 15.52 ± 8.89%), returned to normal in 52.6% of patients (10/19) on the fifth day after treatment. Abnormally elevated C-reactive protein decreased significantly in 84.2% of patients (16/19). No obvious adverse reactions were observed. All patients have been discharged on average 15.1 d after giving tocilizumab. Preliminary data show that tocilizumab, which improved the clinical outcome immediately in severe and critical COVID-19 patients, is an effective treatment to reduce mortality.

title: Association between Clinical, Laboratory and CT Characteristics and RT-PCR Results in the Follow-up of COVID-19 patients
abstract: Since December 2019, more than 100,000 coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients have been confirmed globally based on positive viral nucleic acids with real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). However, the association between clinical, laboratory and CT characteristics and RT-PCR results is still unclear. We sought to examine this association in detail, especially in recovered patients.  We analysed data from 52 confirmed patients who had been discharged with COVID-19. The clinical, laboratory, and radiological data were dynamically recorded and compared with the admission and follow-up RT-PCR results.  In this cohort, 52 admitted COVID-19 patients who had confirmed positive RT-PCR results were discharged after 2 rounds of consecutively negative RT-PCR results. Compared with admission levels, CRP levels (median 4.93 mg/L [IQR: 1.78-10.20]) decreased significantly (p<0.001). and lymphocyte counts (median 1.50×109/L [IQR: 1.11-1.88]) increased obviously after obtaining negative RT-PCR results (p<0.001). Additionally, substantially improved inflammatory exudation was observed on chest CT except for 2 progressed patients. At the two-week follow-up after discharge, 7 patients had re-positive RT-PCR results, including the abovementioned 2 progressed patients. Among the 7 patients, new GGO was demonstrated in 2 patients. There were no significant differences in CPR levels or lymphocyte counts when comparing the negative and re-positive PCT results (all p >0.05).  Heterogeneity between CT features and RT-PCR results was found in COVID-19, especially in some recovered patients with negative RT-PCR results. Our study highlights that both RT-PCR and chest CT should be considered as the key determinants for the diagnosis and management of COVID-19 patients.

title: Poxvirus protein evolution: Family-wide assessment of possible horizontal gene transfer events
abstract: To investigate the evolutionary origins of proteins encoded by the Poxviridae family of viruses, we examined all poxvirus protein coding genes using a method of characterizing and visualizing the similarity between these proteins and taxonomic subsets of proteins in GenBank. Our analysis divides poxvirus proteins into categories based on their relative degree of similarity to two different taxonomic subsets of proteins such as all eukaryote vs. all virus (except poxvirus) proteins. As an example, this allows us to identify, based on high similarity to only eukaryote proteins, poxvirus proteins that may have been obtained by horizontal transfer from their hosts. Although this method alone does not definitively prove horizontal gene transfer, it allows us to provide an assessment of the possibility of horizontal gene transfer for every poxvirus protein. Potential candidates can then be individually studied in more detail during subsequent investigation. Results of our analysis demonstrate that in general, proteins encoded by members of the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae exhibit greater similarity to eukaryote proteins than to proteins of other virus families. In addition, our results reiterate the important role played by host gene capture in poxvirus evolution; highlight the functions of many genes poxviruses share with their hosts; and illustrate which host-like genes are present uniquely in poxviruses and which are also present in other virus families.

title: Cytokine storm in COVID-19: pathogenesis and overview of anti-inflammatory agents used in treatment
abstract: COVID-19 infection has a heterogenous disease course; it may be asymptomatic or causes only mild symptoms in the majority of the cases, while immunologic complications such as macrophage activation syndrome also known as secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, resulting in cytokine storm syndrome and acute respiratory distress syndrome, may also occur in some patients. According to current literature, impairment of SARS-CoV-2 clearance due to genetic and viral features, lower levels of interferons, increased neutrophil extracellular traps, and increased pyroptosis and probable other unknown mechanisms create a background for severe disease course complicated by macrophage activation syndrome and cytokine storm. Various genetic mutations may also constitute a risk factor for severe disease course and occurrence of cytokine storm in COVID-19. Once, immunologic complications like cytokine storm occur, anti-viral treatment alone is not enough and should be combined with appropriate anti-inflammatory treatment. Anti-rheumatic drugs, which are tried for managing immunologic complications of COVID-19 infection, will also be discussed including chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, JAK inhibitors, IL-6 inhibitors, IL-1 inhibitors, anti-TNF-α agents, corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), and colchicine. Early recognition and appropriate treatment of immunologic complications will decrease the morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 infection, which requires the collaboration of infectious disease, lung, and intensive care unit specialists with other experts such as immunologists, rheumatologists, and hematologists.

title: Cytokine storm and leukocyte changes in mild versus severe SARS‐CoV‐2 infection: Review of 3939 COVID‐19 patients in China and emerging pathogenesis and therapy concepts
abstract: Clinical evidence indicates that the fatal outcome observed with severe acute respiratory syndrome‐coronavirus‐2 infection often results from alveolar injury that impedes airway capacity and multi‐organ failure—both of which are associated with the hyperproduction of cytokines, also known as a cytokine storm or cytokine release syndrome. Clinical reports show that both mild and severe forms of disease result in changes in circulating leukocyte subsets and cytokine secretion, particularly IL‐6, IL‐1β, IL‐10, TNF, GM‐CSF, IP‐10 (IFN‐induced protein 10), IL‐17, MCP‐3, and IL‐1ra. Not surprising, therapies that target the immune response and curtail the cytokine storm in coronavirus 2019 (COVID‐19) patients have become a focus of recent clinical trials. Here we review reports on leukocyte and cytokine data associated with COVID‐19 disease in 3939 patients in China and describe emerging data on immunopathology. With an emphasis on immune modulation, we also look at ongoing clinical studies aimed at blocking proinflammatory cytokines; transfer of immunosuppressive mesenchymal stem cells; use of convalescent plasma transfusion; as well as immunoregulatory therapy and traditional Chinese medicine regimes. In examining leukocyte and cytokine activity in COVID‐19, we focus in particular on how these levels are altered as the disease progresses (neutrophil NETosis, macrophage, T cell response, etc.) and proposed consequences to organ pathology (coagulopathy, etc.). Viral and host interactions are described to gain further insight into leukocyte biology and how dysregulated cytokine responses lead to disease and/or organ damage. By better understanding the mechanisms that drive the intensity of a cytokine storm, we can tailor treatment strategies at specific disease stages and improve our response to this worldwide public health threat.

title: The role of inflammation in the development of chronic lung disease in neonates
abstract: Chronic lung disease (CLD) has been associated with chorioamnionitis and upper respiratory tract colonisation with Ureaplasma urealyticum. The aim of this review is to describe the increasing evidence that inflammation plays a critical role in the early stages of CLD of the neonate. Ongoing lung damage in the premature infant may be caused by failure to downregulate and control this inflammatory response. Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-8 are important pro-inflammatory cytokines of which IL-8 is an important chemotactic factor in the lung. Data suggest that preterm newborns with lung inflammation may be unable to activate the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Therefore, early post-natal anti-inflammatory therapy could help in preventing development of CLD. Prophylactic dexamethasone therapy cannot yet be recommended. There are a number of potential interactions between surfactant and cytokine effects on the preterm lung which have not been evaluated. Surfactant protein A may be an important modulator of the immune response to lung injury. The role of high-frequency ventilation in the prevention of CLD still remains unclear.  Many aspects of the pathogenesis of the inflammatory response in the development of chronic lung disease remain to be elucidated. Further research to identify preterm infants at highest risk for the development of this multifactorial and complex disease is needed.

title: Development of non-traumatic osteonecrosis of the femoral head requires toll-like receptor 7 and 9 stimulations and is boosted by repression on nuclear factor kappa B in rats
abstract: Non-traumatic osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) often occurs after corticosteroid therapy in patients with inflammatory diseases. Recent studies suggest that toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling may contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, and that the reason for corticosteroid therapy for inflammatory diseases is related to the anti-inflammatory activities of corticosteroids through the reduction of NF-κB. We hypothesized that the administration of TLR ligands in combination with corticosteroid causes ONFH and that transcription factors may contribute to the pathogenesis of ONFH. The aim of the study was to evaluate (1) the incidence of ONFH in rats after the administration of TLR7 or TLR9 ligands together with methylprednisolone (MPSL) and (2) whether transcription factors contribute to the development of ONFH. Male Wistar rats (n=148) were divided into five groups as follows: Group 1: Saline+MPSL, Group 2: Imiquimod+Saline, Group 3: Imiquimod+MPSL, Group 4: CpG-C+MPSL, Group 5: Imiquimod+BAY11-7082+MPSL. As a result, ONFH was observed in 0 of 12 rats in Group 1, in 1 of 10 in Group 2, in 6 of 12 in Group 3, in 4 of 12 in Group 4, in 0 of 9 in Group 5. MPSL treatment did not significantly affect IRF7 activity, whereas NF-κB activity was significantly repressed in Group 2 and Group 3. Furthermore, the repression in interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) activity by BAY11-7082 interfered with the development of ONFH simultaneously with the MPSL treatment-induced repression in NF-κB activity. In conclusion, in the present study, corticosteroid treatment after the administration of TLR7 or TLR9 ligands caused ONFH. Repression in NF-κB activity by corticosteroid treatment boosted the development of ONFH.

title: SARS-CoV-2-mediated inflammatory response in lungs: should we look at RAGE?

title: Putative roles of the CNF2 and CDTIII toxins in experimental infections with necrotoxigenic Escherichia coli type 2 (NTEC2) strains in calves
abstract: Newborn colostrum-restricted calves were orally inoculated with an Escherichia coli strain, identified originally as non-pathogenic, and into which the plasmid pVir was conjugally transferred. This resulted in diarrhea, intestinal lesions and extra-intestinal invasion, suggesting that factors affecting these pathogenic properties are located on pVir. In order to analyze the respective roles of the toxins CNF2 and CDTIII in the pathogenesis, colostrum-restricted calves were inoculated with isogenic mutants in the cnf2 and the cdt-III genes. The loss of cnf2 is associated with a reduction in the pathogenicity, since diarrhea does not occur in calves challenged, in spite of successful colonization of the intestine. Nevertheless, the mutant strain remains able to invade the bloodstream and to localize in the internal organs. Conversely, the calves inoculated with mutant in the cdt-III gene evolved in the same way as wild-type strain-inoculated calves with regard to clinical signs and macroscopic or microscopic lesions.

title: Tissue-specific tolerance in fatal Covid-19
abstract: Successful host defence against a pathogen can involve resistance or tolerance, with implications for prioritising either antimicrobial or immunomodulatory therapeutic approaches. Hyper-inflammation occurs in Covid-19 and is associated with worse outcomes. The efficacy of dexamethasone in preventing mortality in critical Covid-19 suggests that inflammation has a causal role in death. Whether this deleterious inflammation is primarily a direct response to the presence of SARS-CoV-2 requiring enhanced resistance, or an independent immunopathologic process necessitating enhanced tolerance, is unknown. Here we report an aberrant immune response in fatal Covid-19, principally involving the lung and reticuloendothelial system, that is not clearly topologically associated with the virus, indicating tissue-specific tolerance of SARS-CoV-2. We found that inflammation and organ dysfunction in fatal Covid-19 did not map to the widespread tissue and cellular distribution of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and protein, both between and within tissues. A monocyte/myeloid-rich vasculitis was identified in the lung, along with an influx of macrophages/monocytes into the parenchyma. In addition, stereotyped abnormal reticulo-endothelial responses (reactive plasmacytosis and iron-laden macrophages) were present and dissociated from the presence of virus in lymphoid tissues. Our results support virus-independent immunopathology being one of the primary mechanisms underlying fatal Covid-19. This supports prioritising pathogen tolerance as a therapeutic strategy in Covid-19, by better understanding non-injurious organ-specific viral tolerance mechanisms and targeting aberrant macrophage and plasma cell responses.

title: CO.ME.T.A. -- covid-19 media textual analysis. A dashboard for media monitoring
abstract: The focus of this paper is to trace how mass media, particularly newspapers, have addressed the issues about the containment of contagion or the explanation of epidemiological evolution. We propose an interactive dashboard: CO.ME.T.A.. During crises it is important to shape the best communication strategies in order to respond to critical situations. In this regard, it is important to monitor the information that mass media and social platforms convey. The dashboard allows to explore the mining of contents extracted and study the lexical structure that links the main discussion topics. The dashboard merges together four methods: text mining, sentiment analysis, textual network analysis and latent topic models. Results obtained on a subset of documents show not only a health-related semantic dimension, but it also extends to social-economic dimensions.

title: COVID-19: Immunology and treatment options
abstract: The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV2 causes COVID-19, a pandemic threatening millions. As protective immunity does not exist in humans and the virus is capable of escaping innate immune responses, it can proliferate, unhindered, in primarily infected tissues. Subsequent cell death results in the release of virus particles and intracellular components to the extracellular space, which result in immune cell recruitment, the generation of immune complexes and associated damage. Infection of monocytes/macrophages and/or recruitment of uninfected immune cells can result in massive inflammatory responses later in the disease. Uncontrolled production of pro-inflammatory mediators contributes to ARDS and cytokine storm syndrome. Antiviral agents and immune modulating treatments are currently being trialled. Understanding immune evasion strategies of SARS-CoV2 and the resulting delayed massive immune response will result in the identification of biomarkers that predict outcomes as well as phenotype and disease stage specific treatments that will likely include both antiviral and immune modulating agents.

title: Probiotics and COVID‐19: is there any link?
abstract: Understanding mechanisms of the novel SARS‐CoV2 infection and progression, can provide potential novel targets for prevention and/or treatment. This could be achieved via the inhibition of viral entry and/or replication, or by suppression the immunologic response that is provoked by the infection (known as the cytokine storm). Probiotics are defined as “live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host”. There is scarcity of evidence about the relationship between COVID‐19 and gut microbiota. So, whether or not these supplements can prevent or ameliorate COVID‐19 associated symptoms is not fully understood. The aim of this paper is to provide an indirect evidence about the utility of probiotics in combating COVID‐19 or its associated symptoms, through the review of its antiviral and anti‐inflammatory properties in vitro, animal models, and human trials.

title: Clinical Outcomes in COVID‐19 Patients Treated with Tocilizumab: An Individual Patient Data Systematic Review
abstract: Current evidence suggests an important role of interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) pathway in SARS‐CoV‐2‐related cytokine release storm in severely ill COVID‐19 patients. Inhibition of the IL‐6 pathway with tocilizumab has been employed successfully in some of these patients but the data is mostly consistent of case reports and series.  We performed a systematic search of PubMed, Embase, and Medline from 22(nd) April 2020 and again on 27(th) April 2020 using the following search terms alone or in combination: “COVID‐19”, “coronavirus”, “SARS‐CoV‐2”, “COVID”, “anti‐interleukin 6 receptor antibodies”, “anti‐IL‐6”, “tocilizumab”, “sarilumab”, “siltuximab”. We included studies which reported individual patient data. We extracted and analyzed individual level data on baseline characteristics, laboratory findings, and clinical outcomes.   352 records were identified through the systematic search of which 10 studies met the inclusion criteria. A single study currently under review was also added. Eleven observational studies encompassing 29 patients were included in the present review. There were more males (24 [82.8%]) and hypertension was the most common comorbidity (16 [48.3 %]). Over an average of 5.4 hospital days, the primary endpoint occurred in 6 (20.7%) patients. Among surviving patients, about 10% had worsened disease and 17% recovered. The most common complication was acute respiratory distress syndrome (8[27.6%]). IL‐6 level was significantly higher after the initiation of tocilizumab with median (IQR) of 376.6 (148‐900.6) pg/mL compared to the baseline of 71.1 (31.9‐122.8) pg/mL (p=0.002). Mean (SD) levels of c‐reactive protein (CRP) were significantly decreased following treatment 24.6 (26.9) mg/L compared to baseline 140.4 (77) mg/L (P< 0.0001). Baseline demographics were not significantly different amongst survivors and non‐survivors by Fisher's exact test.  In COVID‐19 patients treated with tocilizumab, IL‐6 levels are significantly elevated which are supportive of cytokine storm. Following initiation of tocilizumab, there is elevation in the IL‐6 levels and CRP levels dramatically decrease suggesting an improvement in this hyper‐inflammatory state. Ongoing randomized control trials will allow for further evaluation of this promising therapy.  Recent data indicate that severe COVID 19 causes cytokine release storm and is associated with worse clinical outcomes and IL‐6 plays an important role. It is suggestive that anti‐IL6 results in the improvement of this hyperinflammatory state. However, to our knowledge, there is no individual patient data systematic review performed to summarize baseline characteristics and clinical outcomes of COVID 19 patients who received tocilizumab. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Highlight of Immune Pathogenic Response and Hematopathologic Effect in SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-Cov-2 Infection
abstract: A sudden outbreak of COVID-19 caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, in Wuhan, China in December 2019 quickly grew into a global pandemic, putting at risk not only the global healthcare system, but also the world economy. As the disease continues to spread rapidly, the development of prophylactic and therapeutic approaches is urgently required. Although some progress has been made in understanding the viral structure and invasion mechanism of coronaviruses that may cause severe cases of the syndrome, due to the limited understanding of the immune effects caused by SARS-CoV-2, it is difficult for us to prevent patients from developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pulmonary fibrosis (PF), the major complications of coronavirus infection. Therefore, any potential treatments should focus not only on direct killing of coronaviruses and prevention strategies by vaccine development, but also on keeping in check the acute immune/inflammatory responses, resulting in ARDS and PF. In addition, potential treatments currently under clinical trials focusing on killing coronaviruses or on developing vaccines preventing coronavirus infection largely ignore the host immune response. However, taking care of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients with ARDS and PF is considered to be the major difficulty. Therefore, further understanding of the host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is extremely important for clinical resolution and saving medication cost. In addition to a breif overview of the structure, infection mechanism, and possible therapeutic approaches, we summarized and compared the hematopathologic effect and immune responses to SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. We also discussed the indirect immune response caused by SARS and direct infection, replication, and destroying of immune cells by MERS-CoV. The molecular mechanisms of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infection-induced lymphopenia or cytokine storm may provide some hint toward fight against SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus. This may provide guidance over using immune therapy as a combined treatment to prevent patients developing severe respiratory syndrome and largely reduce complications.

title: COVID‐19: From pathogenesis models to the first drug trials
abstract: The number of people infected with SARS‐CoV‐2, and sadly dying from COVID‐19, has exploded, and so the amount of literature on the novel coronavirus and the disease it causes has increased proportionately. The case numbers in some countries are beyond the epidemic peak, but the uncertainty about a second wave keeps politicians and societies under pressure. Appropriate decision‐making and winning support from the population depends on precise scientific information rather than leaving the field to scaremongers of all proveniences. This mini‐review is an update of earlier reports (Brüssow, Microb Biotechnol 2020a;13:607; Brüssow, Microb Biotechnol 2020b; https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13592).

title: Central Apnea in a COVID19 Pediatric Patient

title: Corticosteroids and the hyper-inflammatory phase of the COVID-19 disease

title: Attenuated interferon and pro-inflammatory response in SARS-CoV-2-infected human dendritic cells is associated with viral antagonism of STAT1 phosphorylation
abstract: Clinical manifestations of COVID-19 vary from asymptomatic virus shedding, non-specific pharyngitis, to pneumonia with silent hypoxia and respiratory failure. Dendritic cells and macrophages are sentinel cells for innate and adaptive immunity that affect the pathogenesis of SARS and MERS. However, the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and these cell types remains unknown. Herein, we investigated the infection and host response of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) and macrophages (MDMs) infected by SARS-CoV-2. We demonstrated that moDCs and MDMs were permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection and protein expression but did not support productive virus replication. Importantly, SARS-CoV-2 launched an attenuated interferon response in both cell types. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2 triggered significant pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine expression in MDMs but not in moDCs. Further investigations suggested that this attenuated immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in moDCs was associated with viral antagonism of STAT1 phosphorylation. These findings on pathogenesis may explain the mild and insidious course of COVID-19 till late deterioration.

title: Artesunate: could be an alternative drug to chloroquine in COVID-19 treatment?
abstract: SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus)-CV-2 (2019-nCov), which showed up in China in December 2019 and spread all over the world, has becomed a serious health problem. An effective, safe and proven treatment has not yet been found. Chloroquine has been recommended by some authors to be used for the treatment of patients infected with this virus however chloroquine may have side effects and drug resistance problems. Artesunate is a semisynthetic derivative of artemisinin, an antimalarial drug. Artesunate was thought to be an effective treatment for covid-19 because of its anti-inflammatory activity, NF-κB (nuclear Factor kappa B)-coronavirus effect and chloroquine-like endocytosis inhibition mechanism.

title: The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Alongside investigations into the virology of SARS-CoV-2, understanding the fundamental physiological and immunological processes underlying the clinical manifestations of COVID-19 is vital for the identification and rational design of effective therapies. Here, we provide an overview of the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We describe the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with the immune system and the subsequent contribution of dysfunctional immune responses to disease progression. From nascent reports describing SARS-CoV-2, we make inferences on the basis of the parallel pathophysiological and immunological features of the other human coronaviruses targeting the lower respiratory tract — severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Finally, we highlight the implications of these approaches for potential therapeutic interventions that target viral infection and/or immunoregulation.

title: Hepatic complications of COVID‐19 and its treatment
abstract: COVID‐19 is highly contagious and has a variety of clinical manifestations, it can affect a number of other organs in addition to the lungs, and liver injury may occur. SARS‐CoV‐2 can cause liver injury through systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), cytokine storms, ischemia‐reperfusion injury, side effects of treatment drugs, and underlying liver disease and can attack liver cells directly via ACE2. Clinical studies have found that liver injury in COVID‐19 patients mainly manifests as abnormal liver biochemical indicators, but there have been no reports of liver failure caused by this disease. The number of COVID‐19 patients with liver injury is increasing, and the incidence of liver injury in COVID‐19 patients with severe disease are higher than in patients with mild disease. Liver injury may be a risk factor for progresses and worsens in patients with COVID‐19, and it is necessary to pay attention to the occurrence of liver injury in the diagnosis and treatment of COVID‐19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Weathering the Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: Therapeutic Implications
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) recently emerged in Wuhan, Hubei-China, as responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and then spread rapidly worldwide. While most individuals remain asymptomatic or develop only mild symptoms, approximately 5% develop severe forms of COVID-19 characterized by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiple-organ failure (MOF) that usually require intensive-care support and often yield a poor prognosis.  The pathophysiology of COVID-19 is far from being completely understood, and the lack of effective treatments leads to a sense of urgency to develop new therapeutic strategies based on pathophysiological assumptions. The exaggerated cytokine release in response to viral infection, a condition known as cytokine release syndrome (CRS) or cytokine storm, is emerging as the mechanism leading to ARDS and MOF in COVID-19, thus endorsing the hypothesis that properly timed anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategies could improve patients' clinical outcomes and prognosis.  The objective of this article is to explore and comment on the potential role of the promising immunomodulatory therapies using pharmacological and nonpharmacological approaches to overcome the dysregulated proinflammatory response in COVID-19.

title: Potential Mechanisms of Cardiac Injury and Common Pathways of Inflammation in Patients With COVID-19
abstract: Due to the lack of prospective, randomized, controlled clinical studies on inflammation and cardiovascular involvement, the exact mechanism of cardiac injury among patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) still remains uncertain. It was demonstrated that there is a high and significantly positive linear correlation between troponin T and plasma high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels, biomarkers of cardiac injury and systemic inflammation, respectively. Cardiac injury and inflammation is a relatively common association among patients hospitalized with COVID-19, and it is related to higher risk of in-hospital mortality. In our literature search, we identified several potential mechanisms of myocardial tissue damage, namely, coronavirus-associated acute myocarditis, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor binding affinity to the virus Spike protein, increased cytokine secretion, and hypoxia-induced cardiac myocyte apoptosis. Elucidation of the disease pathogenesis and prospective histopathological studies are crucial for future proper treatment in case of renewed outbreaks. Of interest is that with hundred of thousands of bodies available for autopsy studies, no prospective investigation has been reported so far. Strong efforts and continued research of the cardiovascular complications and identification of risk factors for poor prognosis in COVID-19 are steadily needed. The high morbidity and mortality of COVID-19, its monumental economic burden and social impact, the despair of a new pandemic outbreak, and the thread of potential utilization of novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 as biologic weapons make it a preponderant necessity to better comprehend the therapeutic management of this lethal disease. Emerging as an acute infectious disease, COVID-19 may become a chronic epidemic because of genetic recombination. Therefore, we should be ready for the reemergence of COVID-19 or other coronaviruses.

title: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a patient with ankylosing spondylitis treated with secukinumab: a case-based review
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coranovirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has become an important health-care issue worldwide. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has also raised concerns among patients with inflammatory rheumatic conditions and their treating physicians. There are emerging data regarding the potential risks of SARS-CoV-2 for this particular patient group. However, less is known with regard to the course of COVID-19 among patients receiving IL-17 inhibitors. The aim of the current article is to review the growing body of knowledge on the course/management of COVID-19 in patients with inflammatory rheumatic diseases by presenting a SARS-CoV-2 infected case with ankylosing spondylitis under secukinumab therapy. A 61-year old patient with ankylosing spondylitis who was on secukinumab therapy for 5 months admitted with newly onset fever and gastrointestinal complaints. After being hospitalized, she developed respiratory manifestations with focal pulmonary ground-glass opacities and multiple nodular densities in both lungs. The patient was tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Substantial clinical improvement was obtained following a management plan, which included tocilizumab, hydroxychloroquine, prednisolone and enoxaparin sodium. PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus databases were searched by using relevant keywords and their combinations. The literature search revealed four articles reporting the clinical course of COVID-19 in seven rheumatic patients on secukinumab. The clinical course of SARS-CoV-2 infection was mild in most of these patients, while one of them experienced severe COVID-19. Interleukin-17 has been related to the hyperinflammatory state in COVID-19 and IL-17 inhibitors were presented as promising targets for the prevention of aberrant inflammation and acute respiratory distress in COVID-19. However, this hypothesis still remains to be proved. Further studies are warranted in order to test the benefits and risks of IL-inhibitors in SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals.

title: Heightened innate immune responses in the respiratory tract of COVID-19 patients
abstract: The outbreaks of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection has posed a severe threat to global public health. It is unclear how the human immune system responds to this infection. Here, we used metatranscriptomic sequencing to profile immune signatures in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of eight COVID-19 cases. The expression of proinflammatory genes, especially chemokines, was markedly elevated in COVID-19 cases compared to community-acquired pneumonia patients and healthy controls, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 infection causes hypercytokinemia. Compared to SARS-CoV, which is thought to induce inadequate interferon (IFN) responses, SARS-CoV-2 robustly triggered expression of numerous IFN-inducible genes (ISGs). These ISGs exhibit immunopathogenic potential, with overrepresentation of genes involved in inflammation. The transcriptome data was also used to estimate immune cell populations, revealing increases in activated dendritic cells and neutrophils. Collectively, these host responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection could further our understanding of disease pathogenesis and point towards antiviral strategies.

title: Natural History of COVID-19 and Current Knowledge on Treatment Therapeutic Options
abstract: Despite intense research there is currently no effective vaccine available against the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in the later 2019 and responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. This infectious and communicable disease has become one of the major public health challenges in the world. The clinical management of COVID-19 has been limited to infection prevention and control measures associated with supportive care such as supplemental oxygen and mechanical ventilation. Meanwhile efforts to find an effective treatment to inhibit virus replication, mitigate the symptoms, increase survival and decrease mortality rate are ongoing. Several classes of drugs, many of them already in use for other diseases, are being evaluated based on the body of clinical knowledge obtained from infected patients regarding to the natural history and evolution of the infection. Herein we will provide an updated overview of the natural history and current knowledge on drugs and therapeutic agents being tested for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. These include different classes of drugs such as antiviral agents (chloroquine, ivermectin, nitazoxanide, hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir, remdesivir, tocilizumab), supporting agents (Vitamin C, Vitamin D, azithromycin, corticosteroids) and promising investigational vaccines. Considering the controversies and excessive number of compounds being tested and reported in the literature we hope that this review can provide useful and updated consolidated information on potential drugs used to prevent, control and treat COVID-19 patients worldwide.

title: Expression profile of genes involved in pathogenesis of pediatric Crohn's disease
abstract: Expression profiling of genes specific to pediatric Crohn's Disease (CD) patients was performed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying disease cause and pathogenesis at disease onset.  We used suppressive subtractive hybridization (SSH) and differential screening analysis to profile the mRNA expression patterns of children with CD and age‐ and sex‐matched controls without inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).  Sequence analysis of 1000 clones enriched by SSH identified 75 functionally annotated human genes, represented by 430 clones. The 75 genes have potential involvement in gene networks, such as antigen presentation, inflammation, infection mechanism, connective tissue development, cell cycle and cancer. Twenty‐eight genes were previously described in association with CD, while 47 were new genes not previously reported in the context of IBD. Additionally, 29 of the 75 genes have been previously implicated in bacterial and viral infections. Quantitative real‐time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction performed on ileal‐derived RNA from 13 CD and nine non‐IBD patients confirmed the upregulation of extracellular matrix gene MMP2 (P = 0.001), and cell proliferation gene REG1A (P = 0.063) in our pediatric CD cohort.  The retrieval of 28 genes previously reported in association with adult CD emphasizes the importance of these genes in the pediatric setting. The observed upregulation of REG1A and MMP2, and their known impact on cell proliferation and extracellular matrix remodeling, agrees with the clinical behavior of the disease. Moreover, the expressions of bacterial‐ and virus‐related genes in our CD‐patient tissues support the concept that microbial agents are important in the etiopathogenesis of CD.

title: Possible Cause of Inflammatory Storm and Septic Shock in Patients Diagnosed with (COVID-19)
abstract: The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection which has been known as Coronavirus diseases 2019 COVID-19 has become an endemic emergent situation by the World Health Organization. So far, no successful specific treatment has been found for this disease. As has been reported, most of non-survivor patients with COVID-19 (70%) had septic shock which was significantly higher than survived ones. Although the exact pathophysiology of septic shock in these patients is still unclear, it seems to be possible that part of it would be due to the administration of empiric antibiotics with inflammatory properties especially in the absence of bacterial infection. Herein, we have reviewed possible molecular pathways of septic shock in the patients who have received antibiotics with inflammatory properties which mainly is release of interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor &#945; (TNF- &#945;) through different routes. Altogether, we highly recommend clinicians to look after those antibiotics with anti-inflammatory activity for both empiric antibiotic therapy and reducing the inflammation to prevent septic shock in patients with diagnosed COVID-19.

title: Central Nervous System: Viral Infection and Immune-Mediated Inflammation

title: COVID-19 infection may increase the risk of parkinsonism – Remember the Spanish flu?

title: Dupilumab and COVID-19: What should we expect?
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a pandemic disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) with high morbidity and mortality. There are very limited data on the interference of immunomodulating drugs on the risk of infection and on the course of the disease. In particular, there are no current clinical data about the interference exerted by dupilumab, a biologic drugs blocking IL-4 and IL-13, used for adult atopic dermatitis. The pathogenesis of COVID-19 is complex, characterized by an immune response mainly Th1/Th17. The hyper-activation of these cells may cause the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that may result in lung impairment. IL-4 and IL-13 are Th2 cytokines, thus being part of a pathway not considered implicated in host defense mechanism against viral infections. Indeed, viral infections, including respiratory infections, have not been reported as a significant adverse event in clinical trials. Furthermore, dupilumab has been proved to be efficacious also in exacerbations of asthma, and it is known that viral infections can worsen asthma. Therefore, the current data seem to suggest that treatment with dupilumab should not be stopped during COVID-19 pandemic. Obviously, a careful assessment is mandatory for each individual patient and further studies are necessary to characterize the immunologic responses in COVID-19.

title: Drug treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China.
abstract: Since December 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread throughout China as well as other countries. More than 8,700,000 confirmed COVID-19 cases have been recorded worldwide so far, with much more cases popping up overseas than those inside. As the initial epicenter in the world, China has been combating the epidemic for a relatively longer period and accumulated valuable experience in prevention and control of COVID-19. This article reviewed the clinical use, mechanism and efficacy of the clinically approved drugs recommended in the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol for Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia (DTPNCP) released by National Health Commission of P.R.China, and the novel therapeutic agents now undergoing clinical trials approved by China National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) to evaluate experimental treatment for COVID-19. Reviewing the progress in drug development for the treatment against COVID-19 in China may provide insight into the epidemic control in other countries.

title: The Rationale for Potential Pharmacotherapy of COVID-19
abstract: On 11 March 2020, the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was defined by the World Health Organization as a pandemic. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the newly evolving human coronavirus infection that causes COVID-19, and it first appeared in Wuhan, China in December 2019 and spread rapidly all over the world. COVID-19 is being increasingly investigated through virology, epidemiology, and clinical management strategies. There is currently no established consensus on the standard of care in the pharmacological treatment of COVID-19 patients. However, certain medications suggested for other diseases have been shown to be potentially effective for treating this infection, though there has yet to be clear evidence. Therapies include new agents that are currently tested in several clinical trials, in addition to other medications that have been repurposed as antiviral and immune-modulating therapies. Previous high-morbidity human coronavirus epidemics such as the 2003 SARS-CoV and the 2012 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) prompted the identification of compounds that could theoretically be active against the emerging coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, advances in molecular biology techniques and computational analysis have allowed for the better recognition of the virus structure and the quicker screening of chemical libraries to suggest potential therapies. This review aims to summarize rationalized pharmacotherapy considerations in COVID-19 patients in order to serve as a tool for health care professionals at the forefront of clinical care during this pandemic. All the reviewed therapies require either additional drug development or randomized large-scale clinical trials to be justified for clinical use.

title: COVID-19, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT): what is the link?

title: First genome sequences of buffalo coronavirus from water buffaloes in Bangladesh
abstract: We report the complete genome sequences of a buffalo coronavirus (BufCoV HKU26) detected from the faecal samples of two domestic water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in Bangladesh. They possessed 98–99% nucleotide identities to bovine coronavirus (BCoV) genomes, supporting BufCoV HKU26 as a member of Betacoronavirus 1. Nevertheless, BufCoV HKU26 possessed distinct accessory proteins between spike and envelope compared to BCoV. Sugar-binding residues in the N-terminal domain of S protein in BCoV are conserved in BufCoV HKU26.

title: How nicotine can inhibit cytokine storm in the lungs and prevent or lessen the severity of COVID-19 infection?
abstract: Statistical surveys of COVID-19 patients indicate, against all common logic, that people who smoke are less prone to the infection and/or exhibit less severe respiratory symptoms than non-smokers. This suggests that nicotine may have some preventive or modulatory effect on the inflammatory response in the lungs. Because it is known that the response to, and resolution of the SARS-CoV-2 infection depends mainly on the lung macrophages, we discuss the recent scientific findings, which may explain why and how nicotine may modulate lung macrophage response during COVID-19 infection.

title: Pulmonary toxicity and inflammatory response of e-cigarettes containing medium-chain triglyceride oil and vitamin E acetate: Implications in the pathogenesis of EVALI but independent of SARS-COV-2 COVID-19 related proteins
abstract: Recently, there has been an outbreak associated with the use of e-cigarette or vaping products, associated lung injury (EVALI). The primary components of vaping products, vitamin E acetate (VEA) and medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) may be responsible for acute lung toxicity. Currently, little information is available on the physiological and biological effects of exposure to these products. We hypothesized that these e-cig cartridges and their constituents (VEA and MCT) induce pulmonary toxicity, mediated by oxidative damage and inflammatory responses, leading to acute lung injury. We studied the potential mechanisms of cartridge aerosol induced inflammatory response by evaluating the generation of reactive oxygen species by MCT, VEA, and cartridges, and their effects on the inflammatory state of pulmonary epithelium and immune cells both in vitro and in vivo. Cells exposed to these aerosols generated reactive oxygen species, caused cytotoxicity, induced epithelial barrier dysfunction, and elicited an inflammatory response. Using a murine model, the parameters of acute toxicity to aerosol inhalation were assessed. Infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes was accompanied by significant increases in IL-6, eotaxin, and G-CSF in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). In mouse plasma, eicosanoid inflammatory mediators, leukotrienes, were significantly increased. Plasma from e-cig users also showed increased levels of hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETEs) and various eicosanoids. Exposure to e-cig cartridge aerosols showed the most significant effects and toxicity compared to MCT and VEA. In addition, we determined at SARS-COV-2 related proteins and found no impact associated with aerosol exposures from these tested cartridges. Overall, this study demonstrates acute exposure to specific e-cig cartridges induces in vitro cytotoxicity, barrier dysfunction, and inflammation and in vivo mouse exposure induces acute inflammation with elevated pro-inflammatory markers in the pathogenesis of EVALI.

title: Protective immunity after COVID-19 has been questioned: What can we do without SARS-CoV-2-IgG detection?
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) induces a severe acute respiratory syndrome that is called COVID-19. Clinical manifestations of COVID-19 include diarrhea, pneumonia, lymphopenia, exhausted lymphocytes, and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Immunology is part of the process of clinical evolution, but there are some questions around immunity-based protection: (1) why some infected people have only mild symptoms of the disease or are asymptomatic; (2) why delayed and weak antibody responses are associated with severe outcomes; and (3) why positivity in molecular tests does not represent protective antibody IgG. Perhaps T cell responses may be the key to solving those questions. SARS-CoV-2-specific memory T cells persist in peripheral blood and may be capable of providing effective information about protective immunity. The T cells studies can be helpful in elucidating the pathways for development of vaccines, therapies, and diagnostics for COVID-19 and for filling these immunology knowledge gaps.

title: Recent Insight into SARS-CoV2 Immunopathology and Rationale for Potential Treatment and Preventive Strategies in COVID-19
abstract: As the outbreak of the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection is spreading globally, great effort is being made to understand the disease pathogenesis and host factors that predispose to disease progression in an attempt to find a window of opportunity for intervention. In addition to the direct cytopathic effect of the virus, the host hyper-inflammatory response has emerged as a key factor in determining disease severity and mortality. Accumulating clinical observations raised hypotheses to explain why some patients develop more severe disease while others only manifest mild or no symptoms. So far, Covid-19 management remains mainly supportive. However, many researches are underway to clarify the role of antiviral and immunomodulating drugs in changing morbidity and mortality in patients who become severely ill. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and the host immune system and discusses recent findings on proposed pharmacologic treatments.

title: Protective immunity after COVID-19 has been questioned: what can we do without SARS-CoV-2-IgG detection?
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) induces a severe acute respiratory syndrome that is called COVID-19. Clinical manifestations of COVID-19 include diarrhea, pneumonia, lymphopenia, exhausted lymphocytes, and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Immunology is part of the process of clinical evolution, but there are some questions around immunity-based protection: (1) why some infected people have only mild symptoms of the disease or are asymptomatic; (2) why delayed and weak antibody responses are associated with severe outcomes; and (3) why positivity in molecular tests does not represent protective antibody IgG. Perhaps T cell responses may be the key to solving those questions. SARS-CoV-2-specific memory T cells persist in peripheral blood and may be capable of providing effective information about protective immunity. The T cells studies can be helpful in elucidating the pathways for development of vaccines, therapies, and diagnostics for COVID-19 and for filling these immunology knowledge gaps.

title: COVID‐19: a global threat to the nervous system
abstract: In less than 6 months, the severe acute respiratory syndrome‐coronavirus type 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) has spread worldwide infecting nearly 6 million people and killing over 350,000. Initially thought to be restricted to the respiratory system, we now understand that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) also involves multiple other organs including the central and peripheral nervous system. The number of recognized neurologic manifestations of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection is rapidly accumulating. These may result from a variety of mechanisms including virus‐induced hyper‐inflammatory and hypercoagulable states, direct virus infection of the CNS, and post‐infectious immune mediated processes. Example of COVID‐19 CNS disease include encephalopathy, encephalitis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, meningitis, ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, venous sinus thrombosis and endothelialitis. In the peripheral nervous system COVID‐19 is associated with dysfunction of smell and taste, muscle injury, the Guillain‐Barre syndrome and its variants. Due to its worldwide distribution and multifactorial pathogenic mechanisms, COVID‐19 poses a global threat to the entire nervous system. While our understanding of SARS‐CoV‐2 neuropathogenesis is still incomplete and our knowledge is evolving rapidly, we hope that this review will provide a useful framework and help neurologists in understanding the many neurologic facets of COVID‐19.

title: Potential protective and therapeutic role of immune checkpoint inhibitors against viral infections and COVID-19

title: The cytokine storm of COVID-19: a spotlight on prevention and protection
abstract: The cytokine release syndrome (CRS) of COVID-19 is associated with the development of critical illness requiring multi-organ support. Further research is required to halt progression of multi-organ injury induced by hyper-inflammation.  PubMed/MEDLINETM databases were accessed between May 9th-June 9th, 2020, to review the latest perspectives on the treatment and pathogenesis of CRS.  Over-activity of chemotaxis triggers a macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) resulting in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. IL-6 and TNF- &#945; are at the forefront of hyper-inflammation. The inflammatory cascade induces endothelial activation and capillary leak, leading to circulatory collapse and shock. As endothelial dysfunction persists, there is activation of the clotting cascade and microvascular obstruction. Continued endothelial activation results in multi-organ failure, regardless of pulmonary tissue damage. We propose that targeting the endothelium may interrupt this cycle. Immuno-modulating therapies have been suggested, however, further data is necessary to confirm that they do not jeopardize adaptive immunity. Inhibition of IL-6 and the Janus Kinase, signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins pathway (JAK/STAT), are favorable targets. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) reduces the inflammation of sepsis in animal models and should be considered as a low risk intervention, in combination with cardiovascular protection.

title: Possible role of vitamin D in Covid-19 infection in pediatric population
abstract: Covid-19 is a pandemic of unprecedented proportion, whose understanding and management is still under way. In the emergency setting new or available therapies to contrast the spread of COVID-19 are urgently needed. Elderly males, especially those affected by previous diseases or with comorbidities, are more prone to develop interstitial pneumonia that can deteriorate evolving to ARDS (acute respiratory distress syndrome) that require hospitalization in Intensive Care Units (ICUs). Even children and young patients are not spared by SARS-CoV 2 infection, yet they seem to develop a milder form of disease. In this setting the immunomodulatory role of Vitamin D, should be further investigated.  We reviewed the literature about the immunomodulatory role of Vitamin D collecting data from the databases Medline and Embase.  Vitamin D proved to interact both with the innate immune system, by activating Toll-like receptors (TLRs) or increasing the levels of cathelicidins and β-defensins, and adaptive immune system, by reducing immunoglobulin secretion by plasma cells and pro-inflammatory cytokines production, thus modulating T cells function. Promising results have been extensively described as regards the supplementation of vitamin D in respiratory tract infections, autoimmune diseases and even pulmonary fibrosis.  In this review, we suggest that vitamin D supplementation might play a role in the prevention and/or treatment to SARS-CoV-2 infection disease, by modulating the immune response to the virus both in the adult and pediatric population.

title: Evidence Supports a Causal Model for Vitamin D in COVID-19 Outcomes
abstract: We analyse global data for COVID-19 deaths and recoveries and show that outbreak severity displays a striking latitude relationship with a northern hemisphere bias. Transmission rates can be explained by seasonal weather conditions, but this does not account for observed variations in fatality rates. Many factors point to Vitamin D as a candidate explanation but historical controversy surrounding Vitamin D studies and the lack of a coherent framework for causal inference has hampered acceptance of this explanation despite a wealth of evidence in its favour. We analyse global COVID-19 data using Causal Inference, constructing two contrasting directed acyclic graph (DAG) models, one causal and one acausal, and set out clearly multiple predictions made by each model. We show that observed data strongly match predictions made by the causal model but largely contradict those of the acausal model. We explore historic evidence further supporting the causal model. We review biochemical mechanisms that may explain the various ways in which vitamin D acts. We detail the mechanisms by which the SARS-Cov-2 virus causes the disease and known pathways that involve Vitamin D and show how these both protect against viral infection, as well as ameliorating disease symptoms in COVID-19 and other respiratory diseases. We examine the factors that govern confidence in causal inference models and conclude that a high level of confidence in a causal beneficial role for Vitamin D is justified.

title: Lessons Learned to Date on COVID-19 Hyperinflammatory Syndrome: Considerations for Interventions to Mitigate SARS-CoV-2 Viral Infection and Detrimental Hyperinflammation
abstract: The first case of human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 was reported in China in December 2019. A few months later, this viral infection had spread worldwide and became a pandemic. The disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, termed COVID-19, is multifactorial and associated with both specific antiviral as well as inflammatory responses, the extent of which may determine why some individuals are asymptomatic while others develop serious complications. Here we review possible life-threating immune events that can occur during disease progression to uncover key factors behind COVID-19 severity and provide suggestions for interventions with repurposed drugs in well-controlled and randomized clinical trials. These drugs include therapeutics with potential to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells such as serine protease inhibitors of the cellular protease TMPS2 and drugs targeting the renin-angiotensin system; antivirals with potential to block SARS-CoV-2 replication or factors that could boost the antiviral response; monoclonal antibodies targeting pro-inflammatory cytokines that drive the hyperinflammatory response during COVID-19 progression toward the severe stage and therapeutics that could ameliorate the function of the lungs. Furthermore, in order to help make more informed decisions on the timing of the intervention with the drugs listed in this review, we have grouped these therapeutics according to the stage of COVID-19 progression that we considered most appropriate for their mechanism of action.

title: Pharmacological agents under investigation in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 and the importance of melatonin.
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a life-threatening infectious respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 pandemic causing morbidities and even deaths worldwide revealed that there is urgent need to find pharmacological agents or vaccines. Although there are a lot of agents under investigation, there is no approved agent for the prevention or treatment of the COVID-19 yet. Treatment of patients remains mainly supportive as well as compassionate use of the agents under investigation. It is well established that excessive inflammatory and immune response as well as oxidative injury play a critical role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. In this review, we aimed to update knowledge about pathogenesis, clinical features and pharmacological treatment of COVID-19 and review the potential beneficial effects of ancient antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory molecule melatonin for prevention and treatment of COVID-19.

title: Clinical approach to the inflammatory etiology of cardiovascular diseases
abstract: Inflammation is an obligatory marker of arterial disease, both stemming from the inflammatory activity of cholesterol itself and from well-established molecular mechanisms. Raised progenitor cell recruitment after major events and clonal hematopoiesis related mechanisms have provided an improved understanding of factors regulating inflammatory phenomena. Trials with inflammation antagonists have led to an extensive evaluation of biomarkers such as the high sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP), not exerting a causative role, but frequently indicative of the individual cardiovascular (CV) risk. Aim of this review is to provide indication on the anti-inflammatory profile of agents of general use in CV prevention, i.e. affecting lipids, blood pressure, diabetes as well nutraceuticals such as n-3 fatty acids. A crucial issue in the evaluation of the benefit of the anti-inflammatory activity is the frequent discordance between a beneficial activity on a major risk factor and associated changes of hsCRP, as in the case of statins vs PCSK9 antagonists. In hypertension, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors exert an optimal anti-inflammatory activity, vs the case of sartans. The remarkable preventive activity of SLGT-2 inhibitors in heart failure is not associated with a clear anti-inflammatory mechanism. Finally, icosapent ethyl has been shown to reduce the CV risk in hypertriglyceridemia, with a 27 % reduction of hsCRP. The inflammation-based approach to arterial disease has considerably gained from an improved understanding of the clinical diagnostic strategy and from a better knowledge on the mode of action of numerous agents, including nutraceuticals.

title: Radiologist Reporting and Operational Management for Patients with Suspected COVID-19
abstract: Evaluate adoption and outcomes of locally-designed reporting guidelines for patients with possible COVID-19.  We developed a departmental guideline for radiologists that specified reporting terminology and required communication for patients with imaging findings suggestive of COVID-19, based on patient test status and imaging indication. In this retrospective study, radiology reports completed 3/1/2020-5/3/2020 that mentioned COVID-19 were reviewed. Reports were divided into patients with known COVID-19, patients with “suspected” COVID-19 (having an order indication of respiratory or infectious signs or symptoms), and “unsuspected patients” (other order indications, e.g., trauma or non-chest pain). Primary outcome was percentage of COVID-19 reports using recommended terminology; secondary outcome was percentages of suspected and unsuspected patients diagnosed with COVID-19. Relationships between categorical variables were assessed with Fisher’s exact test.  Among 77,400 total reports, 1,083 suggested COVID-19 based on imaging findings; 774 (71%) of COVID-19 reports used recommended terminology. Of 574 patients without known COVID-19 at time of interpretation, 345 (60%) were eventually diagnosed with COVID-19, including 61% (315/516) of suspected and 52% (30/58) of unsuspected patients. Nearly all (46/58) unsuspected patients were identified at CT.  Radiologists rapidly adopted recommended reporting terminology for patients with suspected COVID-19. The majority of patients for whom radiologists raised concern for COVID-19 were subsequently diagnosed with the disease, including the majority of clinically unsuspected patients. Using unambiguous terminology and timely notification about previously unsuspected patients will become increasingly critical to facilitate COVID-19 testing and contact tracing as states begin to lift restrictions.

title: [Coagulopathy in COVID-19: pathophysiology].
abstract: On March 11, 2020, just after 2 months from the first cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China, the Director-General of the World Health Organization stated that COVID-19 has to be considered as a pandemic. Italian doctors were the first protagonists, after the Chinese ones, in the management of this disease. Clinical observations showed that, in addition to the respiratory infection, a systemic inflammatory response occurs, which leads to coagulation disorders and consequent venous thromboembolism as well as other thrombotic complications. We here review the available literature on this issue to better understand the pathophysiological mechanisms of coagulopathy useful to draw future clinical and therapeutic conclusions.

title: ANOSMIA - A REVIEW: IN THE CONTEXT OF COVID 19/OROFACIAL PAIN
abstract: Anosmia/hyposmia is a relatively rare sensory disorder that could indicate an underlying more serious cause. In the context of the current COVID 19 pandemic, this could be one of the red flags for the dental practitioner in terms of screening potential COVID 19 patients.  The authors searched electronic databases with regards to anosmia/hyposmia and their relation to local and systemic causes.  The authors found articles relating to the physiology and significance of normal olfaction, etiology, and pathophysiology of olfaction and disorders of the same. Also, we found the most recent literature of anosmia/hyposmia linked to early symptoms of this pandemic.  Anosmia/hyposmia is most likely indicative of a local or systemic pathology affecting the olfactory system. Recent evidence suggests the importance of this as related to the new global pandemic of COVID 19.  The dental professional must be cognizant of the fact that anosmia/hyposmia could indicate a more serious underlying local or systemic issue. In the coming months of the new reality of COVID 19, dental practitioners have an additional role of potential early screening of these infections.

title: A method to provide improved dose–response estimates for airborne pathogens in animals: An example using porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus
abstract: This paper describes a method to provide improved probability estimates that exposure to a specific dose of an airborne infectious pathogen will result in animal infection. Individual animals were exposed to a specific dose of airborne pathogen. Following exposure, animals were individually housed and monitored for evidence of infection. The detection of specific antibodies and/or the pathogen in diagnostic specimens was evidence that the exposure dose resulted in infection. If replicated over a range of doses, the results can be used to derive a dose–response curve for a variety of animal species and infectious pathogens. This information is useful in estimating the likelihood of infection associated with exposure to airborne infectious microorganisms. Applications include predicting the risk of transmission associated with exposure to airborne pathogens, modeling the transmission of airborne pathogens, and determining requirements for effective exposure doses for vaccines delivered in aerosols.

title: Incomplete and late recovery of sudden olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19()
abstract: Sudden olfactory dysfunction is a new symptom related to COVID-19, with little data on its duration or recovery rate.  To characterize patients with sudden olfactory disfunction during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially their recovery data.  An online survey was conducted by the Brazilian Society of Otorhinolaryngology and Cervico-Facial Surgery, and Brazilian Academy of Rhinology, including doctors who assessed sudden olfactory dysfunction patients starting after February 1(st), 2020.  253 sudden olfactory dysfunction patients were included, of which 59.1% were females with median age of 36 years, with a median follow-up period of 31 days. 183 patients (72.3%) had been tested for COVID-19, and of those 145 (79.2%) tested positive. Patients that tested positive for COVID-19 more frequently showed non-specific inflammatory symptoms (89.7% vs. 73.7%; p = 0.02), a lower rate of total recovery of sudden olfactory dysfunction (52.6% vs. 70.3%; p = 0.05) and a longer duration to achieve total recovery (15 days vs. 10 days; p = 0.0006) than the ones who tested negative for COVID-19. Considering only positive-COVID-19 patients, individuals with sudden hyposmia completely recovered more often than the ones with sudden anosmia (68.4% vs. 50.0%; p = 0.04).  Positive-COVID-19 patients with sudden olfactory dysfunction showed lower total recovery rate and longer duration than negative-COVID-19 patients. Additionally, total recovery was seen more frequently in positive-COVID-19 patients with sudden hyposmia than the ones with sudden anosmia.

title: Diarrhea and altered inflammatory cytokine pattern in severe COVID-19: impact on disease course and in-hospital mortality
abstract: Dynamic changes of immunocyte subsets and inflammatory profiles in coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19) patients with gastrointestinal symptoms were undetermined.  A single center retrospective analysis of 409 severe hospitalized COVID-19 patients from Jan 20 to Feb 29, 2020 was performed. The longitudinal characteristics of immune inflammatory cytokines in patients with/without diarrhea were analyzed. The relations of diarrhea and immuno-inflammatory factors with illness course and clinical outcomes were further explored.  Diarrhea was more common and more serious with longer duration (4.9 ± 1.5 days vs 4.2 ± 1.5 days, P=0.039) and higher frequency (5.5 ± 2.1 times/day vs 4.0 ± 2.0 times/day, P=0.001) in deceased patients than in the survivors. Also, diarrhea patients were more inclined to develop multi-organ damage, who had longer illness course (media 41.0 days vs 36.0 days, P=0.052) and hospital stays (media 27.0 days vs 23.0 days, P=0.041) in survivors, and higher mortality (33.0% vs 22.6%, P=0.045) and earlier death (media 20.0 days vs 25.0 days, P=0.038) in the deceased patients. Progressively neutrophilia and lymphopenia, especially the declined CD8+ T cells, were demonstrated in diarrhea patients relative to the non-diarrhea cases. The inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-&#945; were intensively increased in patients with diarrhea. The multivariable logistic analysis showed longer duration of diarrhea (P=0.036), higher neutrophil counts (P=0.011) and lower lymphocyte counts (P<0.001) were independent risk factors of in-hospital death. The proportional hazards model indicated longer duration of diarrhea (P=0.002), higher frequency of diarrhea (P=0.058), higher neutrophil counts (P=0.001), lower lymphocyte counts (P=0.035) and decreased proportion of CD8+ T cells (P<0.001) were independently associated with longer illness course of the survivors.  Diarrhea patients were more likely to present with neutrophilia, lymphopenia and cytokine storm, and to develop multi-organ damage. The inflammatory patterns were independent factors associated with illness course of the survivors and in-hospital death of severe COVID-19.

title: Description and Proposed Management of the Acute COVID-19 Cardiovascular Syndrome
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a rapidly expanding global pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. A substantial minority of patients hospitalized develop an acute COVID-19 cardiovascular syndrome, which can manifest with a variety of clinical presentations but often presents as an acute cardiac injury with cardiomyopathy, ventricular arrhythmias, and hemodynamic instability in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease. The cause of this injury is uncertain but is suspected to be related to myocarditis, microvascular injury, systemic cytokine-mediated injury, or stress-related cardiomyopathy. Although histologically unproven, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 has the potential to directly replicate within cardiomyocytes and pericytes, leading to viral myocarditis. Systemically elevated cytokines are also known to be cardiotoxic and have the potential to result in profound myocardial injury. Prior experience with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 1 has helped expedite the evaluation of several promising therapies, including antiviral agents, interleukin-6 inhibitors, and convalescent serum. Management of acute COVID-19 cardiovascular syndrome should involve a multidisciplinary team including intensive care specialists, infectious disease specialists, and cardiologists. Priorities for managing acute COVID-19 cardiovascular syndrome include balancing the goals of minimizing healthcare staff exposure for testing that will not change clinical management with early recognition of the syndrome at a time point at which intervention may be most effective. This article aims to review the best available data on acute COVID-19 cardiovascular syndrome epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. From these data, we propose a surveillance, diagnostic, and management strategy that balances potential patient risks and healthcare staff exposure with improvement in meaningful clinical outcomes.

title: Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a recently emerged infectious disease caused by a novel coronavirus, but its immunopathological mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated. We investigated changes in plasma T helper (Th) cell cytokines, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in 20 patients diagnosed with SARS. Cytokine profile of SARS patients showed marked elevation of Th1 cytokine interferon (IFN)-γ, inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6 and IL-12 for at least 2 weeks after disease onset, but there was no significant elevation of inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, Th1 cytokine IL-2 and Th2 cytokine IL-4. The chemokine profile demonstrated significant elevation of neutrophil chemokine IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and Th1 chemokine IFN-γ-inducible protein-10 (IP-10). Corticosteroid reduced significantly IL-8, MCP-1 and IP-10 concentrations from 5 to 8 days after treatment (all P < 0·001). Together, the elevation of Th1 cytokine IFN-γ, inflammatory cytokines IL-1, IL-6 and IL-12 and chemokines IL-8, MCP-1 and IP-10 confirmed the activation of Th1 cell-mediated immunity and hyperinnate inflammatory response in SARS through the accumulation of monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils.

title: Exploration on the feasibility of moxibustion in prevention and treatment of COVID-19 from the perspective of modern medical mechanism
abstract: Novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) is rampant in many countries and regions and there is no time to delay the exploration of the scheme for its prevention and control. The pathogenic characteristics of novel coronavirus and the effect of moxibustion for warming up yang and strengthening the antipathogenic qi were analyzed in this paper. From the perspective of modern medical mechanism, during the prevention and treatment of novel coronaviral infection, moxibustion may be able to prevent and treat COVID-19 by improving the body's immunity so as to conquer virus, by anti-inflammation to alleviate the inflammatory response of COVID-19 and by improving lung function to inhibit pulmonary fibrosis.

title: ElaD, a Deubiquitinating Protease Expressed by E. coli
abstract: Ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubl) are designed to modify polypeptides in eukaryotes. Covalent binding of ubiquitin or Ubls to substrate proteins can be reversed by specific hydrolases. One particular set of cysteine proteases, the CE clan, which targets ubiquitin and Ubls, has homologs in eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and viruses.  We have cloned and analyzed the E. coli protein elaD, which is distantly related to eukaryotic CE clan members of the ULP/SENP protease family that are specific for SUMO and Nedd8. Previously misannotated as a putative sulfatase/phosphatase, elaD is an efficient and specific deubiquitinating enzyme in vitro. Interestingly, elaD is present in all intestinal pathogenic E. coli strains, but conspicuously absent from extraintestinal pathogenic strains (ExPECs). Further homologs of this protease can be found in Acanthamoeba Polyphaga Mimivirus, and in Alpha-, Beta-and Gammaproteobacteria.  The expression of ULP/SENP-related hydrolases in bacteria therefore extends to plant pathogens and medically relevant strains of Escherichia coli, Legionella pneumophila, Rickettsiae, Chlamydiae, and Salmonellae, in which the elaD ortholog sseL has recently been identified as a virulence factor with deubiquitinating activity. As a counterpoint, our phylogenetic and functional examination reveals that ancient eukaryotic ULP/SENP proteases also have the potential of ubiquitin-specific hydrolysis, suggesting an early common origin of this peptidase clan.

title: Extracellular cyclophilins in health and disease
abstract: Extracellular cyclophilins (eCyPs) are pro-inflammatory factors implicated in pathogenesis of a number of inflammatory diseases. Most pathogenic activities of eCyPs are related to their chemotactic activity towards leukocytes, which is mediated by eCyP receptor on target cells, CD147, and involves peptydil-prolyl cis-trans isomerase activity of cyclophilins. This activity is inhibited by cyclosporine A (CsA) and non-immunosuppressive derivatives of this drug. Accumulating evidence for the role of eCyPs in disease pathogenesis stimulated research on the mechanisms of eCyP-initiated events, resulting in identification of multiple signaling pathways, characterization of a variety of effector molecules released from eCyP-treated cells, and synthesis of CsA derivatives specifically blocking eCyPs. However, a number of important questions related to the mode of action of eCyPs remain unanswered.  In this article, we integrate available information on release and function of extracellular cyclophilins into a unified model, focusing on outstanding issues that need to be clarified.  Extracellular cyclophilins are critical players in pathogenesis of a number of inflammatory diseases. Their mechanism of action involves interaction with the receptor, CD147, and initiation of a poorly characterized signal transduction process culminating in chemotaxis and production of pro-inflammatory factors.  Extracellular cyclophilins present an attractive target for therapeutic interventions that can be used to alleviate symptoms and consequences of acute and chronic inflammation.

title: Temporal clinical and laboratory response to interleukin-6 receptor blockade with Tocilizumab in 89 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 pneumonia
abstract: . Emerging evidence links morbidity and mortality of pandemic COVID-19 pneumonia to an inflammatory cytokine storm.  Eighty nine patients with COVID-19 pneumonia and heightened systemic inflammation (elevated serum C reactive protein and interleukin-6 levels) were treated with Tocilizumab (TCZ), a human monoclonal IgG1 antibody to the interleukin-6 receptor.  Clinical and laboratory improvement was seen comparing baseline and 1-2 day post-infusion indices. Among 72 patients not receiving mechanical ventilation, NEWS2 scores fell from 5 to 2 (p <0.001) C reactive protein levels fell from 95 to 14 mg/L (p <0.001) and lymphocyte counts rose from 900 to 1000/uL (p=0.036). Sixty three of 72 patients were discharged from hospital, one patient died, and 8 remained in hospital at time of writing. Among 17 patients receiving mechanical ventilation, despite a rapid decrease in CRP levels from 89 to 35 mg/L (p = 0.014) and early improvements in NEWS2 scores in 10 of 17, ten patients died and seven remain in hospital at time of writing. Overall, mortality was only seen in patients who had markedly elevated CRP levels (>30 mg/L) and low lymphocyte counts (<1000/uL) before TCZ administration.  Inflammation and lymphocytopenia are linked to mortality in COVID-19. Inhibition of IL-6 activity by administration of Tocilizumab, an anti IL-6 receptor antibody is associated with rapid improvement in both CRP and lymphocyte counts and in clinical indices. Controlled clinical trials are needed to confirm the utility of IL-6 blockade in this setting. Additional interventions will be needed for patients requiring mechanical ventilation.

title: Letter: does vitamin D have a potential role against COVID‐19? Authors' reply
abstract: We thank Kumar et al for their comments on our review article and the letter connected with that by Panarese and Shahini.(1,2) We agree that there is a complicated effect of vitamin D in preventing the severity of COVID‐19, while this mechanism is not exactly the same as that of influenza.

title: Potential role of endothelial cell surface ectopic redox complexes in COVID-19 disease pathogenesis.
abstract: The novel coronavirus infectious disease (COVID-19) has rapidly spread and poses a great challenge to researchers, both in elucidating its pathogenic mechanism and developing effective treatments. It has been recently proposed that COVID-19 is an endothelial disease. Indeed, the COVID-19 virus binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE2), which is expressed in endothelial cells. ACE2 could be implicated in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) caused by endothelial dysfunction due to viral damage. Consequently, oxidative stress could prime these cells to acquire a pro-thrombotic and pro-inflammatory phenotype, predisposing patients to thromboembolic and vasculitic events and to disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC). This implies a pivotal role played by oxygen in the pathogenetic mechanism of COVID-19 disease, in that its availability would tune the oxidant state and consequent damage.

title: COVID-19 cytokine storm: The anger of inflammation
abstract: Patients with COVID-19 who require ICU admission might have the cytokine storm. It is a state of out-of-control release of a variety of inflammatory cytokines. The molecular mechanism of the cytokine storm has not been explored extensively yet. The attachment of SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), as its cellular receptor, triggers complex molecular events that leads to hyperinflammation. Four molecular axes that may be involved in SARS-CoV-2 driven inflammatory cytokine overproduction are addressed in this work. The virus-mediated down-regulation of ACE2 causes a burst of inflammatory cytokine release through dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (ACE/angiotensin II/AT1R axis), attenuation of Mas receptor (ACE2/MasR axis), increased activation of [des-Arg9]-bradykinin (ACE2/bradykinin B1R/DABK axis), and activation of the complement system including C5a and C5b-9 components. The molecular clarification of these axes will elucidate an array of therapeutic strategies to confront the cytokine storm in order to prevent and treat COVID-19 associated acute respiratory distress syndrome.

title: E-cigarette-induced pulmonary inflammation and dysregulated repair are mediated by nAChR α7 receptor: role of nAChR α7 in SARS-CoV-2 Covid-19 ACE2 receptor regulation
abstract: Electronic cigarette (e-cig) vaping is increasing rapidly in the United States, as e-cigs are considered less harmful than combustible cigarettes. However, limited research has been conducted to understand the possible mechanisms that mediate toxicity and pulmonary health effects of e-cigs. We hypothesized that sub-chronic e-cig exposure induces inflammatory response and dysregulated repair/extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, which occur through the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChRα7). Adult wild-type (WT), nAChRα7 knockout (KO), and lung epithelial cell-specific KO (nAChRα7 CreCC10) mice were exposed to e-cig aerosol containing propylene glycol (PG) with or without nicotine. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) and lung tissues were collected to determine e-cig induced inflammatory response and ECM remodeling, respectively. Sub-chronic e-cig exposure with nicotine increased inflammatory cellular influx of macrophages and T-lymphocytes including increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in BALF and increased SARS-Cov-2 Covid-19 ACE2 receptor, whereas nAChRα7 KO mice show reduced inflammatory responses associated with decreased ACE2 receptor. Interestingly, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as MMP2, MMP8 and MMP9, were altered both at the protein and mRNA transcript levels in female and male KO mice, but WT mice exposed to PG alone showed a sex-dependent phenotype. Moreover, MMP12 was increased significantly in male mice exposed to PG with or without nicotine in a nAChRα7-dependent manner. Additionally, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine altered the abundance of ECM proteins, such as collagen and fibronectin, significantly in a sex-dependent manner, but without the direct role of nAChRα7 gene. Overall, sub-chronic e-cig exposure with or without nicotine affected lung inflammation and repair responses/ECM remodeling, which were mediated by nAChRα7 in a sex-dependent manner.

title: Regulated multicistronic expression technology for mammalian metabolic engineering
abstract: Contemporary basic research is rapidly revealing increasingly complex molecular regulatory networks which are often interconnected via key signal integrators. These connections among regulatory and catalytic networks often frustrate bioengineers as promising metabolic engineering strategies are bypassed by compensatory metabolic responses or cause unexpected, undesired outcomes such as apoptosis, product protein degradation or inappropriate post- translational modification. Therefore, for metabolic engineering to achieve greater success in mammalian cell culture processes and to become important for future applications such as gene therapy and tissue engineering, this technology must be enhanced to allow simultaneous, in cases conditional, reshaping of metabolic pathways to access difficult-to-attain cell states. Recent advances in this new territory of multigene metabolic engineering are intimately linked to the development of multicistronic expression technology which allows the simultaneous, and in some cases, regulated expression of several genes in mammalian cells. Here we review recent achievements in multicistronic expression technology in view of multigene metabolic engineering.

title: Some research advances of immune mechanism during infection in China

title: Is the anti-filarial drug diethylcarbamazine useful to treat COVID-19 ?
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 virus has resulted in a devastating pandemic of COVID-19. Exploring compounds that could offer a breakthrough in treatment is the need of the hour. Re-positioning cheap, freely available and safe drugs is a priority. The paper proposes evidence for the potential use of diethylcarbamazine (DEC) in the treatment of COVID-19. DEC has inhibitory effects on arachidonic acid metabolism to prostaglandins, little known anti-viral effects on animal retroviruses and demonstrated anti-inflammatory actions in animal models of lung inflammation indicating the need to explore this hypothesis further. We believe this is the first time DEC is being proposed to treat COVID-19.

title: Immune environment modulation in pneumonia patients caused by coronavirus: SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2
abstract: Currently, we are on a global pandemic of Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) which causes fever, dry cough, fatigue and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) that may ultimately lead to the death of the infected. Current researches on COVID-19 continue to highlight the necessity for further understanding the virus-host synergies. In this study, we have highlighted the key cytokines induced by coronavirus infections. We have demonstrated that genes coding interleukins (Il-1&#945;, Il-1ß, Il-6, Il-10), chemokine (Ccl2, Ccl3, Ccl5, Ccl10), and interferon (Ifn-&#945;2, Ifn-ß1, Ifn2) upsurge significantly which in line with the elevated infiltration of T cells, NK cells and monocytes in SARS-Cov treated group at 24 hours. Also, interleukins (IL-6, IL-23&#945;, IL-10, IL-7, IL-1&#945;, IL-1ß) and interferon (IFN-&#945;2, IFN2, IFN-Î³) have increased dramatically in MERS-Cov at 24 hours. A similar cytokine profile showed the cytokine storm served a critical role in the infection process. Subsequent investigation of 463 patients with COVID-19 disease revealed the decreased amount of total lymphocytes, CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the severe type patients which indicated COVID-19 can impose hard blows on human lymphocyte resulting in lethal pneumonia. Thus, taking control of changes in immune factors could be critical in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: More on Covid-19 in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases

title: Longitudinal peripheral blood transcriptional analysis of COVID-19 patients captures disease progression and reveals potential biomarkers
abstract: COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, is an acute self-resolving disease in most of the patients, but some patients can develop a severe illness or even death. To characterize the host responses and identify potential biomarkers during disease progression, we performed a longitudinal transcriptome analysis for peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) collected from 4 COVID-19 patients at 4 different time points from symptom onset to recovery. We found that PBMCs at different COVID-19 disease stages exhibited unique transcriptome characteristics. SARS-CoV-2 infection dysregulated innate immunity especially type I interferon response as well as the disturbed release of inflammatory cytokines and lipid mediators, and an aberrant increase of low-density neutrophils may cause tissue damage. Activation of cell death, exhaustion and migratory pathways may lead to the reduction of lymphocytes and dysfunction of adaptive immunity. COVID-19 induced hypoxia may exacerbate disorders in blood coagulation. Based on our analysis, we proposed a set of potential biomarkers for monitoring disease progression and predicting the risk of severity.

title: Covid-19: A systemic disease treated with a wide-ranging approach: A case report.
abstract: At the end of December 2019, the Health Commission of the city of Wuhan, China, alerted the World Health Organization (WHO) to a pneumonia cluster in the city. The cause was identified as being a new virus, later named SARS-CoV-2. We can distinguish three clinical phases of the disease with a distinct pathogenesis, manifestations and prognosis. Here, we describe the case of a 45-year-old male, successfully treated for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). The patient was feeling sick in early April 2020; he had a fever and pharyngodynia. When he came to our COVID hospital, his breathing was normal. The nasopharyngeal swab specimen turned out positive. High-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) showed mild interstitial pneumonia. The patient was admitted to our department and treated with hydroxychloroquine, ritonavir, darunavir, azithromycin and enoxaparin. On day seven of the disease, the patient's respiratory condition got worse as he was developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). He was given tocilizumab and corticosteroids and was immediately treated with non-invasive mechanical ventilation (NIMV). His condition improved, and in the ensuing days, the treatment gradually switched to a high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC); after 18 days, the patient's clinical condition was good.The successful results we have been able to obtain are closely associated with avoidance of invasive ventilation that may lead to intensive care unit (ICU)-related superinfections. In our opinion, it is fundamental to understand that COVID-19 is a systemic disease that is a consequence of an overwhelming inflammatory response, which can cause severe medical conditions, even in young patients.

title: Diabetes and COVID-19: evidence, current status and unanswered research questions
abstract: Patients with diabetes who get coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are at risk of a severe disease course and mortality. Several factors especially the impaired immune response, heightened inflammatory response and hypercoagulable state contribute to the increased disease severity. However, there are many contentious issues about which the evidence is rather limited. There are some theoretical concerns about the effects of different anti-hyperglycaemic drugs. Similarly, despite the recognition of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2), and the role of ACE2 in lung injury; there are conflicting results with the use of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) in these patients. Management of patients with diabetes in times of restrictions on mobility poses some challenges and novel approaches like telemedicine can be useful. There is a need to further study the natural course of COVID-19 in patients with diabetes and to understand the individual, regional and ethnic variations in disease prevalence and course.

title: Pathophysiology of Acute Illness and Injury
abstract: The pathophysiology of acute illness and injury recognizes three main effectors: infection, trauma, and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Each of them can act by itself or in combination with the other two in developing a systemic inflammatory reaction syndrome (SIRS) that is a generalized reaction to the morbid event. The time course of SIRS is variable and influenced by the number and severity of subsequent insults (e.g., reparative surgery, acquired hospital infections). It occurs simultaneously with a complex of counter-regulatory mechanisms (compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome, CARS) that limit the aggressive effects of SIRS. In adjunct, a progressive dysfunction of the acquired (lymphocytes) immune system develops with increased risk for immunoparalysis and associated infectious complications. Both humoral and cellular effectors participate to the development of SIRS and CARS. The most important humoral mediators are pro-inflammatory (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4, IL-10) cytokines and chemokines, complement, leukotrienes, and PAF. Effector cells include neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes, and endothelial cells. The endothelium is a key factor for production of remote organ damage as it exerts potent chemo-attracting effects on inflammatory cells, allows for leukocyte trafficking into tissues and organs, and promotes further inflammation by cytokines release. Moreover, the loss of vasoregulatory properties and the increased permeability contribute to the development of hypotension and tissue edema. Finally, the disseminated activation of the coagulation cascade causes the widespread deposition of microthrombi with resulting maldistribution of capillary blood flow and ultimately hypoxic cellular damage. This mechanism together with increased vascular permeability and vasodilation is responsible for the development of the multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS).

title: Emerging trends in COVID-19 treatment: learning from inflammatory conditions associated with cellular therapies
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (SARS-CoV2) is an active global health threat for which treatments are desperately being sought. Even though most people infected experience mild to moderate respiratory symptoms and recover with supportive care, certain vulnerable hosts develop severe clinical deterioration. While several drugs are currently being investigated in clinical trials, there are currently no approved treatments or vaccines for COVID-19 and hence there is an unmet need to explore additional therapeutic options. At least three inflammatory disorders or syndromes associated with immune dysfunction have been described in the context of cellular therapy. Specifically, Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS), Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS), and Secondary Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH) all have clinical and laboratory characteristics in common with COVID19 and associated therapies that could be worth testing in the context of clinical trials. Here we discuss these diseases, their management, and potential applications of these treatment in the context of COVID-19. We also discuss current cellular therapies that are being evaluated for the treatment of COVID-19 and/or its associated symptoms.

title: COVID-19: A promising cure for the global panic
abstract: The novel Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by SARS-CoV-2, which is the causative agent of a potentially fatal disease that is of great global public health concern. The outbreak of COVID-19 is wreaking havoc worldwide due to inadequate risk assessment regarding the urgency of the situation. The COVID-19 pandemic has entered a dangerous new phase. When compared with SARS and MERS, COVID-19 has spread more rapidly, due to increased globalization and adaptation of the virus in every environment. Slowing the spread of the COVID-19 cases will significantly reduce the strain on the healthcare system of the country by limiting the number of people who are severely sick by COVID-19 and need hospital care. Hence, the recent outburst of COVID-19 highlights an urgent need for therapeutics targeting SARS-CoV-2. Here, we have discussed the structure of virus; varying symptoms among COVID-19, SARS, MERS and common flu; the probable mechanism behind the infection and its immune response. Further, the current treatment options, drugs available, ongoing trials and recent diagnostics for COVID-19 have been discussed. We suggest traditional Indian medicinal plants as possible novel therapeutic approaches, exclusively targeting SARS-CoV-2 and its pathways.

title: Extracellular Vesicles in ARDS: New Insights into Pathogenesis with Novel Clinical Applications
abstract: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a major cause of acute respiratory failure that develops following several clinical disorders, including pneumonia, sepsis, aspiration and major trauma. Despite numerous clinical trials, there is still no effective pharmacotherapy available for ARDS patients. However, recent research on extracellular vesicles provides new insights into pathogenesis, prognosis, and potential therapeutic options for ARDS. Extracellular vesicles are membrane-bound anuclear structures which constitute a recently recognized and important intercellular communication mechanism, allowing targeted transfer of diverse biologic cargo between different cell types. There is new evidence that extracellular vesicles play an important role in the pathogenesis of ARDS and also potentially a protective role. In this chapter, we highlight recent translational and clinical studies that have advanced our understanding of the critical role extracellular vesicles play in both inducing and attenuating inflammatory lung injury in ARDS. This review also considers the wide range of potential clinical applications for extracellular vesicles, ranging from use as biomarkers of lung injury to therapeutic agents for ARDS. Extracellular vesicles represent a new frontier for research in ARDS.

title: The effect of corticosteroid treatment on patients with coronavirus infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis
abstract: An outbreak of novel coronavirus in 2019 threatens the health of people, and there is no proven pharmacological treatment. Although corticosteroids were widely used during outbreaks of severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome, their efficacy remainedhighly controversial. We aimed to further evaluate the influence of corticosteroids on patients with coronavirus infection.  We conducted a comprehensive search of literature published in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) from January 1, 2002 to March 15, 2020. All statistical analyses in this study were performed on stata14.0.  A total of 5270 patients from 15 studies were included in this meta-analysis. The result indicated that critical patients were more likely to require corticosteroids therapy (risk ratio [RR]â¯=â¯1.56, 95% confidence interval [CI]â¯=â¯1.28-1.90, P<0.001). However, corticosteroid treatment was associated with higher mortality (RRâ¯=â¯2.11, 95%CIâ¯=â¯1.13-3.94, Pâ¯=â¯0.019), longer length of stay (weighted mean difference [WMD]â¯=â¯6.31, 95%CIâ¯=â¯5.26-7.37, P<0.001), a higher rate of bacterial infection (RRâ¯=â¯2.08, 95%CIâ¯=â¯1.54-2.81, P<0.001), and hypokalemia (RRâ¯=â¯2.21, 95%CIâ¯=â¯1.07-4.55, Pâ¯=â¯0.032) but not hyperglycemia (RRâ¯=â¯1.37, 95%CI=0.68-2.76, P = 0.376) or hypocalcemia (RRâ¯=â¯1.35, 95%CIâ¯=â¯0.77-2.37, Pâ¯=â¯0.302).  Patients with severe conditions are more likely to require corticosteroids. Corticosteroid use is associated with increased mortality in patients with coronavirus pneumonia.

title: Baricitinib: A review of pharmacology, safety and emerging clinical experience in COVID-19
abstract: A hyperinflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, reminiscent of cytokine release syndrome, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome and organ damage in patients with COVID-19. Agents that inhibit components of the pro-inflammatory cascade have garnered interest as potential treatment options with hopes that dampening the pro-inflammatory process may improve clinical outcomes. Baricitinib is a reversible Janus-associated kinase (JAK)-inhibitor that interrupts the signaling of multiple cytokines implicated in COVID-19 immunopathology. It may also have antiviral effects by targeting host factors that viruses rely for cell entry and by suppressing type I interferon driven angiotensin-converting-enzyme-2 up regulation. However, baricitinib's immunosuppressive effects may be detrimental during acute viral infections by delaying viral clearance and increasing vulnerability to secondary opportunistic infections. The lack of reliable biomarkers to monitor patients' immune status as illness evolves complicates deployment of immunosuppressive drugs like baricitinib. Furthermore, baricitinib carries the risk of increased thromboembolic events which is concerning given the proclivity towards a hyper-coagulable state in COVID-19 patients. In this article we review available data on baricitinib with an emphasis on immunosuppressive and antiviral pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, safety and current progress in COVID-19 clinical trials.

title: Repositioning of pentoxifylline as an immunomodulator and regulator of the renin-angiotensin system in the treatment of COVID-19
abstract: Pentoxifylline (PTX) is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor that increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate levels, which in turn activate protein kinase, leading to a reduction in the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines to ultimately influence the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in vitro by inhibiting angiotensin 1 receptor (AT1R) expression. The rheological, anti-inflammatory, and renin-angiotensin axis properties of PTX highlight this drug as a therapeutic treatment alternative for patients with COVID-19 by helping reduce the production of the inflammatory cytokines without deleterious effects on the immune system to delay viral clearance. Moreover, PTX can restore the balance of the immune response, reduce damage to the endothelium and alveolar epithelial cells, improve circulation, and prevent microvascular thrombosis. There is further evidence that PTX can improve ventilatory parameters. Therefore, we propose repositioning PTX in the treatment of COVID-19. The main advantage of repositioning PTX is that it is an affordable drug that is already available worldwide with an established safety profile, further offering the possibility of immediately analysing the result of its use and associated success rates. Another advantage is that PTX selectively reduces the concentration of TNF-α mRNA in cells, which, in the case of an acute infectious state such as COVID-19, would seem to offer a more strategic approach.

title: Managing Cutaneous Immune-Mediated Diseases During the COVID-19 Pandemic
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a clinical syndrome caused by a novel coronavirus called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 has spread rapidly worldwide and has been shown to have a wide spectrum of severity. COVID-19 has become a public health emergency of relevant international concern, and it was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March, 2020. SARS-CoV-2 infection in severe cases involves the host response as an important contributor to the disease process and tissue damage, mainly due to dysregulated and excessive innate immune responses. The primary immune response leads to viral clearance in the majority of cases. However, in a subgroup of patients, the secondary immune response may be exaggerated, leading to inflammatory-induced lung injury and other complications including pneumonitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, respiratory failure, shock, organ failure, and potentially death. Several cutaneous immune-mediated diseases, including psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and hidradenitis suppurativa, are therapeutically managed with biologic and non-biologic immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory drugs. The outbreak of COVID-19 affects the management of these chronic conditions, not only for those who are already receiving treatment but also for those who are about to start a new treatment to control their disease. In this article, the management of cutaneous immune-mediated diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic is discussed.

title: Myocardial injury and COVID-19: Possible mechanisms
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has quickly progressed to a global health emergency. Respiratory illness is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients with the disease spectrum ranging from asymptomatic subclinical infection, to severe pneumonia progressing to acute respiratory distress syndrome. There is growing evidence describing pathophysiological resemblance of SARS-CoV-2 infection with other coronavirus infections such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 receptors play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of the virus. Disruption of this receptor leads to cardiomyopathy, cardiac dysfunction, and heart failure. Patients with cardiovascular disease are more likely to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 and they are more likely to develop severe symptoms. Hypertension, arrhythmia, cardiomyopathy and coronary heart disease are amongst major cardiovascular disease comorbidities seen in severe cases of COVID-19. There is growing literature exploring cardiac involvement in SARS-CoV-2. Myocardial injury is one of the important pathogenic features of COVID-19. As a surrogate for myocardial injury, multiple studies have shown increased cardiac biomarkers mainly cardiac troponins I and T in the infected patients especially those with severe disease. Myocarditis is depicted as another cause of morbidity amongst COVID-19 patients. The exact mechanisms of how SARS-CoV-2 can cause myocardial injury are not clearly understood. The proposed mechanisms of myocardial injury are direct damage to the cardiomyocytes, systemic inflammation, myocardial interstitial fibrosis, interferon mediated immune response, exaggerated cytokine response by Type 1 and 2 helper T cells, in addition to coronary plaque destabilization, and hypoxia.

title: Therapeutic Potential of B-1a Cells in COVID-19.
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a life-threatening respiratory illness caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Its clinical presentation can vary from the asymptomatic state to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multi-organ dysfunction. Due to our insufficient understanding of its pathophysiology and lack of effective treatment, the morbidity and mortality of severe COVID-19 patients are high. Patients with COVID-19 develop ARDS fueled by exaggerated neutrophil influx into the lungs and cytokine storm. B-1a cells represent a unique subpopulation of B lymphocytes critical for circulating natural antibodies, innate immunity, and immunoregulation. These cells spontaneously produce natural IgM, interleukin (IL)-10, and granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). Natural IgM neutralizes viruses and opsonizes bacteria, IL-10 attenuates the cytokine storm, and GM-CSF induces IgM production by B-1a cells in an autocrine manner. Indeed, B-1a cells have been shown to ameliorate influenza virus infection, sepsis, and pneumonia, all of which are similar to COVID-19. The recent discovery of B-1a cells in humans further reinforces their potentially critical role in the immune response against SARS-CoV-2 and their anticipated translational applications against viral and microbial infections. Given that B-1a cells protect against ARDS via immunoglobulin production and the anti-COVID-19 effects of convalescent plasma treatment, we recommend that studies be conducted to further examine the role of B-1a cells in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and explore their therapeutic potential to treat COVID-19 patients.

title: Prevention and treatment of COVID‐19 disease by controlled modulation of innate immunity
abstract: The recent outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), triggered by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) poses an enormous threat to global public health and economies. Human coronaviruses normally cause no or mild respiratory disease but in the past two decades, potentially fatal coronavirus infections have emerged, causing respiratory tract illnesses such as pneumonia and bronchitis. These include severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS‐CoV), followed by the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV), and recently the SARS‐CoV‐2 coronavirus outbreak which emerged in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Currently, most COVID‐19 patients receive traditional supportive care including breathing assistance. To halt the ongoing spread of the pandemic SARS‐CoV‐2 coronavirus and rescue individual patients, established drugs and new therapies are under evaluation. Since it will be some time until a safe and effective vaccine will be available, the immediate priority is to harness innate immunity to accelerate early antiviral immune responses. Secondly since excessive inflammation is a major cause of pathology, targeted anti‐inflammatory responses are being evaluated to reduce inflammation‐induced damage to the respiratory tract and cytokine storms. Here, we highlight prominent immunotherapies at various stages of development which aim for augmented anti‐coronavirus immunity and reduction of pathological inflammation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

title: N-Acetylcysteine: a potential therapeutic agent for SARS-CoV-2
abstract: COVID-19, a respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), continues to spread across the globe. Predisposing factors such as age, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and lowered immune function increase the risk of disease severity. T cell exhaustion, high viral load, and high levels of TNF-ɑ, IL1β, IL6, IL10 have been associated with severe SARS-CoV-2. Cytokine and antigen overstimulation are potentially responsible for poor humoral response to the virus. Lower cellular redox status, which leads to pro-inflammatory states mediated by TNF-ɑ is also potentially implicated. In vivo, in vitro, and human clinical trials have demonstrated N-acetylcysteine (NAC) as an effective method of improving redox status, especially when under oxidative stress. In human clinical trials, NAC can be used to replenish glutathione stores and increase the proliferative response of T cells. NAC has also been shown to inhibit the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway (IL1β and IL18) in vitro, and decrease plasma TNF-ɑ in human clinical trials. Mediation of the viral load could occur through NAC’s ability to increase cellular redox status via maximizing the rate limiting step of glutathione synthesis, and thereby potentially decreasing the effects of virally induced oxidative stress and cell death. We hypothesize that NAC could act as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of COVID-19 through a variety of potential mechanisms, including increasing glutathione, improving T cell response, and modulating inflammation. In this article, we present evidence to support the use of NAC as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: ZIKV Infection Induces an Inflammatory Response but Fails to Activate Types I, II, and III IFN Response in Human PBMC
abstract: The recent epidemic in the Americas caused by Zika virus (ZIKV), Asian lineage, spurred the research towards a better understanding of how ZIKV infection affects the host immune response. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of Asian and East African ZIKV strain infection on the induction of IFN and proinflammatory and Th2 cytokines in human PBMC. We reported a slight modulation of type II IFN in PBMC exposed to Asian strain, but not to African strain, and a complete lack of type I and III IFN induction by both strains, suggesting the ability of ZIKV to evade the IFN system not only inhibiting the antiviral IFN response but also IFN production. Moreover, we highlighted a polyfunctional immune activation only in PBMC exposed to Asian strain, due to the induction of an inflammatory profile (IL-6, IL-8) and of a Th9 (IL-9) response. Overall, our data show a different ability of the ZIKV Asian strain, with respect to the African strain, to activate host immune response that may have pathogenetic implications for virus spread in vivo, including mother-to-child transmission and induction of severe fetal complications, as birth defects and neurological disorders.

title: Successful Conservative Management of Acute Appendicitis in a Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Patient
abstract: Appendectomy is the gold standard of treatment for acute appendicitis; however, recent evidence suggests conservative management with intravenous antibiotics may provide similar outcomes and can be used as an alternative in selected patients. Performing appendectomy in acute appendicitis patients with 2019 novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) is challenging, as it involves considerable operative risks for the patients and risks for health care professionals (HCPs) exposed to COVID-19. Medical management eliminates the morbidity and mortality associated with surgery but involves significant risks of treatment failures that, in turn, may lead to perforation, peritonitis, and death. We are reporting a case of a middle-aged man with multiple co-morbidities, who was diagnosed with COVID-19 and acute appendicitis. Our patient received intravenous antibiotics for seven days with a significant improvement in symptoms. Our case report illustrates the implementation of successful conservative treatment for acute appendicitis in COVID-19 patients.

title: Lactate dehydrogenase as a marker of nasopharyngeal inflammatory injury during viral upper respiratory infection: implications for acute otitis media
abstract: Acute otitis media (AOM) is a frequent complication of viral upper respiratory tract infection (URI). We hypothesized that the severity of nasopharyngeal cellular injury during URI, as measured by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) concentrations in nasopharyngeal secretions (NPSs), is related to AOM complication.  LDH concentrations were determined in NPS samples (n = 594) that were collected at the initial visit for URI from 183 children who were followed for the development of AOM. A subset of NPS samples (n = 134) was analyzed for interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α concentrations.  AOM complication was independently predicted by LDH concentrations (median mU/ml with AOM = 2,438 vs. without AOM = 1,573; estimate = 0.276; P = 0.02). LDH effect on AOM development was highest during the first 4 d of URI. LDH concentrations were higher in URIs due to adenoviruses, bocaviruses, and rhinoviruses as compared with virus-negative samples (P < 0.05). There was a positive correlation between concentrations of LDH and all cytokines (P < 0.001).  LDH concentrations in NPS are positively associated with AOM risk, suggesting that the severity of nasopharyngeal inflammatory injury during URI contributes to the development of AOM and that reduction of inflammatory injury may reduce the risk for AOM.

title: Immunopathological characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 cases in Guangzhou, China
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a respiratory disorder caused by the highly contagious severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. The immunopathological characteristics of patients with COVID-19, either systemic or local, have not been thoroughly studied. In the present study, we analysed both the changes in the number of various immune cell types as well as cytokines important for immune reactions and inflammation. Our data indicate that patients with severe COVID-19 exhibited an overall decline of lymphocytes including CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. The number of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells was moderately increased in patients with mild COVID-19. Interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10 and C-reactive protein were remarkably up-regulated in patients with severe COVID-19. In conclusion, our study shows that the comprehensive decrease of lymphocytes, and the elevation of IL-6, IL-10 and C-reactive protein are reliable indicators of severe COVID-19.

title: Associated inflammatory response in pneumonia: role of adjunctive therapy with glucocorticoids.
abstract: This article reviews the potential use of glucocorticoids as adjunctive therapy in the management of patients with severe bacterial pneumonia or pulmonary infections of other etiologies.  The importance of an adequate assessment of the inflammatory process and the appearance of inflammatory markers that correlate with the severity of pneumonia is underlined. A recent randomized clinical trial indicates that adjunctive treatment of severe community-acquired pneumonia with glucocorticoids reduces complications and improves survival. The role of glucocorticoids in other lung infections is also reviewed. The design of new compounds with similar anti-inflammatory properties to classical glucocorticoids but with significantly fewer side effects constitutes a specific challenge for the near future.  Although adjunctive treatment with glucocorticoids in severe pneumonia is probably indicated, further randomized clinical trials are urgently needed to confirm the preliminary positive results. In this regard, a proper evaluation of the inflammatory response is likely to be essential for the accurate selection of the target population.

title: Why tocilizumab could be an effective treatment for severe COVID-19?
abstract: A severe pneumonia-associated respiratory syndrome caused by a new coronavirus was identified in December 2019 (COVID-19), spread rapidly and has become a world-wide public health challenge. About 25% of COVID-19 patients experienced severe complications including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and even progressed into an intensive care unit (ICU) admission and died. The exploration for the mortality causes and advancing novel therapeutic development of severe COVID-19 is crucial at the moment. The biopsy samples analysis at autopsy suggested that increased alveolar exudate caused by aberrant host immune response and inflammatory cytokine storm probably impedes alveolar gas exchange and contributes to the high mortality of severe COVID-19 patients. Our research has identified that pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes incite inflammatory storm with large amount of interleukin 6, therefore monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 pathways may potentially curb inflammatory storm. Moreover, Tocilizumab treatment that blocking IL-6 receptors showed inspiring clinical results including temperature returned to normal quickly and respiratory function improved. Therefore, we suggest that Tocilizumab is an effective treatment in severe patients of COVID-19 to calm the inflammatory storm and reduce mortality.

title: Early predictors of clinical outcomes of COVID-19 outbreak in Milan, Italy
abstract: National health-system hospitals of Lombardy faced a heavy burden of admissions for acute respiratory distress syndromes associated with coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Data on patients of European origin affected by COVID-19 are limited.  All consecutive patients aged ≥18 years, coming from North-East of Milan's province and admitted at San Raffaele Hospital with COVID-19, between February 25th and March 24th, were reported, all patients were followed for at least one month. Clinical and radiological features at admission and predictors of clinical outcomes were evaluated.  Of the 500 patients admitted to the Emergency Unit, 410 patients were hospitalized and analyzed: median age was 65 (IQR 56–75) years, and the majority of patients were males (72.9%). Median (IQR) days from COVID-19 symptoms onset was 8 (5–11) days. At hospital admission, fever (≥ 37.5 °C) was present in 67.5% of patients. Median oxygen saturation (SpO2) was 93% (range 60–99), with median PaO(2)/FiO(2) ratio, 267 (IQR 184–314). Median Radiographic Assessment of Lung Edema (RALE) score was 9 (IQR 4–16). More than half of the patients (56.3%) had comorbidities, with hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes and chronic kidney failure being the most common. The probability of overall survival at day 28 was 66%. Multivariable analysis showed older age, coronary artery disease, cancer, low lymphocyte count and high RALE score as factors independently associated with an increased risk of mortality.  In a large cohort of COVID-19 patients of European origin, main risk factors for mortality were older age, comorbidities, low lymphocyte count and high RALE.

title: Lung Transplantation for Elderly Patients With End-Stage COVID-19 Pneumonia

title: Induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) and lung inflammation by Coronavirus-19 (COVI-19 or SARS-CoV-2): anti-inflammatory strategies
abstract: Coronavirus-19 (COVI-19) involves humans as well as animals and may cause serious damage to the respiratory tract, including the lung: coronavirus disease (COVID-19). This pathogenic virus has been identified in swabs performed on the throat and nose of patients who suffer from or are suspected of the disease. When COVI-19 infect the upper and lower respiratory tract it can cause mild or highly acute respiratory syndrome with consequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-6. The binding of COVI-19 to the Toll Like Receptor (TLR) causes the release of pro-IL-1ß which is cleaved by caspase-1, followed by inflammasome activation and production of active mature IL-1ß which is a mediator of lung inflammation, fever and fibrosis. Suppression of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members and IL-6 have been shown to have a therapeutic effect in many inflammatory diseases, including viral infections. Cytokine IL-37 has the ability to suppress innate and acquired immune response and also has the capacity to inhibit inflammation by acting on IL-18R&#945; receptor. IL-37 performs its immunosuppressive activity by acting on mTOR and increasing the adenosine monophosphate (AMP) kinase. This cytokine inhibits class II histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and inflammation in inflammatory diseases by suppressing MyD88 and subsequently IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF and CCL2. The suppression of IL-1ß by IL-37 in inflammatory state induced by coronavirus-19 can have a new therapeutic effect previously unknown. Another inhibitory cytokine is IL-38, the newest cytokine of the IL-1 family members, produced by several immune cells including B cells and macrophages. IL-38 is also a suppressor cytokine which inhibits IL-1ß and other pro-inflammatory IL-family members. IL-38 is a potential therapeutic cytokine which inhibits inflammation in viral infections including that caused by coronavirus-19, providing a new relevant strategy.

title: COVID-19-associated cardiovascular morbidity in older adults: a position paper from the Italian Society of Cardiovascular Researches
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infects host cells following binding with the cell surface ACE2 receptors, thereby leading to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 causes viral pneumonia with additional extrapulmonary manifestations and major complications, including acute myocardial injury, arrhythmia, and shock mainly in elderly patients. Furthermore, patients with existing cardiovascular comorbidities, such as hypertension and coronary heart disease, have a worse clinical outcome following contraction of the viral illness. A striking feature of COVID-19 pandemics is the high incidence of fatalities in advanced aged patients: this might be due to the prevalence of frailty and cardiovascular disease increase with age due to endothelial dysfunction and loss of endogenous cardioprotective mechanisms. Although experimental evidence on this topic is still at its infancy, the aim of this position paper is to hypothesize and discuss more suggestive cellular and molecular mechanisms whereby SARS-CoV-2 may lead to detrimental consequences to the cardiovascular system. We will focus on aging, cytokine storm, NLRP3/inflammasome, hypoxemia, and air pollution, which is an emerging cardiovascular risk factor associated with rapid urbanization and globalization. We will finally discuss the impact of clinically available CV drugs on the clinical course of COVID-19 patients. Understanding the role played by SARS-CoV2 on the CV system is indeed mandatory to get further insights into COVID-19 pathogenesis and to design a therapeutic strategy of cardio-protection for frail patients.

title: Lung biopsy cells transcriptional landscape from COVID-19 patient stratified lung injury in SARS-CoV-2 infection through impaired pulmonary surfactant metabolism
abstract: Clinical management of COVID-19 is still complicated due to the lack of therapeutic interventions to reduce the breathing problems, respiratory complications and acute lung injury – which are the major complications of most of the mild to critically affected patients and the molecular mechanisms behind these clinical features are still largely unknown. In this study, we have used the RNA-seq gene expression pattern in the COVID-19 affected lung biopsy cells and compared it with the effects observed in typical cell lines infected with SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. We performed functional overrepresentation analyses using these differentially expressed genes to signify the processes/pathways which could be deregulated during SARS-CoV-2 infection resulting in the symptomatic impairments observed in COVID-19. Our results showed that the significantly altered processes include inflammatory responses, antiviral cytokine signaling, interferon responses, and interleukin signaling etc. along with downmodulated processes related to lung’s functionality like-responses to hypoxia, lung development, respiratory processes, cholesterol biosynthesis and surfactant metabolism. We also found that the viral protein interacting host’s proteins involved in similar pathways like: respiratory failure, lung diseases, asthma, and hypoxia responses etc., suggesting viral proteins might be deregulating the processes related to acute lung injury/breathing complications in COVID-19 patients. Protein-protein interaction networks of these processes and map of gene expression of deregulated genes revealed that several viral proteins can directly or indirectly modulate the host genes/proteins of those lung related processes along with several host transcription factors and miRNAs. Surfactant proteins and their regulators SPD, SPC, TTF1 etc. which maintains the stability of the pulmonary tissue are found to be downregulated through viral NSP5, NSP12 that could lead to deficient gaseous exchange by the surface films. Mitochondrial dysfunction owing to the aberration of NDUFA10, NDUFAF5, SAMM50 etc. by NSP12; abnormal thrombosis in lungs through atypical PLAT, EGR1 functions by viral ORF8, NSP12; dulled hypoxia responses due to unusual shift in HIF-1 downstream signaling might be the causative elements behind the acute lung injury in COVID-19 patients. Our study put forward a distinct mechanism of probable virus induced lung damage apart from cytokine storm and advocate the need of further research for alternate therapy in this direction.

title: Association between NSAIDs use and adverse clinical outcomes among adults hospitalised with COVID-19 in South Korea: A nationwide study
abstract: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may exacerbate COVID-19 and worsen associated outcomes by upregulating the enzyme that SARS-CoV-2 binds to enter cells. However, to our knowledge, no study has examined the association between NSAID use and the risk of COVID-19-related outcomes among hospitalised patients.  We conducted a population-based cohort study using South Korea nationwide healthcare database, which contains data of all subjects who received a test for COVID-19 (n=69,793) as of April 8, 2020. We identified a cohort of adults hospitalised with COVID-19, where cohort entry was the date of hospitalisation. NSAIDs users were those prescribed NSAIDs while hospitalised and non-users were those not prescribed NSAIDs. Our primary outcome was a composite of death, intensive care unit admission, mechanical ventilation use, and sepsis; secondary outcome was cardiovascular or renal complications. We conducted logistic regression analysis to estimate adjusted odds ratio (aOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the risk of these outcomes associated with NSAIDs users versus non-users, using propensity score-inverse probability of treatment weighting to minimize potential confounding. In sensitivity analyses, we compared NSAIDs to paracetamol (acetaminophen) to minimize confounding by indication.  Of 1,824 adults hospitalised with COVID-19 (mean age 44.7 years; female 59%), 285 were NSAIDs users and 1,539 were non-users. Compared with non-users, NSAIDs users were associated with increased risks of the primary composite outcome (aOR 1.54, 95% CI 1.11-2.15) and cardiovascular or renal complications (aOR 2.64, 95% CI 1.67-4.16). The association with primary outcome remained consistent when comparing NSAIDs to paracetamol (aOR 1.31, 95% CI 0.89-1.95).  Use of NSAIDs, compared with non-use, is associated with worse outcomes among hospitalised COVID-19 patients. While awaiting the results of confirmatory studies, we suggest NSAIDs be used with caution as the harms associated with their use may outweigh their benefits in this population.

title: Adult-Onset Still’s Disease
abstract: Adult-onset Still’s disease (AoSD) is a rare but clinically well-known, polygenic, systemic autoinflammatory disease. It is typically characterized by four main (cardinal) symptoms: spiking fever ≥39 °C, arthralgia or arthritis, skin rash, and hyperleukocytosis (≥10,000 cells/mm(3)). However, many other clinical features are possible, and it can appear in all age groups with potentially severe inflammatory onset accompanied by a broad spectrum of disease manifestation and complications. Hence, it remains a diagnostic challenge, and the clinician should first rule out infectious, tumoral, or inflammatory differential diagnoses. Determination of the total and glycosylated ferritin levels, although not pathognomonic, can help in diagnosis. New biomarkers have recently been described, but they need to be validated. The disease evolution of AoSD can be monocyclic, polycyclic, or chronic. In chronic disease, a joint involvement is often predominant, and erosions are noted in one-third of patients. Many progresses have been made in the understanding of the pathogenesis over the last decades. This chapter provides a comprehensive insight into the complex and heterogeneous nature of AoSD describing the identified cytokine signaling pathways and biomarkers. It also discusses the current evidence for the usage of biologics in AoSD to provide guidance for treatment decisions, taking into account both the efficacy and the safety of the different therapeutic options.

title: The deadly coronaviruses: The 2003 SARS pandemic and the 2020 novel coronavirus epidemic in China
abstract: The 2019-nCoV is officially called SARS-CoV-2 and the disease is named COVID-19. This viral epidemic in China has led to the deaths of over 1800 people, mostly elderly or those with an underlying chronic disease or immunosuppressed state. This is the third serious Coronavirus outbreak in less than 20 years, following SARS in 2002–2003 and MERS in 2012. While human strains of Coronavirus are associated with about 15% of cases of the common cold, the SARS-CoV-2 may present with varying degrees of severity, from flu-like symptoms to death. It is currently believed that this deadly Coronavirus strain originated from wild animals at the Huanan market in Wuhan, a city in Hubei province. Bats, snakes and pangolins have been cited as potential carriers based on the sequence homology of CoV isolated from these animals and the viral nucleic acids of the virus isolated from SARS-CoV-2 infected patients. Extreme quarantine measures, including sealing off large cities, closing borders and confining people to their homes, were instituted in January 2020 to prevent spread of the virus, but by that time much of the damage had been done, as human-human transmission became evident. While these quarantine measures are necessary and have prevented a historical disaster along the lines of the Spanish flu, earlier recognition and earlier implementation of quarantine measures may have been even more effective. Lessons learned from SARS resulted in faster determination of the nucleic acid sequence and a more robust quarantine strategy. However, it is clear that finding an effective antiviral and developing a vaccine are still significant challenges. The costs of the epidemic are not limited to medical aspects, as the virus has led to significant sociological, psychological and economic effects globally. Unfortunately, emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has led to numerous reports of Asians being subjected to racist behavior and hate crimes across the world.

title: Disability-inclusive COVID-19 response: What it is, why it is important and what we can learn from the United Kingdom’s response
abstract: All too often, disabled people are left behind in emergencies, and this is a risk in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. This is an important issue, as globally there are approximately one billion people with disabilities. This number includes one in three people aged over 60, who are the group at greatest risk from COVID-19. The COVID-19 pandemic in the UK has highlighted additional difficulties that disabled people may face. Complying with preventative measures, like social distancing, can be challenging, particular for people who rely on carers. Disabled people may also be at greater risk of morbidity and mortality if they contract the virus, yet in danger of being de-prioritised for care. Many people with disabilities have ongoing healthcare needs, and these need to still be supported during the pandemic. Furthermore, people may become newly disabled as a result of the pandemic, and therefore require appropriate care. Good practice examples have emerged for meeting these challenges, such as guidance for healthcare professionals on treating people with dementia, but these need to be scaled up further and adapted for other settings. In conclusion, it is clear that a disability-inclusive COVID-19 response is needed, both in the UK and as the pandemic unfolds globally. This response will require inclusion of disability measures within data collection, consulting with disabled people, and tailoring responses to be appropriate for this group.

title: PepMapper: A Collaborative Web Tool for Mapping Epitopes from Affinity-Selected Peptides
abstract: Epitope mapping from affinity-selected peptides has become popular in epitope prediction, and correspondingly many Web-based tools have been developed in recent years. However, the performance of these tools varies in different circumstances. To address this problem, we employed an ensemble approach to incorporate two popular Web tools, MimoPro and Pep-3D-Search, together for taking advantages offered by both methods so as to give users more options for their specific purposes of epitope-peptide mapping. The combined operation of Union finds as many associated peptides as possible from both methods, which increases sensitivity in finding potential epitopic regions on a given antigen surface. The combined operation of Intersection achieves to some extent the mutual verification by the two methods and hence increases the likelihood of locating the genuine epitopic region on a given antigen in relation to the interacting peptides. The Consistency between Intersection and Union is an indirect sufficient condition to assess the likelihood of successful peptide-epitope mapping. On average from 27 tests, the combined operations of PepMapper outperformed either MimoPro or Pep-3D-Search alone. Therefore, PepMapper is another multipurpose mapping tool for epitope prediction from affinity-selected peptides. The Web server can be freely accessed at: http://informatics.nenu.edu.cn/PepMapper/

title: COVID-19, chronic inflammatory respiratory diseases and eosinophils - Observationsfrom reported clinical case series.
abstract: Currently, the world is facinga global pandemicwith a new coronavirus SARS-CoV- 2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoronaVirus Type 2) causing infectious disease named COVID-19 (CoronaVirus Infectious Disease 2019). Comparing the clinical presentation and epidemiological characteristics of COVID-19 with previous coronavirus-associated respiratory diseases (SARS-CoV1 and MERS) revealedsome remarkable findings and differences. Moreover, the clinical course of SARS-CoV-2 infection showed the complexity of COVID-19 profile with the variable clinical presentations.

title: Inflammation resolution: a dual-pronged approach to averting cytokine storms in COVID-19?
abstract: Severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is characterized by pulmonary hyper-inflammation and potentially life-threatening "cytokine storms". Controlling the local and systemic inflammatory response in COVID-19 may be as important as anti-viral therapies. Endogenous lipid autacoid mediators, referred to as eicosanoids, play a critical role in the induction of inflammation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. SARS-CoV-2 may trigger a cell death ("debris")-induced "eicosanoid storm", including prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which in turn initiates a robust inflammatory response. A paradigm shift is emerging in our understanding of the resolution of inflammation as an active biochemical process with the discovery of novel endogenous specialized pro-resolving lipid autacoid mediators (SPMs), such as resolvins. Resolvins and other SPMs stimulate macrophage-mediated clearance of debris and counter pro-inflammatory cytokine production, a process called inflammation resolution. SPMs and their lipid precursors exhibit anti-viral activity at nanogram doses in the setting of influenza without being immunosuppressive. SPMs also promote anti-viral B cell antibodies and lymphocyte activity, highlighting their potential use in the treatment of COVID-19. Soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) inhibitors stabilize arachidonic acid-derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), which also stimulate inflammation resolution by promoting the production of pro-resolution mediators, activating anti-inflammatory processes, and preventing the cytokine storm. Both resolvins and EETs also attenuate pathological thrombosis and promote clot removal, which is emerging as a key pathology of COVID-19 infection. Thus, both SPMs and sEH inhibitors may promote the resolution of inflammation in COVID-19, thereby reducing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and other life-threatening complications associated with robust viral-induced inflammation. While most COVID-19 clinical trials focus on "anti-viral" and "anti-inflammatory" strategies, stimulating inflammation resolution is a novel host-centric therapeutic avenue. Importantly, SPMs and sEH inhibitors are currently in clinical trials for other inflammatory diseases and could be rapidly translated for the management of COVID-19 via debris clearance and inflammatory cytokine suppression. Here, we discuss using pro-resolution mediators as a potential complement to current anti-viral strategies for COVID-19.

title: SARS‐CoV2‐related myocarditis‐like syndroms: Shakespeare´s question: What´s in a name?

title: Hypothesis for potential pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection--a review of immune changes in patients with viral pneumonia
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) with droplets and contact as the main means of transmission Since the first case appeared in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, the outbreak has gradually spread nationwide Up to now, according to official data released by the Chinese health commission, the number of newly diagnosed patients has been declining, and the epidemic is gradually being controlled Although most patients have mild symptoms and good prognosis after infection, some patients developed severe and die from multiple organ complications The pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans remains unclear Immune function is a strong defense against invasive pathogens and there is currently no specific antiviral drug against the virus This article reviews the immunological changes of coronaviruses like SARS, MERS and other viral pneumonia similar to SARS-CoV-2 Combined with the published literature, the potential pathogenesis of COVID-19 is inferred, and the treatment recommendations for giving high-doses intravenous immunoglobulin and low-molecular-weight heparin anticoagulant therapy to severe type patients are proposed

title: Mast cells contribute to coronavirus-induced inflammation: new anti-inflammatory strategy
abstract: Coronavirus can cause respiratory syndrome which to date has affected about twelve thousand individuals, especially in China. Coronavirus is interspecies and can also be transmitted from man to man, with an incubation ranging from 1 to 14 days. Human coronavirus infections can induce not only mild to severe respiratory diseases, but also inflammation, high fever, cough, acute respiratory tract infection and dysfunction of internal organs that may lead to death. Coronavirus infection (regardless of the various types of corona virus) is primarily attacked by immune cells including mast cells (MCs), which are located in the submucosa of the respiratory tract and in the nasal cavity and represent a barrier of protection against microorganisms. Viral activate MCs release early inflammatory chemical copounds including histamine and protease; while late activation provoke the generation of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members including IL-1, IL-6 and IL-33. Here, we propose for the first time that inflammation by coronavirus maybe inhibited by anti-inflammatory cytokines belonging to the IL-1 family members.

title: A systematic review of Anakinra, Tocilizumab, Sarilumab and Siltuximab for coronavirus-related infections
abstract: There is accumulating evidence for an overly activated immune response characterised by the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in severe Covid-19. Suppression of the inflammatory response with immunomodulatory therapies may be a potential therapeutic strategy. We systematically review and assess the effectiveness of specific interleukin-1 and -6 inhibitors for the treatment of coronavirus-related infections.  Electronic databases, pre-print servers and clinical trial registries were searched to identify current and ongoing studies of immunomodulatory agents (anakinra, sarilumab, siltuximab and tocilizumab) for the treatment of Covid-19 and other coronavirus related super infections. The co-primary outcome was time to hospital discharge (days) and severity on an ordinal scale measured at day 15.  Five retrospective studies (tocilizumab, two case series and two case reports; siltuximab, one case series) were shortlisted for inclusion, totalling 59 patients. All studies had a moderate or high risk of bias, with multiple limitations. Insufficient data and inter-study heterogeneity prevented meta-analysis. Primary outcomes were inconsistently reported but suggest many patients experienced an improvement in status seven days following therapy. The case fatality ratio (CFR) of patients with severe Covid-19 included in our review was 6.8%, a figure substantially lower than that estimated in non-interventional case series. Of the studies measuring IL-6, all reported elevated baseline levels. Twenty-five ongoing registered clinical trials exploring immunomodulatory agents in Covid-19 were identified, although inconsistency in participants and endpoints are noted.  Inhibition of IL-6 with tocilizumab and siltuximab requires further evaluation in managing the assumed hyperinflammatory response associated with severe Covid-19. These early data are considered hypothesis generating and justify the need for well-designed randomised clinical studies.

title: Why not to use colchicine in COVID-19? An old anti-inflammatory drug for a novel auto-inflammatory disease

title: Role of the atmospheric pollution in the Covid-19 outbreak risk in Italy
abstract: After the initial outbreak in China, the diffusion in Italy of SARS-CoV-2 is exhibiting a clear regional trend with Northern areas being the most affected in terms of both frequency and severity of cases. Among multiple factors possibly involved in such geographical differences, a role has been hypothesized for atmospheric pollution.  We provide additional evidence on the possible influence of air quality, particularly in terms of chronicity of exposure on the spread viral infection in Italian regions.  Actual data on to COVID-19 outbreak in Italian provinces and corresponding long-term air quality evaluations, were obtained from Italian and European agencies, elaborated and tested for possible interactions.  Our elaborations reveal that, beside concentrations, the chronicity of exposure may influence the anomalous variability of SARS-CoV-2 in Italy. Data on distribution of atmospheric pollutants (NO2, O3, PM2.5 and PM10) in Italian regions during the last 4 years, days exceeding regulatory limits, and years of the last decade (2010-2019) in which the limits have been exceeded for at least 35 days, confirmed that Northern Italy has been constantly exposed to chronic air pollution. Long-term air-quality data significantly correlated with cases of Covid-19 in up to 71 Italian provinces (updated 6 April) providing further evidence that chronic exposure to atmospheric contamination may represent a favourable context for the spread of the virus. Pro-inflammatory responses and high incidence of respiratory and cardiac affections are well known, while the capability of this coronavirus to bind particulate matters remains to be established. Atmospheric and environmental pollution should be considered as part of an integrated approach for sustainable development, human health protection and prevention of epidemic spreads.

title: Letter: Covid‐19, and vitamin D. Authors' reply
abstract: LINKED CONTENT This article is linked to Sands et al papers. To view these articles, visit https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15555 and https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15716.

title: Clinical and biochemical indexes from 2019-nCoV infected patients linked to viral loads and lung injury
abstract: The outbreak of the 2019-nCoV infection began in December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei province, and rapidly spread to many provinces in China as well as other countries. Here we report the epidemiological, clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics, as well as potential biomarkers for predicting disease severity in 2019-nCoV-infected patients in Shenzhen, China. All 12 cases of the 2019-nCoV-infected patients developed pneumonia and half of them developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The most common laboratory abnormalities were hypoalbuminemia, lymphopenia, decreased percentage of lymphocytes (LYM) and neutrophils (NEU), elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and decreased CD8 count. The viral load of 2019-nCoV detected from patient respiratory tracts was positively linked to lung disease severity. ALB, LYM, LYM (%), LDH, NEU (%), and CRP were highly correlated to the acute lung injury. Age, viral load, lung injury score, and blood biochemistry indexes, albumin (ALB), CRP, LDH, LYM (%), LYM, and NEU (%), may be predictors of disease severity. Moreover, the Angiotensin II level in the plasma sample from 2019-nCoV infected patients was markedly elevated and linearly associated to viral load and lung injury. Our results suggest a number of potential diagnosis biomarkers and angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) drugs for potential repurposing treatment of 2019-nCoV infection.

title: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19) presenting as purulent fulminant myopericarditis and cardiac tamponade: a case report and literature review.
abstract: The vast majority of patients in the ongoing coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic primarily present with severe respiratory illness. We report a Covid-19 patient who presented with findings of acute coronary syndrome and was found to have purulent fulminant myopericarditis and cardiac tamponade. We compare our case to the previously reported instances of Covid-19-associated myocarditis. Through review of the available literature, we also highlight the potential mechanisms of cardiac injury in Covid-19. We hope to increase awareness amongst clinicians about this unusual presentation of Covid-19.

title: Rationale for Evaluating PDE4 Inhibition for Mitigating against Severe Inflammation in COVID-19 Pneumonia and Beyond.
abstract: In the absence of definitive anti-viral therapy, there is considerable interest in mitigating against severe inflammatory reactions in coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia to improve survival. These reactions are sometimes termed cytokine storm. PDE4 inhibitors (PDE4i) have anti-inflammatory properties with approved indications in inflammatory skin and joint diseases as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Furthermore, multiple animal models demonstrate strong anti-inflammatory effects of PDE4i in respiratory models of viral and bacterial infection and also after chemically mediated lung injury. The rationale for PDE4i use in COVID-19 patients comes from the multimodal mechanism of action with cytokine, chemokine, and other key pathway inhibition all achieved with an excellent safety profile. We highlight how PDE4i could be an overlooked treatment from the rheumatologic and respiratory armamentarium, which has potential beneficial immune-modulation for treating severe COVID-19 pneumonia associated with cytokine storms. The proposed use of PDE4i is also supported by age-related immune changes in inflammation severity in PDE4i modifiable pathways in primate coronavirus disease. In conclusion, over-exuberant anti-viral immune responses in older patients with COVID-19 may pose a substantial risk to patient survival and mitigation against such hyper-inflammation with PDE4i, especially with anti-viral agents, is a strategy that need to be pursed, especially in older patients.

title: Acute and Chronic Infections of the Oral Cavity and Pharynx

title: Cytokines IL-17 and IL-22 in the host response to infection
abstract: Cytokines IL-17 and IL-22 play pivotal roles in host defense against microbes and in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. These cytokines are produced by cells that are often located in epithelial barriers, including subsets of T cells and innate lymphoid cells. In general, IL-17 and IL-22 can be characterized as important cytokines in the rapid response to infectious agents, both by recruiting neutrophils and by inducing the production of antimicrobial peptides. Although each cytokine induces an innate immune response in epithelial cells, their functional spectra are generally distinct: IL-17 mainly induces an inflammatory tissue response and is involved in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases, whereas IL-22 is largely protective and regenerative. In this review, we compare IL-17 and IL-22, describing overlaps and differences in their cellular sources as well as their regulation, signaling, biological functions and roles during disease, with a focus on the contribution of these cytokines to the gut mucosal barrier during bacterial infection.

title: Editorial: low population mortality from COVID‐19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees North—supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity. Authors' reply
abstract: LINKED CONTENT This article is linked to Al‐Ani et al and Rhodes et al papers. To view these articles, visit https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15779 and https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15777.

title: Type 3 hypersensitivity in COVID-19 vasculitis
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an ongoing public health emergency and new knowledge about its immunopathogenic mechanisms is deemed necessary in the attempt to reduce the death burden, globally. For the first time in worldwide literature, we provide scientific evidence that in COVID-19 vasculitis a life-threatening escalation from type 2 T-helper immune response (humoral immunity) to type 3 hypersensitivity (immune complex disease) takes place. The subsequent deposition of immune complexes inside the vascular walls is supposed to induce a severe inflammatory state and a cytokine release syndrome, whose interleukin-6 is the key myokine, from the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels.

title: Evidence Supporting a Phased Immuno-physiological Approach to COVID-19 From Prevention Through Recovery
abstract: This paper presents an evidence-based strategy for improving clinical outcomes in COVID-19 Recommendations are based on the phases of the disease, because optimal interventions for one phase may not be appropriate for a different phase The four phases addressed are: Prevention, Infection, Inflammation and Recovery Underlying this phased approach is recognition of emerging evidence for two different components of pathophysiology, early infection and late stage severe complications These two aspects of the disease suggest two different patterns of clinical emphasis that seem on the surface to be not entirely concordant We describe the application of therapeutic strategies and appropriate tactics that address four main stages of disease progression for COVID-19 Emerging evidence in COVID-19 suggests that the SARS-CoV-2 virus may both evade the innate immune response and kill macrophages Delayed innate immune response and a depleted population of macrophages can theoretically result in a blunted antigen presentation, delaying and diminishing activation of the adaptive immune response Thus, one clinical strategy involves supporting patient innate and adaptive immune responses early in the time course of illness, with the goal of improving the timeliness, readiness, and robustness of both the innate and adaptive immune responses At the other end of the disease pathology spectrum, risk of fatality in COVID-19 is driven by excessive and persistent upregulation of inflammatory mechanisms associated with cytokine storm Thus, the second clinical strategy is to prevent or mitigate excessive inflammatory response to prevent the cytokine storm associated with high mortality risk Clinical support for immune system pathogen clearance mechanisms involves obligate activation of immune response components that are inherently inflammatory This puts the goals of the first clinical strategy (immune activation) potentially at odds with the goals of the second strategy(mitigation of proinflammatory effects) This creates a need for discernment about the time course of the illness and with that, understanding of which components of an overall strategy to apply at each phase of the time course of the illness We review evidence from early observational studies and the existing literature on both outcomes and mechanisms of disease, to inform a phased approach to support the patient at risk for infection, with infection, with escalating inflammation during infection, and at risk of negative sequelae as they move into recovery

title: Fetal heart rate changes on the cardiotocograph trace secondary to maternal COVID-19 infection
abstract: To determine the cardiotocograph (CTG) changes in women with symptomatic COVID-19 infection.  12 anonymised CTG traces from 2 hospitals in Spain were retrospectively analysed by 2 independent assessors. CTG parameters were studied based on fetal pathophysiological responses to inflammation and hypoxia that would be expected based on the pathogenesis of COVID-19 patients. Correlation was made with perinatal outcomes (Apgar score at 5 min and umbilical cord pH).  All fetuses showed an increased baseline FHR > 10 percent compared to the initial recording, in addition to absence of accelerations. 10 out of 12 CTG traces (83.3 percent) demonstrated late or prolonged decelerations and 7 out of 12 fetuses (58.3 percent) showed absence of cycling. Not a single case of sinusoidal pattern was observed. ZigZag pattern was found in 4 CTG traces (33 percent). Excessive uterine activity was observed in all CTG traces where uterine activity was monitored (10 out of 12). Apgar scores at 5 min were normal (>7) and absence of metabolic acidosis was found in the umbilical cord arterial pH (pH > 7.0) in the cases that were available (11 and 9, respectively).  Fetuses of COVID-19 patients showed a raised baseline FHR (>10 percent), loss of accelerations, late decelerations, ZigZag pattern and absence of cycling probably due to the effects of maternal pyrexia, maternal inflammatory response and the "cytokine storm". However, the perinatal outcomes appear to be favourable. Therefore, healthcare providers should optimise the maternal environment first to rectify the reactive CTG changes instead of performing an urgent operative intervention.

title: Immunological and inflammatory profiles in mild and severe cases of COVID-19
abstract: COVID-19 is associated with 5.1% mortality. Although the virological, epidemiological, clinical, and management outcome features of COVID-19 patients have been defined rapidly, the inflammatory and immune profiles require definition as they influence pathogenesis and clinical expression of COVID-19. Here we show lymphopenia, selective loss of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells and NK cells, excessive T-cell activation and high expression of T-cell inhibitory molecules are more prominent in severe cases than in those with mild disease. CD8+ T cells in patients with severe disease express high levels of cytotoxic molecules. Histochemical studies of lung tissue from one fatality show sub-anatomical distributions of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and massive infiltration of T cells and macrophages. Thus, aberrant activation and dysregulation of CD8+ T cells occur in patients with severe COVID-19 disease, an effect that might be for pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection and indicate that immune-based targets for therapeutic interventions constitute a promising treatment for severe COVID-19 patients.

title: Epigenetic dysregulation of ACE2 and interferon-regulated genes might suggest increased COVID-19 susceptibility and severity in lupus patients
abstract: Infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 can result in severe respiratory complications and death. Patients with a compromised immune system are expected to be more susceptible to a severe disease course. In this report we suggest that patients with systemic lupus erythematous might be especially prone to severe COVID-19 independent of their immunosuppressed state from lupus treatment. Specially, we provide evidence in lupus to suggest hypomethylation and overexpression of ACE2, which is located on the X chromosome and encodes a functional receptor for the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein. Oxidative stress induced by viral infections exacerbates the DNA methylation defect in lupus, possibly resulting in further ACE2 hypomethylation and enhanced viremia. In addition, demethylation of interferon-regulated genes, NF{kappa}B, and key cytokine genes in lupus patients might exacerbate the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and increase the likelihood of cytokine storm. These arguments suggest that inherent epigenetic dysregulation in lupus might facilitate viral entry, viremia, and an excessive immune response to SARS-CoV-2. Further, maintaining disease remission in lupus patients is critical to prevent a vicious cycle of demethylation and increased oxidative stress, which will exacerbate susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection during the current pandemic. Epigenetic control of the ACE2 gene might be a target for prevention and therapy in COVID-19.

title: Myocardial injury and COVID-19: Possible mechanisms
abstract: Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has quickly progressed to a global health emergency. Respiratory illness is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients with the disease spectrum ranging from asymptomatic subclinical infection, to severe pneumonia progressing to acute respiratory distress syndrome. There is growing evidence describing pathophysiological resemblance of SARS-CoV-2 infection with other coronavirus infections such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 receptors play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of the virus. Disruption of this receptor leads to cardiomyopathy, cardiac dysfunction, and heart failure. Patients with cardiovascular disease are more likely to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 and they are more likely to develop severe symptoms. Hypertension, arrhythmia, cardiomyopathy and coronary heart disease are amongst major cardiovascular disease comorbidities seen in severe cases of COVID-19. There is growing literature exploring cardiac involvement in SARS-CoV-2. Myocardial injury is one of the important pathogenic features of COVID-19. As a surrogate for myocardial injury, multiple studies have shown increased cardiac biomarkers mainly cardiac troponins I and T in the infected patients especially those with severe disease. Myocarditis is depicted as another cause of morbidity amongst COVID-19 patients. The exact mechanisms of how SARS-CoV-2 can cause myocardial injury are not clearly understood. The proposed mechanisms of myocardial injury are direct damage to the cardiomyocytes, systemic inflammation, myocardial interstitial fibrosis, interferon mediated immune response, exaggerated cytokine response by Type 1 and 2 helper T cells, in addition to coronary plaque destabilization, and hypoxia.

title: Complement associated microvascular injury and thrombosis in the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 infection: A report of five cases
abstract: Acute respiratory failure and a systemic coagulopathy are critical aspects of the morbidity and mortality characterizing infection with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome-associated coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiologic agent of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We examined skin and lung tissues from 5 patients with severe COVID-19 characterized by respiratory failure (n=5) and purpuric skin rash (n=3). The pattern of COVID-19 pneumonitis was predominantly a pauci-inflammatory septal capillary injury with significant septal capillary mural and luminal fibrin deposition and permeation of the inter-alveolar septa by neutrophils. No viral cytopathic changes were observed and the diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) with hyaline membranes, inflammation, and type II pneumocyte hyperplasia, hallmarks of classic ARDS, were not prominent. These pulmonary findings were accompanied by significant deposits of terminal complement components C5b-9 (membrane attack complex), C4d, and mannose binding lectin (MBL)-associated serine protease (MASP)2, in the microvasculature, consistent with sustained, systemic activation of the alternative and lectin-based complement pathways. The purpuric skin lesions similarly showed a pauci-inflammatory thrombogenic vasculopathy, with deposition of C5b-9 and C4d in both grossly involved and normally-appearing skin. In addition, there was co-localization of COVID-19 spike glycoproteins with C4d and C5b-9 in the inter-alveolar septa and the cutaneous microvasculature of two cases examined. In conclusion, at least a subset of sustained, severe COVID-19 may define a type of catastrophic microvascular injury syndrome mediated by activation of complement pathways and an associated procoagulant state. It provides a foundation for further exploration of the pathophysiologic importance of complement in COVID-19, and could suggest targets for specific intervention.

title: Alternative management of Covid-19 infection
abstract: Cytokine storm is a life-threatening complication of Covid-19 infection. Excessive cytokines are the products of hyperactive immune inflammatory response mounted by the host against the virus. There is no agreed treatment for cytokine storm. Three therapeutic agents with proven immune-modulatory properties in regular use in a wide range of inflammatory disorders (high dose intravenous immunoglobulin, Rituximab and thalidomide) are proposed for the treatment of cytokine storm. Safety and efficacy of the proposed treatment should be assessed by randomised controlled clinical trials. The use of the proposed treatment is expected to reduce the mortality rate and alter the overall management of the pandemic.

title: Editorial: Nicotine and SARS-CoV-2: COVID-19 may be a disease of the nicotinic cholinergic system

title: Microglia Are Essential to Protective Antiviral Immunity: Lessons From Mouse Models of Viral Encephalitis
abstract: Viral encephalitis is a rare but clinically serious consequence of viral invasion of the brain and insight into its pathogenesis is urgently needed. Important research questions concern the involvement of the host innate immune response in pathogenesis, key to which is the role played by microglia, resident macrophages of the brain parenchyma. Do microglia have a protective function, by coordinating the innate immune response to viral infection, or do they drive pathogenic neuroinflammation? Here we synthesize recent data from mouse models of acute viral encephalitis, which reveal an unambiguously protective role for microglia. Depletion of microglia, via blockade of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) signaling, led to increased viral replication accompanied by more severe neurological disease and heightened mortality. Whilst the underlying mechanism(s) remain to be defined, microglial interactions with T cells and phagocytosis of infected neurones appear to play a role. Paradoxically, the production of inflammatory cytokines was increased in several instances following viral infection in microglia-depleted brains, suggesting that: (i) cells other than microglia mediate inflammatory responses and/or (ii) microglia may exert a regulatory function. Under certain circumstances the microglial antiviral response might contribute negatively to longer-term neurological sequelae, although fewer studies have focused on this aspect in encephalitis models. Understanding regulation of the microglial response, and how it contributes to disease is therefore a priority for future studies. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the central role of microglia in pathogenesis, suggesting the exciting possibility that defects of microglial function might contribute to encephalitis susceptibility and/or outcome in humans.

title: A tertiary center experience of multiple myeloma patients with COVID-19: lessons learned and the path forward
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus, has resulted in over 100,000 deaths in the USA. Our institution has treated over 2000 COVID-19 patients during the pandemic in New York City. The pandemic directly impacted cancer patients and the organization of cancer care. Mount Sinai Hospital has a large and diverse multiple myeloma (MM) population. Herein, we report the characteristics of COVID-19 infection and serological response in MM patients in a large tertiary care institution in New York.  We performed a retrospective study on a cohort of 58 patients with a plasma-cell disorder (54 MM, 4 smoldering MM) who developed COVID-19 between March 1, 2020, and April 30, 2020. We report epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory characteristics including the persistence of viral detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody testing, treatments initiated, and outcomes.  Of the 58 patients diagnosed with COVID-19, 36 were hospitalized and 22 were managed at home. The median age was 67 years; 52% of patients were male and 63% were non-White. Hypertension (64%), hyperlipidemia (62%), obesity (37%), diabetes mellitus (28%), chronic kidney disease (24%), and lung disease (21%) were the most common comorbidities. In the total cohort, 14 patients (24%) died. Older age (> 70 years), male sex, cardiovascular risk, and patients not in complete remission (CR) or stringent CR were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with hospitalization. Among hospitalized patients, laboratory findings demonstrated elevation of traditional inflammatory markers (CRP, ferritin, D-dimer) and a significant (p < 0.05) association between elevated inflammatory markers, severe hypogammaglobulinemia, non-White race, and mortality. Ninety-six percent (22/23) of patients developed antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 at a median of 32 days after initial diagnosis. The median time to PCR negativity was 43 (range 19–68) days from initial positive PCR.  Drug exposure and MM disease status at the time of contracting COVID-19 had no bearing on mortality. Mounting a severe inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 and severe hypogammaglobulinemia was associated with higher mortality. The majority of patients mounted an antibody response to SARS-CoV-2. These findings pave a path to the identification of vulnerable MM patients who need early intervention to improve outcomes in future outbreaks of COVID-19.

title: Vitamin D deficiency and co-morbidities in COVID-19 patients – A fatal relationship?

title: Plasmin cascade mediates thrombolytic events in SARS-CoV-2 infection via complement and platelet-activating systems
abstract: Recently emerged beta-coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in the current pandemic designated COVID-19. COVID-19 manifests as severe illness exhibiting systemic inflammatory response syndrome, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), thrombotic events, and shock, exacerbated further by co-morbidities and age1–3. Recent clinical reports suggested that the pulmonary failure seen in COVID-19 may not be solely driven by acute ARDS, but also microvascular thrombotic events, likely driven by complement activation4,5. However, it is not fully understood how the SARS-CoV-2 infection mechanisms mediate thrombotic events, and whether such mechanisms and responses are unique to SARS-CoV-2 infection, compared to other respiratory infections. We address these questions here, in the context of normal lung epithelia, in vitro and in vivo, using publicly available data. Our results indicate that plasmin is a crucial mediator which primes interactions between complement and platelet-activating systems in lung epithelia upon SARS-CoV-2 infection, with a potential for therapeutic intervention.

title: Nepal's Response to Contain COVID-19 Infection.
abstract: Nepal is a landlocked country bordering two most populous countries, India and China. Nepal shares open border with India from three sides, east, south and west. And, in north with China, where the novel coronavirus infection (CVOVID-19) began in late December 2019. The first confirmed imported case in Nepal was reported in 2nd week of January 2020. The initial response of Nepal to COVID-19 were comparably slow but country geared efforts after it was declared a 'global pandemic' by WHO on 11 March, 2020. Government of Nepal's steps from 18 March, 2020 led to partial lock down and countrywide lockdown imposed on 24 March, 2020. Government devised comprehensive plan on 27 March, 2020 for quarantine for peoples who arrived in Nepal from COVID-19 affected countries. This article covers summary of global status, South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) status, and Nepal's response to contain COVID-19 infection discussed under three headings: Steps taken before and after WHO declared COVID-19 a global pandemic and lab services regarding detection of COVID-19. Nepal has documented five confirmed cases of COVID-19 till the end of March 2020, first in second week of 15 January, 2020 and 2nd case 8-weeks thereafter and 3rd case two days later, 4th on 27 March and 5th on 28 March. Four more cases detected during first week of April. Non-Pharmacological interventions like social distancing and excellent personal habits are widely practiced. Country has to enhance testing and strengthen tracing, isolation and quarantine mechanism and care of COVID-19 patients as Nepal is in risk zone because of comparably weak health system and porous borders with India. The time will tell regarding further outbreak and how it will be tackled.  COVID-19; lockdown; Nepal; pandemic; response.

title: Mast cells contribute to coronavirus-induced inflammation: new anti-inflammatory strategy
abstract: Coronavirus can cause respiratory syndrome which to date has affected about twelve thousand individuals, especially in China. Coronavirus is interspecies and can also be transmitted from man to man, with an incubation ranging from 1 to 14 days. Human coronavirus infections can induce not only mild to severe respiratory diseases, but also inflammation, high fever, cough, acute respiratory tract infection and dysfunction of internal organs that may lead to death. Coronavirus infection (regardless of the various types of corona virus) is primarily attacked by immune cells including mast cells (MCs), which are located in the submucosa of the respiratory tract and in the nasal cavity and represent a barrier of protection against microorganisms. Viral activate MCs release early inflammatory chemical copounds including histamine and protease; while late activation provoke the generation of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members including IL-1, IL-6 and IL-33. Here, we propose for the first time that inflammation by coronavirus maybe inhibited by anti-inflammatory cytokines belonging to the IL-1 family members.

title: Recent progress in understanding 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) associated with human respiratory disease: detection, mechanisms and treatment
abstract: Viral respiratory diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) always pose a severe threat to people. First identified in late December 2019, a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV; SARS-CoV-2) has affected many provinces in China and multiple countries worldwide. The viral outbreak has aroused panic and a public-health emergency around the world, and the number of infections continues to rise. However, the causes and consequences of the pneumonia remain unknown. To effectively implement epidemic prevention, early identification and diagnosis are critical to disease control. Here we scrutinise a series of available studies by global scientists on the clinical manifestations, detection methods and treatment options for the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and also propose potential strategies for preventing the infection.

title: Characterization of the Inflammatory Response to Severe COVID-19 Illness
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global threat to health. Its inflammatory characteristics are incompletely understood.  To define the cytokine profile of COVID-19, and to identify evidence of immunometabolic alterations in those with severe illness.  Levels of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and soluble TNF receptor 1 (sTNFR1) were assessed in plasma from healthy volunteers, hospitalized-but-stable COVID-19 patients (COVIDstable), COVID-19 patients requiring intensive care unit (ICU) admission (COVIDICU) and individuals with severe community-acquired pneumonia requiring ICU support (CAPICU). Immunometabolic markers were measured in circulating neutrophils from patients with severe COVID-19. The acute phase response of alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) to COVID-19 was also evaluated.  IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8 and sTNFR1 were all increased in patients with COVID-19. COVIDICU patients could be clearly differentiated from COVIDstable, and demonstrated higher levels of IL-1ß, IL-6 and sTNFR1 - but lower IL-10 - than CAPICU. COVID-19 neutrophils displayed altered immunometabolism, with increased cytosolic PKM2, phosphorylated PKM2, HIF-1&#945; and lactate. The production and sialylation of AAT increased in COVID-19, but this anti-inflammatory response was overwhelmed in severe illness, with the IL-6:AAT ratio markedly higher in patients requiring ICU admission (P<0.0001). In critically unwell COVID-19 patients, increases in IL-6:AAT predicted prolonged ICU stay and mortality, while improvement in IL-6:AAT was associated with clinical resolution (P<0.0001).  The COVID-19 cytokinemia is distinct from that of other types of pneumonia leading to organ failure and ICU need. Neutrophils undergo immunometabolic reprogramming in severe COVID-19 illness. Cytokine ratios may predict outcomes in this population.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and Male Infertility: Possible Multifaceted Pathology
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11th March 2020. Bulk of research on this virus are carried out to unveil its multivariate pathology. Surprisingly, men are reportedly more vulnerable to COVID-19 even with higher fatality rate compared to women. Thus, it is crucial to determine whether SARS-CoV-2 infection can even affect male fertility as an immediate or long-term consequence of the disease. Among the discrete data available, an important finding is that angiotensin converting enzymes 2 (ACE2) receptor, that aids the SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells, is profoundly expressed in testicular cells. In addition, the endogenous androgen milieu and its receptors are associated with ACE2 activation reflecting that enhanced testosterone levels may trigger the pathogenesis of COVID-19. In contrary, hypogonadism has also been reported in the acute phase of some COVID-19 cases. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection-induced uncontrolled inflammatory responses may lead to systemic oxidative stress (OS), whose severe disruptive effects on testicular functions are well-documented. This article aims to precisely present the possible impact of COVID-19 on male reproductive functions, and to highlight the speculations that need in-depth research for the exact underlying mechanisms how COVID-19 is associated with men's health and fertility.

title: The Science Underlying COVID-19: Implications for the Cardiovascular System.
abstract: Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted health and economy worldwide on an unprecedented scale. Patients have diverse clinical outcomes, but those with pre-existing cardiovascular (CV) disease, hypertension, and related conditions incur disproportionately worse outcome. The high infectivity of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is in part related to new mutations in the receptor binding domain, and acquisition of a furin cleavage site in the S spike protein. The continued viral shedding in the asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic individuals enhances its community transmission. The virus uses the ACE2 receptor for internalization, aided by TMPRSS2 protease. The tissue localization of the receptors correlates with COVDI-19 presenting symptoms and organ dysfunction. Virus-induced ACE2 down regulation may attenuate its function, diminish its anti-inflammatory role, and heightened angiotensin II effects in the predisposed patients. Lymphopenia occurs early and is prognostic, potentially associated with reduction of the CD4+ and some CD8+ T cells. This leads to imbalance of the innate/acquired immune response, delayed viral clearance, and hyper stimulated macrophages and neutrophils. Appropriate type I interferon pathway activation is critical for virus attenuation, and balanced immune response. Persistent immune activation in predisposed patients, such as the elderly and those with CV risk, can lead to hemophagocytosis like syndrome, with uncontrolled amplification of cytokine production, leading to multi-organ failure and death. In addition to the airways and lungs, the cardiovascular system is often involved in COVID-19 early, reflected in the release of highly sensitive troponin and natriuretic peptides, which are all extremely prognostic, particularly in those showing continued rise, along with cytokines such as IL-6. Inflammation in the vascular system can result in diffuse microangiopathy with thrombosis. Inflammation in the myocardium can result in myocarditis, heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, acute coronary syndrome, rapid deterioration and sudden death. Aggressive support based on early prognostic indicators with expectant management can potentially improve recovery. Appropriate treatment for heart failure, arrhythmias, acute coronary syndrome and thrombosis remain important. Specific evidence based treatment strategies for COVID-19 will emerge with ongoing global collaboration on multiple approaches being evaluated. To protect the wider population, antibody testing and effective vaccine will be needed to make COVID-19 history.

title: The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19).

title: THE “PERFECT CYTOKINE STORM” OF COVID-19

title: Transcriptional response of signalling pathways to SARS-CoV-2 infection in normal human bronchial epithelial cells
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 virus, the pathogen that causes Covid-19 disease, emerged in Wuhan region in China in 2019, infected more than 4M people and is responsible for death of at least 300K patients globally as of May 2020. Identification of the cellular response mechanisms to viral infection by SARS-CoV-2 may shed light on progress of the disease, indicate potential drug targets, and make design of new test methods possible. In this study, we analysed transcriptomic response of normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE) to SARS-CoV-2 infection and compared the response to H1N1 infection. Comparison of transcriptome of NHBE cells 24 hours after mock-infection and SARS-CoV-2 infection demonstrated that most genes that respond to infection were upregulated (320 genes) rather than being downregulated (115 genes).While upregulated genes were enriched in signalling pathways related to virus response, downregulated genes are related to kidney development. We mapped the upregulated genes on KEGG pathways to identify the mechanisms that mediate the response. We identified canonical NFκB, TNF and IL-17 pathways to be significantly upregulated and to converge to NFκB pathway via positive feedback loops. Although virus entry protein ACE2 has low expression in NHBE cells, pathogen response pathways are strongly activated within 24 hours of infection. Our results also indicate that immune response system is activated at the early stage of the infection and orchestrated by a crosstalk of signalling pathways. Finally, we compared transcriptomic SARS-CoV-2 response to H1N1 response in NHBE cells to elucidate the virus specificity of the response and virus specific extracellular proteins expressed by NHBE cells.

title: Innate immunity in COVID-19 patients mediated by NKG2A receptors, and potential treatment using Monalizumab, Cholroquine, and antiviral agents
abstract: Following the outbreak of a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), studies suggest that the resultant disease (COVID-19) is more severe in individuals with a weakened immune system. Cytotoxic T-cells (CTLs) and Natural Killer (NK) cells are required to generate an effective immune response against viruses, functional exhaustion of which enables disease progression. Patients with severe COVID-19 present significantly lower lymphocyte, and higher neutrophil, counts in blood. Specifically, CD8+ lymphocytes and NK cells were significantly reduced in cases of severe infection compared to patients with mild infection and healthy individuals. The NK group 2 member A (NKG2A) receptor transduces inhibitory signalling, suppressing NK cytokine secretion and cytotoxicity. Overexpression of NKG2A has been observed on CD8+ and NK cells of COVID-19 infected patients compared to healthy controls, while NKG2A overexpression also functionally exhausts CD8+ cells and NK cells, resulting in a severely compromised innate immune response. Blocking NKG2A on CD8+ cells and NK cells in cancers modulated tumor growth, restoring CD8+ T and NK cell function. A recently proposed mechanism via which SARS-CoV-2 overrides innate immune response of the host is by over-expressing NKG2A on CD+ T and NK cells, culminating in functional exhaustion of the immune response against the viral pathogen. Monalizumab is an inhibiting antibody against NKG2A which can restore the function of CD8 + T and NK cells in cancers, successfully ceasing tumor progression with no significant side effects in Phase 2 clinical trials. We hypothesize that patients with severe COVID-19 have a severely compromised innate immune response and could be treated via the use of Monalizumab, interferon α, chloroquine, and other antiviral agents.

title: The contact activation system as a potential therapeutic target in patients with COVID‐19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is predicted to overwhelm health care capacity in the United States and worldwide, and, as such, interventions that could prevent clinical decompensation and respiratory compromise in infected patients are desperately needed. Excessive cytokine release and activation of coagulation appear to be key drivers of COVID‐19 pneumonia and associated mortality. Contact activation has been linked to pathologic upregulation of both inflammatory mediators and coagulation, and accumulating preclinical and clinical data suggest it to be a rational therapeutic target in patients with COVID‐19. Pharmacologic inhibition of the interaction between coagulation factors XI and XII has been shown to prevent consumptive coagulopathy, pathologic systemic inflammatory response, and mortality in at least 2 types of experimental sepsis. Importantly, inhibition of contact activation also prevented death from Staphylococcus aureus–induced lethal systemic inflammatory response syndrome in nonhuman primates. The contact system is likely dispensable for hemostasis and may not be needed for host immunity, suggesting it to be a reasonably safe target that will not result in immunosuppression or bleeding. As a few drugs targeting contact activation are already in clinical development, immediate clinical trials for their use in patients with COVID‐19 are potentially feasible for the prevention or treatment of respiratory distress.

title: Lung under attack by COVID-19-induced cytokine storm: pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic implications
abstract: The lung is a key target of the cytokine storm that can be triggered by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for the widespread clinical syndrome known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Indeed, in some patients, SARS-CoV-2 promotes a dysfunctional immune response that dysregulates the cytokine secretory pattern. Hypercytokinemia underlies the hyperinflammatory state leading to injury of alveolar epithelial cells and vascular endothelial cells, as well as to lung infiltration sustained by neutrophils and macrophages. Within such a pathogenic context, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and other cytokines/chemokines play a pivotal pro-inflammatory role. Therefore, cytokines and their receptors, as well as cytokine-dependent intracellular signalling pathways can be targeted by potential therapies aimed to relieve the heavy burden of cytokine storm. In particular, the anti-IL-6-receptor monoclonal antibody tocilizumab is emerging as one of the most promising pharmacologic treatments. The reviews of this paper are available via the supplemental material section.

title: Pulmonary Delivery of Fenretinide: A Possible Adjuvant Treatment In COVID-19
abstract: At present, there is no vaccine or effective standard treatment for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection (or coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)), which frequently leads to lethal pulmonary inflammatory responses. COVID-19 pathology is characterized by extreme inflammation and amplified immune response with activation of a cytokine storm. A subsequent progression to acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) can take place, which is often followed by death. The causes of these strong inflammatory responses in SARS-CoV-2 infection are still unknown. As uncontrolled pulmonary inflammation is likely the main cause of death in SARS-CoV-2 infection, anti-inflammatory therapeutic interventions are particularly important. Fenretinide N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide is a bioactive molecule characterized by poly-pharmacological properties and a low toxicity profile. Fenretinide is endowed with antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulating properties other than efficacy in obesity/diabetic pathologies. Its anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities, in particular, could likely have utility in multimodal therapies for the treatment of ALI/ARDS in COVID-19 patients. Moreover, fenretinide administration by pulmonary delivery systems could further increase its therapeutic value by carrying high drug concentrations to the lungs and triggering a rapid onset of activity. This is particularly important in SARS-CoV-2 infection, where only a narrow time window exists for therapeutic intervention.

title: Evaluation of Activation and Inflammatory Activity of Myeloid Cells During Pathogenic Human Coronavirus Infection
abstract: Innate immune cells play a vital role in mounting an effective host response to a variety of pathogen challenges. Myeloid cells such as neutrophils and monocyte-macrophages are major innate leukocytes that orchestrate protective immunity to viral lung infections. However, a dysregulated cytokine response can promote excessive infiltration and robust pro-inflammatory activity of neutrophils and monocyte-macrophages, leading to fatal disease. Following virus infection, the beneficial or deleterious role of infiltrating neutrophils and monocyte-macrophages is determined largely by their ability to secrete inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. A majority of studies use the total number of infiltrating cells and their activation status as measures to demonstrate their role during an infection. Consequently, the ability of neutrophils and Inflammatory Monocyte Macrophages (IMMs) to secrete inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and its correlation with the disease severity, is not well defined. In this chapter, we report useful markers to identify lung infiltrating innate immune cells and define their activation status. We also describe a simple method to measure intracellular cytokine production to evaluate the inflammatory activity of neutrophils and IMMs in a mouse model of human coronavirus infection.

title: Considering how biological sex impacts immune responses and COVID-19 outcomes
abstract: A male bias in mortality has emerged in the COVID-19 pandemic, which is consistent with the pathogenesis of other viral infections. Biological sex differences may manifest themselves in susceptibility to infection, early pathogenesis, innate viral control, adaptive immune responses or the balance of inflammation and tissue repair in the resolution of infection. We discuss available sex-disaggregated epidemiological data from the COVID-19 pandemic, introduce sex-differential features of immunity and highlight potential sex differences underlying COVID-19 severity. We propose that sex differences in immunopathogenesis will inform mechanisms of COVID-19, identify points for therapeutic intervention and improve vaccine design and increase vaccine efficacy.

title: New understanding of the damage of SARS-CoV-2 infection outside the respiratory system
abstract: Since early December 2019, a number of pneumonia cases associated with unknown coronavirus infection were identified in Wuhan, China, and many additional cases were identified in other regions of China and in other countries within 3 months. Currently, more than 80,000 cases have been diagnosed in China, including more than 3,000 deaths. The epidemic is spreading to the rest of the world, posing a grave challenge to prevention and control. On February 12, 2020, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses and the World Health Organization officially named the novel coronavirus and associated pneumonia as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), respectively. According to the recent research on SARS-CoV-2, the virus mainly infects the respiratory system but may cause damage to other systems. In this paper, we will systematically review the pathogenic features, transmission routes, and infection mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2, as well as any adverse effects on the digestive system, urogenital system, central nervous system, and circulatory system, in order to provide a theoretical and clinical basis for the diagnosis, classification, treatment, and prognosis assessment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Does high cardiorespiratory fitness confer some protection against pro‐inflammatory responses after infection by SARS‐CoV‐2?
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) originated in China in late 2019 and has since spread rapidly to every continent in the world. This pandemic continues to cause widespread personal suffering, along with severe pressure on medical and health care providers. The symtoms of SARS‐CoV‐2 and the subsequent prognosis is worsened in individuals who have pre‐exisiting comorbidities prior to infection by the virus. Individuals with obesity/overweight, insulin resistance and diabetes typically have chronic low‐grade inflammation characterized by increased levels of several pro‐inflammatory cytokines and the inflammasome: this state predisposes to greater risk for infection along with more adverse outcomes. Here we consider whether a high level of cardiorespiratory fitness induced by prior exercise training may confer some innate immune‐protection against Covid‐19 by attenuating the “cytokine storm syndrome” often experienced by “at risk” individuals.

title: Potential Factors for Prediction of Disease Severity of COVID-19 Patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an escalating global epidemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, with a high mortality in critical patients. Effective indicators for predicting disease severity in SARS-CoV-2 infected patients are urgently needed.  In this study, 43 COVID-19 patients admitted in Chongqing Public Health Medical Center were involved. Demographic data, clinical features, and laboratory examinations were obtained through electronic medical records. Peripheral blood specimens were collected from COVID-19 patients and examined for lymphocyte subsets and cytokine profiles by flow cytometry. Potential contributing factors for prediction of disease severity were further analyzed.  A total of 43 COVID-19 patients were included in this study, including 29 mild patients and 14 sever patients. Severe patients were significantly older (61.9+/-9.4 vs 44.4+/-15.9) and had higher incidence in co-infection with bacteria compared to mild group (85.7%vs27.6%). Significantly more severe patients had the clinical symptoms of anhelation (78.6%) and asthma (71.4%). For laboratory examination, 57.1% severe cases showed significant reduction in lymphocyte count. The levels of Interluekin-6 (IL6), IL10, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and D-Dimer (D-D) were significantly higher in severe patients than mild patients, while the level of albumin (ALB) was remarkably lower in severe patients. Further analysis demonstrated that ESR, D-D, age, ALB and IL6 were the major contributing factors for distinguishing severe patients from mild patients. Moreover, ESR was identified as the most powerful factor to predict disease progression of COVID-19 patients.  Age and the levels of ESR, D-D, ALB and IL6 are closely related to the disease severity of COVID-19 patients. ESR can be used as a valuable indicator for distinguishing severe COVID-19 patients in early stage, so as to increase the survival of severe patients. Keyword: COVID-19, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, cytokines, lymphocytes

title: In the eye of the storm: the right ventricle in COVID-19
abstract: The corona virus disease of 2019 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus continues to inflict significant morbidity and mortality around the globe. A variety of cardiovascular presentations of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been described so far. However, the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the right ventricle is largely unknown. Due to its pathophysiologic relevance, the right ventricle finds itself in the eye of the storm of corona virus disease of 2019, placing it at higher risk of failure. Increased afterload from acute respiratory distress syndrome and pulmonary embolism, negative inotropic effects of cytokines, and direct angiotensin converting enzyme 2-mediated cardiac injury from SARS-CoV-2 are potential mechanisms of right ventricle dysfunction in corona virus disease of 2019. Early detection and treatment of right ventricle dysfunction may lead to decreased mortality and improved patient outcomes in corona virus disease of 2019.

title: Modulation of the Immune Response to Respiratory Viruses by Vitamin D
abstract: Vitamin D deficiency has been shown to be independently associated with increased risk of viral acute respiratory infection (ARI) in a number of observational studies, and meta-analysis of clinical trials of vitamin D supplementation for prevention of ARI has demonstrated protective effects. Several cellular studies have investigated the effects of vitamin D metabolites on immune responses to respiratory viruses, but syntheses of these reports are lacking.  In this article, we review the literature reporting results of in vitro experiments investigating immunomodulatory actions of vitamin D metabolites in human respiratory epithelial cells infected with respiratory viruses.  Vitamin D metabolites do not consistently influence replication or clearance of rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or influenza A virus in human respiratory epithelial cell culture, although they do modulate expression and secretion of type 1 interferon, chemokines including CXCL8 and CXCL10 and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF and IL-6.  More studies are needed to clarify the effects of vitamin D metabolites on respiratory virus-induced expression of cell surface markers mediating viral entry and bacterial adhesion to respiratory epithelial cells.

title: Probiotic Bacteria Induce Regulatory Cytokine Production via Dendritic Cells
abstract: Probiotic bacteria, e.g. Lactobacillus spp., may improve diseases such as chronic inflammatory bowel disease. We examined cytokine production and phenotypic change after in vitro stimulation of T cells from healthy volunteers using different probiotic strains.  T cells were cultured from colonic biopsies from eight healthy volunteers (Agnholt and Kaltoft,  and dendritic cells were matured from their peripheral blood mononuclear cells. T‐cell cultures were stimulated with autologous bacterial sonicate or strains of Lactobacillus spp., with and without the addition of dendritic cells. Cytokine levels (TNF‐α, IFN‐γ, IL‐10 and GM‐CSF) and phenotype (CD3, CD4, CD25 and CD69) were measured on day 4.  Lactobacillus spp. induced higher productions of TNF‐α and IL‐10 than did autologous bacteria. In presence of dendritic cells, the production of all cytokines increased. However, the increases of IFN‐γ and TNF‐α were more pronounced in wells with autologous bacteria than in wells with Lactobacillus spp. The addition of dendritic cells upregulated CD25 expression without simultaneous upregulation of CD69. The upregulation was pronounced after stimulation with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG compared with autologous bacteria and other lactobacilli.  In presence of dendritic cells, autologous bacteria induced inflammatory cytokines, while probiotics mainly induced regulatory cytokines. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG induced a regulatory phenotype (cd25(+)), in part mediated by dendritic cells. Future studies will address whether this shift to a CD25(+) phenotype represents a differentiation into competent regulatory T cells. In a clinical context, such cells might be used for treatment of inflammatory diseases.

title: A strategy targeting monocyte-macrophage differentiation to avoid pulmonary complications in SARS-Cov2 infection

title: Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) Current Status and Future Perspectives: A Narrative Review
abstract: At the end of 2019 a novel virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing severe acute respiratory syndrome expanded globally from Wuhan, China. In March 2020 the World Health Organization declared the SARS-Cov-2 virus a global pandemic. We performed a narrative review to describe existing literature with regard to Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, management and future perspective. MEDLINE, EMBASE and Scopus databases were searched for relevant articles. Although only when the pandemic ends it will be possible to assess the full health, social and economic impact of this global disaster, this review represents a picture of the current state of the art. In particular, we focus on public health impact, pathophysiology and clinical manifestations, diagnosis, case management, emergency response and preparedness.

title: Neutrophil‐to‐lymphocyte ratio and lymphocyte‐to‐C‐reactive protein ratio in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19): A meta‐analysis
abstract: Since March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) as a pandemic, with a series of confirmed cases that currently exceeded 300,000 people worldwide and with approximately 14,500 deaths. Accumulated evidence suggests that a subgroup of patients with severe COVID-19 could have a dysregulation of the immune response that allows the development of viral hyperinflammation. Thus, all patients with severe COVID-19 should be screened for hyperinflammation using laboratory parameters in order to improve mortality. Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and Lymphocyte-to-C-reactive protein ratio (LCR) are established inflammation markers that reflect systemic inflammatory response, and both are available in almost all laboratories. In this study, a meta-analysis was performed to investigate whether NLR and LCR values can help predict clinical severity in patients with COVID-19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: The role of interleukin‐6 in monitoring severe case of coronavirus disease 2019
abstract: Progression to severe disease is a difficult problem in treating coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). The purpose of this study is to explore changes in markers of severe disease in COVID‐19 patients. Sixty‐nine severe COVID‐19 patients were included. Patients with severe disease showed significant lymphocytopenia. Elevated level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), C‐reactive protein (CRP), ferritin, and D‐dimer was found in most severe cases. Baseline interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) was found to be associated with COVID‐19 severity. Indeed, the significant increase of baseline IL‐6 was positively correlated with the maximal body temperature during hospitalization and with the increased baseline of CRP, LDH, ferritin, and D‐dimer. High baseline IL‐6 was also associated with more progressed chest computed tomography (CT) findings. Significant decrease in IL‐6 and improved CT assessment was found in patients during recovery, while IL‐6 was further increased in exacerbated patients. Collectively, our results suggest that the dynamic change in IL‐6 can be used as a marker for disease monitoring in patients with severe COVID‐19.

title: Is the anti-filarial drug diethylcarbamazine useful to treat COVID-19?
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 virus has resulted in a devastating pandemic of COVID-19. Exploring compounds that could offer a breakthrough in treatment is the need of the hour. Re-positioning cheap, freely available and safe drugs is a priority. The paper proposes evidence for the potential use of diethylcarbamazine (DEC) in the treatment of COVID-19. DEC has inhibitory effects on arachidonic acid metabolism to prostaglandins, little known anti-viral effects on animal retroviruses and demonstrated anti-inflammatory actions in animal models of lung inflammation indicating the need to explore this hypothesis further. We believe this is the first time DEC is being proposed to treat COVID-19.

title: COVID‐19 and new‐onset arrhythmia

title: Carbon black nanoparticles induce biphasic gene expression changes associated with inflammatory responses in the lungs of C57BL/6 mice following a single intratracheal instillation
abstract: Inhalation of carbon black nanoparticles (CBNPs) causes pulmonary inflammation; however, time course data to evaluate the detailed evolution of lung inflammatory responses are lacking. Here we establish a time-series of lung inflammatory response to CBNPs. Female C57BL/6 mice were intratracheally instilled with 162μg CBNPs alongside vehicle controls. Lung tissues were examined 3h, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 14, and 42days (d) post-exposure. Global gene expression and pulmonary inflammation were assessed. DNA damage was evaluated in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells and lung tissue using the comet assay. Increased neutrophil influx was observed at all time-points. DNA strand breaks were increased in BAL cells 3h post-exposure, and in lung tissues 2–5d post-exposure. Approximately 2600 genes were differentially expressed (±1.5 fold; p≤0.05) across all time-points in the lungs of exposed mice. Altered transcript levels were associated with immune-inflammatory response and acute phase response pathways, consistent with the BAL profiles and expression changes found in common respiratory infectious diseases. Genes involved in DNA repair, apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, and muscle contraction were also differentially expressed. Gene expression changes associated with inflammatory response followed a biphasic pattern, with initial changes at 3h post-exposure declining to base-levels by 3d, increasing again at 14d, and then persisting to 42d post-exposure. Thus, this single CBNP exposure that was equivalent to nine 8-h working days at the current Danish occupational exposure limit induced biphasic inflammatory response in gene expression that lasted until 42d post-exposure, raising concern over the chronic effects of CBNP exposure.

title: Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic

title: The epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19
abstract: In December 2019, the outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in China spread worldwide, becoming an emergency of major international concern. SARS-CoV-2 infection causes clusters of severe respiratory illness similar to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Human-to-human transmission via droplets, contaminated hands or surfaces has been described, with incubation times of 2-14 days. Early diagnosis, quarantine, and supportive treatments are essential to cure patients. This paper reviews the literature on all available information about the epidemiology, diagnosis, isolation and treatments of COVID-19. Treatments, including antiviral agents, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, corticosteroids, antibodies, convalescent plasma transfusion and vaccines, are discussed in this article. In addition, registered trials investigating treatment options for COVID-19 infection are listed.

title: Taste and Smell Impairment in COVID-19: An AAO-HNS Anosmia Reporting Tool-Based Comparative Study
abstract: To identify the taste and smell impairment in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)–positive subjects and compare the findings with COVID-19–negative subjects using the American Academy of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS) Anosmia Reporting Tool.  Tertiary referral center/COVID-19 pandemic hospital.  Comparative study.  After power analysis, 128 subjects were divided into 2 groups according to real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) COVID-19 testing results. Subjects were called via telephone, and the AAO-HNS Anosmia Reporting Tool was used to collect responses.  The mean age of the study group was 38.63 ± 10.08 years. At the time of sampling, rhinorrhea was significantly high in the COVID-19–negative group, whereas those complaints described as “other” were significantly high in the COVID-19–positive group. There was a significant difference in the smell/taste impairment rates of the groups (n = 46% [71.9%] for the COVID-19–positive group vs n = 17 [26.6%] for the COVID-19–negative group, P = .001). For subjects with a smell impairment, anosmia rates did not differ between the groups. The rates of hyposmia and parosmia were significantly high in the COVID-19–positive group. For the subjects with taste impairment, ageusia rates did not differ between groups. The rate of hypogeusia and dysgeusia was significantly high in the COVID-19–positive group. Logistic regression analysis indicates that smell/taste impairment in COVID-19–positive subjects increases the odds ratio by 6.956 (95% CI, 3.16-15.29) times.  COVID-19–positive subjects are strongly associated with smell/taste impairment.

title: Hyperglycemia, hydroxychloroquine, and the COVID‐19 pandemic
abstract: Coronavirus disease‐2019 (COVID‐19) infection and its severity can be explained by the concentration of glycosylated severe acute respiratory syndrome‐coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) viral particles in the lung epithelium, the concentration of glycosylated angiotensin‐converting enzyme receptor 2 (ACE2) in the lung epithelium, and the degree and control of the pulmonary immune response to the SARS‐CoV‐2 spike protein at approximately day 8 to 10 after symptom onset, which may be related to both. Binding of ACE2 by SARS‐CoV‐2 in COVID‐19 also suggests that prolonged uncontrolled hyperglycemia, and not just a history of diabetes mellitus, may be important in the pathogenesis of the disease. It is tempting to consider that the same mechanism acts in COVID‐19 as in SARS, where an overactive macrophage M1 inflammatory response, as neutralizing antibodies to the SARS‐CoV‐2 spike protein form at day 7 to 10, results in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in susceptible patients. It also allows consideration of agents, such as hydroxychloroquine, which may interfere with this overly brisk macrophage inflammatory response and perhaps influence the course of the disease, in particular, those that blunt but do not completely abrogate the M1 to M2 balance in macrophage polarization, as well as viral load, which in SARS appears to be temporally related to the onset of ARDS.

title: COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system: implications for risk assessment, diagnosis, and treatment options
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak, caused by SARS-CoV-2, represents the greatest medical challenge in decades. We provide a comprehensive review of the clinical course of COVID-19, its comorbidities, and mechanistic considerations for future therapies. While COVID-19 primarily affects the lungs, causing interstitial pneumonitis and severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), it also affects multiple organs, particularly the cardiovascular system. Risk of severe infection and mortality increase with advancing age and male sex. Mortality is increased by comorbidities: cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, chronic pulmonary disease, and cancer. The most common complications include arrhythmia (atrial fibrillation, ventricular tachyarrhythmia, and ventricular fibrillation), cardiac injury [elevated highly sensitive troponin I (hs-cTnI) and creatine kinase (CK) levels], fulminant myocarditis, heart failure, pulmonary embolism, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Mechanistically, SARS-CoV-2, following proteolytic cleavage of its S protein by a serine protease, binds to the transmembrane angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) -a homologue of ACE-to enter type 2 pneumocytes, macrophages, perivascular pericytes, and cardiomyocytes. This may lead to myocardial dysfunction and damage, endothelial dysfunction, microvascular dysfunction, plaque instability, and myocardial infarction (MI). While ACE2 is essential for viral invasion, there is no evidence that ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) worsen prognosis. Hence, patients should not discontinue their use. Moreover, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors might be beneficial in COVID-19. Initial immune and inflammatory responses induce a severe cytokine storm [interleukin (IL)-6, IL-7, IL-22, IL-17, etc.] during the rapid progression phase of COVID-19. Early evaluation and continued monitoring of cardiac damage (cTnI and NT-proBNP) and coagulation (D-dimer) after hospitalization may identify patients with cardiac injury and predict COVID-19 complications. Preventive measures (social distancing and social isolation) also increase cardiovascular risk. Cardiovascular considerations of therapies currently used, including remdesivir, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, tocilizumab, ribavirin, interferons, and lopinavir/ritonavir, as well as experimental therapies, such as human recombinant ACE2 (rhACE2), are discussed.

title: Iron: Innocent bystander or vicious culprit in COVID-19 pathogenesis?
abstract: The coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic is viciously spreading through the continents with rapidly increasing mortality rates. Current management of COVID-19 is based on that respiratory failure is the leading cause of mortality. However, mounting evidence link accelerated pathogenesis in gravely ill COVID-19 patients to a hyper-inflammatory state involving a cytokine storm. Several components of the heightened inflammatory state were addressed as therapeutic targets. Another key component of the heightened inflammatory state is hyper-ferritinemia which reportedly identifies patients with increased mortality risk. In spite of its strong association with mortality, it is not yet clear if hyper-ferritinemia in COVID-19 patients is merely a systemic marker of disease progression, or a key modulator in disease pathogenesis. Here we address implications of a possible role for hyper-ferritinemia, and altered iron homeostasis in COVID-19 pathogenesis, and potential therapeutic targets in this regard.

title: Pathological Findings in the Testes of COVID-19 Patients: Clinical Implications
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), involves multiple organs. Testicular involvement is largely unknown.  To determine the pathological changes and whether SARS-CoV-2 can be detected in the testes of deceased COVID-19 patients.  Postmortem examination of the testes from 12 COVID-19 patients was performed using light and electron microscopy, and immunohistochemistry for lymphocytic and histiocytic markers. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to detect the virus in testicular tissue. Outcome measurements and statistical analysis Seminiferous tubular injury was assessed as none, mild, moderate, or severe according to the extent of tubular damage. Leydig cells in the interstitium were counted in ten 400× microscopy fields.  Microscopically, Sertoli cells showed swelling, vacuolation and cytoplasmic rarefaction, detachment from tubular basement membranes, and loss and sloughing into lumens of the intratubular cell mass. Two, five, and four of 11 cases showed mild, moderate, and severe injury, respectively. The mean number of Leydig cells in COVID-19 testes was significantly lower than in the control group (2.2 vs 7.8, p < 0.001). In the interstitium there was edema and mild inflammatory infiltrates composed of T lymphocytes and histiocytes. Transmission EM did not identify viral particles in three cases. RT-PCR detected the virus in one of 12 cases.  Testes from COVID-19 patients exhibited significant seminiferous tubular injury, reduced Leydig cells, and mild lymphocytic inflammation. We found no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 virus in the testes in the majority (90%) of the cases by RT-PCR, and in none by electron microscopy. These findings can provide evidence-based guidance for sperm donation and inform management strategies to mitigate the risk of testicular injury during the COVID-19 disease course.  We examined the testes of deceased COVID-19 patients. We found significant damage to the testicular parenchyma. However, virus was not detected in testes in the majority of cases.

title: COVID-19 revisiting inflammatory pathways of arthritis
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, which predominantly affects the lungs and, under certain circumstances, leads to an excessive or uncontrolled immune activation and cytokine response in alveolar structures. The pattern of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced in COVID-19 has similarities to those targeted in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Several clinical studies are underway that test the effects of inhibiting IL-6, IL-1ß or TNF or targeting cytokine signalling via Janus kinase inhibition in the treatment of COVID-19. Despite these similarities, COVID-19 and other zoonotic coronavirus-mediated diseases do not induce clinical arthritis, suggesting that a local inflammatory niche develops in alveolar structures and drives the disease process. COVID-19 constitutes a challenge for patients with inflammatory arthritis for several reasons, in particular, the safety of immune interventions during the pandemic. Preliminary data, however, do not suggest that patients with inflammatory arthritis are at increased risk of COVID-19.

title: In response: Diabetes is a risk factor for the progression and prognosis of COVID‐19
abstract: The article cited does not differentiate between Type I and Type II diabetes. More information is needed to properly assess risk.

title: Overview of lethal human coronaviruses
abstract: Coronavirus infections of multiple origins have spread to date worldwide, causing severe respiratory diseases. Seven coronaviruses that infect humans have been identified: HCoV-229E, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-HKU1, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. Among them, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV caused outbreaks in 2002 and 2012, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) is the most recently discovered. It has created a severe worldwide outbreak beginning in late 2019, leading to date to over 4 million cases globally. Viruses are genetically simple, yet highly diverse. However, the recent outbreaks of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, and the ongoing outbreak of SARS-CoV-2, indicate that there remains a long way to go to identify and develop specific therapeutic treatments. Only after gaining a better understanding of their pathogenic mechanisms can we minimize viral pandemics. This paper mainly focuses on SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. Here, recent studies are summarized and reviewed, with a focus on virus–host interactions, vaccine-based and drug-targeted therapies, and the development of new approaches for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

title: SARS-CoV-2 and Male Infertility: Possible Multifaceted Pathology
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11th March 2020. Bulk of research on this virus are carried out to unveil its multivariate pathology. Surprisingly, men are reportedly more vulnerable to COVID-19 even with higher fatality rate compared to women. Thus, it is crucial to determine whether SARS-CoV-2 infection can even affect male fertility as an immediate or long-term consequence of the disease. Among the discrete data available, an important finding is that angiotensin converting enzymes 2 (ACE2) receptor, that aids the SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells, is profoundly expressed in testicular cells. In addition, the endogenous androgen milieu and its receptors are associated with ACE2 activation reflecting that enhanced testosterone levels may trigger the pathogenesis of COVID-19. In contrary, hypogonadism has also been reported in the acute phase of some COVID-19 cases. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection-induced uncontrolled inflammatory responses may lead to systemic oxidative stress (OS), whose severe disruptive effects on testicular functions are well-documented. This article aims to precisely present the possible impact of COVID-19 on male reproductive functions, and to highlight the speculations that need in-depth research for the exact underlying mechanisms how COVID-19 is associated with men’s health and fertility.

title: Rolipram Protects Mice from Gram-negative Bacterium Escherichia coli-induced Inflammation and Septic Shock
abstract: Sepsis is typically triggered by an overwhelming systemic inflammatory response to pathogens, and may lead to severe organ dysfunction and/or death. Sepsis consequently has a high mortality rate and a high rate of complications for survivors, despite modern medical advances. Therefore, drug identification and validation for the treatment of sepsis is of the utmost importance. As a selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor, rolipram also exhibits the abilities of inhibiting multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines production in macrophages and toxin-induced inflammation in mice. However, this drug has never been studied as a sepsis treatment method. We found that rolipram significantly improves survival in mice challenged with gram-negative bacterium E. coli, CLP, or E. coli derived lipopolysaccharide. We have also found that rolipram inhibits organ damage, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and intracellular migration of early-stage inflammatory elements. Our results also show that rolipram increases anti-inflammatory cytokine production. The protective effects of rolipram on septic mice may result from inhibition of the MAP kinase and NF-κB signaling pathways. Rolipram may therefore be a potential novel sepsis treatment, one that would bypass the time-consuming and costly drug-discovery process.

title: Indomethacin and resveratrol as potential treatment adjuncts for SARS‐CoV‐2/COVID‐19
abstract: The ongoing pandemic due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2, also known as COVID‐19) has led to unprecedented challenges for the global healthcare system. This novel coronavirus disease phenotype ranges from asymptomatic carriage to fulminant cytokine storm with respiratory failure, polyorgan dysfunction, and death. Severe disease is characterized by exuberant inflammation resulting from high circulating cytokines such as interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). These inflammatory mediators are responsible for the detrimental effects on the immune, hematologic, respiratory, renal, gastrointestinal and other body systems. In addition to inhibition of viral replication, blunting this inflammatory response before overt cytokine storm is important to improve outcomes. Although there are upcoming promising agents such as remdesivir and convalescent plasma, inexpensive, safe, and widely available adjunct treatments to ameliorate disease burden would be welcome. Two potential antiinflammatory agents include indomethacin, which has been shown in experimental models to decrease canine coronavirus (CCoV) levels in dogs and exhibit antiviral activity against several other viruses, and the polyphenol, resveratrol, a potent antioxidant that has shown antiviral activity against several viruses.

title: Pathophysiological Characteristics and Therapeutic Approaches for Pulmonary Injury and Cardiovascular Complications of Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has emerged as a major health crisis, with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) having infected over a million people around the world within a few months of its identification as a human pathogen. Initially, SARS-CoV-2 infects cells in the respiratory system and causes inflammation and cell death. Subsequently, the virus spreads out and damages other vital organs and tissues, triggering a complicated spectrum of pathophysiological changes and symptoms, including cardiovascular complications. Acting as the receptor for SARS-CoV entering mammalian cells, angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) plays a pivotal role in the regulation of cardiovascular cell function. Diverse clinical manifestations and laboratory abnormalities occur in patients with cardiovascular injury in COVID-19, characterizing the development of this complication, as well as providing clues to diagnosis and treatment. This review provides a summary of the rapidly appearing laboratory and clinical evidence for the pathophysiology and therapeutic approaches to COVID-19 pulmonary and cardiovascular complications.

title: SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Human Lung Alveolar Type 2 Cells Elicits a Rapid Epithelial-Intrinsic Inflammatory Response
abstract: The most severe and fatal infections with SARS-CoV-2 result in the acute respiratory distress syndrome, a clinical phenotype of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that is associated with virions targeting the epithelium of the distal lung, particularly the facultative progenitors of this tissue, alveolar epithelial type 2 cells (AT2s). Little is known about the initial responses of human lung alveoli to SARS-CoV-2 infection due in part to inability to access these cells from patients, particularly at early stages of disease. Here we present an in vitro human model that simulates the initial apical infection of the distal lung epithelium with SARS-CoV-2, using AT2s that have been adapted to air-liquid interface culture after their derivation from induced pluripotent stem cells (iAT2s). We find that SARS-CoV-2 induces a rapid global transcriptomic change in infected iAT2s characterized by a shift to an inflammatory phenotype predominated by the secretion of cytokines encoded by NF-kB target genes, delayed epithelial interferon responses, and rapid loss of the mature lung alveolar epithelial program. Over time, infected iAT2s exhibit cellular toxicity that can result in the death of these key alveolar facultative progenitors, as is observed in vivo in COVID-19 lung autopsies. Importantly, drug testing using iAT2s confirmed the efficacy of TMPRSS2 protease inhibition, validating putative mechanisms used for viral entry in human alveolar cells. Our model system reveals the cell-intrinsic responses of a key lung target cell to infection, providing a platform for further drug development and facilitating a deeper understanding of COVID-19 pathogenesis.

title: Integrated analysis of bulk multi omic and single-cell sequencing data confirms the molecular origin of hemodynamic changes in Covid-19 infection explaining coagulopathy and higher geriatric mortality
abstract: Besides severe respiratory distress, recent reports in Covid-19 patients have found a strong association between platelet counts and patient survival. Along with hemodynamic changes such as prolonged clotting time, high fibrin degradation products and D-dimers, increased levels of monocytes with disturbed morphology have also been identified. In this study, through an integrated analysis of bulk RNA-sequencing data from Covid-19 patients with data from single-cell sequencing studies on lung tissues, we found that most of the cell-types that contributed to the altered gene expression were of hematopoietic origin. We also found that differentially expressed genes in Covid-19 patients formed a significant pool of the expressing genes in phagocytic cells such as Monocytes and Platelets. Interestingly, while we observed a general enrichment for Monocytes in Covid-19 patients, we found that the signal for FCGRA3+ Monocytes was depleted. Further, we found evidence that age-associated gene expression changes in Monocytes and Platelets, associated with inflammation, mirror gene expression changes in Covid-19 patients suggesting that pro-inflammatory signalling during aging may worsen the infection in older patients. We identified more than 20 genes that change in the same direction between Covid-19 infection and aging cells that may act as potential therapeutic targets. Of particular interest were IL2RG, GNLY and GMZA expressed in Platelets, which facilitates cytokine signalling in Monocytes through an interaction with Platelets. To understand whether infection can directly manipulate the biology of Monocytes and Platelets, we hypothesize that these non-ACE2 expressing cells may be infected by the virus through the phagocytic route. We observed that phagocytic cells such as Monocytes, T-cells, and Platelets have a significantly higher expression of genes that are a part of the Covid-19 viral interactome. Hence these cell-types may have an active rather than a reactive role in viral pathogenesis to manifest clinical symptoms such as coagulopathy. Therefore, our results present molecular evidence for pursuing both anti-inflammatory and anticoagulation therapy for better patient management especially in older patients.

title: COVID-19 associated coagulopathy: the crowning glory of thrombo-inflammation concept

title: A Survey on Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Fighting Against COVID-19
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has spread rapidly worldwide, leading to a global outbreak. Most governments, enterprises, and scientific research institutions are participating in the COVID-19 struggle to curb the spread of the pandemic. As a powerful tool against COVID-19, artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are widely used in combating this pandemic. In this survey, we investigate the main scope and contributions of AI in combating COVID-19 from the aspects of disease detection and diagnosis, virology and pathogenesis, drug and vaccine development, and epidemic and transmission prediction. In addition, we summarize the available data and resources that can be used for AI-based COVID-19 research. Finally, the main challenges and potential directions of AI in fighting against COVID-19 are discussed. Currently, AI mainly focuses on medical image inspection, genomics, drug development, and transmission prediction, and thus AI still has great potential in this field. This survey presents medical and AI researchers with a comprehensive view of the existing and potential applications of AI technology in combating COVID-19 with the goal of inspiring researches to continue to maximize the advantages of AI and big data to fight COVID-19.

title: Myocardial and Microvascular Injury Due to Coronavirus Disease 2019
abstract: Over the past few months, health systems worldwide have been put to the test with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Even though the leading clinical manifestations of the SARS-CoV-2 infection involve the respiratory tract, there is a non-negligible risk of systemic involvement leading to the onset of multi-organ failure with fatal consequences. Since the onset of COVID-19, patients with underlying cardiovascular disease have been at increased risk of poor clinical outcomes with higher death rates. Moreover, the occurrence of new-onset cardiac complications is not uncommon among patients hospitalised for COVID-19. Of importance, a significant portion of COVID-19 patients present with myocardial injury. Herein, the authors discuss the mechanisms leading to myocardial and microvascular injury in SARS-CoV-2 infection and their clinical implications.

title: An update on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 with particular reference to its clinical pathology, pathogenesis, immunopathology and mitigation strategies
abstract: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), emerged in early December 2019 in China and became a pandemic situation worldwide by its rapid spread to more than 200 countries or territories. Bats are considered as the reservoir host, and the search of a probable intermediate host is still going on. The severe form of the infection is associated with death is mainly reported in older and immune-compromised patients with pre-existing disease history. Death in severe cases is attributed to respiratory failure associated with hyperinflammation. Cytokine storm syndrome associated with inflammation in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is considered as the leading cause of mortality in COVID-19 patients. COVID-19 patients have thus higher levels of many proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. The blood laboratory profile of the COVID-19 patients exhibits lymphopenia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and RNAaemia, along with increased levels of aspartate aminotransferase. SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnant women does not lead to fetus mortality, unlike other zoonotic coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, and there is, to date, no evidence of intrauterine transmission to neonates. Rapid diagnostics have been developed, and significant efforts are being made to develop effective vaccines and therapeutics. In the absence of any virus-specific therapy, internationally, health care authorities are recommending the adoption of effective community mitigation measures to counter and contain this pandemic virus. This paper is an overview of this virus and the disease with a particular focus on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 clinical pathology, pathogenesis, and immunopathology, along with recent research developments.

title: Saliva—Friend and Foe in the COVID-19 Outbreak
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has become a global ongoing pandemic. Timely, accurate and non-invasive SARS-CoV-2 detection in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients, as well as determination of their immune status, will facilitate effective large-scale pandemic control measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Saliva is a biofluid whose anatomical source and location is of particularly strategic relevance to COVID-19 transmission and monitoring. This review focuses on the role of saliva as both a foe (a common mode of viral transmission via salivary droplets and potentially aerosols) and a friend (as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for viral detection and immune status surveillance) in combating COVID-19.

title: Thalidomide-Revisited: Are COVID-19 Patients Going to Be the Latest Victims of Yet Another Theoretical Drug-Repurposing?
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is a worldwide threatening health issue. The progression of this viral infection occurs in the airways of the lungs with an exaggerated inflammatory response referred to as the “cytokine storm” that can lead to lethal lung injuries. In the absence of an effective anti-viral molecule and until the formulation of a successful vaccine, anti-inflammatory drugs might offer a complementary tool for controlling the associated complications of COVID-19 and thus decreasing the subsequent fatalities. Drug repurposing for several molecules has emerged as a rapid temporary solution for COVID-19. Among these drugs is Thalidomide; a historically emblematic controversial molecule that harbors an FDA approval for treating erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) and multiple myeloma (MM). Based on just one-case report that presented positive outcomes in a patient treated amongst others with Thalidomide, two clinical trials on the efficacy and safety of Thalidomide in treating severe respiratory complications in COVID-19 patients were registered. Yet, the absence of substantial evidence on Thalidomide usage in that context along with the discontinued studies on the efficiency of this drug in similar pulmonary diseases, might cause a significant obstacle for carrying out further clinical evaluations. Herein, we will discuss the theoretical effectiveness of Thalidomide in attenuating inflammatory complications that are encountered in COVID-19 patients while pinpointing the lack of the needed evidences to move forward with this drug.

title: [Advances in the research of cytokine storm mechanism induced by Corona Virus Disease 2019 and the corresponding immunotherapies].
abstract: Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has seriously affected the treatment of patients and social stability. In the later stage of disease, some COVID-19 patients may develop into acute respiratory distress syndrome or even multiple organ failure. However, one of the most important mechanism underlying the deterioration of disease is cytokine storm. At present, some therapies such as interleukin-6 antibody blocker, stem cell therapy, and transfusion of convalescent plasma have been applied to counteract the cytokine storm and have made some progress. This article reviews the influences of cytokine storm syndrome on the COVID-19 and the corresponding immunotherapies to resist cytokine storm.

title: Cannabinoid Receptor Type 2: A Possible Target in SARS-CoV-2 (CoV-19) Infection?
abstract: In late December 2019, a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2 or CoV-19) appeared in Wuhan, China, causing a global pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 causes mild to severe respiratory tract inflammation, often developing into lung fibrosis with thrombosis in pulmonary small vessels and causing even death. COronaVIrus Disease (COVID-19) patients manifest exacerbated inflammatory and immune responses, cytokine storm, prevalence of pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages and increased levels of resident and circulating immune cells. Men show higher susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection than women, likely due to estrogens production. The protective role of estrogens, as well as an immune-suppressive activity that limits the excessive inflammation, can be mediated by cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2). The role of this receptor in modulating inflammation and immune response is well documented in fact in several settings. The stimulation of CB2 receptors is known to limit the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, shift the macrophage phenotype towards the anti-inflammatory M2 type and enhance the immune-modulating properties of mesenchymal stromal cells. For these reasons, we hypothesize that CB2 receptor can be a therapeutic target in COVID-19 pandemic emergency.

title: The CoV-2 outbreak: how hematologists could help to fight Covid-19
abstract: Abstract COVID-19 is a medical emergency, with 20 % of patients presenting with severe clinical manifestations. From the pathogenetic point of view, COVID-19 mimics two other well-known diseases characterized by cytokine storm and hyper-activation of the immune response, with consequent organ damage: acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). Hematologists are confident with these situations requiring a prompt therapeutic approach for switching off the uncontrolled cytokine release; here, we discuss pros and cons of drugs that are already employed in hematology in the light of their possible application in COVID-19. The most promising drugs might be: Ruxolitinib, a JAK1/2 inhibitor, with a rapid and powerful anti-cytokine effect, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), with their good anti-inflammatory properties, and perhaps the anti-Cd26 antibody Begelomab. We also present immunological data from gene expression experiments where TKIs resulted effective anti-inflammatory and pro-immune drugs. A possible combined treatment algorithm for COVID-19 is here proposed.

title: TNF blockers show distinct patterns of immune response to the pandemic influenza A H1N1 vaccine in inflammatory arthritis patients
abstract: To evaluate the immunogenicity of the anti-influenza A H1N1/2009 vaccine in RA and spondyloarthritis (SpA) patients receiving distinct classes of anti-TNF agents compared with patients receiving DMARDs and healthy controls.  One hundred and twenty patients (RA, n = 41; AS, n = 57; PsA, n = 22) on anti-TNF agents (monoclonal, n = 94; soluble receptor, n = 26) were compared with 116 inflammatory arthritis patients under DMARDs and 117 healthy controls. Seroprotection, seroconversion (SC), geometric mean titre, factor increase in geometric mean titre and adverse events were evaluated 21 days after vaccination.  After immunization, SC rates (58.2% vs 74.3%, P = 0.017) were significantly lower in SpA patients receiving anti-TNF therapy, whereas no difference was observed in RA patients receiving this therapy compared with healthy controls (P = 0.067). SpA patients receiving mAbs (infliximab/adalimumab) had a significantly lower SC rate compared with healthy controls (51.6% vs 74.3%, P = 0.002) or those on DMARDs (51.6% vs 74.7%, P = 0.005), whereas no difference was observed for patients on etanercept (86.7% vs 74.3%, P = 0.091). Further analysis of non-seroconverting and seroconverting SpA patients revealed that the former group had a higher mean age (P = 0.003), a higher frequency of anti-TNF (P = 0.031) and mAbs (P = 0.001) and a lower frequency of MTX (P = 0.028). In multivariate logistic regression, only older age (P = 0.015) and mAb treatment (P = 0.023) remained significant factors for non-SC in SpA patients.  This study revealed a distinct disease pattern of immune response to the pandemic influenza vaccine in inflammatory arthritis patients receiving anti-TNF agents, illustrated by a reduced immunogenicity solely in SpA patients using mAbs.

title: Coagulopathy in COVID-19
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has become an urgent issue in every country. Based on recent reports, the most severely ill patients present with coagulopathy, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)-like massive intravascular clot formation is frequently seen in this cohort. Therefore, coagulation tests may be considered useful to discriminate severe cases of COVID-19. The clinical presentation of COVID-19-associated coagulopathy is organ dysfunction primarily, while hemorrhagic events are less frequent. Changes in hemostatic biomarkers represented by increase in D-dimer and fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products indicate the essence of coagulopathy is massive fibrin formation. In comparison with bacterial-sepsis-associated coagulopathy/DIC, prolongation of prothrombin time, and activated partial thromboplastin time, and decrease in antithrombin activity is less frequent and thrombocytopenia is relatively uncommon in COVID-19. The mechanisms of the coagulopathy are not fully elucidated, however. It is speculated that the dysregulated immune responses orchestrated by inflammatory cytokines, lymphocyte cell-death, hypoxia, and endothelial damage are involved. Bleeding tendency is uncommon, but the incidence of thrombosis in COVID-19 and the adequacy of current recommendations regarding standard venous thromboembolic dosing are uncertain.

title: A dynamic immune response shapes COVID-19 progression
abstract: The inflammatory response to SARS-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is thought to underpin COVID-19 pathogenesis We conducted daily transcriptomic profiling of three COVID-19 cases and found that the early immune response in COVID-19 patients is highly dynamic Patient throat swabs were tested daily for SARS-CoV-2 with the virus persisting for 3-4 weeks in all three patients Cytokine analyses of whole blood revealed increased cytokine expression in the single more severe case However, most inflammatory gene expression peaked after respiratory function nadir, except those in the IL1 pathway Parallel analyses of CD4 and CD8 expression suggested that the pro-inflammatory response may be intertwined with T-cell activation that could exacerbate disease or prolong the infection Collectively, these findings hint at the possibility that IL1 and related pro-inflammatory pathways may be prognostic and serve as therapeutic targets for COVID-19 This work may also guide future studies to illuminate COVID-19 pathogenesis and develop host-directed therapies

title: The novel immunomodulatory biologic LMWF5A for pharmacological attenuation of the “cytokine storm” in COVID-19 patients: a hypothesis
abstract: A common complication of viral pulmonary infections, such as in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, is a phenomenon described as a “cytokine storm”. While poorly defined, this hyperinflammatory response results in diffuse alveolar damage. The low molecular weight fraction of commercial human serum albumin (LMWF5A), a novel biologic in development for osteoarthritis, demonstrates beneficial in vitro immunomodulatory effects complimentary to addressing inflammation, thus, we hypothesize that LMWF5A could improve the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 by attenuating hyperinflammation and the potential development of a cytokine storm.  A variety of human in vitro immune models indicate that LMWF5A reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines implicated in cytokine storm associated with COVID-19. Furthermore, evidence suggests LMWF5A also promotes the production of mediators required for resolving inflammation and enhances the barrier function of endothelial cultures.  A randomized controlled trial, to evaluate the safety and efficacy of nebulized LMWF5A in adults with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) secondary to COVID-19 infection, was developed and is currently under review by the Food and Drug Administration.  If successful, this therapy may attenuate the cytokine storm observed in these patients and potentially reduce mortality, increase ventilation free days, improve oxygenation parameters and consequently lessen the burden on patients and the intensive care unit.  In conclusion, in vitro findings suggest that the immunomodulatory effects of LMWF5A make it a viable candidate for treating cytokine storm and restoring homeostasis to the immune response in COVID-19.

title: Role of vitamin D in preventing of COVID-19 infection, progression and severity
abstract: The outbreak of COVID-19 has created a global public health crisis. Little is known about the protective factors of this infection. Therefore, preventive health measures that can reduce the risk of infection, progression and severity are desperately needed. This review discussed the possible roles of vitamin D in reducing the risk of COVID-19 and other acute respiratory tract infections and severity. Moreover, this study determined the correlation of vitamin D levels with COVID-19 cases and deaths in 20 European countries as of 20 May 2020. A significant negative correlation (p = 0.033) has been observed between mean vitamin D levels and COVID-19 cases per one million population in European countries. However, the correlation of vitamin D with COVID-19 deaths of these countries was not significant. Some retrospective studies demonstrated a correlation between vitamin D status and COVID-19 severity and mortality, while other studies did not find the correlation when confounding variables are adjusted. Several studies demonstrated the role of vitamin D in reducing the risk of acute viral respiratory tract infections and pneumonia. These include direct inhibition with viral replication or with anti-inflammatory or immunomodulatory ways. In the meta-analysis, vitamin D supplementation has been shown as safe and effective against acute respiratory tract infections. Thus, people who are at higher risk of vitamin D deficiency during this global pandemic should consider taking vitamin D supplements to maintain the circulating 25(OH)D in the optimal levels 75-125 nmol/L. In conclusion, there not enough evidence on the association between vitamin D levels and COVID-19 severity and mortality. Therefore, randomized control trials and cohort studies are necessary to test this hypothesis.

title: Drug repurposing prediction for COVID-19 using probabilistic networks and crowdsourced curation
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus two (SARS-CoV-2), the virus responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, represents an unprecedented global health challenge. Consequently, a large amount of research into the disease pathogenesis and potential treatments has been carried out in a short time frame. However, developing novel drugs is a costly and lengthy process, and is unlikely to deliver a timely treatment for the pandemic. Drug repurposing, by contrast, provides an attractive alternative, as existing drugs have already undergone many of the regulatory requirements. In this work we used a combination of network algorithms and human curation to search integrated knowledge graphs, identifying drug repurposing opportunities for COVID-19. We demonstrate the value of this approach, reporting on eight potential repurposing opportunities identified, and discuss how this approach could be incorporated into future studies.

title: Can we use interleukin-6 (IL-6) blockade for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-induced cytokine release syndrome (CRS)?
abstract: The emergent outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a global pandemic. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiorgan dysfunction are among the leading causes of death in critically ill patients with COVID-19. The elevated inflammatory cytokines suggest that a cytokine storm, also known as cytokine release syndrome (CRS), may play a major role in the pathology of COVID-19. However, the efficacy of corticosteroids, commonly utilized antiinflammatory agents, to treat COVID-19-induced CRS is controversial. There is an urgent need for novel therapies to treat COVID-19-induced CRS. Here, we discuss the pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-induced CRS, compare the CRS in COVID-19 with that in SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and summarize the existing therapies for CRS. We propose to utilize interleukin-6 (IL-6) blockade to manage COVID-19-induced CRS and discuss several factors that should be taken into consideration for its clinical application.

title: Emerging Regulatory Roles of Dual-Specificity Phosphatases in Inflammatory Airway Disease
abstract: Inflammatory airway disease, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), is a major health burden worldwide. These diseases cause large numbers of deaths each year due to airway obstruction, which is exacerbated by respiratory viral infection. The inflammatory response in the airway is mediated in part through the MAPK pathways: p38, JNK and ERK. These pathways also have roles in interferon production, viral replication, mucus production, and T cell responses, all of which are important processes in inflammatory airway disease. Dual-specificity phosphatases (DUSPs) are known to regulate the MAPKs, and roles for this family of proteins in the pathogenesis of airway disease are emerging. This review summarizes the function of DUSPs in regulation of cytokine expression, mucin production, and viral replication in the airway. The central role of DUSPs in T cell responses, including T cell activation, differentiation, and proliferation, will also be highlighted. In addition, the importance of this protein family in the lung, and the necessity of further investigation into their roles in airway disease, will be discussed.

title: Antenatal corticosteroid therapy and COVID-19: Pathophysiological considerations

title: Does the newly observed inflammatory syndrome in children demonstrate a link between uncontrolled neutrophil extracellular traps formation and COVID-19?

title: Guillain Barre syndrome associated with COVID-19 infection: A case report
abstract: Novel outbreak with coronavirus 2019 began since 31 December 2019. Coronaviruses can cause multiple systemic infections that respiratory complications are the most obvious symptoms. In this report, we describe the symptoms of Guillain Barre syndrome (GBS) in one infected patient with COVID-19, for the first time. We reported a 65-years- old male patient with complaints of acute progressive symmetric ascending quadriparesis. Two weeks prior to hospitalization, the patient suffered from cough, fever, and RT-PCR was reported positive for COVID-19 infection. The electrodiagnostic test showed that the patient is an AMSAN variant of GBS. COVID-19 stimulates inflammatory cells and produces various inflammatory cytokines and as a result, it creates immune-mediated processes. GBS is an immune-mediated disorder and molecular mimicry as a mechanism of autoimmune disorder plays an important role in creating it. It is unclear whether COVID-19 induces the production of antibodies against specific gangliosides. Further investigations should be conducted about the mechanism of GBS in patients with COVID-19, in the future.

title: Hyperferritinemia in critically ill COVID-19 patients – Is ferritin the product of inflammation or a pathogenic mediator?

title: Signals of T(h)2 immune response from COVID-19 patients requiring intensive care

title: Characteristics and Mechanism of Liver Injury in 2019 Coronavirus Disease
abstract: An outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection (2019 coronavirus disease, COVID-19) since December 2019, from Wuhan, China, has been posing a significant threat to global human health. The clinical features and outcomes of Chinese patients with COVID-19 have been widely reported. Increasing evidence has witnessed the frequent incident liver injury in COVID-19 patients, and it is often manifested as transient elevation of serum aminotransferases; however, the patients seldom have liver failure and obvious intrahepatic cholestasis, unless pre-existing advanced liver disease was present. The underlying mechanisms of liver injury in cases of COVID-19 might include psychological stress, systemic inflammation response, drug toxicity, and progression of pre-existing liver diseases. However, there is insufficient evidence for SARS-CoV-2 infected hepatocytes or virus-related liver injury in COVID-19 at present. The clinical, pathological and laboratory characteristics as well as underlying pathophysiology and etiology of liver injury in COVID-19 remain largely unclear. In this review, we highlight these important issues based on the recent developments in the field, for optimizing the management and treatment of liver injury in Chinese patients with COVID-19.

title: Immunomodulatory therapy for the management of severe COVID-19. Beyond the anti-viral therapy: A comprehensive review
abstract: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome related to Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) may cause severe illness in 20% of patients. This may be in part due to an uncontrolled immune-response to SARS-CoV-2 infection triggering a systemic hyperinflammatory response, the so-called “cytokine storm”. The reduction of this inflammatory immune-response could be considered as a potential therapeutic target against severe COVID-19. The relationship between inflammation and clot activation must also be considered. Furthermore, we must keep in mind that currently, no specific antiviral treatment is available for SARS-CoV-2. While moderate-severe forms need in-hospital surveillance plus antivirals and/or hydroxychloroquine; in severe and life-threating subsets a high intensity anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory therapy could be a therapeutic option. However, right data on the effectiveness of different immunomodulating drugs are scarce. Herein, we discuss the pathogenesis and the possible role played by drugs such as: antimalarials, anti-IL6, anti-IL-1, calcineurin and JAK inhibitors, corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, heparins, angiotensin-converting enzyme agonists and statins in severe COVID-19.

title: COVID-19: review on latest available drugs and therapies against SARS-CoV-2. Coagulation and inflammation cross-talking
abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is the agent responsible for COVID-19. The infection can be dived into three phases: mild infection, the pulmonary phase and the inflammatory phase. Treatment options for the pulmonary phase include: Hydroxychloroquine, Remdesivir,  The inflammatory phase includes therapeutic options like Tocilizumab, Anakinra, Baricitinib, Eculizumab, Emapalumab and Heparin. Human clinical trials are starting to show some results, in some cases like that of Remdesivir these are controversial. Coagulopathy is a common complication in severe cases, inflammation and coagulation are intertwined and cross-talking between these two responses is known to happen. A possible amplification of this cross-talking is suggested to be implicated in the severe cases that show both a cytokine storm and coagulopathy.

title: Single-Cell Analysis Reveals Macrophage-Driven T Cell Dysfunction in Severe COVID-19 Patients
abstract: The vastly spreading COVID-19 pneumonia is caused by SARS-CoV-2. Lymphopenia and cytokine levels are tightly associated with disease severity. However, virus-induced immune dysregulation at cellular and molecular levels remains largely undefined. Here, the leukocytes in the pleural effusion, sputum, and peripheral blood biopsies from severe and mild patients were analyzed at single-cell resolution. Drastic T cell hyperactivation accompanying elevated T cell exhaustion was observed, predominantly in pleural effusion. The mechanistic investigation identified a group of CD14+ monocytes and macrophages highly expressing CD163 and MRC1 in the biopsies from severe patients, suggesting M2 macrophage polarization. These M2-like cells exhibited up-regulated IL10, CCL18, APOE, CSF1 (M-CSF), and CCL2 signaling pathways. Further, SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells were observed in pleural effusion earlier than in peripheral blood. Together, our results suggest that severe SARS-CoV-2 infection causes immune dysregulation by inducing M2 polarization and subsequent T cell exhaustion. This study improves our understanding of COVID-19 pathogenesis.

title: TRACKing Excess Deaths (TRACKED): an interactive online tool to monitor excess deaths associated with COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom
abstract: We aimed to describe trends of excess mortality in the United Kingdom (UK) stratified by nation and cause of death, and to develop an online tool for reporting the most up to date data on excess mortality.  Population statistics agencies in the UK including the Office for National Statistics (ONS), National Records of Scotland (NRS), and Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) publish weekly data on deaths. We used mortality data up to 22nd May in the ONS and the NISRA and 24th May in the NRS. Crude mortality for non-COVID deaths (where there is no mention of COVID-19 on the death certificate) calculated. Excess mortality defined as difference between observed mortality and expected average of mortality from previous 5 years.  There were 56,961 excess deaths and 8,986 were non-COVID excess deaths. England had the highest number of excess deaths per 100,000 population (85) and Northern Ireland the lowest (34). Non-COVID mortality increased from 23rd March and returned to the 5-year average on 10th May. In Scotland, where underlying cause mortality data besides COVID-related deaths was available, the percentage excess over the 8-week period when COVID-related mortality peaked was: dementia 49%, other causes 21%, circulatory diseases 10%, and cancer 5%. We developed an online tool (TRACKing Excess Deaths - TRACKED) to allow dynamic exploration and visualisation of the latest mortality trends.  Continuous monitoring of excess mortality trends and further integration of age- and gender-stratified and underlying cause of death data beyond COVID-19 will allow dynamic assessment of the impacts of indirect and direct mortality of the COVID-19 pandemic.

title: COVID-19 gone bad: A new character in the spectrum of the hyperferritinemic syndrome?
abstract: The severe form of COVID-19 share several clinical and laboratory features with four entities gathered under the term “hyperferritinemic syndrome” and including macrophage activation syndrome (MAS), adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD), catastrophic anti-phospholipid syndrome (CAPS) and septic shock. COVID-19 systemic inflammatory reaction and “hyperferritinemic syndromes” are all characterized by high serum ferritin and a life-threatening hyper-inflammation sustained by a cytokines storm which eventually leads to multi-organ failure. In this review, we analyze the possible epidemiological and molecular mechanisms responsible for hyper-inflammation in patients with severe COVID-19 and we underline the similarities between this condition and “hyperferritinemic syndromes” which would allow considering this entity as the fifth member of the spectrum of inflammatory conditions.

title: Potential Immunoregulatory and Antiviral/SARS-CoV-2 Activities of Nitric Oxide
abstract: Nitric oxide (NO) represents a key signaling molecule in multiple regulatory pathways underlying vascular, metabolic, immune, and neurological function across animal phyla. Our brief critical discussion is focused on the multiple roles of the NO signaling pathways in the maintenance of basal physiological states of readiness in diverse cell types mediating innate immunological functions and in the facilitation of proinflammatory-mediated adaptive immunological responses associated with viral infections. Prior studies have reinforced the critical importance of constitutive NO signaling pathways in the homeostatic maintenance of the vascular endothelium, and state-dependent changes in innate immunological responses have been associated with a functional override of NO-mediated inhibitory tone. Accordingly, convergent lines of evidence suggest that dysregulation of NO signaling pathways, as well as canonical oxidative effects of inducible NO, may provide a permissive cellular environment for viral entry and replication. In immunologically compromised individuals, functional override and chronic rundown of inhibitory NO signaling systems promote aberrant expression of unregulated proinflammatory pathways resulting in widespread metabolic insufficiencies and structural damage to autonomous cellular and organ structures. We contend that restoration of normative NO tone via combined pharmaceutical, dietary, or complex behavioral interventions may partially reverse deleterious physiological conditions brought about by viral infection linked to unregulated adaptive immune responses.

title: Cytochrome P450-mediated drug interactions in COVID-19 patients: current findings and possible mechanisms
abstract: At the end of 2019, the entire world has witnessed the birth of a new member of coronavirus family in Wuhan, China. Ever since, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has swiftly invaded every corner on the planet. By the end of April 2020, almost 3.5 million cases have been reported worldwide, with a death toll of about 250000 deaths. It is currently well-recognized that patient’s immune response plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). This inflammatory element was evidenced by its elevated mediators that, in severe cases, reach their peak in a cytokine storm. Together with the reported markers of liver injury, such hyperinflammatory state may trigger significant derangements in hepatic cytochrome P450 metabolic machinery, and subsequent modulation of drug clearance that may result in unexpected therapeutic/toxic response. We hypothesize that COVID-19 patients are potentially vulnerable to a significant disease-drug interaction, and therefore, suitable dosing guidelines with therapeutic drug monitoring should be implemented to assure optimal clinical outcomes.

title: COVID-19 pandemic and the risk of infection in multiple sclerosis patients on disease modifying therapies: “what the bleep do we know?”
abstract: The novel coronavirus which emerged in Wuhan province of China has taken world by surprise. Since been diagnosed in December 2019, it has been termed a “Pandemic” and there is a growing concern in physicians across the globe. As new evidence is emerging, there are various preventative strategies which are being deployed. Multiple sclerosis patients who are on disease modifying therapies (DMTs) might be at a higher risk of acquiring or a poorer outcome due to their immune status. This review looks at the available evidence in managing this global crisis.

title: SARS-CoV2 may evade innate immune response, causing uncontrolled neutrophil extracellular traps formation and multi-organ failure.
abstract: We demonstrate that the general clinical conditions, risk factors and numerous pathological and biological features of COVID-19 are analogous with various disorders caused by the uncontrolled formation of neutrophil extracellular traps and their by-products. Given the rapid evolution of this disease's symptoms and its lethality, we hypothesize that SARS-CoV2 evades innate immune response causing COVID-19 progresses under just such an amplifier loop, leading to a massive, uncontrolled inflammation process. This work allows us to propose new strategies for treating the pandemic.

title: Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibition in COVID-19
abstract: SARS–CoV-2 causes severe respiratory syndrome (COVID-19) with high mortality due to a direct cytotoxic viral effect and a severe systemic inflammation. We are herein discussing a possible novel therapeutic tool for COVID-19.  Virus binds to the cell surface receptor ACE2; indeed, recent evidences suggested that SARS–CoV-2 may be using as co-receptor, when entering the cells, the same one used by MERS–Co-V, namely the DPP4/CD26 receptor. The aforementioned observation underlined that mechanism of cell entry is supposedly similar among different coronavirus, that the co-expression of ACE2 and DPP4/CD26 could identify those cells targeted by different human coronaviruses and that clinical complications may be similar.  The DPP4 family/system was implicated in various physiological processes and diseases of the immune system, and DPP4/CD26 is variously expressed on epithelia and endothelia of the systemic vasculature, lung, kidney, small intestine and heart. In particular, DPP4 distribution in the human respiratory tract may facilitate the entrance of the virus into the airway tract itself and could contribute to the development of cytokine storm and immunopathology in causing fatal COVID-19 pneumonia.  The use of DPP4 inhibitors, such as gliptins, in patients with COVID-19 with, or even without, type 2 diabetes, may offer a simple way to reduce the virus entry and replication into the airways and to hamper the sustained cytokine storm and inflammation within the lung in patients diagnosed with COVID-19 infection.

title: Understanding SARS-CoV-2-Mediated Inflammatory Responses: From Mechanisms to Potential Therapeutic Tools
abstract: Currently there is no effective antiviral therapy for SARS-CoV-2 infection, which frequently leads to fatal inflammatory responses and acute lung injury. Here, we discuss the various mechanisms of SARS-CoV-mediated inflammation. We also assume that SARS-CoV-2 likely shares similar inflammatory responses. Potential therapeutic tools to reduce SARS-CoV-2-induced inflammatory responses include various methods to block FcR activation. In the absence of a proven clinical FcR blocker, the use of intravenous immunoglobulin to block FcR activation may be a viable option for the urgent treatment of pulmonary inflammation to prevent severe lung injury. Such treatment may also be combined with systemic anti-inflammatory drugs or corticosteroids. However, these strategies, as proposed here, remain to be clinically tested for effectiveness.

title: Lymphopenia during the COVID-19 infection: What it shows and what can be learned

title: Current and future therapeutical approaches for COVID-19
abstract: • COVID-19, an alarming pandemic outbreak of 2020. • Amelioration of the clinical understanding of COVID-19 and its potential targets. • Adapted clinical strategies based on merits and demerits of COVID-19 treatment. • Current clinical manifestations and the proposed prospects against COVID-19. Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), the WHO-classified novel coronavirus of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has rapidly become a global pandemic. To tackle both its spread and virulence, research is ongoing worldwide to develop an effective anti-COVID-19 drug or vaccine. In this review, we explore the clinical understanding and severity of COVID-19 emergence across the world, with a focus on China. We also discuss potential therapeutic targets, either host virus based, that could be used to tackle the COVID-19 outbreak.

title: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory treatment during covid-19: friend or foe? Response to: 'Coronavirus disease 19 (Covid-19) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID)' by Giollo et al.

title: Corticosteroid therapy for patients with CoVID-19 pneumonia: a before-after study
abstract: Anti-inflammatory drugs such as corticosteroids may beneficially modulate the host inflammatory response to CoVID-19 pneumonia.  To evaluate the impact of addition of corticosteroids to the hospital protocol for treatment of suspected or confirmed CoVID-19 pneumonia on rates of death or intensive care unit (ICU) admission.  A before-after study was performed to evaluate the effect of addition of corticosteroids to our institution's COVID-19 treatment protocol on hospital mortality.  Between March 3(rd) and April 14(th) 2020, 257 patients with CoVID-19 diagnosis were included. As corticosteroids were wide used since 27 March 2020, two periods were considered for the purposes of our study: the before period from March 3(rd) to 20(th) (n= 85) and the “after period” (n=172) from March 26(th) to April 14(th) 2020. The “after” period was associated with a lower risk of death (HR 0.47; 95% CI, 0.23 - 0.97; p=0.04), and a lower risk of intensive care admission or death before ICU admission (HR 0.37 95% CI 0.21 - 0.64; p=0.0005) by multivariate analysis adjusted for age, National Early Warning score and institutionalization status.  In the “after period”, the addition of corticosteroids to our institution's CoVID-19 treatment protocol was associated with a significant reduction in hospital mortality.

title: Evidence Based Management Guideline for the COVID-19 Pandemic - Review article
abstract: ABSTRACT COVID-19 has now been declared a pandemic. To date, COVID-19 has affected over 944,181 people worldwide, resulting in over 47,312 reported deaths. Numerous preventative strategies and non-pharmaceutical interventions have been employed to mitigate the spread of disease including careful infection control, the isolation of patients, and social distancing. Management is predominantly focused on the provision of supportive care, with oxygen therapy representing the major treatment intervention. Medical therapy involving corticosteroids and antivirals have also been encouraged as part of critical management schemes. However, there is at present no specific antiviral recommended for the treatment of COVID-19, and no vaccine is currently available. Despite the strategic implementation of these measures, the number of new reported cases continues to rise at a profoundly alarming rate. As new findings emerge, there is an urgent need for up-to-date management guidelines. In response to this call, we review what is currently known regarding the management of COVID-19, and offer an evidence-based review of current practice.

title: Desperate Times, Desperate Measures: The Case for RRx-001 in the Treatment of COVID-19
abstract: This article summarizes the likely attenuation properties of RRx-001 in COVID-19 based on its mechanism of action and the putative pathogenesis of the disease, which appears to activate inflammatory, oxidative and immune cascades with the potential to culminate in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), cytokine storm and death. An ongoing pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), COVID-19 appears to present with three major patterns of clinical symptomatology: 1) mild upper respiratory tract infection, 2) non-life-threatening pneumonia and 3) severe pneumonia and ARDS that initially manifest as a mild prodrome lasting for 7-8 days before rapid clinical and radiological deterioration requiring ICU transfer. RRx-001 is a targeted nitric oxide (NO) donor. This small molecule, which has been evaluated in multiple Phase 1 – 2 clinical trials for cancer as well as a Phase 3 clinical trial for the treatment of small cell lung cancer called REPLATINUM (NCT03699956), is minimally toxic and demonstrates clear evidence of anti-tumor activity. During the course of these clinical trials it was noted that the rate of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbation and pneumonia in actively smoking SCLC patients treated with RRx-001 is less than 1%. Due to extensive history of tobacco use, 40-70% of patients with lung cancer have COPD(1) and the expected rate of pulmonary infection in this population is 50-70%,(2) which was not observed in RRx-001 clinical trials. Moreover, in preclinical studies of pulmonary hypertension, RRx-001 was found to be comparable with or more effective than the FDA approved agent, Bosentan. The potential pulmonary protective effects of RRx-001 in patients with recurrent lung infections coupled with preclinical models demonstrating RRx-001-mediated reversal of pulmonary hypertension suggests therapeutic activity in patients with acute respiratory symptoms due to COVID 19. Clinical trials have been initiated to confirm the hypothesis that RRx-001 may be repurposed to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Early immune responses and development of pathogenesis of avian infectious bronchitis viruses with different virulence profiles
abstract: Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) primarily replicates in epithelial cells of the upper respiratory tract of chickens, inducing both morphological and immune modulatory changes. However, the association between the local immune responses induced by IBV and the mechanisms of pathogenesis has not yet been completely elucidated. This study compared the expression profile of genes related to immune responses in tracheal samples after challenge with two Brazilian field isolates (A and B) of IBV from the same genotype, associating these responses with viral replication and with pathological changes in trachea and kidney. We detected a suppressive effect on the early activation of TLR7 pathway, followed by lower expression levels of inflammatory related genes induced by challenge with the IBV B isolate when compared to the challenge with to the IBV A isolate. Cell-mediated immune (CMI) related genes presented also lower levels of expression in tracheal samples from birds challenged with B isolate at 1dpi. Increased viral load and a higher percentage of birds with relevant lesions were observed in both tracheal and renal samples from chickens exposed to challenge with IBV B isolate. This differential pattern of early immune responses developed after challenge with IBV B isolate, related to the downregulation of TLR7, leading to insufficient pro-inflammatory response and lower CMI responses, seem to have an association with a most severe renal lesion and an enhanced capability of replication of this isolate in chicken.

title: Facing SARS-CoV-2 outbreak in immunotherapy era
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread represents a sanitary emergency all over the world. Viral biology is only partially known with some aspects in common with other CoV and the damage observed in most severe cases is due to intense inflammation. Immunotherapy restores immunological activity against cancer cells and it has become a standard treatment for several cancers. We carried out an examination of available data concerning with the effects exerted by both SARS-CoV-2 and the most widespread immunotherapy treatments on the immune system in order to hypothesize mechanisms underlying potential and mutual interaction. We provided an analysis of laboratory, clinical and therapeutic data related with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. We finally focused on implications of immunotherapy treatments in clinical practice.

title: Bilateral anterior uveitis as a part of a multisystem inflammatory syndrome secondary to COVID-19 infection
abstract: During the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, there is a global concern about patients presenting with inflammatory syndrome with variable clinical features. Colanfrancesco et al. described COVID-19 systemic inflammatory reaction that are characterized by a life-threatening hyper-inflammation sustained by a cytokines storm which eventually leads to multi-organ failure. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Mouse hepatitis virus pathogenesis in the central nervous system is independent of IL-15 and natural killer cells
abstract: Infection by the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) results in an acute encephalomyelitis associated with demyelination. T cells are critical in controlling viral replication, but also contribute to central nervous system (CNS) pathogenesis. To reveal a role for innate effectors in anti-viral immunity and neurological disease, JHMV pathogenesis was studied in mice deficient in interleukin-15 (IL-15−/−) and natural killer (NK) cells. Clinical disease, CNS inflammation and demyelination in infected IL-15−/− mice were similar to wild-type mice. Despite the absence of NK cells and suboptimal CD8+ T cell responses, IL-15−/− mice controlled JHMV replication as efficiently as wild-type mice. Similar kinetics of class I and class II upregulation on microglia further suggested no role of NK cells in regulating major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule expression on resident CNS cells. IL-15 and NK cells thus appear dispensable for anti-viral immunity and CNS pathogenesis during acute JHMV infection.

title: Immunopathology and immunotherapeutic strategies in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection.
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has become a major concern globally. As of 14 April 2020, more than 1.9 million COVID-19 cases have been reported in 185 countries. Some patients with COVID-19 develop severe clinical manifestations, while others show mild symptoms, suggesting that dysregulation of the host immune response contributes to disease progression and severity. In this review, we have summarized and discussed recent immunological studies focusing on the response of the host immune system and the immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 infection as well as immunotherapeutic strategies for COVID-19. Immune evasion by SARS-CoV-2, functional exhaustion of lymphocytes, and cytokine storm have been discussed as part of immunopathology mechanisms in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Some potential immunotherapeutic strategies to control the progression of COVID-19, such as passive antibody therapy and use of interferon αβ and IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) inhibitor, have also been discussed. This may help us to understand the immune status of patients with COVID-19, particularly those with severe clinical presentation, and form a basis for further immunotherapeutic investigations.

title: The FDA- approved gold drug Auranofin inhibits novel coronavirus (SARS-COV-2) replication and attenuates inflammation in human cells
abstract: SARS-COV-2 has recently emerged as a new public health threat. Herein, we report that the FDA-approved gold drug, auranofin, inhibits SARS-COV-2 replication in human cells at low micro molar concentration. Treatment of cells with auranofin resulted in a 95% reduction in the viral RNA at 48 hours after infection. Auranofin treatment dramatically reduced the expression of SARS-COV-2-induced cytokines in human cells. These data indicate that auranofin could be a useful drug to limit SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated lung injury due to its anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and anti-ROS properties. Auranofin has a well-known toxicity profile and is considered safe for human use.

title: Microglia and Wnt Pathways: Prospects for Inflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease
abstract: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has been a major health issue for more than one century since it was first reported in 1906. As one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, AD is characterized by the presence of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the affected brain area. Microglia are the major regulators of neuroinflammation in the brain, and neuroinflammation has become recognized as the core pathophysiological process of various neurodegenerative diseases. In the central nervous system (CNS), microglia play a dual role in AD development. For one thing, they degrade amyloid β (Aβ) to resist its deposition; for another, microglia release pro-inflammatory and inflammatory factors, contributing to neuroinflammation as well as the spreading of Aβ and tau pathology. Wnt pathways are important regulators of cell fate and cell activities. The dysregulation of Wnt pathways is responsible for both abnormal tau phosphorylation and synaptic loss in AD. Recent studies have also confirmed the regulatory effect of Wnt signaling on microglial inflammation. Thus, the study of microglia, Wnt pathways, and their possible interactions may open up a new direction for understanding the mechanisms of neuroinflammation in AD. In this review, we summarize the functions of microglia and Wnt pathways and their roles in AD in order to provide new ideas for understanding the pathogenesis of AD.

title: COVID-19 Knowledge Graph: a computable, multi-modal, cause-and-effect knowledge model of COVID-19 pathophysiology
abstract: The past few weeks have witnessed a worldwide mobilization of the research community in response to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19). This global response has led to a burst of publications on the pathophysiology of the virus, yet without coordinated efforts to organize this knowledge, it can remain hidden away from individual research groups. By extracting and formalizing this knowledge in a structured and computable form, as in the form of a knowledge graph, researchers can readily reason and analyze this information on a much larger scale. Here, we present the COVID-19 Knowledge Graph, an expansive cause-and-effect network constructed from scientific literature on the new coronavirus that aims to provide a comprehensive view of its pathophysiology. To make this resource available to the research community and facilitate its exploration and analysis, we also implemented a web application and released the KG in multiple standard formats. Availability The COVID-19 Knowledge Graph is publicly available under CC-0 license at https://github.com/covid19kg and https://bikmi.covid19-knowledgespace.de. Contact alpha.tom.kodamullil@scai.fraunhofer.de Supplementary information Supplementary data are available online.

title: Animal Models for the Study of Neuroimmunological Disease
abstract: The development and use of numerous animal models of human autoimmune diseases have provided important advances in our understanding of pathogenic mechanisms of disease and provided robust and reliable models to test novel therapeutic strategies. However, few preclinical studies of therapeutic treatments have demonstrated efficacy in the clinic, possibly because of the biological differences between humans and other animals. Although animal models of human disease are imperfect, it is important to understand the differences between the human disease and its animal models and to design experimental studies using animal models appropriately for the questions being asked. This review provides an overview of the currently used animal models of three human neuroimmunological diseases, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and myasthenia gravis, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each model and how they correlate or differ from their human counterpart.

title: Targeting the gut–lung microbiota axis by means of a high-fibre diet and probiotics may have anti-inflammatory effects in COVID-19 infection
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) 1 is a 2019 novel coronavirus, which only in the European area has led to more than 300,000 cases with at least 21,000 deaths. This manuscript aims to speculate that the manipulation of the microbial patterns through the use of probiotics and dietary fibers consumption may contribute to reduce inflammation and strengthen the immune system response in COVID-19 infection. The reviews of this paper are available via the supplemental material section.

title: Pulmonary Toxicity and Inflammatory Response of E-Cigarette Vape Cartridges Containing Medium-Chain Triglycerides Oil and Vitamin E Acetate: Implications in the Pathogenesis of EVALI.
abstract: Recently, there has been an outbreak associated with the use of e-cigarette or vaping products, associated lung injury (EVALI). The primary components of vaping products, vitamin E acetate (VEA) and medium-chain triglycerides (MCT), may be responsible for acute lung toxicity. Currently, little information is available on the physiological and biological effects of exposure to these products. We hypothesized that these e-cig vape cartridges and their constituents (VEA and MCT) induce pulmonary toxicity, mediated by oxidative damage and inflammatory responses, leading to acute lung injury. We studied the potential mechanisms of e-cig vape cartridge aerosol induced inflammatory response by evaluating the generation of reactive oxygen species by MCT, VEA, and cartridges and their effects on the inflammatory state of pulmonary epithelium and immune cells both in vitro and in vivo. Cells exposed to these aerosols generated reactive oxygen species, caused cytotoxicity, induced epithelial barrier dysfunction, and elicited an inflammatory response. Using a murine model, the parameters of acute toxicity to aerosol inhalation were assessed. Infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes was accompanied by significant increases in IL-6, eotaxin, and G-CSF in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). In mouse plasma, eicosanoid inflammatory mediators, leukotrienes, were significantly increased. Plasma from e-cig users also showed increased levels of hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETEs) and various eicosanoids. Exposure to e-cig vape cartridge aerosols showed the most significant effects and toxicity compared to MCT and VEA. In addition, we determined SARS-CoV-2 related proteins and found no impact associated with aerosol exposures from these tested cartridges. Overall, this study demonstrates acute exposure to specific e-cig vape cartridges induces in vitro cytotoxicity, barrier dysfunction, and inflammation and in vivo mouse exposure induces acute inflammation with elevated proinflammatory markers in the pathogenesis of EVALI.

title: Chemical composition and pharmacological mechanism of Qingfei Paidu Decoction and Ma Xing Shi Gan Decoction against Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): In silico and experimental study
abstract: The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has become a huge threaten to global health, which raise urgent demand of developing efficient therapeutic strategy. The aim of the present study is to dissect the chemical composition and the pharmacological mechanism of Qingfei Paidu Decoction (QFPD), a clinically used Chinese medicine for treating COVID-19 patients in China. Through comprehensive analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry (MS), a total of 129 compounds of QFPD were putatively identified. We also constructed molecular networking of mass spectrometry data to classify these compounds into 14 main clusters, in which exhibited specific patterns of flavonoids (45 %), glycosides (15 %), carboxylic acids (10 %), and saponins (5 %). The target network model of QFPD, established by predicting and collecting the targets of identified compounds, indicated a pivotal role of Ma Xing Shi Gan Decoction (MXSG) in the therapeutic efficacy of QFPD. Supportively, through transcriptomic analysis of gene expression after MXSG administration in rat model of LPS-induced pneumonia, the thrombin and Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway were suggested to be essential pathways for MXSG mediated anti-inflammatory effects. Besides, changes in content of major compounds in MXSG during decoction were found by the chemical analysis. We also validate that one major compound in MXSG, i.e. glycyrrhizic acid, inhibited TLR agonists induced IL-6 production in macrophage. In conclusion, the integration of in silico and experimental results indicated that the therapeutic effects of QFPD against COVID-19 may be attributed to the anti-inflammatory effects of MXSG, which supports the rationality of the compatibility of TCM.

title: A Comprehensive Literature Review on the Clinical Presentation, and Management of the Pandemic Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a declared global pandemic. There are multiple parameters of the clinical course and management of the COVID-19 that need optimization. A hindrance to this development is the vast amount of misinformation present due to scarcely sourced manuscript preprints and social media. This literature review aims to presents accredited and the most current studies pertaining to the basic sciences of SARS-CoV-2, clinical presentation and disease course of COVID-19, public health interventions, and current epidemiological developments. The review on basic sciences aims to clarify the jargon in virology, describe the virion structure of SARS-CoV-2 and present pertinent details relevant to clinical practice. Another component discussed is the brief history on the series of experiments used to explore the origins and evolution of the phylogeny of the viral genome of SARS-CoV-2. Additionally, the clinical and epidemiological differences between COVID-19 and other infections causing outbreaks (SARS, MERS, H1N1) are elucidated. Emphasis is placed on evidence-based medicine to evaluate the frequency of presentation of various symptoms to create a stratification system of the most important epidemiological risk factors for COVID-19. These can be used to triage and expedite risk assessment. Furthermore, the limitations and statistical strength of the diagnostic tools currently in clinical practice are evaluated. Criteria on rapid screening, discharge from hospital and discontinuation of self-quarantine are clarified. Epidemiological factors influencing the rapid rate of spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus are described. Accurate information pertinent to improving prevention strategies is also discussed. The penultimate portion of the review aims to explain the involvement of micronutrients such as vitamin C and vitamin D in COVID19 treatment and prophylaxis. Furthermore, the biochemistry of the major candidates for novel therapies is briefly reviewed and a summary of their current status in the clinical trials is presented. Lastly, the current scientific data and status of governing bodies such as the Center of Disease Control (CDC) and the WHO on the usage of controversial therapies such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (Ibuprofen), and corticosteroids usage in COVID-19 are discussed. The composite collection of accredited studies on each of these subtopics of COVID-19 within this review will enable clarification and focus on the current status and direction in the planning of the management of this global pandemic.

title: Immune responses and pathogenesis of SARS‐CoV‐2 during an outbreak in Iran: Comparison with SARS and MERS
abstract: The beginning of 2020 has seen the emergence of COVID‐19, an outbreak caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS‐CoV‐2, an important pathogen for humans. There is an urgent need to better understand this new virus and to develop ways to control its spread. In Iran, the first case of the COVID‐19 was reported after spread from China and other countries. Fever, cough, and fatigue were the most common symptoms of this virus. In worldwide, the incubation period of COVID‐19 was 3 to 7 days and approximately 80% of infections are mild or asymptomatic, 15% are severe, requiring oxygen, and 5% are critical infections, requiring ventilation. To mount an antiviral response, the innate immune system recognizes molecular structures that are produced by the invasion of the virus. COVID‐19 infection induces IgG antibodies against N protein that can be detected by serum as early as day 4 after the onset of disease and with most patients seroconverting by day 14. Laboratory evidence of clinical patients showed that a specific T‐cell response against SARS‐CoV‐2 is important for the recognition and killing of infected cells, particularly in the lungs of infected individuals. At present, there is no specific antiviral therapy for COVID‐19 and the main treatments are supportive. In this review, we investigated the innate and acquired immune responses in patients who recovered from COVID‐19, which could inform the design of prophylactic vaccines and immunotherapy for the future.

title: Clinical Characteristics of COVID-19 in patients with pre-existing ILD: A retrospective study in a single center in Wuhan, China
abstract: Since the outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) pneumonia, many patients with underlying disease, such as interstitial lung disease (ILD), were admitted to Tongji hospital in Wuhan, China. To date, no data have ever been reported to reflect the clinical features of Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) among these patients with pre-existing ILD.  We analyzed the incidence and severity of COVID-19 patients with ILD among 3201 COVID-19 inpatients, and compared two independent cohorts of COVID-19 patients with pre-existing ILD (n=28) and non-ILD COVID-19 patients (n=130).  Among those 3201 COVID-19 inpatients, 28 of whom were COVID-19 with ILD (0.88%). Fever was the predominant symptom both in COVID-19 with ILD (81.54%) and non-ILD COVID-19 patients (72.22%). However, COVID-19 patients with ILD were more likely to have cough, sputum, fatigue, dyspnea, and diarrhea. Very significantly higher number of neutrophils, monocytes, IL-8, IL-10, IL-1ß and D-Dimer was characterized in COVID-19 with ILD as compared to those of non-ILD COVID-19 patients. Furthermore, logistic regression models showed neutrophils counts, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-&#945;, IL6, IL1ß, IL2R), and coagulation dysfunction biomarkers (D-Dimer, PT, Fbg) were significantly associated with the poor clinical outcomes of COVID-19.  ILD patients could be less vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2. However, ILD patients tend to severity condition after being infected with SARS-CoV-2. The prognosis of COVID-19 patients with per-existing ILD is significantly worse than that of non-ILD patients. And more, aggravated inflammatory responses and coagulation dysfunction appear to be the critical mechanisms in the COVID-19 patients with ILD. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Dietary Quercetin Increases Colonic Microbial Diversity and Attenuates Colitis Severity in Citrobacter rodentium-Infected Mice
abstract: Disturbed balance between microbiota, epithelial cells, and resident immune cells within the intestine contributes to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) pathogenesis. The Citrobacter rodentium-induced colitis mouse model has been well documented. This model allows the analysis of host responses to enteric bacteria and facilitates improved understanding of the potential mechanisms of IBD pathogenesis. The current study evaluated the effects of dietary 30 mg/kg quercetin supplementation on C. rodentium-induced experimental colitis in C57BL/6 mice. Following dietary quercetin supplementation, the mice were infected with 5 × 10(8) CFU C. rodentium, and the pathological effects of C. rodentium were measured. The results showed that quercetin alleviated the effects of C. rodentium-induced colitis, suppressed the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-17, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and IL-6 (p < 0.05), and promoted the production of IL-10 in the colon tissues (p < 0.05). Quercetin supplementation also enhanced the populations of Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Clostridia and significantly reduced those of Fusobacterium and Enterococcus (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that dietary quercetin exerts therapeutic effects on C. rodentium-induced colitis, probably due to quercetin’s ability to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines and/or modify gut microbiota. Thus, these results suggest that quercetin supplementation is effective in controlling C. rodentium-induced inflammation.

title: Serine Proteases in the Lectin Pathway of the Complement System
abstract: The complement system plays a crucial role in host defense against pathogen infections and in the recognition and removal of damaged or altered self-components. Complement system activation can be initiated by three different pathways—classical, alternative, and lectin pathways—resulting in a proteolytic cascade, which culminates in multiple biological processes including opsonization and phagocytosis of intruders, inflammation, cell lysis, and removal of immune complexes and apoptotic cells. Furthermore, it also functions as a link between the innate and adaptive immune responses. The lectin pathway (LP) activation is mediated by serine proteases, termed mannan-binding lectin (MBL)-associated serine proteases (MASPs), which are associated with the pattern recognition molecules (PRMs) that recognize carbohydrates or acetylated compounds on surfaces of pathogens or apoptotic cells. These result in the proteolysis of complement C2 and C4 generating C3 convertase (C4b2a), which carries forward the activation cascade of complements, culminating in the elimination of foreign molecules. This chapter presents an overview of the complement system focusing on the characterization of MASPs and its genes, as well as its functions in the immune response.

title: Mesenchymal Stem Cells -Bridge Catalyst Between Innte And Adaptive Immunity In Covid 19
abstract: Majority of patients infected with the COVID 19 virus display a mild to moderate course of disease and spontaneously recover at 14 - 20 days,. However, about 15 % of patients progress to severe stages and 2.5% of these patients succumb to this illness. Most patients with severe disease belong to the elderly age group (< 65 years of age) and have multiple associated co-morbidities. The immune responses induced by the COVID 19 virus, during the incubation and non-severe stages, requires the early initiation of a specific adaptive immune response to eliminate the virus and prevent the progress to severe stages. In patients with a dysfunctional bridge adaptive immunity, the innate immune response becomes exaggerated due to the lack of feedback from the adaptive immune cells. The resultant cytokine storm is responsible for the severe lung injury leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome seen in COVID 19 patients. Mesenchymal stem cells are known to suppress overactive immune responses as well as bring about tissue regeneration and repair. This immuno-modulatory effect of MSCs could hold potential to manage a patient with severe symptoms of COVID 19 infection due to a dysfunctional adaptive immune system.

title: Macrophages: Their role, activation and polarization in pulmonary diseases
abstract: Macrophages, circulating in the blood or concatenated into different organs and tissues constitute the first barrier against any disease. They are foremost controllers of both innate and acquired immunity, healthy tissue homeostasis, vasculogenesis and congenital metabolism. Two hallmarks of macrophages are diversity and plasticity due to which they acquire a wobbling array of phenotypes. These phenotypes are appropriately synchronized responses to a variety of different stimuli from either the tissue microenvironment or – microbes or their products. Based on the phenotype, macrophages are classified into classically activated/(M1) and alternatively ) which are further sub-categorized into M2a, M2b, M2c and M2d based upon gene expression profiles. Macrophage phenotype metamorphosis is the regulating factor in initiation, progression, and termination of numerous inflammatory diseases. Several transcriptional factors and other factors controlling gene expression such as miRNAs contribute to the transformation of macrophages at different points in different diseases. Understanding the mechanisms of macrophage polarization and modulation of their phenotypes to adjust to the micro environmental conditions might provide us a great prospective for designing novel therapeutic strategy. In view of the above, this review summarises the activation of macrophages, the factors intricated in activation along with benefaction of macrophage polarization in response to microbial infections, pulmonary toxicity, lung injury and other inflammatory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary dysplasia (COPD), bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), asthma and sepsis, along with the existing efforts to develop therapies targeting this facet of macrophage biology.

title: Low dose lung radiotherapy for COVID-19 pneumonia. The rationale for a cost-effective anti-inflammatory treatment
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemia is affecting people worldwide. Most of the patients suffered of a respiratory disease that will progress to an acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia severely ill patients, develop a systemic inflammatory response with a Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS), that is characterized by a sudden increase in several pro-inflammatory cytokines, mainly IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-alfa by activated macrophages (M1 phenotype). Blocking IL-6 with tocilizumab and using respirator equipment seems to be a very important issue in this (SARS-CoV-2) pneumonia, but not all patients are referred to such treatments. Low dose radiotherapy (0,5 Gy), is an evidence-based anti-inflammatory treatment, that could modify the immune landscape in the lung affected of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia, through macrophages polarization to alternatively activated Macrophages (M2 phenotype). Radiation-induced cancer risk could be assumed due to the very low dose used, the advanced age of the patients and the life-threatening condition of SARS-Cov2 pneumonia. LDRT is a cost-effective non-toxic treatment already available in most general hospitals. This fact allows that it would be used for the large number of patients that will suffer this disease, and that would not receive specific anti-IL-6 treatments in ICUs in low and middle income countries.

title: Focus on Receptors for Coronaviruses with Special Reference to Angiotensin-converting Enzyme 2 as a Potential Drug Target - A Perspective.
abstract: Coronaviruses (CoVs) possess an enveloped, single, positive-stranded RNA genome which encodes for four membrane proteins, namely spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins 3-5 . With regard to pathogenicity, S proteins are essential for viral entry into host cells [2, 3]. SARS-CoV binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)2 which is present on nonimmune cells, such as respiratory and intestinal epithelial cells, endothelial cells, kidney cells (renal tubules) and cerebral neurons and immune cells, such as alveolar monocytes/macrophages [4-6]. Of note, CD209L or liver/lymph node special intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin (SIGN) and dendritic cell (DC)-SIGN are alternative receptors for SARS-CoV but with lower affinity [7]. In the case of MERS-CoV, S proteins bind to the host cell receptor dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4 or CD26) which is broadly expressed on intestinal, alveolar, renal, hepatic and prostate cells as well as on activated leukocytes . Then, viruses replicate in target cells with release of mature virions, which, in turn, invade new target cells . Evidence has been provided that SARSCoV proteins are cleaved into two subunits, S1 and S2, respectively, and the amino acids 318-510 of the S1 represent the receptor-binding domain (RBD) which binds to ACE2 [10, 11]. Quite importantly, in the context of RBD there is the receptor-binding motif (RBM) (amino acids 424- 494), which accounts for complete binding to ACE2 [11]. Moreover, by means of two residues at positions 479 and 487 RBD allows virus progression and tropism [10, 11]. In the case of MERSCoV, its RBM binds to DPP4 with residues 484-567, thus, suggesting that its RBD differs from that of SARS-CoV [12, 13]. In a very recent paper, Wan and associates  have investigated the receptor recognition by COVID-19 (a new term to indicate the 2019-nCoV in Wuhan) on the bases of structural studies. In this respect, the sequence of COVID-19 RBM is similar to that of SARSCoV, thus, implicating that ACE2 may represent the binding receptors for COVID-19. Furthermore, gln493 residue of COVID-19 RBM seems to allow interaction with human ACE2, thus, suggesting the ability of this virus to infect human cells. According, to Wan and associates structural analysis , COVID-19 binds to human ACE2 with a lesser efficiency than human SARS-CoV (2002) but with higher affinity than human SARS-CoV (2003). Furthermore, same authors predicted that a single mutation at the 501 position may enhance the COVID-19 RBD binding capacity to human ACE2 and this evolution should be monitored in infected patients . These predictive findings by Wan and associates  are confirmed by two contemporary studies by Letko and Muster  and Peng and associates [16]. In particular, the report by Peng and associates [16], points out the possible origin of COVID-19 from bats [16]. From a pathogenic point of view, evidence has been provided that binding of S2 to ACE2 receptor leads to its down-regulation with subsequent lung damage in the course of SARS-CoV infection . Down-regulation of ACE2 causes excessive production of angiotensin (ANG) II by the related enzyme ACE with stimulation of ANG type 1a receptor (AT1R) and enhanced lung vascular permeability [18]. In particular, same authors have reported that recombinant ACE2 could attenuate severe acute lung injury in mice [18]. Moreover, Battle and associates [19] also proposed to use already available recombinant ACE2 for intercepting COVID-19 and attenuating infection. In the previous paragraphs, the presence of ACE2 on immune cells has been pointed out and, by analogy to epithelial cells, this receptor may also be down-regulated following viral entry. Therefore, in CoV-infected animal models and in infected humans further investigations are required to clarify a possible reduced expression of ACE2 on immune cells. In fact, in the course of SARS-CoV infection, a number of immune disorders have been detected. Three reports have demonstrated the ability of CoV to inhibit interferon (IFN)- production in the course of SARS acting as IFN antagonist [20-22]. In senescent Balb/c mice, depletion of T lymphocytes is associated to more severe interstitial pneumonitis and delayed clearance of SARS-CoV, thus, suggesting a protective role played by these cells [23]. In this connection, both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV have been shown to induce T cell apoptosis, thus, aggravating the clinical course of disease [24, 25]. Quite interestingly, memory CD8+ T cells specific for SARS-CoV M and N proteins have been detected up to 11 years post-infection [26]. As far as humoral immune responsiveness is concerned, evidence has been provided that S1 subunit from MERS-CoV is highly immunogenic in mice [27]. Moreover, monoclonal antibodies have been shown to be highly neutralizing against MERS-CoV replication and endowed with post exposure effectiveness in susceptible mice [28, 29]. Human neutralizing antibodies have also been isolated from a recovered patient, thus, suggesting the role of humoral immunity in the control of the persistence of CoV in the host [30]. In particular, IgG response occurs early in infection and its prolonged production may serve for virus clearance during recovery also in view of the absence of viremia in convalescent sera from SARS patients . According to current literature, severity of COVID-19 infection correlates with lymphopenia and patients who died from COVID-19 had lower lymphocyte counts when compared to survivors [32, 33]. These data suggest that lymphocyte-mediated anti-viral activity is poorly effective against COVID-19. Despite lymphopenia, evidence for an exaggerate release of proinflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6] has been reported in the course acute respiratory syndrome in COVID19 infected patients, thus, aggravating the clinical course of disease [34]. As recently reported, during COVID-19 pandemic in both Italy and China higher frequency of fatalities have been observed in the frail elderly population with previous comorbidities [35]. It is well known that decline of immunity occurs in ageing and, therefore, COVID-19 may gain easier access to the respiratory tract in frail elderly patients [36]. There is evidence that ACE2 protects from severe acute lung failure and operates as a negative regulator of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) [18, 37]. It is well known that ANG II via activation of the AT1R promotes detrimental effects on the host, such as, vasoconstriction, reactive oxygen species generation, inflammation and matrix remodelling [38]. ACE2 counterbalances the noxious effects exhibited by ANG II and AT1R via activation of AT2R which arrests cell growth, inflammation and fibrosis [39]. In this framework, Gurwitz [40] proposed to use AT1R blockers, such as losartan, as a potential treatment of COVID-19 infection. In fact, losartan as well as olmesartan, used for treating hypertension in patients, were able to increase ACE2 expression after 28 days treatment of rats with myocardial infarction [41]. Then, Gurwitz suggests to evaluate severity of symptoms in COVID-19 infected patients under previous chronic treatment with AT1R blockers in comparison to COVID-19 infected patients who did not take AT1R blockers [40]. Quite interestingly, 75% of aged COVID-19 infected patients admitted to Italian hospitals had hypertension [unpublished data]. However, the putative effects of ACE-2 down-regulation on the cardiovascular system in the course of COVID-19 pandemic need more intensive studies. Taken together, these evidences suggest that CoV-induced down-regulation of ACE2 activates RAS with collateral damage to organs, such as lungs, in the course of SARS-related pneumonia. Then, putative therapeutic measures aimed at increasing ACE2 levels on respiratory epithelial cells should be taken into serious consideration. Quite interestingly, over the past few years, three key papers have demonstrated the ability of a polyphenol, resveratrol (RES), to experimentally deactivate the RAS system in maternal and post-weaning high fat diet, arterial ageing and high fat diet, respectively [42-44]. In all these experimental models, RES led to an increase of ACE2 with reduction of organ damage, such as liver steatosis and aorta media thickness and decrease of adipose tissue mass, respectively. As far as the mechanism of action of RES is concerned, this polyphenol is able to activate sirtuin (Sirt)1 [45-47]. In turn, Sirt1 down-regulates AT1R expression via ACE2 up-regulation [43, 48]. Of importance, Lin and associates [48] have demonstrated the ability of RES to in vitro inhibit MERS-CoV infection of Vero E6 cells, thus, prolonging cell survival in virtue of an anti-apoptotic mechanism. These findings suggest a direct antiviral effect exerted by RES. It would be very interestingly to evaluate the direct effects of RES on COVID-19, in vitro. The data above discussed strongly suggest, that RES, as an activators of ACE2, should be investigated in animal models of CoV-induced severe pneumonia, also taking into account the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating effects exerted by polyphenols . Then, successful animal studies may pave the way for RES-based human trials in COVID-infected patients. Note added in proof During the reviewing process of this perspective other related papers have been published. Hanff and associates [50] have discussed the possible association between COVID-19-associated cardiovascular mortality and dysregulation of the Renin Angiotensin System (RAS). From a pharmacologic point of view, RAS inhibition leads to upregulation of ACE2, thus, attenuating acute respiratory syndrome and myocarditis in COVID-19-infected patients. Conversely, increase in ACE2 expression may facilitate the access into the host of COVID-19, thus, aggravating the clinical picture. Such a dilemma would be solved by clinical trials based on RAS blo

title: Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases following COVID-19

title: The amount of cytokine-release defines different shades of Sars-Cov2 infection
abstract: The recent outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID 19), spreading from China all around the world in early 2020, has led scientists to investigate the immuno-mediated mechanisms underlying the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) infection. Depending on the amount of cytokines released as the result of the immunological activation induced by SARS-CoV2, three major clinical phenotypes can be identified: "mild",symbolized as a "drizzle" of cytokines, severe as a "storm", and critical as a "hurricane". In patients with mild symptoms, the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines is balanced to obtain a defense response against the virus which is often self-limiting and overcomes without tissue damage. In severe phenotype, resembling a "cytokine-release syndrome", SARS-CoV2 causes the lysis of the immune-mediators leading to a cytokine storm able to induce lung epithelium damage and acute respiratory distress syndrome. In critical patients, the immune response may become uncontrolled, thus the cytokine burst resembles a form of secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis which may result in a multi organ failure. In addition to the standard of care, an immune-modulatory therapy tailored to each one of the different phenotypes should be used in order to prevent or reduce the release of cytokines responsible for organ damage and disease progression.

title: Fas-deficient mice have impaired alveolar neutrophil recruitment and decreased expression of anti-KC autoantibody:KC complexes in a model of acute lung injury
abstract: Exposure to mechanical ventilation enhances lung injury in response to various stimuli, such as bacterial endotoxin (LPS). The Fas/FasL system is a receptor ligand system that has dual pro-apoptotic and pro-inflammatory functions and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of lung injury. In this study we test the hypothesis that a functioning Fas/FasL system is required for the development of lung injury in mechanically ventilated mice.  C57BL/6 (B6) and Fas-deficient lpr mice were exposed to either intra-tracheal PBS followed by spontaneous breathing or intra-tracheal LPS followed by four hours mechanical ventilation with tidal volumes of 10 mL/kg, respiratory rate of 150 breaths per minute, inspired oxygen 0.21 and positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 3 cm of water.  Compared with the B6 mice, the lpr mice showed attenuation of the neutrophilic response as measured by decreased numbers of BAL neutrophils and lung myeloperoxidase activity. Interestingly, the B6 and lpr mice had similar concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including CXCL1 (KC), and similar measurements of permeability and apoptosis. However, the B6 mice showed greater deposition of anti-KC:KC immune complexes in the lungs, as compared with the lpr mice.  We conclude that a functioning Fas/FasL system is required for full neutrophilic response to LPS in mechanically ventilated mice.

title: Clinical trials on drug repositioning for COVID-19 treatment
abstract: The World Health Organization (WHO) was informed on December 2019 about a coronavirus pneumonia outbreak in Wuhan, Hubei province (China). Subsequently, on March 12, 2020, 125,048 cases and 4,614 deaths were reported. Coronavirus is an enveloped RNA virus, from the genus Betacoronavirus, that is distributed in birds, humans, and other mammals. WHO has named the novel coronavirus disease as COVID-19. More than 80 clinical trials have been launched to test coronavirus treatment, including some drug repurposing or repositioning for COVID-19. Hence, we performed a search in March 2020 of the clinicaltrials.gov database. The eligibility criteria for the retrieved studies were: contain a clinicaltrials.gov base identifier number; describe the number of participants and the period for the study; describe the participants’ clinical conditions; and utilize interventions with medicines already studied or approved for any other disease in patients infected with the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (2019-nCoV). It is essential to emphasize that this article only captured trials listed in the clinicaltrials.gov database. We identified 24 clinical trials, involving more than 20 medicines, such as human immunoglobulin, interferons, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, arbidol, remdesivir, favipiravir, lopinavir, ritonavir, oseltamivir, methylprednisolone, bevacizumab, and traditional Chinese medicines (TCM). Although drug repurposing has some limitations, repositioning clinical trials may represent an attractive strategy because they facilitate the discovery of new classes of medicines; they have lower costs and take less time to reach the market; and there are existing pharmaceutical supply chains for formulation and distribution.

title: Severe Acute Lung Injury Related to COVID-19 Infection: A Review and the Possible Role for Escin
abstract: Acute lung injury (ALI) represents the most severe form of the viral infection sustained by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Today, it is a pandemic infection, and even if several compounds are used as curative or supportive treatment, there is not a definitive treatment. In particular, antiviral treatment used for the treatment of several viral infections (eg, hepatitis C, HIV, Ebola, severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus) are today used with a mild or moderate effect on the lung injury. In fact, ALI seems to be related to the inflammatory burst and release of proinflammatory mediators that induce intra-alveolar fibrin accumulation that reduces the gas exchange. Therefore, an add-on therapy with drugs able to reduce inflammation, edema, and cell activation has been proposed as well as a treatment with interferon, corticosteroids or monoclonal antibodies (eg, tocilizumab). In this article reviewing literature data related to the use of escin, an agent having potent anti-inflammatory and anti-viral effects in lung injury, we suggest that it could represent a therapeutic opportunity as add-on therapy in ALI related to COVID-19 infection.

title: What can we learn about corticosteroid therapy as a treatment for COVID-19?

title: Interleukin‐6 Blockade Treatment for COVID‐19 associated Cytokine Release Syndrome in a Patient with Poorly Controlled Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus pneumonia, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) was reported in Wuhan, China. A hyperinflammatory immune response, or cytokine release syndrome (CRS) is observed in critically unwell patients with SARS‐CoV‐2 globally. Severe lymphopenia, hyperactivated pro‐inflammatory T cells(1) and decreased regulatory T cells(2) are seen in these critically ill patients, suggesting dysregulated immune responses.

title: COVID-19 Psychosis: A potential new neuropsychiatric condition triggered by novel coronavirus infection and the inflammatory response?
abstract: A growing literature documents psychological distress related to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19 or SARS-CoV2) pandemic.  We describe new-onset psychotic symptoms in three patients with no prior history of psychosis who tested positive in the Emergency Department for COVID-19 and who were otherwise asymptomatic.  Patients had similar presentations of agitation, disorganization, paranoid ideation and auditory hallucinations, with concurrent evidence of systemic inflammation as indicated by elevated C-reactive protein and other inflammatory markers.  In addition to the possibility of a stress-related trigger, based on evidence of immune activation, we postulate a potential immune-mediated neuropsychiatric trigger to these new-onset psychotic symptoms that warrants further investigation.

title: Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS‐C) Related to COVID‐19: A New York City Experience
abstract: In December 2019, the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus‐2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) first emerged in Wuhan, China. This has now spread worldwide and was declared a pandemic by March 2020. Initially, the pediatric population was described as low risk for severe COVID‐19. However, reports have emerged recently of cases of COVID‐19 in children with a systemic inflammatory disease, with features that overlap with Kawasaki Disease (KD). We describe the first 15 cases with multi‐system inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS‐C), temporally related to COVID‐19, who presented for care to a tertiary pediatric referral center in New York City. We discuss the disproportionate burden of disease among Hispanic/Latino and black/African‐American ancestry, the distinct cytokine signature across the disease spectrum (IL‐1/IL‐6), and the potential role and pathogenesis of SARS‐CoV‐2 in this new clinical entity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Responding to the COVID-19 pandemic in complex humanitarian crises

title: SARS-CoV-2, which induces COVID-19, causes kawasaki-like disease in children: role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines
abstract: Acute severe respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused a global pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In humans, SARS-CoV-2 infection leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome which presents edema, hemorrhage, intra-alveolar fibrin deposition, and vascular changes characterized by thrombus formation, micro-angiopathy and thrombosis. These clinical signs are mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines. In recent studies it has been noted that COVID-19 pandemic can affect patients of all ages, including children (even if less severely) who were initially thought to be immune. Kawasaki disease is an autoimmune acute febrile inflammatory condition, which primarily affects young children. The disease can present immunodeficiency with the inability of the immune system to fight inflammatory pathogens and leads to fever, rash, alterations of the mucous membranes, conjunctiva infection, pharyngeal erythema, adenopathy, and inflammation. In the COVID-19 period, virus infection aggravates the condition of Kawasaki disease, but it has also been noted that children affected by SARS-V-2 may develop a disease similar to Kawasaki's illness. However, it is uncertain whether the virus alone can give Kawasaki disease-like forms. As in COVID-19, Kawasaki disease and its similar forms are mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines produced by innate immunity cells such as macrophages and mast cells (MCs). In light of the above, it is therefore pertinent to think that by blocking pro-inflammatory cytokines with new anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-37 and IL-38, it is possible to alleviate the symptoms of the disease and have a new available therapeutic tool. However, since Kawasaki and Kawasaki-like diseases present immunodeficiency, treatment with anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressant molecules must be applied very carefully.

title: Is GSK3ß a molecular target of chloroquine treatment against COVID-19?
abstract: The recent clinical trial reports pertaining to the efficacy of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine against COVID-19 albeit yet to be validated with larger clinical trials, have sparked much interest globally to evaluate whether this anti-malarial drug can be repurposed for the treatment of COVID-19. In addition to its anti-viral activity, the anti-inflammatory activity of chloroquine may also contribute to its efficacy. Based on our data obtained from an animal infection model of melioidosis (a disease caused by the bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei), treatment with chloroquine can result in the phosphorylation and consequent inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK3ß). This serine/threonine protein kinase is now recognised as a point of convergence for host inflammatory response. In view of this, it is plausible that the mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effect of chloroquine against COVID-19 involves inhibition of host GSK3ß.

title: Feline Infectious Peritonitis as a Systemic Inflammatory Disease: Contribution of Liver and Heart to the Pathogenesis
abstract: Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is a fatal immune-mediated disease of cats, induced by feline coronavirus (FCoV). A combination of as yet poorly understood host and viral factors combine to cause a minority of FCoV-infected cats to develop FIP. Clinicopathological features include fever, vasculitis, and serositis, with or without effusions; all of which indicate a pro-inflammatory state with cytokine release. As a result, primary immune organs, as well as circulating leukocytes, have thus far been of most interest in previous studies to determine the likely sources of these cytokines. Results have suggested that these tissues alone may not be sufficient to induce the observed inflammation. The current study therefore focussed on the liver and heart, organs with a demonstrated ability to produce cytokines and therefore with huge potential to exacerbate inflammatory processes. The IL-12:IL-10 ratio, a marker of the immune system’s inflammatory balance, was skewed towards the pro-inflammatory IL-12 in the liver of cats with FIP. Both organs were found to upregulate mRNA expression of the inflammatory triad of cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in FIP. This amplifying step may be one of the missing links in the pathogenesis of this enigmatic disease.

title: Isolation, characterization and anti-inflammatory mechanism of probiotics in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages
abstract: Probiotics are known to modulate gut microbiota, intestinal barrier function and host immune response, but due to the species and strain specific response their mechanisms are not clearly understood. Thus, the present study was designed to isolate, assess the anti-inflammatory potential and underlying modulatory mechanisms of indigenous probiotics in murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Forty lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from different sources and monitored for their anti-inflammatory potential against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced inflammatory stress employing RAW 264.7 cells. Among these isolates, only four LAB isolates exhibited more than 90% nitric oxide inhibition and possessed the probiotic attributes. Further, these selected LAB isolates reduced the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-&#945;, IL-1ß and IL-6, inhibited the phosphorylation of Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) i.e. p38 MAPK, ERK1/2 and SAPK/JNK and expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The in vitro analysis suggested that the selected probiotic isolates attenuated the LPS-induced inflammation by downregulating MAPK pathway vis-a-vis inhibiting COX-2 and can be employed as anti-inflammatory agents in various inflammatory diseases.

title: The possible pathophysiology mechanism of cytokine storm in elderly adults with COVID-19 infection: the contribution of "inflame-aging"
abstract: Novel Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is an acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which is emerged in Wuhan, and recently become worldwide pandemic. Strangely, ample evidences have been shown that the severity of COVID-19 infections varies widely from children (asymptomatic), adults (mild infection), as well as elderly adults (deadly critical). It has proven that COVID-19 infection in some elderly critical adults leads to a cytokine storm, which is characterized by severe systemic elevation of several pro-inflammatory cytokines. Then, a cytokine storm can induce edematous, ARDS, pneumonia, as well as multiple organ failure in aged patients. It is far from clear till now why cytokine storm induces in only COVID-19 elderly patients, and not in young patients. However, it seems that aging is associated with mild elevated levels of local and systemic pro-inflammatory cytokines, which is characterized by "inflamm-aging". It is highly likely that "inflamm-aging" is correlated to increased risk of a cytokine storm in some critical elderly patients with COVID-19 infection.  A systematic search in the literature was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, as well as Google Scholar pre-print database using all available MeSH terms for COVID-19, Coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, senescent cell, cytokine storm, inflame-aging, ACE2 receptor, autophagy, and Vitamin D. Electronic database searches combined and duplicates were removed.  The aim of the present review was to summarize experimental data and clinical observations that linked the pathophysiology mechanisms of "inflamm-aging", mild-grade inflammation, and cytokine storm in some elderly adults with severe COVID-19 infection.

title: How to handle patients with autoimmune rheumatic and inflammatory bowel diseases in the COVID-19 era: An expert opinion
abstract: A correct patient risk stratification is of paramount importance for the proper management of economic and human resources. • It's fundamental to prioritize clinical trials evaluating dosing, prophylaxis, and treatment with immunosuppressant in COVID-19 in order to avoid either an overuse and a treatment shortage. • Future controlled studies may highlight in our patients a potential preventive role of immunosuppressant therapies in the development of severe forms of Covid-19. • Despite the overall risk of infection in rheumatic and gastroenterological diseases a conclusive association between these diseases and COVID −19 remains questionable.

title: Medical imaging informatics research and development trends—an editorial

title: What is the role of supplementation with ascorbic acid, zinc, vitamin D, or N-acetylcysteine for prevention or treatment of COVID-19?
abstract: Several agents intended to supplement dietary intake or endogenous molecules may have a theoretical role in preventing or treating COVID-19. Because of their potential to influence immune response, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), zinc, vitamin D, and N-acetylcysteine have been hypothesized to be useful for prevention or treatment of COVID-19. The authors outline the biologic plausibility, applicable clinical data, and potential role of each of these agents.

title: COVID-19-associated coagulopathy: An exploration of mechanisms
abstract: An ongoing global pandemic of viral pneumonia (coronavirus disease [COVID-19]), due to the virus SARS-CoV-2, has infected millions of people and remains a threat to many more. Most critically ill patients have respiratory failure and there is an international effort to understand mechanisms and predictors of disease severity. Coagulopathy, characterized by elevations in D-dimer and fibrin(ogen) degradation products (FDPs), is associated with critical illness and mortality in patients with COVID-19. Furthermore, increasing reports of microvascular and macrovascular thrombi suggest that hemostatic imbalances may contribute to the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We review the laboratory and clinical findings of patients with COVID-19-associated coagulopathy, and prior studies of hemostasis in other viral infections and acute respiratory distress syndrome. We hypothesize that an imbalance between coagulation and inflammation may result in a hypercoagulable state. Although thrombosis initiated by the innate immune system is hypothesized to limit SARS-CoV-2 dissemination, aberrant activation of this system can cause endothelial injury resulting in loss of thromboprotective mechanisms, excess thrombin generation, and dysregulation of fibrinolysis and thrombosis. The role various components including neutrophils, neutrophil extracellular traps, activated platelets, microparticles, clotting factors, inflammatory cytokines, and complement play in this process remains an area of active investigation and ongoing clinical trials target these different pathways in COVID-19.

title: The Role of Chest Imaging in Patient Management during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Multinational Consensus Statement from the Fleischner Society
abstract: With more than 900,000 confirmed cases worldwide and nearly 50,000 deaths during the first three months of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has emerged as an unprecedented healthcare crisis. The spread of COVID-19 has been heterogeneous, resulting in some regions having sporadic transmission and relatively few hospitalized patients with COVID-19 and others having community transmission that has led to overwhelming numbers of severe cases. For these regions, healthcare delivery has been disrupted and compromised by critical resource constraints in diagnostic testing, hospital beds, ventilators, and healthcare workers who have fallen ill to the virus exacerbated by shortages of personal protective equipment. While mild cases mimic common upper respiratory viral infections, respiratory dysfunction becomes the principal source of morbidity and mortality as the disease advances. Thoracic imaging with chest radiography (CXR) and computed tomography (CT) are key tools for pulmonary disease diagnosis and management, but their role in the management of COVID-19 has not been considered within the multivariable context of the severity of respiratory disease, pre-test probability, risk factors for disease progression, and critical resource constraints. To address this deficit, a multidisciplinary panel comprised principally of radiologists and pulmonologists from 10 countries with experience managing COVID-19 patients across a spectrum of healthcare environments evaluated the utility of imaging within three scenarios representing varying risk factors, community conditions, and resource constraints. Fourteen key questions, corresponding to 11 decision points within the three scenarios and three additional clinical situations, were rated by the panel based upon the anticipated value of the information that thoracic imaging would be expected to provide. The results were aggregated, resulting in five main and three additional recommendations intended to guide medical practitioners in the use of CXR and CT in the management of COVID-19.

title: Potential Role of Vitamin D in the Elderly to Resist COVID-19 and to Slow Progression of Parkinson’s Disease
abstract: While we are still learning more about COVID-19, caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, finding alternative and already available methods to reduce the risk and severity of the disease is paramount. One such option is vitamin D, in the form of vitamin D(3) (cholecalciferol) supplementation, due to its potential antiviral properties. It has become apparent that older individuals have a greater risk of developing severe COVID-19, and compared to younger adults, the elderly have lower levels of vitamin D due to a variety of biological and behavioral factors. Older adults are also more likely to be diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease (PD), with advanced age being the single greatest risk factor. In addition to its immune-system-modulating effects, it has been suggested that vitamin D supplementation plays a role in slowing PD progression and improving PD-related quality of life. We completed a review of the literature to determine the relationship between vitamin D, PD, and COVID-19. We concluded that the daily supplementation of 2000–5000 IU/day of vitamin D(3) in older adults with PD has the potential to slow the progression of PD while also potentially offering additional protection against COVID-19.

title: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and anti-rheumatic drugs

title: COVID-19: combining antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatments

title: The Damage–Response Framework as a Tool for the Physician-Scientist to Understand the Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases
abstract: The Damage–Response Framework (DRF) is a powerful tool to inform research in infectious diseases. It can integrate clinical observation with microbiology and immunology to incorporate the role of the host response into the outcome of microbial pathogenesis. Although the role that microbial factors may play in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases is well recognized, the DRF brings the indispensable role of the host response to the fore. For example, inflammation may induce microbial control, but it can also produce host damage. On the other hand, insufficient inflammation may fail to induce sufficient microbial control. Each scenario may lead to the diagnosis of an infectious disease. Given the central role that the host response plays in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases, new strategies for treatment need to consider the nature of the host response as well as microbial factors.

title: Pathogenesis of COVID-19 from the Perspective of the Damage-Response Framework
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) presents the medical community with a significant challenge. COVID-19 is an entirely new disease with disparate clinical manifestations that are difficult to reconcile with a single pathogenic principle. Here, we explain how the flexible paradigm of the "damage-response framework" (DRF) of microbial pathogenesis can organize the varied manifestations of COVID-19 into a synthesis that accounts for differences in susceptibility of vulnerable populations as well as for differing manifestations of COVID-19 disease. By focusing on mechanisms of host damage, particularly immune-mediated damage, the DRF provides a lens to understand COVID-19 pathogenesis and to consider how potential therapies could alter the outcome of this disease.

title: 99th Dahlem Conference on Infection, Inflammation and Chronic Inflammatory Disorders: Darwinian medicine and the ‘hygiene’ or ‘old friends’ hypothesis
abstract: The current synthesis of the ‘hygiene hypothesis’ suggests that the recent increase in chronic inflammatory disorders is at least partly attributable to immunodysregulation resulting from lack of exposure to microorganisms that have evolved an essential role in the establishment of the immune system. This document provides a background for discussion of the following propositions. 1. The essential role of these organisms is an example of ‘evolved dependence’. 2. The most relevant organisms are those that co-evolved with mammals, and already accompanied early hominids in the Paleolithic. 3. More recently evolved ‘childhood infections’ are not likely to have evolved this role, and recent epidemiology supports this contention. 4. This mechanism is interacting with other modern environmental changes that also lead to enhanced inflammatory responses [inappropriate diet, obesity, psychological stress, vitamin D deficiency, pollution (dioxins), etc.]. 5. The range of chronic inflammatory disorders that is affected is potentially larger than usually assumed [allergies, autoimmunity, inflammatory bowel disease, but also vascular disease, some cancers, depression/anxiety (when accompanied by raised inflammatory cytokines), and perhaps neurodegenerative disorders and type 2 diabetes].

title: Molecular immune pathogenesis and diagnosis of COVID-19
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a kind of viral pneumonia which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has been marked as the third introduction of a highly pathogenic coronavirus into the human population after the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in the twenty-first century. In this minireview, we provide a brief introduction of the general features of SARS-CoV-2 and discuss current knowledge of molecular immune pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 on the base of the present understanding of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections, which may be helpful in offering novel insights and potential therapeutic targets for combating the SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Treatment of Covid19 ‐ Repurposing drugs commonly used in dermatology
abstract: For the last two decades, the outbreaks of diseases caused by coronaviruses and intermittent worldwide public health emergences have reminded us that they still represent a severe threat to global health. The recent outbreak of Corona Virus disease 19 (COVID‐19) highlighted the urgent need for effective treatment, and initiated rapid search for therapies, able to counter the most severe disease effects. Many aspects of COVID‐19 pathogenesis are unknown, but complex interplay of direct viral damage and immune response dysregulation is underline. Intensive research is undergoing for therapeutic targets of virus and high‐efficiency and low toxicity targeted drugs. There is no available specific antiviral treatment of this disease, therefore repurposing of drugs already available for the treatment of other viral and autoimmune diseases has been a part of research efforts. Well known anti‐inflammatory properties of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine, agents widely used in dermatology, made them potential candidates for the treatment of COVID‐19. We review pathogenesis and clinical characteristic of COVID‐19, as well as treatment options that have been under evaluation in past several months. In addition, we focus more on Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine, their pharmacological properties, clinical utility, and current recommendations for their use in COVID‐19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: Clinical trials for the treatment of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A rapid response to urgent need

title: Predictive factors of poor outcomes in the COVID-19 epidemic: Consider the inflammatory response

title: Is periodontal disease a risk factor for severe COVID-19 illness?
abstract: Periodontal disease (PD) comprises a group of diseases involving inflammatory aspects of the host and dysbiotic events that affect periodontal tissues and could have systemic implications. Diverse factors and comorbidities have been closely associated with PD such as diabetes, obesity, aging, hypertension, and so on; although, underlying mechanisms or causal associations have not established completely. Interestingly, these same factors have widely associated with progression or severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an illness caused by coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2. Since inflammatory and dysbiotic factors as well as comorbidities affect systemic health, it is possible that periodontal status indicates the risk of complication of COVID-19. However, assessment of oral health history including periodontal status in COVID-19 patients has not been reported. Knowing PD is associated with severe COVID-19 could help identify risk groups and establish pertinent recommendations.

title: Repurposing anticancer drugs for COVID-19-induced inflammation, immune dysfunction, and coagulopathy
abstract: Three cardinal manifestations of neoplasia, namely inflammation, immune dysfunction, and coagulopathy are also seen in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 infection, providing a biological rationale for testing selected anticancer drugs for their ability to control the symptoms and/or modify the course of COVID-19.

title: Managing emerging infectious diseases: Is a federal system an impediment to effective laws?
abstract: In the 1980's and 1990's HIV/AIDS was the emerging infectious disease. In 2003–2004 we saw the emergence of SARS, Avian influenza and Anthrax in a man made form used for bioterrorism. Emergency powers legislation in Australia is a patchwork of Commonwealth quarantine laws and State and Territory based emergency powers in public health legislation. It is time for a review of such legislation and time for consideration of the efficacy of such legislation from a country wide perspective in an age when we have to consider the possibility of mass outbreaks of communicable diseases which ignore jurisdictional boundaries.

title: COVID-19 Pandemic: Cardiovascular Complications and Future Implications
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is now a global pandemic with the highest number of affected individuals in the modern era. Not only is the infection inflicting significant morbidity and mortality, but there has also been a significant strain to the health care system and the economy. COVID-19 typically presents as viral pneumonia, occasionally leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and death. However, emerging evidence suggests that it has a significant impact on the cardiovascular (CV) system by direct myocardial damage, severe systemic inflammatory response, hypoxia, right heart strain secondary to ARDS and lung injury, and plaque rupture secondary to inflammation. Primary cardiac manifestations include acute myocarditis, myocardial infarction, arrhythmia, and abnormal clotting. Several consensus documents have been released to help manage CV disease during this pandemic. In this review, we summarize key cardiac manifestations, their management, and future implications.

title: Identifying potential treatments of COVID-19 from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) by using a data-driven approach
abstract: Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has been widely used as an approach worldwide. Chinese Medicines (CMs) had been used to treat and prevent viral infection pneumonia diseases for thousands of years and had accumulated a large number of clinical experiences and effective prescriptions.  This research aimed to systematically excavate the classical prescriptions of Chinese Medicine (CM), which have been used to prevent and treat Pestilence (Wenbing, Wenyi, Shiyi or Yibing) for long history in China, to obtain the potential prescriptions and ingredients to alternatively treat COVID-19.  We developed the screening system based on data mining, molecular docking and network pharmacology. Data mining and association network were used to mine the high-frequency herbs and formulas from ancient prescriptions. Virtual screening for the effective components of high frequency CMs and compatibility Chinese Medicine was explored by a molecular docking approach. Furthermore, network pharmacology method was used to preliminarily uncover the molecule mechanism.  574 prescriptions were obtained from 96,606 classical prescriptions with the key words to treat “Warm diseases (Wenbing)”, “Pestilence (Wenyi or Yibing)” or “Epidemic diseases (Shiyi)”. Meanwhile, 40 kinds of CMs, 36 CMs-pairs, 6 triple-CMs-groups existed with high frequency among the 574 prescriptions. Additionally, the key targets of SARS-COV-2, namely 3CL hydrolase (Mpro) and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2(ACE2), were used to dock the main ingredients from the 40 kinds by the LigandFitDock method. A total of 66 compounds components with higher frequency were docked with the COVID-19 targets, which were distributed in 26 kinds of CMs, among which Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma), HuangQin (Scutellariae Radix), Dahuang (Rhei Radix Et Rhizome) and Chaihu (Bupleuri Radix) contain more potential compounds. Network pharmacology results showed that Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma) and HuangQin (Scutellariae Radix) CMs-pairs could also interact with the targets involving in immune and inflammation diseases.  These results we obtained probably provided potential candidate CMs formulas or active ingredients to overcome COVID-19. Prospectively, animal experiment and rigorous clinic studies are needed to confirm the potential preventive and treat effect of these CMs and compounds.

title: Current Status of the Immunomodulation and Immunomediated Therapeutic Strategies for Multiple Sclerosis
abstract: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system, and CD4(+) T cells form the core immunopathogenic cascade leading to chronic inflammation. Traditionally, Th1 cells (interferon-γ-producing CD4(+) T cells) driven by interleukin 12 (IL12) were considered to be the encephalitogenic T cells in MS and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. Currently, Th17 cells (Il17-producing CD4(+) T cells) are considered to play a fundamental role in the immunopathogenesis of EAE. This paper highlights the growing evidence that Th17 cells play the core role in the complex adaptive immunity of EAE/MS and discusses the roles of the associated immune cells and cytokines. These constitute the modern immunological basis for the development of novel clinical and preclinical immunomodulatory therapies for MS discussed in this paper.

title: COVID-19 and myocarditis: What do we know so far?
abstract: COVID-19 has been declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization and is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths worldwide. COVID-19 is caused by SARS-CoV-2, and common clinical symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, headache, and fatigue. Myocardial injury is relatively common in COVID-19, accounting for 7-23% of cases, and is associated with a higher morbidity and mortality. There is a discrepancy in the literature about myocarditis as the etiology of myocardial injury in COVID-19; although many anecdotal reports of myocarditis have been noted, there are only a handful of case reports in the literature about myocarditis related to COVID-19. This review summarizes the most up-to-date literature around the association between COVID-19 and myocarditis and gives clinicians a practical framework about the clinical manifestations, diagnostic tools and treatment options currently available. Importantly, this review will heighten suspicion for myocarditis as an etiology of myocardial injury in COVID-19 patients, therefore improving clinical outcomes and encouraging shared clinical decision-making. This will also open the door for further research to build around this review. Emergent treatment options for COVID-19 are in clinical trials and may be of benefit to COVID-19 patients with myocarditis in addition to current guideline-based recommendations.

title: Transplantation of glial-committed progenitor cells into a viral model of multiple sclerosis induces remyelination in the absence of an attenuated inflammatory response
abstract: Transplantation of remyelination-competent cells represents a promising strategy for the treatment of demyelinating diseases. As the environment dictates the success or failure of remyelination, it is critical to understand the role that the immune system plays in transplant-mediated remyelination. In this study, we evaluated the severity of neuroinflammation following transplantation of glial-committed progenitor cells into the spinal cords of mice chronically infected with mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), a model in which T cells and macrophages are critical in amplifying the severity of demyelination. Transplantation was performed following viral persistence in which inflammation and demyelination are established and clinical disease is evident. Mice were sacrificed 10 and 21 days following progenitor cell transplantation and the effect on neuroinflammation evaluated. Treatment did not alter accumulation of T cells or macrophages within the CNS as compared to control mice. Moreover, progenitor cell implantation did not affect local cytokine/chemokine gene expression in the CNS. Finally, remyelination associated with transplantation did not result in an imbalance of TH1-associated cytokine production by virus-specific T cells. These studies demonstrate that progenitor cell-mediated remyelination is not the result of modulating the composition of the cellular infiltrate nor cytokine expression by virus-specific T cells and suggest that remyelination may not depend on amelioration of the inflammatory response or alteration of cytokine secretion by virus-specific T cells.

title: Novel therapeutic approaches for treatment of COVID-19
abstract: To date, there is no licensed treatment or approved vaccine to combat the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19), and the number of new cases and mortality multiplies every day. Therefore, it is essential to develop an effective treatment strategy to control the virus spread and prevent the disease. Here, we summarized the therapeutic approaches that are used to treat this infection. Although it seems that antiviral drugs are effective in improving clinical manifestation, there is no definite treatment protocol. Lymphocytopenia, excessive inflammation, and cytokine storm followed by acute respiratory distress syndrome are still unsolved issues causing the severity of this disease. Therefore, immune response modulation and inflammation management can be considered as an essential step. There is no doubt that more studies are required to clarify immunopathogenesis and immune response; however, new therapeutic approaches including mesenchymal stromal cell and immune cell therapy showed inspiring results.

title: Eicosanoids: the Overlooked Storm in COVID-19?
abstract: Severe coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) symptoms, including systemic inflammatory response and multi-system organ failure, are now affecting thousands of infected patients and causing widespread mortality. Coronavirus infection causes tissue damage, which triggers the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response and subsequent eicosanoid and cytokine storms. While pro-inflammatory eicosanoids including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes are critical mediators of physiological processes such as inflammation, fever, allergy, and pain, their role in COVID-19 are poorly characterized. Arachidonic acid derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) could alleviate the systemic hyper-inflammatory response in COVID-19 infection by modulating ER stress and stimulating the resolution of inflammation. Soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) inhibitors, which increase endogenous EET levels, exhibit potent anti-inflammatory activity and inhibit various pathologic processes in preclinical disease models including pulmonary fibrosis, thrombosis, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Therefore, targeting eicosanoids and sEH could be a novel therapeutic approach in combating COVID-19. In this review, we discuss the predominant role of eicosanoids in regulating the inflammatory cascade and propose the potential application of sEH inhibitors in alleviating COVID-19 symptoms. We also discuss the host-protective action of omega-3 fatty acid-derived epoxyeicosanoids and specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) in regulating anti-inflammation and anti-viral response. Future studies determining the eicosanoid profile in COVID-19 patient or preclinical model are pivotal in providing the novel insight of coronavirus-host interaction and inflammation modulation.

title: Simvastatin attenuates the lipopolysaccharideinduced inflammatory response of rat pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells by downregulating toll-like receptor 4 expression
abstract: The therapeutic potential of simvastatin as an anti-inflammatory agent was explored by investigating its effect on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in rat pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (RPMVECs).  RPMVECs were isolated and the mRNA and protein levels of different toll-like receptors (TLR) were assessed by qRT-PCR and western blotting. The LPS-induced expressions of TLR4, TNF-α and iNOS were analyzed in RPMVECs treated with different concentrations of simvastatin for different times. NF-κB activation was examined by immuofluroscence, luciferase reporter assay and western blotting.  TLR4 is abundantly expressed in RPMVECs, and its expression is induced by LPS stimulation. Simvastatin inhibited LPS-induced TLR4 expression at the mRNA and protein levels in a time-dependent manner (p<0.01), and alleviated inflammation in RPMVECs by inhibiting the release of inflammatory factors such as TNF-α and iNOS. Further study indicated that simvastatin significantly attenuated NF-κB activity by inhibiting the degradation of IκB-α. Pretreatment with pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) and knock-down of TLR4 expression by RNA interference down-regulated the LPS-induced inflammatory response in RPMVECs.  Simvastatin inhibits the LPS-induced inflammatory response in RPMVECs by down-regulating TLR4 expression, suggesting its role as a potential inhibitor of LPS-induced inflammation

title: COVID-19: Are we dealing with a multisystem vasculopathy in disguise of a viral infection?
abstract: After the emergence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in the last two decades, the world is facing its new challenge in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic with unprecedented global response. With the expanding domain of presentations in COVID-19 patients, the full range of manifestations is yet to unfold. The classical clinical symptoms for SARS-CoV-2 affected patients are dry cough, high fever, dyspnoea, lethal pneumonia whereas many patients have also been found to be associated with a few additional signs and clinical manifestations of isolated vasculopathy. Albeit a deep and profound knowledge has been gained on the clinical features and management of COVID-19, less clear association has been provided on SARS-CoV-2 mediated direct or indirect vasculopathy and its possible correlation with disease prognosis. The accumulative evidences suggest that novel coronavirus, apart from its primary respiratory confinement, may also invade vascular endothelial cells of several systems including cerebral, cardio-pulmonary as well as renal microvasculature, modulating multiple visceral perfusion indices. Here we analyse the phylogenetic perspective of SARS-CoV-2 along with other strains of β-coronaviridae from a standpoint of vasculopathic derangements. Based on the existing case reports, literature and open data bases, we also analyse the differential pattern of vasculopathy related changes in COVID-19 positive patients. Besides, we debate the need of modulation in clinical approach from a hemodynamical point of view, as a measure towards reducing disease transmission, morbidity and mortality in SARS-CoV-2 affected patients.

title: Role of thymopoiesis and inflamm-aging in COVID-19 phenotype

title: A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response to severe COVID-19
abstract: There is an urgent need to better understand the pathophysiology of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2. Here, we apply single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of 7 patients hospitalized with confirmed COVID-19 and 6 healthy controls. We identify substantial reconfiguration of peripheral immune cell phenotype in COVID-19, including a heterogeneous interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) signature, HLA class II downregulation, and a novel B cell-derived granulocyte population appearing in patients with acute respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation. Importantly, peripheral monocytes and lymphocytes do not express substantial amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines, suggesting that circulating leukocytes do not significantly contribute to the potential COVID-19 cytokine storm. Collectively, we provide the most thorough cell atlas to date of the peripheral immune response to severe COVID-19.

title: Covid-19 management with Inflammation Resolving Mediators? Perspectives and Potential

title: IL-6: relevance for immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2
abstract: COVID-19 mortality is strongly associated with the development of severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome with the worst outcome resulting in cytokine release syndrome and multiorgan failure. It is becoming critically important to identify at the early stage of the infection those patients who are prone to develop the most adverse effects. Elevated systemic interleukin-6 levels in patients with COVID-19 are considered as a relevant parameter in predicting most severe course of disease and the need for intensive care. This review discusses the mechanisms by which IL-6 may possibly contribute to disease exacerbation and the potential of therapeutic approaches based on anti-IL-6 biologics.

title: Could hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis be the core issue of severe COVID-19 cases?
abstract: COVID-19, a disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), commonly presents as fever, cough, dyspnea, and myalgia or fatigue. Although the majority of patients with COVID-19 have mild symptoms, some are more prone to serious outcomes, including pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and even death. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a severe, life-threatening inflammatory syndrome associated with intense cytokine release (also known as a “cytokine storm”). Similar to COVID-19, HLH is characterized by aggressive course leading to multi-organ failure.  The purpose of this review article is to draw attention to the possibility of the complication of HLH in patients with the severe course of COVID-19. Indeed, some of the clinical characteristics observed in the more severe cases of COVID-19 are reminiscent of secondary HLH (which can be triggered by infections, malignancies, rheumatological diseases, or autoimmune/immunodeficiency conditions). The pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection also suggests that HLH or a similar hyperinflammatory syndrome is the cause of the severe course of the infection.  The pathogenesis and clinical symptoms of severe COVID-19 indicate that an increased inflammatory response corresponding to HLH is occurring. Therefore, patients with severe COVID-19 should be screened for hyperinflammation using standard laboratory tests to identify those for whom immunosuppressive therapy may improve outcomes.

title: Novel Coronavirus-Induced NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation: A Potential Drug Target in the Treatment of COVID-19

title: CLEC2 and CLEC5A: Pathogenic Host Factors in Acute Viral Infections
abstract: The protective roles of endosomal toll-like receptors (TLRs) and cytosolic nucleic acid sensors are well elucidated, but the pathogenic host factors during viral infections remain unclear. Spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk)-coupled C-type lectins (CLECs) CLEC2 and CLEC5A are highly expressed on platelets and myeloid cells, respectively. CLEC2 has been shown to recognize snake venom aggretin and the endogenous ligand podoplanin and acts as a critical regulator in the development and immunothrombosis. Although CLEC2 has been reported to interact with type I immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), its role in viral infections is still unclear. CLEC5A binds to fucose and mannose moieties of dengue virus membrane glycans, as well as to N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc)/N-acetylmuramic acid (MurNAc) disaccharides that form the backbone of L. monocytogenes peptidoglycans. Recently, we demonstrated that both CLEC2 and CLEC5A are critical in microbe-induced “neutrophil extracellular trap” (NET) formation and proinflammatory cytokine production. Moreover, activation of CLEC2 by dengue virus (DV) and H5N1 influenza virus (IAV) induces the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which further enhance NETosis and proinflammatory cytokine production via CLEC5A and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). These findings not only illustrate the immunomodulatory effects of EVs during platelet-leukocyte interactions, but also demonstrate the critical roles of CLEC2 and CLEC5A in acute viral infections.

title: Cross-talk between the airway epithelium and activated immune cells defines severity in COVID-19
abstract: The clinical course of COVID-19 is highly variable, however, underlying host factors and determinants of severe disease are still unknown. Based on single-cell transcriptomes of nasopharyngeal and bronchial samples from clinically well-characterized patients presenting with moderate and critical severities, we reveal the different types and states of airway epithelial cells that are vulnerable for SARS-CoV-2 infection. In COVID-19 patients, we observed a two- to threefold increase of cells expressing the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2 within the airway epithelial cell compartment. ACE2 is upregulated in epithelial cells through Interferon signals by immune cells suggesting that the viral defense system may increase the number of potentially susceptible cells in the respiratory epithelium. Infected epithelial cells recruit and activate immune cells by chemokine signaling. Recruited T lymphocytes and inflammatory macrophages were hyperactivated and showed a strong interaction with epithelial cells. In critical patients, increased expression of CCL2, CCL3, CCL5, CXCL9, CXCL10, IL8, IL1B and TNF in macrophages was identified as a likely cause of a hyperinflammatory lung pathology. Moreover, we observed exacerbated epithelial cell death, likely leading to lung injury and respiratory failure in fatal cases. Our study provides novel insights into the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and suggests an immunomodulatory therapy along the CCL2, CCL3/CCR1 axis as promising option to prevent and treat critical course of COVID-19.

title: Characteristics of patients with COVID-19 during epidemic ongoing outbreak in Wuhan, China
abstract: Dec 2019, SARS-CoV-2 has caused about fifty thousand patients and over two thousand deaths in Wuhan, China. We reported characteristics of patients with COVID-19 during epidemic ongoing outbreak in Wuhan.  Data of COVID-19 patients with clinical outcome in a designated hospital in Wuhan, were retrospectively collected from electronic medical records. Characteristics were compared between patients who died or recovered, and between patients with different disease severity.  By Feb 25, 2020, 403 patients were enrolled, 100 died and 303 recovered. Most of non-survivors tended to be males, old aged, or with chronic diseases. Duration from illness onset to admission was 9 (7-12) days. Patients with severe or critical illness had more days from onset to admission compared to those with ordinary illness. Lymphopenia, anemia, hypoproteinemia, and abnormal serum sodium were presented in 52.6%, 54.6%, 69.8%, and 21.8% cases, respectively. Patients who died or with severe/critical illness showed increased white blood cell and neutrophil count, serum total bilirubin, creatinine, hypersensitive troponin I, D-dimer, procalcitonin, and C-reactive protein, and decreased red blood cell, lymphocyte, platelet count, and serum albumin on admission compared to those who recovered or with ordinary illness. Complications of acute organ injury and secondary infection were common in patients with COVID-19, especially in non-survivors.  Multiple homeostasis disturbances were common in patients with severe or critical illness at admission. Early support should be provided, especially for old men with chronic disease, which is vital to control disease progression and reduce mortality of COVID-19 during epidemic ongoing outbreak.

title: Hot Topic Commentary on COVID-19
abstract: The recent pandemic outbreak of COVID-19 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; SARS-CoV-2) worldwide caught the health care systems in every country around the world by storm and without a proper defense mechanism to cope and control such a pandemic. In this special Theme issue, we would like to discuss the latest treatment modalities available around the world in tackling this dreadful disease.

title: COVID-19 in persons with haematological cancers
abstract: Infection with SARS-CoV-2, the cause of coronavirus infectious disease–19 (COVID-19), has caused a pandemic with >850,000 cases worldwide and increasing. Several studies report outcomes of COVID-19 in predominately well persons. There are also some data on COVID-19 in persons with predominately solid cancer but controversy whether these persons have the same outcomes. We conducted a cohort study at two centres in Wuhan, China, of 128 hospitalised subjects with haematological cancers, 13 (10%) of whom developed COVID-19. We also studied 226 health care providers, 16 of whom developed COVID-19 and 11 of whom were hospitalised. Co-variates were compared with the 115 subjects with haematological cancers without COVID-19 and with 11 hospitalised health care providers with COVID-19. There were no significant differences in baseline co-variates between subjects with haematological cancers developing or not developing COVID-19. Case rates for COVID-19 in hospitalised subjects with haematological cancers was 10% (95% Confidence Interval [CI], 6, 17%) compared with 7% (4, 12%; P = 0.322) in health care providers. However, the 13 subjects with haematological cancers had more severe COVID-19 and more deaths compared with hospitalised health care providers with COVID-19. Case fatality rates were 62% (32, 85%) and 0 (0, 32%; P = 0.002). Hospitalised persons with haematological cancers have a similar case rate of COVID-19 compared with normal health care providers but have more severe disease and a higher case fatality rate. Because we were unable to identify specific risk factors for COVID-19 in hospitalised persons with haematological cancers, we suggest increased surveillance and possible protective isolation.

title: Vigorous inflammatory responses in noninfectious pulmonary complication induced by donor lymphocyte infusion
abstract: Donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI) is used for treatment of hematologic malignancy relapse or mixed chimerism after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Although graft‐versus‐host disease is well recognized as one of the adverse effects of DLI, there are limited reports on noninfectious pulmonary complications (NIPCs) after DLI.  A 55‐year‐old woman with acute myeloid leukemia received DLI for conversion from recipient predominant to complete donor chimerism on Day +193 after allogeneic HSCT. Eight weeks later, she complained of dyspnea with fever; chest computed tomography revealed diffuse, bilateral, ground glass opacity and reticular appearance. She was diagnosed as having NIPC based on serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) findings. She was successfully treated with prednisolone (PSL) and completely recovered.  We analyzed the cell profile from the BALF and 27 cytokines and chemokines in the serum using the Bio‐Plex platform. The cells consisted of recipient predominant macrophages and T cells. The serum cytokine and chemokine profile showed significant elevation of interleukin (IL)−1β, IL‐6, IL‐8, tumor necrosis factor‐α, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)−1α, and MIP‐1β, which declined with the improvement of symptoms after initiation of PSL treatment.  Inflammatory effectors by recipient cells, rather than allogeneic responses by donor cells, played an important role in the pathogenesis of NIPCs after DLI in the present case.

title: Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus-induced immunosuppression exacerbates the inflammatory response to porcine respiratory coronavirus in pigs.
abstract: We performed a comprehensive analysis of innate and adaptive immune responses in dual-virus infected pigs to understand whether a pre-existing immunomodulatory respiratory viral infection affects the overall immunity to a subsequent porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV) infection in pigs. Pigs were either mock-infected or infected with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), a virus known to cause immunosuppressive respiratory disease, and then pigs were co-infected with PRCV, which normally causes subclinical respiratory infection. We collected samples for six independent experiments from 178 pigs that were also used for pathological studies. We detected a significant reduction in innate NK-cell-mediated cytotoxic function in PRRSV-infected pigs, which was synergistically further decreased in pigs co-infected with PRCV. Subsequently, in association with clinical signs we observed elevated levels of proinflammatory (IL-6), Th-1 (IL-12), and regulatory (IL-10 and TGF-β) cytokines. Increased frequencies of CD4CD8 double-positive T lymphocytes and myeloid cells, in addition to the elevated Th-1 and proinflammatory cytokines in dual-infected pigs, contributed to the severity of lung disease in pigs. The results of our study clarify how each virus modulates the host innate and adaptive immune responses, leading to inflammatory reactions and lung pathology. Thus measurements of cytokines and frequencies of immune cells may serve as indicators of the progression of respiratory viral co-infections, and provide more definitive approaches for treatment.

title: Obesity and COVID-19: immune and metabolic derangement as a possible link to adverse clinical outcomes
abstract: Recent reports have shown a strong association between obesity and the severity of COVID-19 infection, even in the absence of other comorbidities. After infecting the host cells, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) may cause a hyperinflammatory reaction through the excessive release of cytokines, a condition known as "cytokine storm," while inducing lymphopenia and a disrupted immune response. Obesity is associated with chronic low-grade inflammation and immune dysregulation, but the exact mechanisms through which it exacerbates COVID-19 infection are not fully clarified. The production of increased amounts of cytokines such as TNF&#945;, IL-1, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1) lead to oxidative stress and defective function of innate and adaptive immunity, whereas the activation of NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome seems to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of the infection. Endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffness could favor the recently discovered infection of the endothelium by SARS-CoV-2, whereas alterations in cardiac structure and function and the prothrombotic microenvironment in obesity could provide a link for the increased cardiovascular events in these patients. The successful use of anti-inflammatory agents such as IL-1 and IL-6 blockers in similar hyperinflammatory settings, like that of rheumatoid arthritis, has triggered the discussion of whether such agents could be administrated in selected patients with COVID-19 disease.

title: Human iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes are Susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 Infection
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a viral pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 is predominantly defined by respiratory symptoms, but cardiac complications including arrhythmias, heart failure, and viral myocarditis are also prevalent. Although the systemic ischemic and inflammatory responses caused by COVID-19 can detrimentally affect cardiac function, the direct impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on human cardiomyocytes is not well-understood. We used human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) as a model system to examine the mechanisms of cardiomyocyte-specific infection by SARS-CoV-2. Microscopy and immunofluorescence demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 can enter and replicate within hiPSC-CMs, localizing at perinuclear locations within the cytoplasm. Viral cytopathic effect induced hiPSC-CM apoptosis and cessation of beating after 72 hours of infection. These studies show that SARS-CoV-2 can infect hiPSC-CMs in vitro, establishing a model for elucidating the mechanisms of infection and potentially a cardiac-specific antiviral drug screening platform.

title: Deficiency of melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 results in exacerbated chronic postviral lung inflammation.
abstract: Respiratory viral infections can result in the establishment of chronic lung diseases. Understanding the early innate immune mechanisms that participate in the development of chronic postviral lung disease may reveal new targets for therapeutic intervention. The intracellular viral sensor protein melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA5) sustains the acute immune response to Sendai virus, a mouse pathogen that causes chronic lung inflammation, but its role in the development of postviral chronic lung disease is unknown.  To establish the role of MDA5 in the development of chronic lung disease. METHODS MDA5-deficient or control mice were infected with Sendai virus. The acute inflammatory response was evaluated by profiling chemokine and cytokine expression and by characterizing the composition of the cellular infiltrate. The impact of MDA5 on chronic lung pathology and function was evaluated through histological studies, degree of oxygen saturation, and responsiveness to carbachol.  MDA5 deficiency resulted in normal virus replication and in a distinct profile of chemokines and cytokines that associated with acute lung neutropenia and enhanced accumulation of alternatively activated macrophages. Diminished expression of neutrophil-recruiting chemokines was also observed in cells infected with influenza virus, suggesting a key role of MDA5 in driving the early accumulation of neutrophils at the infection site. The biased acute inflammatory response of MDA5-deficient mice led to an enhanced chronic lung inflammation, epithelial cell hyperplasia, airway hyperreactivity, and diminished blood oxygen saturation.  MDA5 modulates the development of chronic lung inflammation by regulating the early inflammatory response in the lung.

title: Oxidative Stress as Key Player in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection
abstract: The emergence of viral respiratory pathogens with pandemic potential, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), the pathogenic agent of Covid-19, represent a serious health problem worldwide. Respiratory viral infections are, in general, associated with cytokine production, inflammation, cell death, and other pathophysiological processes, which could be link with a redox imbalance or oxidative stress. These phenomena are substantially increased during aging. Actually, severity and mortality risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection or Covid-19 disease have been associated with the age. The aim of the present work was to contribute with the understanding of the possible link between oxidative stress and the pathogenesis, severity and mortality risk in patients affected by SARS-CoV infection.

title: Mitochondria and Microbiota dysfunction in COVID-19 pathogenesis
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has taken the world by surprise into a major crisis of overwhelming morbidity and mortality. This highly infectious disease is associated with respiratory failure unusual in other coronavirus infections. Mounting evidence link the accelerated progression of the disease in COVID-19 patients to the hyper-inflammatory state termed as the "cytokine storm" involving major systemic perturbations. These include iron dysregulation manifested as hyperferritinemia associated with disease severity. Iron dysregulation induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and promotes oxidative stress. The mitochondria are the hub of cellular oxidative homeostasis. In addition, the mitochondria may circulate "cell-free" in non-nucleated platelets, in extracellular vesicles and mitochondrial DNA is found in the extracellular space. The heightened inflammatory/oxidative state may lead to mitochondrial dysfunction leading to platelet damage and apoptosis. The interaction of dysfunctional platelets with coagulation cascades aggravates clotting events and thrombus formation. Furthermore, mitochondrial oxidative stress may contribute to microbiota dysbiosis, altering coagulation pathways and fueling the inflammatory/oxidative response leading to the vicious cycle of events. Here, we discuss various cellular and systemic incidents caused by SARS-CoV-2 that may critically impact intra and extracellular mitochondrial function, and contribute to the progression and severity of the disease. It is crucial to understand how these key modulators impact COVID-19 pathogenesis in the quest to identify novel therapeutic targets that may reduce fatal outcomes of the disease.

title: Eosinophil Responses During COVID-19 Infections and Coronavirus Vaccination
abstract: Eosinophils are circulating and tissue-resident leukocytes that have potent pro-inflammatory effects in a number of diseases. Recently, eosinophils have been shown to have a variety of other functions, including immunoregulation and antiviral activity. Eosinophil levels vary dramatically in a number of clinical settings, especially following eosinophil-targeted therapy, which is now available to selectively deplete these cells. There are key COVID-19–related questions concerning eosinophils whose answers affect recommended prevention and care. First, do patients with eosinophilia-associated diseases have an altered course of COVID-19? Second, do patients with eosinopenia (now intentionally induced by biological drugs) have unique COVID-19 susceptibility and/or disease course? This is a particularly relevant question as eosinopenia is associated with acute respiratory deterioration during infection with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)-Corona Virus (CoV)-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Third, do eosinophils contribute to the lung pathology induced during COVID-19 and will they contribute to immunopotentiation potentially associated with emerging COVID-19 vaccines? Herein, we address these timely questions and project considerations during the emerging COVID-19 pandemic.

title: Translation: Management of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Experience in Zhejiang Province, China
abstract: The current epidemic situation of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) still remains severe. As the National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of the Zhejiang University School of Medicine is the primary medical care center for COVID-19 in Zhejiang Province. Based on the present expert consensus carried out by the National Health Commission and National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, our team summarized and established an effective treatment strategy centered on “Four-Anti and Two-Balance” for clinical practice. The “Four-Anti and Two-Balance” strategy includes antivirus, anti-shock, anti-hypoxemia, and anti-secondary infection, and maintaining of water, electrolyte and acid/base balance and microecological balance. Simultaneously, an integrated multidisciplinary personalized treatment is recommended to improve therapeutic effects. The importance of early viral detection, dynamic monitoring of inflammatory indexes, and chest radiographs has been emphasized in clinical decision-making. Sputum was observed with the highest positive rate by RT-PCR. Viral nucleic acids could be detected in 10% of the patients’ blood samples at the acute phase and 50% of patients had positive RT-PCR results in their feces. We also isolated live viral strains from feces, indicating potential infectiousness of feces. Dynamic cytokine detection was necessary to timely identify cytokine storms and for the application of the artificial liver blood purification system. The “Four-Anti and Two-Balance” strategy effectively increased cure rates and reduced mortality. Early antiviral treatment alleviated disease severity and prevented illness progression. We found that lopinavir/ritonavir combined with abidol showed antiviral effects against COVID-19. Shock and hypoxemia were usually caused by cytokine storms. The artificial liver blood purification system was able to rapidly remove inflammatory mediators and block the cytokine storm. Moreover, it also contributed to the balance of fluids, electrolytes, and acids/bases and thus improved treatment efficacy during critical illness. For cases of severe illness, early and also short periods of moderate glucocorticoid administration was supported. Patients with an oxygenation index below 200 mm Hg were transferred to the intensive care unit. Conservative oxygen therapy was preferred and noninvasive ventilation (NIV) was not recommended. Patients with mechanical ventilation were strictly supervised with cluster ventilator-associated pneumonia prevention strategies. Antimicrobial prophylaxis was prescribed rationally and was not recommended, except for patients with a long course of disease, repeated fever, and elevated procalcitonin, similarly secondary fungal infections were of concern. Some patients with COVID-19 showed intestinal microbial dysbiosis with decreased genus such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. Nutritional and gastrointestinal function should; therefore, be assessed for all patients. Nutritional support and application of prebiotics or probiotics were suggested to regulate the balance of intestinal microbiota and reduce the risk of secondary infections due to bacterial translocation. Anxiety and fear were common in patients with COVID-19. Therefore, we established a dynamic assessment and warning for psychological crises. We also integrated Chinese medicine in the treatment to promote rehabilitation. We optimized nursing processes for severe patients to promote their rehabilitation. Since viral clearance patterns after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infections remained unclear, 2 weeks quarantine for discharged patients was required, and a regular following-up was also needed. These Zhejiang experiences and suggestions have been implemented in our center and achieved good results. However, since COVID-19 was a newly emerging disease, more work is warranted to further improve strategies of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment for COVID-19.

title: Profiling COVID-19 pneumonia progressing into the cytokine storm syndrome: Results from a single Italian Centre study on tocilizumab versus standard of care
abstract: Approximately 5% of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) develop a life-threatening pneumonia that often occurs in the setting of increased inflammation or "cytokine storm". Anti-cytokine treatments are being evaluated but optimal patient selection remains unclear, and the aim of our study is to address this point.  Between February 29 to April 6, 2020, 111 consecutive hospitalized patients with COVID-19 pneumonia were evaluated in a single centre retrospective study. Patients were divided in two groups: 42 severe cases (TOCI) with adverse prognostic features including raised CRP and IL-6 levels, who underwent anti-cytokine treatments, mostly tocilizumab, and 69 standard of care patients (SOC).  In the TOCI group, all received anti-viral therapy and 40% also received glucocorticoids. In TOCI, 62% of cases were ventilated and there were three deaths (17.8 ± 10.6 days, mean follow up) with 7/26 cases remaining on ventilators, without improvement, and 17/26 developed bacterial superinfection. One fatality occurred in the 15 TOCI cases treated on noninvasive ventilation and one serious bacterial superinfection. Of the 69 cases in SOC, there was no fatalities and no bacterial complications. The TOCI group had higher baseline CRP and IL-6 elevations (p < 0.0001 for both) and higher neutrophils and lower lymphocyte levels (p = 0.04 and p = 0.001, respectively) with the TOCI ventilated patients having higher markers than non-ventilated TOCI patients.  Higher inflammatory markers, more infections and worse outcomes characterized ventilated TOCI cases compared to ward based TOCI. Despite the confounding factors, this suggests that therapy time in anti-cytokine randomized trials will be key.

title: Targeting JAK-STAT Signaling to Control Cytokine Release Syndrome in COVID-19
abstract: Recent advances in the pathophysiologic understanding of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has indicated that patients with severe COVID-19 might experience cytokine release syndrome (CRS), characterized by increased interleukin (IL)-6, IL-2, IL-7, IL-10, etc. Therefore, the treatment of cytokine storm has been proposed as a critical part of rescuing severe COVID-19. Several of the cytokines involved in COVID-19 employ a distinct intracellular signaling pathway mediated by Janus kinases (JAKs). JAK inhibition, therefore, presents an attractive therapeutic strategy for CRS, which is a common cause of adverse clinical outcomes in COVID-19. Below, we review the possibilities and challenges of targeting the pathway in COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 and Pulmonary Embolism: Not a Coincidence
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2 was reported to be responsible for a cluster of acute atypical respiratory pneumonia cases in Wuhan, in Hubei province, China. The disease caused by this virus is called COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019). The virus is transmitted between humans and the outbreak was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020. Coagulopathy is a common abnormality in patients with COVID-19 due to inflammation, hypoxia, immobilisation, endothelial damage and diffuse intravascular coagulation. However, the data on this topic are still limited. Here we report the case of a man presenting with pneumonia complicated by bilateral pulmonary embolism LEARNING  SARS-CoV-2 is a novel infectious agent that causes COVID-19, which can manifest in several ways, affecting endothelial cells and most organs. There is growing evidence that SARS-CoV-2-mediated endothelial damage is due to direct viral injury and the systemic inflammatory response, possibly together with a cytokine storm. As endothelial damage can manifest as thromboembolic disease, such as pulmonary thromboembolism, appropriate anti-thrombotic preventive strategies should be followed, and proper screening and treatment for thromboembolic complications should be implemented.

title: The epidemiology and clinical information about COVID-19
abstract: In December 2019, pneumonia of unknown cause occurred in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. On 7 January 2020, a novel coronavirus, named as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), was identified in the throat swab sample of one patient. The World Health Organization (WHO) announced the epidemic disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Currently, COVID-19 has spread widely around the world, affecting more than seventy countries. China, with a huge burden of this disease, has taken strong measures to control the spread and improve the curative rate of COVID-19. In this review, we summarized the epidemiological characteristics, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of COVID-19. A comprehensive understanding will help to control the disease.

title: Altered cytokine levels and immune responses in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection and related conditions
abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a global pandemic in early 2020. The infection has been associated with a wide range of clinical symptoms. In the severely affected patients, it has caused dysregulation of immune responses including over-secretion of inflammatory cytokines and imbalances in the proportion of naïve helper T cells, memory helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Identification of the underlying mechanism of such aberrant function of immune system would help in the prediction of disease course and selection of susceptible patients for more intensive cares. In the current review, we summarize the results of studies which reported alterations in cytokine levels and immune cell functions in patients affected with SARS-CoV-2 and related viruses.

title: COVID-19 revisiting inflammatory pathways of arthritis
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, which predominantly affects the lungs and, under certain circumstances, leads to an excessive or uncontrolled immune activation and cytokine response in alveolar structures. The pattern of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced in COVID-19 has similarities to those targeted in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Several clinical studies are underway that test the effects of inhibiting IL-6, IL-1ß or TNF or targeting cytokine signalling via Janus kinase inhibition in the treatment of COVID-19. Despite these similarities, COVID-19 and other zoonotic coronavirus-mediated diseases do not induce clinical arthritis, suggesting that a local inflammatory niche develops in alveolar structures and drives the disease process. COVID-19 constitutes a challenge for patients with inflammatory arthritis for several reasons, in particular, the safety of immune interventions during the pandemic. Preliminary data, however, do not suggest that patients with inflammatory arthritis are at increased risk of COVID-19.

title: COVID‐19 multisystem inflammatory syndrome in three teenagers with confirmed SARS‐CoV‐2 infection
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is generally a relatively mild illness in children. An emerging disease entity coined as pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with SARS‐CoV‐2 (PIMS‐TS) has been reported recently, but is very rare and only affects a very small minority of children. Here we describe the clinical presentations and outcomes of three teenagers with serologically‐confirmed SARS‐CoV‐2 infection admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit for PIMS‐TS. Although their initial presentations were very similar, their COVID‐19‐related disease varied in severity.

title: Acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: experimental and clinical investigations
abstract: Acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) can be associated with various disorders. Recent investigation has involved clinical studies in collaboration with clinical investigators and pathologists on the pathogenetic mechanisms of ALI or ARDS caused by various disorders. This literature review includes a brief historical retrospective of ALI/ARDS, the neurogenic pulmonary edema due to head injury, the long-term experimental studies and clinical investigations from our laboratory, the detrimental role of NO, the risk factors, and the possible pathogenetic mechanisms as well as therapeutic regimen for ALI/ARDS.

title: A single-cell atlas of the peripheral immune response in patients with severe COVID-19.
abstract: There is an urgent need to better understand the pathophysiology of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, which has infected more than three million people worldwide1. Approximately 20% of patients with COVID-19 develop severe disease and 5% of patients require intensive care2. Severe disease has been associated with changes in peripheral immune activity, including increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines3,4 that may be produced by a subset of inflammatory monocytes5,6, lymphopenia7,8 and T cell exhaustion9,10. To elucidate pathways in peripheral immune cells that might lead to immunopathology or protective immunity in severe COVID-19, we applied single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to profile peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from seven patients hospitalized for COVID-19, four of whom had acute respiratory distress syndrome, and six healthy controls. We identify reconfiguration of peripheral immune cell phenotype in COVID-19, including a heterogeneous interferon-stimulated gene signature, HLA class II downregulation and a developing neutrophil population that appears closely related to plasmablasts appearing in patients with acute respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation. Importantly, we found that peripheral monocytes and lymphocytes do not express substantial amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Collectively, we provide a cell atlas of the peripheral immune response to severe COVID-19.

title: Association between renin–angiotensin system inhibitors and COVID-19 complications
abstract: To describe the characteristics of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 (including their long-term at-home medication use), and compare them with regard to the course of the disease. To assess the association between renin–angiotensin system inhibitors (RASIs) and disease progression and critical outcomes.  All consecutive hospitalized patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 in a university hospital in Amiens (France) were included in this study. The primary composite endpoint was admission to an intensive care unit (ICU) or death before ICU admission. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with the composite endpoint. Between 28 February 2020 and 30 March 2020, a total of 499 local patients tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Of these, 231 were not hospitalized {males 33%; median [interquartile range (IQR)] age: 44 (32–54)}, and 268 were hospitalized [males 58%; median (IQR) age: 73 (61–84)]. A total of 116 patients met the primary endpoint: 47 died before ICU admission, and 69 were admitted to the ICU. Patients meeting the primary endpoint were more likely than patients not meeting the primary endpoint to have coronary heart disease and to have been taking RASIs; however, the two subsets of patients did not differ with regard to median age. After adjustment for other associated variables, the risk of meeting the composite endpoint was 1.73 times higher (odds ratio 1.73, 95% confidence interval 1.02–2.93) in patients treated at baseline with a RASI than in patients not treated with this drug class. This association was confirmed when the analysis was restricted to patients treated with antihypertensive agents.  We highlighted a potential safety signal for RASIs, the long-term use of which was independently associated with a higher risk of severe COVID-19 and a poor outcome. Due to the widespread use of this important drug class, formal proof based on clinical trials is needed to better understand the association between RASIs and complications of COVID-19.

title: Harnessing Adenosine A2A Receptors as a Strategy for Suppressing the Lung Inflammation and Thrombotic Complications of COVID-19: Potential of Pentoxifylline and Dipyridamole
abstract: Counterproductive lung inflammation and dysregulated thrombosis contribute importantly to the lethality of advanced COVID-19. Adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR), expressed by a wide range of immune cells, as well as endothelial cells and platelets, exert cAMP-mediated anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic effects that potentially could be highly protective in this regard. The venerable drug pentoxifylline (PTX) exerts both anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic effects that reflect its ability to boost the responsiveness of A2AR to extracellular adenosine. The platelet-stabilizing drug dipyridamole (DIP) blocks intracellular uptake of extracellularly-generated adenosine, thereby up-regulating A2AR signaling in a way that should be functionally complementary to the impact of PTX in that regard. Moreover, DIP has recently been reported to slow the cellular replication of SARS-CoV-2 in clinically feasible concentrations. Both PTX and DIP are reasonably safe, well-tolerated, widely available, and inexpensive drugs. When COVID-19 patients can be treated within several days of symptom onset, using PTX + DIP in conjunction with hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) and an antibiotic - azithromycin (AZM) or doxycycline – might be warranted. HCQ and AZM can suppress SARS-CoV-2 proliferation in vitro and may slow the cell-to-cell spread of the virus; a large case series evaluating this combination in early-stage patients reported an impressively low mortality rate. However, whereas HCQ and AZM can promote QT interval lengthening and may be contraindicated in more advanced COVID-19 entailing cardiac damage, doxycycline has no such effect and exerts a potentially beneficial anti-inflammatory action. In contrast to HCQ, we propose that the combination of PTX + DIP can be used in both early and advanced stages of COVID-19. Concurrent use of certain nutraceuticals – yeast beta-glucan, zinc, vitamin D, spirulina, phase 2 inducers, N-acetylcysteine, glucosamine, quercetin, and magnesium – might also improve therapeutic outcomes in COVID-19.

title: Advances in the Relationship Between Coronavirus Infection and Cardiovascular Diseases
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has once again aroused people's concern about coronavirus. Seven human coronaviruses (HCoVs) have been discovered so far, including HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-HKU115, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Existing studies show that the cardiovascular disease increased the incidence and severity of coronavirus infection. At the same time, myocardial injury caused by coronavirus infection is one of the main factors contributing to poor prognosis. In this review, the recent clinical findings about the relationship between coronaviruses and cardiovascular diseases and the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are discussed. This review aimed to provide assistance for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19.

title: Targeting lymphocyte Kv1.3-channels to suppress cytokine storm in severe COVID-19: Can it be a novel therapeutic strategy?
abstract: In the midst of a pandemic, finding effective treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the urgent issue. In "chronic inflammatory diseases", the overexpression of delayed rectifier K+-channels (Kv1.3) in leukocytes is responsible for the overactivation of cellular immunity and the subsequent cytokine storm. In our previous basic studies, drugs including chloroquine and azithromycin strongly suppressed the channel activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine production from lymphocytes. These findings suggest a novel pharmacological mechanism by which chloroquine, with or without azithromycin, is effective for severe cases of COVID-19, in which the overactivation of cellular immunity and the subsequent cytokine storm are responsible for the pathogenesis.

title: Extension of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on Chest CT and Implications for Chest Radiograph Interpretation
abstract: To study the extent of pulmonary involvement in COVID-19 with quantitative CT (QCT) and to assess the impact of disease burden on opacity visibility on chest radiographs.  This retrospective study included 20 pairs of CT scans and same-day chest radiographs from 17 patients with COVID-19, along with 20 chest radiographs of controls. All pulmonary opacities were semi-automatically segmented on CT images, producing an anteroposterior projection image to match the corresponding frontal chest radiograph. The lung opacification mass (QCTmass) was defined as [(opacity attenuation value+1000 HU)/1000]*1.065(g/mL) * combined volume (cm(3)) of the individual opacities. Eight thoracic radiologists reviewed the 40 radiographs, and a receiver operating characteristics curve analysis was performed for the detection of lung opacities. Logistic regression analysis was done to identify factors affecting opacity visibility on chest radiographs.  The mean QCTmass per patient was 72.4±120.8 g (range, 0.7-420.7), and opacities occupied 3.2±5.8% (range, 0.1-19.8) and 13.9±18.0% (range, 0.5-57.8) of the lung area on the CT images and projected images, respectively. The radiographs had a median sensitivity of 25% and specificity of 90% among radiologists. Nineteen of 186 opacities were visible on chest radiographs, and a median area of 55.8% of the projected images was identifiable on radiographs. Logistic regression analysis showed that QCTmass (p<0.001) and combined opacity volume (p<0.001) significantly affected opacity visibility on radiographs.  QCTmass varied among COVID-19 patients. Chest radiographs had high specificity for detecting lung opacities in COVID-19, but a low sensitivity. QCTmass and combined opacity volume were significant determinants of opacity visibility on radiographs. An earlier incorrect version appeared online. This article was corrected on April 6, 2020.

title: Diarrhea and altered inflammatory cytokine pattern in severe COVID-19: impact on disease course and in-hospital mortality.
abstract: Dynamic changes of immunocyte subsets and inflammatory profiles in coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19) patients with gastrointestinal symptoms were undetermined.  A single center retrospective analysis of 409 severe hospitalized COVID-19 patients from Jan 20 to Feb 29, 2020 was performed. The longitudinal characteristics of immune inflammatory cytokines in patients with/without diarrhea were analyzed. The relations of diarrhea and immuno-inflammatory factors with illness course and clinical outcomes were further explored.  Diarrhea was more common and more serious with longer duration (4.9 ± 1.5 days vs 4.2 ± 1.5 days, P=0.039) and higher frequency (5.5 ± 2.1 times/day vs 4.0 ± 2.0 times/day, P=0.001) in deceased patients than in the survivors. Also, diarrhea patients were more inclined to develop multi-organ damage, who had longer illness course (media 41.0 days vs 36.0 days, P=0.052) and hospital stays (media 27.0 days vs 23.0 days, P=0.041) in survivors, and higher mortality (33.0% vs 22.6%, P=0.045) and earlier death (media 20.0 days vs 25.0 days, P=0.038) in the deceased patients. Progressively neutrophilia and lymphopenia, especially the declined CD8+ T cells, were demonstrated in diarrhea patients relative to the non-diarrhea cases. The inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α were intensively increased in patients with diarrhea. The multivariable logistic analysis showed longer duration of diarrhea (P=0.036), higher neutrophil counts (P=0.011) and lower lymphocyte counts (P<0.001) were independent risk factors of in-hospital death. The proportional hazards model indicated longer duration of diarrhea (P=0.002), higher frequency of diarrhea (P=0.058), higher neutrophil counts (P=0.001), lower lymphocyte counts (P=0.035) and decreased proportion of CD8+ T cells (P<0.001) were independently associated with longer illness course of the survivors.  Diarrhea patients were more likely to present with neutrophilia, lymphopenia and cytokine storm, and to develop multi-organ damage. The inflammatory patterns were independent factors associated with illness course of the survivors and in-hospital death of severe COVID-19.

title: Cardiovascular Complications in Patients with COVID-19: Consequences of Viral Toxicities and Host Immune Response
abstract: Coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) is a cause of significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. While cardiac injury has been demonstrated in critically ill COVID-19 patients, the mechanism of injury remains unclear. Here, we review our current knowledge of the biology of SARS-CoV-2 and the potential mechanisms of myocardial injury due to viral toxicities and host immune responses.  A number of studies have reported an epidemiological association between history of cardiac disease and worsened outcome during COVID infection. Development of new onset myocardial injury during COVID-19 also increases mortality. While limited data exist, potential mechanisms of cardiac injury include direct viral entry through the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and toxicity in host cells, hypoxia-related myocyte injury, and immune-mediated cytokine release syndrome. Potential treatments for reducing viral infection and excessive immune responses are also discussed.  COVID patients with cardiac disease history or acquire new cardiac injury are at an increased risk for in-hospital morbidity and mortality. More studies are needed to address the mechanism of cardiotoxicity and the treatments that can minimize permanent damage to the cardiovascular system.

title: Nutrition, immunity and COVID-19
abstract: The immune system protects the host from pathogenic organisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites). To deal with this array of threats, the immune system has evolved to include a myriad of specialised cell types, communicating molecules and functional responses. The immune system is always active, carrying out surveillance, but its activity is enhanced if an individual becomes infected. This heightened activity is accompanied by an increased rate of metabolism, requiring energy sources, substrates for biosynthesis and regulatory molecules, which are all ultimately derived from the diet. A number of vitamins (A, B(6), B(12), folate, C, D and E) and trace elements (zinc, copper, selenium, iron) have been demonstrated to have key roles in supporting the human immune system and reducing risk of infections. Other essential nutrients including other vitamins and trace elements, amino acids and fatty acids are also important. Each of the nutrients named above has roles in supporting antibacterial and antiviral defence, but zinc and selenium seem to be particularly important for the latter. It would seem prudent for individuals to consume sufficient amounts of essential nutrients to support their immune system to help them deal with pathogens should they become infected. The gut microbiota plays a role in educating and regulating the immune system. Gut dysbiosis is a feature of disease including many infectious diseases and has been described in COVID-19. Dietary approaches to achieve a healthy microbiota can also benefit the immune system. Severe infection of the respiratory epithelium can lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), characterised by excessive and damaging host inflammation, termed a cytokine storm. This is seen in cases of severe COVID-19. There is evidence from ARDS in other settings that the cytokine storm can be controlled by n-3 fatty acids, possibly through their metabolism to specialised pro-resolving mediators.

title: A Dynamic Immune Response Shapes COVID-19 Progression
abstract: The inflammatory response to SARS-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is thought to underpin COVID-19 pathogenesis. We conducted daily transcriptomic profiling of three COVID-19 cases and found that the early immune response in COVID-19 patients is highly dynamic. Patient throat swabs were tested daily for SARS-CoV-2, with the virus persisting for 3 to 4 weeks in all three patients. Cytokine analyses of whole blood revealed increased cytokine expression in the single most severe case. However, most inflammatory gene expression peaked after respiratory function nadir, except expression in the IL1 pathway. Parallel analyses of CD4 and CD8 expression suggested that the pro-inflammatory response may be intertwined with T cell activation that could exacerbate disease or prolong the infection. Collectively, these findings hint at the possibility that IL1 and related pro-inflammatory pathways may be prognostic and serve as therapeutic targets for COVID-19. This work may also guide future studies to illuminate COVID-19 pathogenesis and develop host-directed therapies.

title: Evaluation of Activation and Inflammatory Activity of Myeloid Cells During Pathogenic Human Coronavirus Infection
abstract: Innate immune cells play a vital role in mounting an effective host response to a variety of pathogen challenges. Myeloid cells such as neutrophils and monocyte-macrophages are major innate leukocytes that orchestrate protective immunity to viral lung infections. However, a dysregulated cytokine response can promote excessive infiltration and robust pro-inflammatory activity of neutrophils and monocyte-macrophages, leading to fatal disease. Following virus infection, the beneficial or deleterious role of infiltrating neutrophils and monocyte-macrophages is determined largely by their ability to secrete inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. A majority of studies use the total number of infiltrating cells and their activation status as measures to demonstrate their role during an infection. Consequently, the ability of neutrophils and Inflammatory Monocyte Macrophages (IMMs) to secrete inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and its correlation with the disease severity, is not well defined. In this chapter, we report useful markers to identify lung infiltrating innate immune cells and define their activation status. We also describe a simple method to measure intracellular cytokine production to evaluate the inflammatory activity of neutrophils and IMMs in a mouse model of human coronavirus infection.

title: Treatment of COVID-19-exacerbated asthma: should systemic corticosteroids be used?
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is a new rapidly spreading infectious disease. Current guidance from the World Health Organization (WHO) highlights asthmatics as a high-risk group for severe illness from COVID-19. Viruses are common triggers of asthma exacerbations and the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic raises several questions regarding the optimum management strategies. Here, we discuss the contentious issue of whether the mainstay therapy systemic corticosteroids should be used in the routine management of COVID-19-associated asthma exacerbations. Recent guidance from the WHO has advised against the use of corticosteroids if COVID-19 is suspected due to concerns that these agents may impair protective innate antiviral immune responses. This may not be appropriate in the unique case of asthma exacerbation, a syndrome associated with augmented type 2 inflammation, a disease feature that is known to directly inhibit antiviral immunity. Corticosteroids, through their suppressive effects on type 2 inflammation, are thus likely to restore impaired antiviral immunity in asthma and, in contrast to non-asthmatic subjects, have beneficial clinical effects in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Covid-19 and autoimmunity

title: Adenosine Receptor A2a is Differentially Expressed in CD4(+) T Lymphocytes of Asthmatic and Healthy Individuals
abstract: The endogenous nucleoside adenosine is released in excess during inflammation or other metabolic stress and is generally known to deliver tissue protective anti‐inflammatory effects. Adenosine acts via four adenosine receptors of which the A2a receptor is the predominant form in T cells. Adenosine levels are elevated in asthmatic lung, and adenosine can directly induce mast cell degranulation and bronchoconstriction in these patients. Instead, the role of anti‐inflammatory mechanisms of adenosine on T cells in asthma is unclear.  To study the A2a receptor expression in peripheral blood CD4(+) T cells in asthmatic and healthy individuals using flow cytometric and quantitative real‐time PCR methods.  Unstimulated CD4(+) cells of asthmatic patients expressed significantly lower levels (P < 0.001) of A2a receptor in protein level (mean percentage of cells positive ± SEM: 76.8 ± 1.2, n = 6) compared to healthy individuals (90.4% ± 1.9, n = 4). Double staining for CD69 expression showed that stimulation of CD4(+) cells decreased A2a expression in both groups but indicated that the detected lower levels of A2a in unstimulated cells of asthmatics was not due to preactivation in these patients. Surprisingly, A2a mRNA expression in unstimulated CD4(+) cells was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in asthmatics (n = 28) compared to healthy controls (n = 7). The expression did not correlate with serum total IgE levels.  Asthmatic individuals express less A2a adenosine receptor on their peripheral CD4(+) T cells. The higher mRNA levels instead may point to a negative feedback regulation in the receptor expression. The role of possibly decreased adenosine‐mediated anti‐inflammatory effects in asthma pathogenesis require further studies on this T‐cell mediated disease.

title: Liver diseases in COVID-19: Etiology, treatment and prognosis
abstract: In December 2019, a novel coronavirus named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was identified in Wuhan, China causing coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Numerous studies have shown varying degrees of liver damage in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. However, in previous case studies of COVID-19, the exact cause of liver injury has not been clearly elucidated, nor is there clear evidence of the interaction between liver injury and COVID-19. This study will analyze the causes of liver injury in COVID-19 and the influence of liver-related complications on the treatment and prognosis of COVID-19.

title: [Drugs that aggravate the course of COVID-19 : really ?]
abstract: The safety of NSAIDs, corticosteroids and renin-angiotensin inhibitors in COVID-19 is challenged. NSAIDs may interfere with the defense process against viral infection and are best avoided. Systemic corticosteroids have not shown benefit in viral infection, including other coronavirus; thus they should be avoided, unless prescribed for another indication. The benefit-risk ratio is however clearly in favor of continuing inhaled corticosteroids in patients with asthma or COPD. ACE inhibitors and sartans upregulate the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the pulmonary receptor for SARS-CoV-2. Any possible clinical impact of these treatments on COVID-19 infection remains to be clarified; in the meantime, they should be continued.

title: Effect of Systemic Inflammatory Response to SARS-CoV-2 on Lopinavir and Hydroxychloroquine Plasma Concentrations
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) leads to inflammatory cytokine release, which can downregulate the expression of metabolizing enzymes. This cascade affects drug concentrations in the plasma. We investigated the association between lopinavir (LPV) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) plasma concentrations and the values of acute phase inflammation marker C-reactive protein (CRP).  LPV plasma concentrations were prospectively collected in 92 patients hospitalized at our institution. Lopinavir/ritonavir was administered 12 hourly, 800/200 mg on day 1, and 400/100 mg on day 2 until day 5 or 7. HCQ was given at 800 mg, followed by 400 mg after 6, 24 and 48 hours. Hematological, liver, kidney, and inflammation laboratory values were analyzed on the day of drug level determination.  The median age of study participants was 59 (range 24 up to 85) years, and 71% were male. The median duration from symptom onset to hospitalization and treatment initiation was 7 days (IQR 4;10) and 8 days (IQR 5;10), respectively. The median LPV trough concentration on day 3 of treatment was 26.5 ug/mL (IQR 18.9;31.5). LPV plasma concentrations positively correlated with CRP values (r=0.37, p<0.001), and were significantly lower when tocilizumab was preadministrated. No correlation was found between HCQ concentrations and CRP values.  High LPV plasma concentrations were observed in COVID-19 patients. The ratio of calculated unbound drug fraction to published SARS-CoV2 EC50 values indicated insufficient LPV concentrations in the lung. CRP values significantly correlated with LPV but not HCQ plasma concentrations, implying inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) metabolism by inflammation.

title: NOVEL THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES FOR ALLERGIC RHINITIS
abstract: The last 2 decades have witnessed enormous changes in our understanding of allergic rhinitis. As we have begun to unravel the complex underlying immunologic and inflammatory pathophysiology of the disease, new therapeutic strategies as well as specific molecular and cellular constituents have emerged as potential targets for clinical intervention. These efforts also have shed light on the mechanisms by which current antiallergy medications act—or sometimes fail to be effective.7, 31, 51, 89 The similar pathophysiologic basis for allergic rhinitis and the often comorbid condition, asthma, was underscored in the recently published American Thoracic Society Workshop Summary on the Immunobiology of Asthma and Rhinitis: Pathogenic Factors and Therapeutic Options.(18) In his conclusion, workshop chair, Thomas Casale,(18) counsels readers to consider that “…allergic asthma and rhinitis represent a systemic disease affecting two organs, the lung and the nose. Asthma and allergic rhinitis share many of the same pathogenic factors, but they operate in different parts of the airway. Inflammatory cells and mediators are often the same, and there may be common alterations that occur in the immune system.” Thus, therapeutic strategies and potential therapeutic agents found to be beneficial in the treatment of one airway target may show similar effects in the other. For this reason, and because many of the therapies now being developed are at early stages in their evolution, physicians interested in rhinitis therapy also must examine what is known about these agents in asthma. One avenue of active research has been the role of leukotrienes and other mediators in the pathophysiology of asthma and rhinitis. Three leukotriene modifiers now have been approved for the treatment of asthma in the United States; their potential use in the treatment of rhinitis has been a focus of considerable speculation and investigation. An early “day in the park” study showed that with antileukotriene therapy, patients with rhinitis had demonstrable improvements in their rhinitic symptoms.(29) Roquet et al(83) reported that in the treatment of asthma, there was a synergistic effect when an antileukotriene agent and an antihistamine were used, compared with either drug alone. A product combining an antileukotriene with an antihistamine is currently under development. The most exciting developments, however, may be in the immunology arena. As described by Baraniuk elsewhere in this issue, the pathophysiology of allergic rhinitis is highly complex. Multiple interacting, interdependent, and redundant pathways and molecular and cellular constituents are involved in the pathogenesis of allergic rhinitis. Briefly, exposure of the nasal mucosa to allergen in a sensitized individual leads to the release and further production of inflammatory mediators and the release of cytokines.(5) These released cytokines activate endothelial cells, thereby inducing expression of adhesion receptors on the cell surface and initiating a cascade of events that facilitates transendothelial migration of inflammatory cells. T lymphocytes also are activated by these cytokines. Within a given tissue, specific patterns of cytokines are released, dependent on the dominant subset of local T lymphocytes. These, in turn, lead to the preferential activation and recruitment of specific inflammatory cells and the characteristic cellular inflammation observed in allergic rhinitis.

title: Cytokine Immunopathogenesis of Enterovirus 71 Brain Stem Encephalitis
abstract: Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is one of the most important causes of herpangina and hand, foot, and mouth disease. It can also cause severe complications of the central nervous system (CNS). Brain stem encephalitis with pulmonary edema is the severe complication that can lead to death. EV71 replicates in leukocytes, endothelial cells, and dendritic cells resulting in the production of immune and inflammatory mediators that shape innate and acquired immune responses and the complications of disease. Cytokines, as a part of innate immunity, favor the development of antiviral and Th1 immune responses. Cytokines and chemokines play an important role in the pathogenesis EV71 brain stem encephalitis. Both the CNS and the systemic inflammatory responses to infection play important, but distinctly different, roles in the pathogenesis of EV71 pulmonary edema. Administration of intravenous immunoglobulin and milrinone, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, has been shown to modulate inflammation, to reduce sympathetic overactivity, and to improve survival in patients with EV71 autonomic nervous system dysregulation and pulmonary edema.

title: Immune environment modulation in pneumonia patients caused by coronavirus: SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2
abstract: Currently, we are on a global pandemic of Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) which causes fever, dry cough, fatigue and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) that may ultimately lead to the death of the infected. Current researches on COVID-19 continue to highlight the necessity for further understanding the virus-host synergies. In this study, we have highlighted the key cytokines induced by coronavirus infections. We have demonstrated that genes coding interleukins (Il-1&#945;, Il-1ß, Il-6, Il-10), chemokine (Ccl2, Ccl3, Ccl5, Ccl10), and interferon (Ifn-&#945;2, Ifn-ß1, Ifn2) upsurge significantly which in line with the elevated infiltration of T cells, NK cells and monocytes in SARS-Cov treated group at 24 hours. Also, interleukins (IL-6, IL-23&#945;, IL-10, IL-7, IL-1&#945;, IL-1ß) and interferon (IFN-&#945;2, IFN2, IFN-Î³) have increased dramatically in MERS-Cov at 24 hours. A similar cytokine profile showed the cytokine storm served a critical role in the infection process. Subsequent investigation of 463 patients with COVID-19 disease revealed the decreased amount of total lymphocytes, CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the severe type patients which indicated COVID-19 can impose hard blows on human lymphocyte resulting in lethal pneumonia. Thus, taking control of changes in immune factors could be critical in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: C-X-C Motif Chemokine 10 Contributes to the Development of Neuropathic Pain by Increasing the Permeability of the Blood–Spinal Cord Barrier
abstract: Neuropathic pain is among the most debilitating forms of chronic pain. Studies have suggested that chronic pain pathogenesis involves neuroimmune interactions and blood–spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption. However, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. We modeled neuropathic pain in rats by inducing chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve and analyzed the effects on C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10)/CXCR3 activation, BSCB permeability, and immune cell migration from the circulation into the spinal cord. We detected CXCR3 expression in spinal neurons and observed that CCI induced CXCL10/CXCR3 activation, BSCB disruption, and mechanical hyperalgesia. CCI-induced BSCB disruption enabled circulating T cells to migrate into the spinal parenchyma. Intrathecal administration of an anti-CXCL10 antibody not only attenuated CCI-induced hyperalgesia, but also reduced BSCB permeability, suggesting that CXCL10 acts as a key regulator of BSCB integrity. Moreover, T cell migration may play a critical role in the neuroimmune interactions involved in the pathogenesis of CCI-induced neuropathic pain. Our results highlight CXCL10 as a new potential drug target for the treatment of nerve injury–induced neuropathic pain.

title: The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak
abstract: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is caused by SARS-COV2 and represents the causative agent of a potentially fatal disease that is of great global public health concern. Based on the large number of infected people that were exposed to the wet animal market in Wuhan City, China, it is suggested that this is likely the zoonotic origin of COVID-19. Person-to-person transmission of COVID-19 infection led to the isolation of patients that were subsequently administered a variety of treatments. Extensive measures to reduce person-to-person transmission of COVID-19 have been implemented to control the current outbreak. Special attention and efforts to protect or reduce transmission should be applied in susceptible populations including children, health care providers, and elderly people. In this review, we highlights the symptoms, epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, phylogenetic analysis and future directions to control the spread of this fatal disease.

title: The Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Diabetes Mellitus and Secondary Hyperglycaemia Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019: a Single‐center, Retrospective, Observational Study in Wuhan
abstract: Since the pandemic outbreak of COVID‐19, limited information is available on diabetic patients with COVID‐19.  We retrospectively analysed 166 COVID‐19 patients at Tongji Hospital (Wuhan) from February 8 to March 21, 2020. Clinical characteristics and outcomes (as of April 4, 2020) were compared among control (group 1), secondary hyperglycaemia (group 2: no diabetes history, FPG levels ≥7.0 mmol/L once and HbA1c values <6.5%) and diabetic (group 3) patients.  Compared to group 1, groups 2 and 3 had higher rates of leukocytosis, neutrophilia, lymphocytopenia, eosinopenia, and levels of sCRP, ferritin and d‐dimer (P < 0.05 for all). Group 2 patients have higher levels of LDH, prevalence of liver dysfunction and increased IL‐8 than those in group 1, a higher prevalence of increased IL‐8 was found in group 2 than in group 3 (P < 0.05 for all). The proportions of critical patients in groups 2 and 3 were significantly higher compared to group 1 (38.1%, 32.8% vs. 9.5%, P < 0.05 for both). Groups 2 and 3 had significantly longer hospital stays than group 1, which was nearly one week longer. The composite outcomes risks were 5.47 (1.56–19.82) and 2.61 (0.86–7.88) times greater in group 2 and 3 than in group 1.  Hyperglycemia in both diabetes and secondary hyperglycemia patients with COVID‐19 may indicate poor prognoses. There were differences between secondary hyperglycemia and diabetes patients. We recommend that clinicians pay more attention to the blood glucose status of COVID‐19 patients, even those not diagnosed with diabetes before admission.

title: Antimicrobial strategies: An option to treat allergy?
abstract: Respiratory infections by bacteria and viruses often trigger symptoms of asthma in both adults and children. This observation and subsequent mechanistic studies have demonstrated important interactions among allergens, microbes and the atopic host. The mechanisms responsible for microbe-induced asthma exacerbations are only incompletely understood. A focal point of current research is the inflammatory response of the host following an encounter with a pathogenic microbe, including variations in chemokine and cytokine production and resulting in changes in bronchial hyper-responsiveness and lung function. Direct bronchial infection, exposure of nerves with resulting neurogenic inflammation and a deviated host immune response are among the mechanisms underlying these functional disorders. Lately, suboptimal innate immune responses, expressed as defective interferon production, have gained attention as they might be amenable to intervention. This review describes the suggested mechanisms involved in the complex interactions between ‘asthmagenic’ microbes, the immune system and atopy, based on in-vitro and in-vivo experimental models and epidemiological evidence. In addition, it provides a synopsis of potential therapeutic strategies either directly against the microorganisms or in respect to the associated inflammation.

title: Renin-angiotensin system inhibitors improve the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients with hypertension
abstract: The dysfunction of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) has been observed in coronavirus infection disease (COVID-19) patients, but whether RAS inhibitors, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers (ARBs), are associated with clinical outcomes remains unknown. COVID-19 patients with hypertension were enrolled to evaluate the effect of RAS inhibitors. We observed that patients receiving ACEI or ARB therapy had a lower rate of severe diseases and a trend toward a lower level of IL-6 in peripheral blood. In addition, ACEI or ARB therapy increased CD3 and CD8 T cell counts in peripheral blood and decreased the peak viral load compared to other antihypertensive drugs. This evidence supports the benefit of using ACEIs or ARBs to potentially contribute to the improvement of clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients with hypertension.

title: Impact of immune enhancement on Covid-19 polyclonal hyperimmune globulin therapy and vaccine development
abstract: The pandemic spread of a novel coronavirus – SARS coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) as a cause of acute respiratory illness, named Covid-19, is placing the healthcare systems of many countries under unprecedented stress. Global economies are also spiraling towards a recession in fear of this new life-threatening disease. Vaccines that prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection and therapeutics that reduces the risk of severe Covid-19 are thus urgently needed. A rapid method to derive antiviral treatment for Covid-19 is the use of convalescent plasma derived hyperimmune globulin. However, both hyperimmune globulin and vaccine development face a common hurdle – the risk of antibody-mediated disease enhancement. The goal of this review is to examine the body of evidence supporting the hypothesis of immune enhancement that could be pertinent to Covid-19. We also discuss how this risk could be mitigated so that both hyperimmune globulin and vaccines could be rapidly translated to overcome the current global health crisis.

title: Characterization of a Large Panel of Lactic Acid Bacteria Derived from the Human Gut for their Capacity to Polarize Dendritic Cell
abstract: Dendritic cells (DCs) are the principal stimulators of naïve T helper (Th) cells and play a pivotal regulatory role in the Th1, Th2 and Treg cell balance. DCs are present in the gut mucosa and may thus be target for modulation by gut microbes, including ingested probiotics. Here, we tested the hypothesis that species of lactic acid bacteria, important members of the gut flora, differentially activate DC. A large panel of human gut‐derived Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium spp. was screened for DC‐polarizing capacity by exposing bone marrow‐derived murine DC to lethally irradiated bacteria. Cytokines in culture supernatants and DC‐surface maturation markers were analysed. Substantial differences were found among strains in the capacity to induce interleukin‐12 (IL‐12) and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)‐α, while the differences for IL‐10 and IL‐6 were less pronounced. Bifidobacteria tended to be weak IL‐12 and TNF‐α inducers, while both strong and weak IL‐12 inducers were found among the strains of Lactobacillus. Remarkably, strains weak in IL‐12 induction inhibited IL‐12 and TNF‐α production induced by an otherwise strong cytokine‐inducing strain of Lactobacillus casei, while IL‐10 production remained unaltered. Selected strains were tested for induction of DC maturation markers. Those lactobacilli with greatest capacity to induce IL‐12 were most effective in upregulating surface MHC class II and CD86. Moreover, L. casei‐induced upregulation of CD86 was reduced in the presence of a weak IL‐12‐inducing L. reuteri. In conclusion, human Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium spp. polarize differentially DC maturation. Thus, the potential exists for Th1/Th2/Treg‐driving capacities of the gut DC to be modulated according to composition of gut flora including ingested probiotics.

title: COVID-19, immune system response, hyperinflammation and repurposing antirheumatic drugs
abstract: In the Wuhan Province of China, in December 2019, the novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a severe involvement of the lower respiratory tract leading to an acute respiratory syndrome. Subsequently, coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) provoked a pandemic which is considered a life-threatening disease. The SARS-CoV-2, a family member of betacoronaviruses, possesses single-stranded positive-sense RNA with typical structural proteins, involving the envelope, membrane, nucleocapsid and spike proteins that are responsible for the viral infectivity, and nonstructural proteins. The effectual host immune response including innate and adaptive immunity against SARS-Cov-2 seems crucial to control and resolve the viral infection. However, the severity and outcome of the COVID-19 might be associated with the excessive production of proinflammatory cytokines "cytokine storm" leading to an acute respiratory distress syndrome. Regretfully, the exact pathophysiology and treatment, especially for the severe COVID-19, is still uncertain. The results of preliminary studies have shown that immune-modulatory or immune-suppressive treatments such as hydroxychloroquine, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1 antagonists, commonly used in rheumatology, might be considered as treatment choices for COVID-19, particularly in severe disease. In this review, to gain better information about appropriate anti-inflammatory treatments, mostly used in rheumatology for COVID-19, we have focused the attention on the structural features of SARS-CoV-2, the host immune response against SARS-CoV-2 and its association with the cytokine storm.

title: SARS-CoV-2 Infection and High-Risk Non-Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer: Are There Any Common Features?
abstract: The new severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-2) outbreak is a huge health, social and economic issue and has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. Bladder cancer, on the contrary, is a well-known disease burdened by a high rate of affected patients and risk of recurrence, progression and death.  The coronavirus disease (COVID-19 or 2019-nCoV) often involves mild clinical symptoms but in some cases, it can lead to pneumonia with acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiorgan dysfunction. Factors associated with developing a more severe disease are increased age, obesity, smoking and chronic underlying comorbidities (including diabetes mellitus). High-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) progression and worse prognosis are also characterized by a higher incidence in patients with risk factors similar to COVID-19. Immune system response and inflammation have been found as a common hallmark of both diseases. Most severe cases of COVID-19 and high-risk NMIBC patients at higher recurrence and progression risk are characterized by innate and adaptive immune activation followed by inflammation and cytokine/chemokine storm (interleukin [IL]-2, IL-6, IL-8). Alterations in neutrophils, lymphocytes and platelets accompany the systemic inflammatory response to cancer and infections. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio for example have been recognized as factors related to poor prognosis for many solid tumors, including bladder cancer, and their role has been found important even for the prognosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection.  All these mechanisms should be further analyzed in order to find new therapeutic agents and new strategies to block infection and cancer progression. Further than commonly used therapies, controlling cytokine production and inflammatory response is a promising field.

title: Flattening the COVID-19 Curve With Natural Killer Cell Based Immunotherapies
abstract: Natural Killer (NK) cells are innate immune responders critical for viral clearance and immunomodulation. Despite their vital role in viral infection, the contribution of NK cells in fighting SARS-CoV-2 has not yet been directly investigated. Insights into pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities can therefore be inferred from studies assessing NK cell phenotype and function during SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. These studies suggest a reduction in circulating NK cell numbers and/or an exhausted phenotype following infection and hint toward the dampening of NK cell responses by coronaviruses. Reduced circulating NK cell levels and exhaustion may be directly responsible for the progression and severity of COVID-19. Conversely, in light of data linking inflammation with coronavirus disease severity, it is necessary to examine NK cell potential in mediating immunopathology. A common feature of coronavirus infections is that significant morbidity and mortality is associated with lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome resulting from an exaggerated immune response, of which NK cells are an important component. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of how NK cells respond in both early and late coronavirus infections, and the implication for ongoing COVID-19 clinical trials. Using this immunological lens, we outline recommendations for therapeutic strategies against COVID-19 in clearing the virus while preventing the harm of immunopathological responses.

title: Review on the potential action mechanisms of Chinese medicines in treating Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
abstract: has been declared as a global pandemic, but specific medicines and vaccines are still being developed. In China, interventional therapies with traditional Chinese medicine for COVID-19 have achieved significant clinical efficacies, but the underlying pharmacological mechanisms are still unclear. This article reviewed the etiology of COVID-19 and clinical efficacy. Both network pharmacological study and literature search were used to demonstrate the possible action mechanisms of Chinese medicines in treating COVID-19. We found that Chinese medicines played the role of antivirus, anti-inflammation and immunoregulation, and target organs protection in the management of COVID-19 by multiple components acting on multiple targets at multiple pathways. AEC2 and 3CL protein could be the direct targets for inhibiting severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, isorhamnetin, baicalein, naringenin, and wogonin could be the main active ingredients of Chinese medicines for the management of COVID-19 by targeting on AEC2 and 3CL protein and inhibiting inflammatory mediators, regulating immunity, and eliminating free radicals through COX-2, CASP3, IL-6, MAPK1, MAPK14, MAPK8, and REAL in the signaling pathways of IL-17, arachidonic acid, HIF-1, NF-κB, Ras, and TNF. This study may provide meaningful and useful information on further research to investigate the action mechanisms of Chinese medicines against SARS-CoV-2 and also provide a basis for sharing the “China scheme" for COVID-19 treatment.

title: A Saudi G6PD Deficient Girl Died with Pediatric Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome-COVID-19
abstract: Reports on pediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome (PMIS) temporally related to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are increasing. African and Afro-Caribbean children constituted about 47% of the cases in these reports. Despite the fact that glucose-6-phosphatase dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is common among this population, the G6PD status of these cases has not been reported in these reports. We reported the first case of PMIS related to COVID-19 from Saudi Arabia. This case was a Saudi G6PD deficient girl who died with PMIS related to COVID-19. G6PD deficiency induces redox imbalance and exaggerates the inflammatory response; thus, it might contribute to the development or the grave outcome of our case. We urgently need to assess the association between G6PD deficiency and COVID-19 in a large study as the G6PD deficiency may be a useful predictor for the progression of the COVID-19.

title: Ability of the immune system to fight viruses highlighted by cytometry and TCR clonotype assessments: lessons taken prior to COVID-19 virus pandemic outbreak
abstract: The intriguing aspects of SARS-CoV-2 virus are the high rate of spread and rapid progression of pneumonitis. Confronted with thousands of deaths daily worldwide, we have to build quickly the rationale behind the treatment, taking advantage from past analogues. When a new virus strikes, T-cell receptor (TCR) gamma/delta cells are in the first line of defence, activated by stress molecules and recognising some epitopes in a process that is major histocompatibility complex (MHC) independent but still specific, e.g. cytomegalovirus (CMV), as well as participating in the regulatory mechanism - both characteristics are useful in fighting SARS-CoV-2. The fatalities are mostly due to pneumonitis, in the course of which an overwhelming inflammatory process impairs blood oxygenation, calling for artificial ventilation. In fatal COVID-19 cases the balance between the immune response and the inflammatory outcome fails, due to which the patients at risk, mostly aged, have higher levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and an enhanced inflammatory process in the lung. Apparently there is no feedback control over the antibody production. The investigational use of convalescent plasma, providing antibodies taken from patients who have recovered, was shown to be effective, likely through exerting idiotype associated negative control of antibody production. Similarly, the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) may assist the body regulatory mechanisms, knowing the anti-inflammatory potential of these cells. The use of these two immunotherapeutic tools is understandable on the grounds of basic immunology, whose knowledge may direct the medical community in efforts to fight the virus.

title: Incorporating Issues of Elderly Loneliness into the Coronavirus Disease–2019 Public Health Response
abstract: As the systems that people depend on are increasingly strained by the coronavirus disease–2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, public health impacts are manifesting in different ways beyond morbidity and mortality for elderly populations. Loneliness is already a chief public health concern that is being made worse by COVID-19. Agencies should recognize the prevalence of loneliness among elderly populations and the impacts that their interventions have on loneliness. This letter describes several ways that loneliness can be addressed to build resilience for elderly populations as part of the public health response to COVID-19.

title: COVID-19 and ethnicity: A novel pathophysiological role for inflammation
abstract: There have been recent mounting concerns regarding multiple reports stating a significantly elevated relative-risk of COVID-19 mortality amongst the Black and Minority Ethnic (BAME) population. An urgent national enquiry investigating the possible reasons for this phenomenon has been issued in the UK. Inflammation is at the forefront of COVID-19 research as disease severity appears to correlate with pro-inflammatory cytokine dysregulation. This narrative review aims to shed light on the novel, pathophysiological role of inflammation in contributing towards the increased COVID-19 mortality risk amongst the BAME population.  Searches in PubMed, Medline, Scopus, medRxiv and Google Scholar were performed to identify articles published in English from inception to 18th June 2020. These databases were searched using keywords including: 'COVID-19' or 'Black and Minority Ethnic' or 'Inflammation'. A narrative review was synthesized using these included articles.  We suggest a novel pathophysiological mechanism by which acute inflammation from COVID-19 may augment existing chronic inflammation, in order to potentiate a 'cytokine storm' and thus the more severe disease phenotype observed in the BAME population. Obesity, insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, psychological stress, chronic infections and genetic predispositions are all relevant factors which may be contributing to elevated chronic systemic inflammation amongst the BAME population.  Overall, this review provides early insights and directions for ongoing research regarding the pathophysiological mechanisms that may explain the severe COVID-19 disease phenotype observed amongst the BAME population. We suggest 'personalization' of chronic disease management, which can be used with other interventions, in order to tackle this.

title: Bilateral anterior uveitis as a part of a multisystem inflammatory syndrome secondary to COVID‐19 infection
abstract: During the ongoing COVID‐19 pandemic, there is a global concern about patients presenting with inflammatory syndrome with variable clinical features. Colanfrancesco et al. described COVID‐19 systemic inflammatory reaction that are characterized by a life‐threatening hyper‐inflammation sustained by a cytokines storm which eventually leads to multi‐organ failure. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: ENT manifestation in COVID-19 patients
abstract: to detect, analyze and discuss the different ear nose throat (ENT) manifestations those were reported in COVID19 positive patients in the reviewed and published literatures.  We performed a search in the PubMed databases, Web of Science, LILACS, MEDLINE, SciELO, and Cochrane Library using the keywords; COVID-19, Novel coronavirus, corona, 2019-nCoV, SARS-CoV-2, ENT, ear, nose, throat, otorhinolaryngology, ORL, pharynx, ORL, smell, larynx, different ENT related symptoms. We reviewed published and peer reviewed studies that reported the ENT manifestations in COVID-19 laboratory-confirmed positive patients.  within the included 1773 COVID-19 laboratory-confirmed positive patients, the most common ENT manifestations of COVID-19 were sore throat (11.3%) and headache (10.7%). While the other reported ENT manifestations were pharyngeal erythema (5.3%), nasal congestion (4.1%), runny nose or rhinorrhea (2.1%), upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) (1.9%), and tonsil enlargement (1.3%).  ENT manifestations for COVID-19 are not common as fever and cough. But, a universal questionnaire using well-defined COVID-19 manifestations is needed to make the COVID-19 data precisely defined, complete and homogenous.

title: Recommendations on management of gynecological malignancies during the COVID-19 pandemic: perspectives from Chinese gynecological oncologists
abstract: The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 has rapidly spread globally. Cancer patients are at a higher risk of being infected with the coronavirus and are more likely to develop severe complications, as compared to the general population. The increasing spread of COVID-19 presents challenges for the clinical care of patients with gynecological malignancies. Concerted efforts should be put into managing gynecological malignancies in an orderly manner by strictly implementing the measures that are specifically developed for controlling the spread of COVID-19. We have drafted Recommendations on Management of Gynecological Malignancies during the COVID-19 Pandemic based on our experience on controlling COVID-19 pandemic in China. We recommend that patients with gynecological malignancies should be managed in hierarchical and individualized manners in combination with local conditions related to COVID-19. Medical care decision should be balanced between controlling COVID-19 pandemic spread and timely diagnosis and treatment for gynecologic oncology patients.

title: COVID-19 in a tertiary hospital from Romania: Epidemiology, preparedness and clinical challenges

title: Reduced inflammatory responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection in children presenting to hospital with COVID19 in China
abstract: Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in children is associated with better outcomes than in adults. The inflammatory response to COVID-19 infection in children remains poorly characterised.  We retrospectively analysed the medical records of 127 laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 patients aged 1 month to 16 years from Wuhan and Jingzhou of Hubei Province. Patients presented between January 25th and March 24th 2020. Information on clinical features, laboratory results, plasma cytokines/chemokines and lymphocyte subsets were analysed.  Children admitted to hospital with COVID-19 were more likely to be male (67.7%) and the median age was 7.3 [IQR 4.9] years. All but one patient with severe disease was aged under 2 and the majority (5/7) had significant co-morbidities. Despite 53% having viral pneumonia on CT scanning only 2 patients had low lymphocyte counts and no differences were observed in the levels of plasma proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-6, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha; and interferon (IFN)-gamma; between patients with mild, moderate or severe disease.  We demonstrated that the immune responses of children to COVID-19 infection is significantly different from that seen in adults. Our evidence suggests that SARS-CoV-2 does not trigger a robust inflammatory response or "cytokine storm" in children with COVID-19, and this may underlie the generally better outcomes seen in children with this disease. These data also imply anti-cytokine therapies may not be effective in children with moderate COVID-19.

title: Mouse lung slices: An ex vivo model for the evaluation of antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents against influenza viruses
abstract: The influenza A virus is notoriously known for its ability to cause recurrent epidemics and global pandemics. Antiviral therapy is effective when treatment is initiated within 48h of symptom onset, and delaying treatment beyond this time frame is associated with decreased efficacy. Research on anti-inflammatory therapy to ameliorate influenza-induced inflammation is currently underway and seems important to the impact on the clinical outcome. Both antiviral and anti-inflammatory drugs with novel mechanisms of action are urgently needed. Current methods for evaluating the efficacy of anti-influenza drugs rely mostly on transformed cells and animals. Transformed cell models are distantly related to physiological and pathological conditions. Although animals are the best choices for preclinical drug testing, they are not time- or cost-efficient. In this study, we established an ex vivo model using mouse lung slices to evaluate both antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents against influenza virus infection. Both influenza virus PR8 (H1N1) and A/Human/Hubei/3/2005 (H3N2) can replicate efficiently in mouse lung slices and trigger significant cytokine and chemokine responses. The induction of selected cytokines and chemokines were found to have a positive correlation between ex vivo and in vivo experiments, suggesting that the ex vivo cultured lung slices may closely resemble the lung functionally in an in vivo configuration when challenged by influenza virus. Furthermore, a set of agents with known antiviral and/or anti-inflammatory activities were tested to validate the ex vivo model. Our results suggested that mouse lung slices provide a robust, convenient and cost-efficient model for the assessment of both antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents against influenza virus infection in one assay. This ex vivo model may predict the efficacy of drug candidates’ antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities in vivo.

title: Obesity - a risk factor for increased COVID-19 prevalence, severity and lethality
abstract: Coronaviruses (CoVs), enveloped positive-sense RNA viruses, are a group of viruses that cause infections in the human respiratory tract, which can be characterized clinically from mild to fatal. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the virus responsible. The global spread of COVID-19 can be described as the worst pandemic in humanity in the last century. To date, COVID-19 has infected more than 3,000,000 people worldwide and killed more than 200,000 people. All age groups can be infected from the virus, but more serious symptoms that can possibly result in death are observed in older people and those with underlying medical conditions such as cardiovascular and pulmonary disease. Novel data report more severe symptoms and even a negative prognosis for the obese patients. A growing body of evidence connects obesity with COVID-19 and a number of mechanisms from immune system activity attenuation to chronic inflammation are implicated. Lipid peroxidation creates reactive lipid aldehydes which in a patient with metabolic disorder and COVID-19 will affect its prognosis. Finally, pregnancy-associated obesity needs to be studied further in connection to COVID-19 as this infection could pose high risk both to pregnant women and the fetus.

title: Pyroptosis: Physiological roles in viral infection
abstract: The current review focuses on important aspects of pyroptosis, such as morphological features of inflammasomes, as well as on knowledge about coronavirus infection mechanisms and the association between SARS-CoV-2 infection and cell pyroptosis. The application of immunomodulation therapies to Covid-19 patients is the most promising treatment under investigation nowadays. The possibilities of assistance to help protecting patients from infections are also addressed in the present study.

title: The Digestive System

title: Human monoclonal IgG selection of Plasmodium falciparum for the expression of placental malaria-specific variant surface antigens
abstract: Pregnancy-associatedPlasmodium falciparum malaria (PAM) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in African women and their offspring. PAM is characterized by accumulation of infected erythrocytes (IEs) that adhere to chondroitin sulphate A (CSA) in the placental intervillous space. We show here that human monoclonal IgG antibodies with specificity for variant surface antigens (VSA) specifically expressed by CSA-adhering IEs (VSA(PAM)) can be used in vitro to select parasites from nonpregnant donors to express VSA(PAM) and that this selection for VSA(PAM) expression results in preferential transcription of var2csa. The results corroborate current efforts to develop PAM-specific vaccines based on VAR2CSA.

title: Contribution of Fcγ Receptor-Mediated Immunity to the Pathogenesis Caused by the Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus
abstract: The human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (hRSV) is the leading cause of severe acute lower respiratory tract infections (ALRTIs) in humans at all ages and is the main cause of hospitalization due to pneumonia, asthma, and bronchiolitis in infants. hRSV symptoms mainly develop due to an excessive host immune and inflammatory response in the respiratory tissue. hRSV infection during life is frequent and likely because of non-optimal immunological memory is developed against this virus. Vaccine development against this pathogen has been delayed after the detrimental effects produced in children by vaccination with a formalin-inactivated hRSV preparation (FI-hRSV), which caused enhanced disease upon natural viral infection. Since then, several studies have focused on understanding the mechanisms underlying such disease exacerbation. Along these lines, several studies have suggested that antibodies elicited by immunization with FI-hRSV show low neutralizing capacity and promote the formation of immune complexes containing hRSV (hRSV-ICs), which contribute to hRSV pathogenesis through the engagement of Fc gamma receptors (FcγRs) expressed on the surface of immune cells. Furthermore, a role for FcγRs is supported by studies evaluating the contribution of these molecules to hRSV-induced disease. These studies have shown that FcγRs can modulate viral clearance by the host and the inflammatory response triggered by hRSV infection. In addition, ICs can facilitate viral entry into host cells expressing FcγRs, thus extending hRSV infectivity. In this article, we discuss current knowledge relative to the contribution of hRSV-ICs and FcγRs to the pathogenesis caused by hRSV and their putative role in the exacerbation of the disease caused by this virus after FI-hRSV vaccination. A better understanding FcγRs involvement in the immune response against hRSV will contribute to the development of new prophylactic or therapeutic tools to promote virus clearance with limited inflammatory damage to the airways.

title: Emerging pharmacotherapies for COVID-19
abstract: Novel Corona-virus Disease 2019 (nCOVID 19) is caused by a novel virulent corona virus and leads to potentially fatal virulent pneumonia and severe respiratory distress syndrome. It was initially declared as public health emergency if international concern by WHO followed by Pandemic on 12th March 2020. As of 10th April 2020, more than 1.5 million people are affected globally with around 95,000 deaths. Vaccines for this deadly virus are currently under development and many drugs used for other indications have been repurposed and investigated for prophylaxis and treatment of COVID 19. As per SOLIDARITY trial by WHO, some of the most promising candidates include chloroquine phosphate and hydroxychloroquine which are anti-malarial medications, Remdesivir, Lopinavir-Ritonavir combination with or without interferon which are anti-HIV drugs and convalescent plasma therapy. The current evidence of efficacy and ongoing research has been elaborated in the article. Besides, there has been evidence regarding inflammatory pathogenesis of this virus leading to cytokine storm in susceptible individuals. Thus, anti-proinflammatory cytokine drugs like Anakinra and Tocilizumab are undergoing multiple trials and some results are encouraging. Similarly, use of anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-37 and IL-38 is hypothesised to be useful and is under research. The situation is still evolving and hence there is yet no definitive therapy but to conclude the use of repurposed medications can be a boon till a definitive therapy and vaccines are developed.

title: [Dynamic inflammatory response in a critically ill COVID-19 patient treated with corticosteroids]
abstract: To investigate the effect of corticosteroids therapy on the inflammatory response in a critically ill coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patient.  A 55-year old female patient with critical ill COVID-19 was admitted in Taizhou Hospital on January 19, 2020. The patient was treated with methylprednisolone 80 mg on the 2nd day after admission. Thereafter, the dose was adjusted in a timely manner and the therapy lasted for 13 days. The peripheral lymphocyte subsets (CD3+T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T, NK cells, B cells), as well as serum levels of lymphocyte factors (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-&#945;, IFN-Î³) were dynamically monitored.  On D1 of admission, the numbers of peripheral blood CD3+ T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T, and NK cells were significantly lower than the normal range. With the improvement of the disease, the numbers of CD3+ T, CD8+ T and CD4 + T cells gradually recovered and showed a linear growth trend (linear fitting equation: Y=18.59X+109.4, P<0.05). On D2 of admission, the patient's IL-6 and IL-10 levels were significantly higher than normal values, IFN-Î³ was at a normal high value, and then rapidly decreased; IL-2, IL-4, and TNF-&#945; were all in the normal range. On the D6 and D7, the IL-6 and IL-10 decreased to the normal range for the first time. On the D18, the sputum virus nucleic acid test was negative for the first time, and the fecal virus nucleic acid test was still positive; on the D20 the sputum and fecal virus nucleic acid test were both negative. On D34, the patient recovered and was discharged. At the discharge the muscle strength score of the patient was 44 and the daily life ability evaluation was 90.  In the absence of effective antiviral drugs, early use of appropriate doses of corticosteroids in critically ill patient with COVID-19 can quickly alleviate inflammatory response and improve clinical symptoms, however, it may reduce the number of T cells, and to adjust the dose in time is necessary.

title: Analysis and comparison of the tongue picture of 34 patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome
abstract: To explore the changes of tongue pictures in the developing process of disease in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and to compare the tongue pictures of SARS patients with those of suspected SARS patients. Materials of tongue picture were dynamically collected from 34 SARS patients and 35 suspected SARS patients, and the difference and similarity between them were analyzed. Meanwhile, the changes in clinic symptoms and tongue picture after integrative medicinal treatment were observed. Characteristics of tongue picture in SARS patients were changed along with the progress of the disease, showing that there existed a tendency of the pathogen invading from exterior to interior, from surface to the deep. Also the tongue pictures were varied due to the coexistence of dampness pathogen; the time of the early stage was generally 1–1.5 days, shorter than that of other stages. While in the patients with suspected SARS, the tongue picture was mostly red with thin white or yellow coating, comparatively steady and showing no obvious change along with the development of the disease. Observing the tongue picture and its changes in different stages can be helpful to understanding the property of pathogenic evil and its developing rules, thus offering a basis for clinical treatment.

title: Could Sars-coronavirus-2 trigger autoimmune and/or autoinflammatory mechanisms in genetically predisposed subjects?

title: The Interplay Between Immune Response and Bacterial Infection in COPD: Focus Upon Non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae
abstract: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a debilitating respiratory disease and one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It is characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation due to abnormalities in the lower airway following consistent exposure to noxious particles or gases. Acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD) are characterized by increased cough, purulent sputum production, and dyspnea. The AECOPD is mostly associated with infection caused by common cold viruses or bacteria, or co-infections. Chronic and persistent infection by non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi), a Gram-negative coccobacillus, contributes to almost half of the infective exacerbations caused by bacteria. This is supported by reports that NTHi is commonly isolated in the sputum from COPD patients during exacerbations. Persistent colonization of NTHi in the lower airway requires a plethora of phenotypic adaptation and virulent mechanisms that are developed over time to cope with changing environmental pressures in the airway such as host immuno-inflammatory response. Chronic inhalation of noxious irritants in COPD causes a changed balance in the lung microbiome, abnormal inflammatory response, and an impaired airway immune system. These conditions significantly provide an opportunistic platform for NTHi colonization and infection resulting in a “vicious circle.” Episodes of large inflammation as the consequences of multiple interactions between airway immune cells and NTHi, accumulatively contribute to COPD exacerbations and may result in worsening of the clinical status. In this review, we discuss in detail the interplay and crosstalk between airway immune residents and NTHi, and their effect in AECOPD for better understanding of NTHi pathogenesis in COPD patients.

title: COVID-19 infection results in alterations of the kynurenine pathway and fatty acid metabolism that correlate with IL-6 levels and renal status
abstract: Previous studies suggest a role for systemic reprogramming of host metabolism during viral pathogenesis to fuel rapidly expanding viral proliferation, for example by providing free amino acids and fatty acids as building blocks. In addition, general alterations in metabolism can provide key understanding of pathogenesis. However, little is known about the specific metabolic effects of SARS-COV-2 infection. The present study evaluated the serum metabolism of COVID-19 patients (n=33), identified by a positive nucleic acid test of a nasopharyngeal swab, as compared to COVID-19-negative control patients (n=16). Targeted and untargeted metabolomics analyses specifically identified alterations in the metabolism of tryptophan into the kynurenine pathway, which is well-known to be involved in regulating inflammation and immunity. Indeed, the observed changes in tryptophan metabolism correlated with serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels. Metabolomics analysis also confirmed widespread dysregulation of nitrogen metabolism in infected patients, with decreased circulating levels of most amino acids, except for tryptophan metabolites in the kynurenine pathway, and increased markers of oxidant stress (e.g., methionine sulfoxide, cystine), proteolysis, and kidney dysfunction (e.g., creatine, creatinine, polyamines). Increased circulating levels of glucose and free fatty acids were also observed, consistent with altered carbon homeostasis in COVID-19 patients. Metabolite levels in these pathways correlated with clinical laboratory markers of inflammation and disease severity (i.e., IL-6 and C-reactive protein) and renal function (i.e., blood urea nitrogen). In conclusion, this initial observational study of the metabolic consequences of COVID-19 infection in a clinical cohort identified amino acid metabolism (especially kynurenine and cysteine/taurine) and fatty acid metabolism as correlates of COVID-19, providing mechanistic insights, potential markers of clinical severity, and potential therapeutic targets.

title: The Cytokine Response to Physical Activity and Training
abstract: Cytokines are soluble glycoproteins that are produced by and mediate communication between and within immune and nonimmune cells, organs and organ systems throughout the body. Pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators constitute the inflammatory cytokines, which are modulated by various stimuli, including physical activity, trauma and infection. Physical activity affects local and systemic cytokine production at different levels, often exhibiting striking similarity to the cytokine response to trauma and infection. The present review examines the cytokine response to short term exercise stress, with an emphasis on the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory mechanisms and modulation of both innate and specific immune parameters through cytokine regulation. The effects of long term exercise on cytokine responses and the possible impact on various facets of the immune system are also discussed, with reference to both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of exercise training. Finally, the validity of using exercise as a model for trauma and sepsis is scrutinised in the light of physiological changes, symptomatology and outcome, and limitations of the model are addressed. Further studies, examining the effect of exercise, trauma and infection on novel cytokines and cytokine systems are needed to elucidate the significance of cytokine regulation by physical activity and, more importantly, to clarify the health implications of short and long term physical activity with respect to overall immune function and resistance to infection.

title: Endoplasmic reticulum as a potential therapeutic target for covid-19 infection management?
abstract: In December 2019, many pneumonia cases with unidentified sources appeared in Wuhan, Hubei, China, with clinical symptoms like viral pneumonia. Deep sequencing analysis of samples from lower respiratory tract revealed a novel coronavirus, called 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Currently there is a rapid global spread. World Health Organization declare the disease a pandemic condition. The pathologic source of this disease was a new RNA virus from Coronaviridae family, which was named COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 entry starts with the binding of the spike glycoprotein expressed on the viral envelope to ACE2 on the alveolar surface followed by clathrin-dependent endocytosis of the SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2 complex. SARS-CoV-2 enters the cells through endocytosis process, which is possibly facilitated, via a pH dependent endosomal cysteine protease cathepsins. Once inside the cells, SARS-CoV-2 exploits the endogenous transcriptional machinery of alveolar cells to replicate and spread through the entire lung. Endosomal acidic pH for SARS-CoV-2 processing and internalization is critical. After entering the cells, it possibly activates or hijack many intracellular pathways in favor of its replication. In the current opinion article, we will explain the possible involvement of unfolded protein response as a cellular stress response to the SARS-CoV-2 infection.

title: Targeting Neprilysin (NEP) pathways: A potential new hope to defeat COVID-19 ghost
abstract: COVID-19 is an ongoing viral pandemic disease that is caused by SARS-CoV2, inducing severe pneumonia in humans. However, several classes of repurposed drugs have been recommended, no specific vaccines or effective therapeutic interventions for COVID-19 are developed till now. Viral dependence on ACE-2, as entry receptors, drove the researchers into RAS impact on COVID-19 pathogenesis. Several evidences have pointed at Neprilysin (NEP) as one of pulmonary RAS components. Considering the protective effect of NEP against pulmonary inflammatory reactions and fibrosis, it is suggested to direct the future efforts towards its potential role in COVID-19 pathophysiology. Thus, the review aimed to shed light on the potential beneficial effects of NEP pathways as a novel target for COVID-19 therapy by summarizing its possible molecular mechanisms. Additional experimental and clinical studies explaining more the relationships between NEP and COVID-19 will greatly benefit in designing the future treatment approaches.

title: COVID-19 and Multi-Organ Response
abstract: Since the outbreak and rapid spread of COVID-19 starting late December 2019, it has been apparent that disease prognosis has largely been influenced by multi-organ involvement. Comorbidities such as cardiovascular diseases have been the most common risk factors for severity and mortality. The hyperinflammatory response of the body, coupled with the plausible direct effects of SARS-CoV-2 on body-wide organs via ACE2, has been associated with complications of the disease. Acute respiratory distress syndrome, heart failure, renal failure, liver damage, shock and multi-organ failure have precipitated death. Acknowledging the comorbidities and potential organ injuries throughout the course of COVID-19 is therefore crucial in the clinical management of patients. This paper aims to add onto the ever-emerging landscape of medical knowledge on COVID-19, encapsulating its multi-organ impact.

title: Inflammation During Virus Infection: Swings and Roundabouts
abstract: Inflammation constitutes a concerted series of cellular and molecular responses that follow disturbance of systemic homeostasis, by either toxins or infectious organisms. Leukocytes modulate inflammation through production of secretory mediators, like cytokines and chemokines, which work in an autocrine and/or paracrine manner. These mediators can either promote or attenuate the inflammatory response and depending on differential temporal and spatial expression play a crucial role in the outcome of infection. Even though the objective is clearance of the pathogen with minimum damage to host, the pathogenesis of multiple human pathogenic viruses has been suggested to emanate from a dysregulation of the inflammatory response, sometimes with fatal consequences. This review discusses the nature and the outcome of inflammatory response, which is triggered in the human host subsequent to infection by single-sense plus-strand RNA viruses. In view of such harmful effects of a dysregulated inflammatory response, an exogenous regulation of these reactions by either interference or supplementation of critical regulators has been suggested. Currently multiple such factors are being tested for their beneficial and adverse effects. A successful use of such an approach in diseases of viral etiology can potentially protect the affected individual without directly affecting the virus life cycle. Further, such approaches whenever applicable would be useful in mitigating death and/or debility that is caused by the infection of those viruses which have proven particularly difficult to control by either prophylactic vaccines and/or therapeutic strategies using specific antiviral drugs.

title: Association of chemosensory dysfunction and Covid‐19 in patients presenting with influenza‐like symptoms
abstract: Rapid spread of the SARS‐CoV‐2 virus and concern for viral transmission by ambulatory patients with minimal to no symptoms underline the importance of identifying early or subclinical symptoms of Covid‐19 infection. Two such candidate symptoms include anecdotally reported loss of smell and taste. Understanding the timing and association of smell/taste loss in Covid‐19 may help facilitate screening and early isolation of cases.  A single‐institution, cross‐sectional study evaluating patient‐reported symptoms with a focus on smell and taste was conducted using an internet‐based platform on adult subjects who underwent testing for Covid‐19. Logistic regression was employed to identify symptoms associated with Covid‐19 positivity.  A total of 1480 patients with influenza‐like symptoms underwent Covid‐19 testing between March 3 through 29, 2020. Our study captured 59 of 102 (58%) Covid‐19‐positive patients and 203 of 1378 (15%) Covid‐19‐negative patients. Smell and taste loss were reported in 68% (40/59) and 71% (42/59) of Covid‐19‐positive subjects, respectively, compared to 16% (33/203) and 17% (35/203) of Covid‐19‐negative patients (p<0.001). Smell and taste impairment were independently and strongly associated with Covid‐19‐positivity (anosmia: adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 10.9, 95%CI:5.08‐23.5; ageusia: aOR 10.2 95%CI:4.74‐22.1); whereas, sore throat was associated with Covid‐19‐negativity (aOR 0.23, 95%CI:0.11‐0.50). Of patients who reported Covid‐19‐associated loss of smell, 74% (28/38) reported resolution of anosmia with clinical resolution of illness.  In ambulatory individuals with influenza‐like symptoms, chemosensory dysfunction was strongly associated with Covid‐19 infection and should be considered when screening symptoms. Most will recover chemosensory function within weeks paralleling resolution of other disease‐related symptoms. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

title: Identifying novel factors associated with COVID-19 transmission and fatality using the machine learning approach
abstract: The COVID-19 virus has infected millions of people and resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths worldwide. By using the logistic regression model, we identified novel critical factors associated with COVID19 cases, death, and case fatality rates in 154 countries and in the 50 U.S. states. Among numerous factors associated with COVID-19 risk, we found that the unitary state system was counter-intuitively positively associated with increased COVID-19 cases and deaths. Blood type B was a protective factor for COVID-19 risk, while blood type A was a risk factor. The prevalence of HIV, influenza and pneumonia, and chronic lower respiratory diseases was associated with reduced COVID-19 risk. Obesity and the condition of unimproved water sources were associated with increased COVID-19 risk. Other factors included temperature, humidity, social distancing, smoking, and vitamin D intake. Our comprehensive identification of the factors affecting COVID-19 transmission and fatality may provide new insights into the COVID-19 pandemic and advise effective strategies for preventing and migrating COVID-19 spread.

title: Endocrine and metabolic aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: COVID-19 infection has tremendously impacted our daily clinical practice as well as our social living organization. Virtually all organs and biological systems suffer from this new coronavirus infection, either because the virus targets directly specific tissues or because of indirect effects. Endocrine diseases are not an exception and some of endocrine organs are at risk of direct or indirect lesion by COVID-19. Although there is still no evidence of higher predisposition to contract the infection in patients with diabetes and/or obesity, the coexistence of these conditions contributes to a worse prognosis because both conditions confer an impaired immunologic system. Cytokines storm can be amplified by these two latter conditions thereby leading to multisystemic failure and death. Glycaemic control has been demonstrated to be crucial to avoiding long hospital stays, ICU requirement and also prevention of excessive mortality. Endocrine treatment modifications as a consequence of COVID-19 infection are required in a proactive manner, in order to avoid decompensation and eventual hospital admission. This is the case of diabetes and adrenal insufficiency in which prompt increase of insulin dosage and substitutive adrenal steroids through adoption of the sick day’s rules should be warranted, as well as easy contact with the health care provider through telematic different modalities. New possible endocrinological targets of COVID-19 have been recently described and warrant a full study in the next future.

title: Re-analysis of SARS-CoV-2 infected host cell proteomics time-course data by impact pathway analysis and network analysis. A potential link with inflammatory response
abstract: The disease known as coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), potentially caused by an outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Wuhan, China, has hit the world hard, and has led to an unprecedent health and economic crisis. In order to develop treatment options able to stop or ameliorate SARS-CoV-2 effects, we need to understand the biology of the virus inside cells, but this kind of studies are still scarce. A recent study investigated translatome and proteome host cell changes induced in vitro by SARS-CoV-2. In the present study, we use the publicly available proteomics data from this study to re-analyze the mechanisms altered by the virus infection by impact pathways analysis and network analysis. Proteins linked to inflammatory response, but also proteins related to chromosome segregation during mitosis, were found to be regulated. The up-regulation of the inflammatory-related proteins observed could be linked to the propagation of inflammatory reaction and lung injury that is observed in advanced stages of COVID-19 patients.

title: Convalescent Plasma Coupled With Medications for the Treatment of a Severe COVID-19 Patient: Drugs Analysis and Pharmaceutical Care Based on the Newly Established Guidelines for COVID-19 Remedy
abstract: Given the extreme importance of the current pandemic caused by COVID-19 and due to the fact that scientists agree that there is no identified treatment, this paper analyzes in detail the treatment of a severe COVID-19 patient with convalescent plasma and drugs based on current guidelines for COVID-19 diagnosis and treatment. This can provide a reference for other medical institutions on rational drug use and pharmaceutical care for severe COVID-19 patients.

title: The inhaled corticosteroid ciclesonide blocks coronavirus RNA replication by targeting viral NSP15
abstract: Steroid compounds, which are expected to have dual functions in blocking host inflammation and MERS-CoV replication, were screened from a chemical library. Within this library, ciclesonide, an inhaled corticosteroid, suppressed human coronavirus replication in cultured cells, but did not suppress replication of respiratory syncytial virus or influenza virus. The effective concentration of ciclesonide to block SARS-CoV-2 (the cause of COVID-19) replication (EC90) was 6.3 μM. After the eleventh consecutive MERS-CoV passage in the presence of ciclesonide, a resistant mutation was generated, which resulted in an amino acid substitution (A25V) in nonstructural protein (NSP) 15, as identified using reverse genetics. A recombinant virus with the mutation was also resistant to ciclesonide suppression of viral replication. These observations suggest that the effect of ciclesonide was specific to coronavirus, suggesting this is a candidate drug for treatment of patients suffering MERS or COVID-19.

title: Mesenchymal Stem Cell Derived Exosomes: a Nano Platform for Therapeutics and Drug Delivery in Combating COVID-19
abstract: The recent pandemic situation transpired due to coronavirus novel strain SARS-CoV-2 has become a global concern. This human coronavirus (HCov-19) has put the world on high alert as the numbers of confirmed cases are continuously increasing. The world is now fighting against this deadly virus and is leaving no stone unturned to find effective treatments through testing of various available drugs, including those effective against flu, malaria, etc. With an urgent need for the development of potential strategies, two recent studies from China using Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) to treat COVID-19 pneumonia have shed some light on a potential cure for the COVID-19 infected patients. However, MSCs, despite being used in various other clinical trials have always been questioned for their tendency to aggregate or form clumps in the injured or disease microenvironment. It has also been reported in various studies that exosomes secreted by these MSCs, contribute towards the cell’s biological and therapeutic efficacy. There have been reports evaluating the safety and feasibility of these exosomes in various lung diseases, thereby proposing them as a cell-free therapeutic agent. Also, attractive features like cell targeting, low-immunogenicity, safety, and high biocompatibility distinguish these exosomes from other synthetic nano-vesicles and thus potentiate their role as a drug delivery nano-platform. Building upon these observations, herein, efforts are made to give an overview of stem cell-derived exosomes as an appealing therapeutic agent and drug delivery nano-carrier. In this review, we briefly recapitulate the recent evidence and developments in understanding exosomes as a promising candidate for novel nano-intervention in the current pandemic scenario. Furthermore, this review will highlight and discuss mechanistic role of exosomes to combat severe lung pathological conditions. We have also attempted to dwell into the nano-formulation of exosomes for its better applicability, storage, and stability thereby conferring them as off the shelf therapeutic.

title: Changing dynamics of psychoneuroimmunology during COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: The Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a global health care crisis in recent times. Emerging research suggest an unanticipated impact of COVID-19 on mental and/or psychological health of both the general community and affected individuals. The fear of the COVID-19 epidemic and the consequent lockdown and economic crisis has led to globally increased psychological distress. The biological bases of immediate and new onset of psychiatric symptoms in individuals with COVID-19 are not yet known. COVID-19 infection may lead to activated immune-inflammatory pathways and cytokine storm. Activated immune-inflammatory pathways, especially chronic low-grade inflammation, are associated with major psychiatric disorders in at least a subset of individuals. We propose that both the (sub)chronic inflammatory response and cytokine storm might crucially be involved in the immediate manifestation of neuropsychiatric symptoms in individuals with COVID-19 infection as well as heightened expression of psychiatric symptoms in COVID-19 infected individuals with prior psychiatric conditions. These events might expand concepts in psychoneuroimmunology, with the importance of chronic-low grade inflammation augmented by the cytokine storm hypothesis. Additionally, this might augment and refine diagnosis and prognostic management as well as treatment.

title: The Myeloid LSECtin Is a DAP12-Coupled Receptor That Is Crucial for Inflammatory Response Induced by Ebola Virus Glycoprotein
abstract: Fatal Ebola virus infection is characterized by a systemic inflammatory response similar to septic shock. Ebola glycoprotein (GP) is involved in this process through activating dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages. However, the mechanism is unclear. Here, we showed that LSECtin (also known as CLEC4G) plays an important role in GP-mediated inflammatory responses in human DCs. Anti-LSECtin mAb engagement induced TNF-α and IL-6 production in DCs, whereas silencing of LSECtin abrogated this effect. Intriguingly, as a pathogen-derived ligand, Ebola GP could trigger TNF-α and IL-6 release by DCs through LSECtin. Mechanistic investigations revealed that LSECtin initiated signaling via association with a 12-kDa DNAX-activating protein (DAP12) and induced Syk activation. Mutation of key tyrosines in the DAP12 immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif abrogated LSECtin-mediated signaling. Furthermore, Syk inhibitors significantly reduced the GP-triggered cytokine production in DCs. Therefore, our results demonstrate that LSECtin is required for the GP-induced inflammatory response, providing new insights into the EBOV-mediated inflammatory response.

title: Cytokine Storm in COVID19: A Neural Hypothesis
abstract: Cytokine storm in COVID-19 is characterized by an excessive inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 that is caused by a dysregulated immune system of the host. We are proposing a new hypothesis that SARS-CoV-2 mediated inflammation of nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) may be responsible for the cytokine storm in COVID 19. The inflamed NTS may result in a dysregulated cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

title: The case of Complement activation in COVID-19 multiorgan impact
abstract: The novel coronavirus disease COVID-19 originates in the lungs, but may extend to other organs, causing, in severe cases, multiorgan damage, including cardiac injury and acute kidney injury. In severe cases, the presence of kidney injury is associated with increased risk of death, highlighting the relevance of this organ as a target of SARS-CoV-2 infection. COVID-19-associated tissue injury is not primarily mediated by viral infection, but rather is a result of the inflammatory host immune response, which drives hypercytokinemia and aggressive inflammation that affect lung parenchymal cells, diminishing oxygen uptake but also endothelial cells, resulting in endotheliitis and thrombotic events and intravascular coagulation. The complement system represents the first response of the host immune system to SARS-CoV-2 infection, but there is growing evidence that unrestrained activation of complement induced by the virus in the lungs and other organs plays a major role in acute and chronic inflammation, endothelial cell dysfunction, thrombus formation and intravascular coagulation, and ultimately contributes to multiple organ failure and death. In this review we will discuss the relative role of the different complement activation products in the pathogenesis of COVID-19-associated tissue inflammation and thrombosis and propose the hypothesis that blockade of the terminal complement pathway may represent a potential therapeutic option for the prevention and treatment of lung and multi-organ damage.

title: Efficacy of therapeutic plasma exchange in severe COVID‐19 patients
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) could lead to a sharp increase in the levels of inflammatory cytokines. We report the efficacy of therapeutic plasma exchange in severe COVID‐19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. The results suggested TPE could be used as a strategy to attenuate circulating cytokines and inflammatory mediators.

title: Carry forward advantages of traditional medicines in prevention and control of outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: Members of the China-ASEAN Joint Laboratory for International Cooperation in Traditional Medicine Research used the video conference platform to exchange and discuss the advantages of traditional medicine through the form of score exchange and report, and research and develop the amount and issues of the therapeutic COVID-19 products of concern. This paper manly reviews the achievements of the implementation of the epidemic prevention and control plan, advances of scientific basic studies on SARS-CoV-2, analysis and screening of potential targets and pathways of antiviral compounds based on network pharmacology and development of antiviral food dual-use products. The authors believe that the declaration of the (10+3) special meeting of national leaders on epidemic prevention and control should raise the medical and pharmaceutical issues of common concern. It is the responsibility of our joint laboratory members to accelerate the development of traditional medicine research and industry. Also the authors believe that this exchange will certainly promote the development of the cause of cooperation.

title: Design and implementation of needs-specific critical care response teams

title: Covid-19: A systemic disease treated with a wide-ranging approach: A case report
abstract: At the end of December 2019, the Health Commission of the city of Wuhan, China, alerted the World Health Organization (WHO) to a pneumonia cluster in the city. The cause was identified as being a new virus, later named SARS-CoV-2. We can distinguish three clinical phases of the disease with a distinct pathogenesis, manifestations and prognosis. Here, we describe the case of a 45-year-old male, successfully treated for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). The patient was feeling sick in early April 2020; he had a fever and pharyngodynia. When he came to our COVID hospital, his breathing was normal. The nasopharyngeal swab specimen turned out positive. High-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) showed mild interstitial pneumonia. The patient was admitted to our department and treated with hydroxychloroquine, ritonavir, darunavir, azithromycin and enoxaparin. On day seven of the disease, the patient's respiratory condition got worse as he was developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). He was given tocilizumab and corticosteroids and was immediately treated with non-invasive mechanical ventilation (NIMV). His condition improved, and in the ensuing days, the treatment gradually switched to a high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC); after 18 days, the patient's clinical condition was good.The successful results we have been able to obtain are closely associated with avoidance of invasive ventilation that may lead to intensive care unit (ICU)-related superinfections. In our opinion, it is fundamental to understand that COVID-19 is a systemic disease that is a consequence of an overwhelming inflammatory response, which can cause severe medical conditions, even in young patients.

title: COVID‐19, chronicle of an expected pandemic
abstract: What are the causes, parameters, and effects of this disease? What are the short‐ and long‐term prospects? Philippe Sansonetti, Infectious disease specialist and Chief Editor of EMBO Molecular Medicine, explains why the fate of the epidemic is in our hands.[Image: see text]

title: Exercise-induced immune system response: Anti-inflammatory status on peripheral and central organs
abstract: A wide array of molecular pathways has been investigated during the past decade in order to understand the mechanisms by which the practice of physical exercise promotes neuroprotection and reduces the risk of developing communicable and non-communicable chronic diseases. While a single session of physical exercise may represent a challenge for cell homeostasis, repeated physical exercise sessions will improve immunosurveillance and immunocompetence. Additionally, immune cells from the central nervous system will acquire an anti-inflammatory phenotype, protecting central functions from age-induced cognitive decline. This review highlights the exercise-induced anti-inflammatory effect on the prevention or treatment of common chronic clinical and experimental settings. It also suggests the use of pterins in biological fluids as sensitive biomarkers to follow the anti-inflammatory effect of physical exercise.

title: Integrative Network Biology Framework Elucidates Molecular Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis
abstract: COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease 2019) is a respiratory illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). While the pathophysiology of this deadly virus is complex and largely unknown, we employ a network biology-fueled approach and integrated multiomics data pertaining to lung epithelial cells-specific coexpression network and human interactome to generate Calu-3-specific human-SARS-CoV-2 Interactome (CSI). Topological clustering and pathway enrichment analysis show that SARS-CoV-2 target central nodes of host-viral network that participate in core functional pathways. Network centrality analyses discover 28 high-value SARS-CoV-2 targets, which are possibly involved in viral entry, proliferation and survival to establish infection and facilitate disease progression. Our probabilistic modeling framework elucidates critical regulatory circuitry and molecular events pertinent to COVID-19, particularly the host modifying responses and cytokine storm. Overall, our network centric analyses reveal novel molecular components, uncover structural and functional modules, and provide molecular insights into SARS-CoV-2 pathogenicity.

title: Oleoylethanolamide, A Bioactive Lipid Amide, as A Promising Treatment Strategy for Coronavirus/COVID-19
abstract: The current outbreak of COVID-19 (coronavirus) has been identified by World Health Organization (WHO) as a global pandemic. With the emergence of the COVID-19 virus and considering the lack of effective pharmaceutical treatment for it, there is an urgent need to identify safe and effective drugs or potential adjuvant therapy in this regard. Bioactive lipids with an array of known health-promoting properties can be suggested as effective agents in alleviating acute respiratory stress induced by virus. The bioactive lipid amide, oleoylethanolamide (OEA), due to several distinctive homeostatic properties, including anti-inflammatory activities, modulation of immune response, and anti-oxidant effects can be considered as a novel potential pharmacological alternative for the management of COVID-19.

title: Transcriptomic profiling of disease severity in patients with COVID-19 reveals role of blood clotting and vasculature related genes
abstract: COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 manifests as a range of symptoms. Understanding the molecular mechanisms responsible for immuno-pathogenesis of disease is important for treatment and management of COVID-19. We examined host transcriptomes in moderate and severe COVID-19 cases with a view to identifying pathways that affect its progression. RNA extracted from whole blood of COVID-19 cases was analysed by microarray analysis. Moderate and severe cases were compared with healthy controls and differentially regulated genes (DEGs) categorized into cellular pathways. DEGs in COVID-19 cases were mostly related to host immune activation and cytokine signaling, pathogen uptake, host defenses, blood and vasculature genes, and SARS-CoV-2- and other virus- affected pathways. The DEGs in these pathways were increased in severe compared with moderate cases. In a severe COVID-19 patient with an unfavourable outcome we observed dysregulation of genes in platelet homeostasis and cardiac conduction and fibrin clotting with disease progression.

title: ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression by clinical, HLA, immune, and microbial correlates across 34 human cancers and matched normal tissues: implications for SARS-COV-2 COVID-19
abstract: Pandemic COVID-19 by SARS-COV-2 infection is facilitated by the ACE2 receptor and protease TMPRSS2. Modestly sized case series have described clinical factors associated with COVID-19, while ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression analyses have been described in some cell types. Cancer patients may have worse outcomes to COVID-19.  We performed an integrated study of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 gene expression across and within organ systems, by normal versus tumor, across several existing databases (The Cancer Genome Atlas, Census of Immune Single Cell Expression Atlas, The Human Cell Landscape, and more). We correlated gene expression with clinical factors (including but not limited to age, gender, race, BMI and smoking history), HLA genotype, immune gene expression patterns, cell subsets, and single-cell sequencing as well as commensal microbiome.  Matched normal tissues generally display higher ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression compared with cancer, with normal and tumor from digestive organs expressing the highest levels. No clinical factors were consistently identified to be significantly associated with gene expression levels though outlier organ systems were observed for some factors. Similarly, no HLA genotypes were consistently associated with gene expression levels. Strong correlations were observed between ACE2 expression levels and multiple immune gene signatures including interferon-stimulated genes and the T cell-inflamed phenotype as well as inverse associations with angiogenesis and transforming growth factor-{beta} signatures. ACE2 positively correlated with macrophage subsets across tumor types. TMPRSS2 was less associated with immune gene expression but was strongly associated with epithelial cell abundance. Single-cell sequencing analysis across nine independent studies demonstrated little to no ACE2 or TMPRSS2 expression in lymphocytes or macrophages. ACE2 and TMPRSS2 gene expression associated with commensal microbiota in matched normal tissues particularly from colorectal cancers, with distinct bacterial populations showing strong associations.  We performed a large-scale integration of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 gene expression across clinical, genetic, and microbiome domains. We identify novel associations with the microbiota and confirm host immunity associations with gene expression. We suggest caution in interpretation regarding genetic associations with ACE2 expression suggested from smaller case series.

title: Mechanism of thrombocytopenia in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Since December 2019, a novel coronavirus has spread throughout China and across the world, causing a continuous increase in confirmed cases within a short period of time. Some studies reported cases of thrombocytopenia, but hardly any studies mentioned how the virus causes thrombocytopenia. We propose several mechanisms by which coronavirus disease 2019 causes thrombocytopenia to better understand this disease and provide more clinical treatment options.

title: Cardiac Tamponade Secondary to COVID-19
abstract: A 67-year-old female presented with upper respiratory symptoms and was diagnosed with COVID-19. She was found to have a large hemorrhagic pericardial effusion with echocardiographic signs of tamponade and mild left ventricular impairment. Clinical course was complicated by development of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. She was treated with pericardiocentesis, colchicine, corticosteroids and hydroxychloroquine with improvement in symptoms.

title: Acute inflammation and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection: Cannabidiol as a potential anti-inflammatory treatment?

title: Clinical Efficacy of Intravenous Immunoglobulin Therapy in Critical Patients with COVID-19: A multicenter retrospective cohort study
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread all over the world, causing more than 1.5 million infections and over ten thousands of deaths in a short period of time. However, little is known about its pathological mechanism, and there are still no clinical study reports on specific treatment. The purpose of this study is to determine the clinical efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy on COVID-19.  In this multicenter retrospective cohort study, adult critical COVID-19 patients (including severe type and critical type, according to the clinical classification defined by National Health Commission of China) in 8 government designated treatment center in China from Dec 23, 2019 to Mar 31, 2020 were enrolled. Demographic, clinical, treatment, and laboratory data, prognosis were extracted from electronic medical records, and IVIG was exposure factor. Primary outcomes were the 28 days and 60 days mortality, and secondary outcomes were the total length of in-hospital and the total duration of the disease. Meanwhile, the parameters of inflammation response and organ function were detected. The risk factors were determined by COX proportional hazards model. The subgroup analysis was carried out according to clinical classification of COVID-19, IVIG dosage and timing.  325patients were included in this study, of whom 222 (68%) were severe type, 103 (32%) were critical type. 42 (13%) died in 28 days within hospitalization, total 54 (17%) died in 60 days, and 6 (3%) died in severe type, 48 (47%) died in critical type. 174 cases were used IVIG, and 151 cases were not. Compared with the baseline characteristics between two groups, the results showed that the patients in IVIG group had higher Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHII) score, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score, IL-6 and lactate level, lower lymphocyte count and oxygenation index (all P<0.05). The 28 day and 60 day mortality did not improve with IVIG in overall patients. The in-hospital stay and the total duration of disease were longer in IVIG group (p<0.001). Risk factors were clinical classification (hazards ratio 0.126, 95% confidence interval 0.039-0.413, P=0.001), and using IVIG (hazards ratio 0.252, 95% confidence interval 0.107-0.591, P=0.002) with COX regression. Subgroup analysis showed that only in patients with critical type, IVIG could significantly reduce the 28 day mortality, decrease the inflammatory response and improve some organ functions (all p<0.05), and 60-day mortality reduced significantly by using IVIG in the early stage (admission[≤]7 days) and with high dose (>15 g/d).  Early and high dose of IVIG therapy may improve the prognosis of COVID-19 patients only in critical type, which provides the clinical basis for the choice of treatment population and method of IVIG therapy for the SARS-CoV-2 infection.  SARS-COV-2, COVID-19, IVIG, clinical efficacy, mortality

title: Pulmonary intravascular coagulation in COVID-19: possible pathogenesis and recommendations on anticoagulant/thrombolytic therapy

title: COVID-19: immunopathology and its implications for therapy
abstract: Severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is characterized by pneumonia, lymphopenia, exhausted lymphocytes and a cytokine storm. Significant antibody production is observed; however, whether this is protective or pathogenic remains to be determined. Defining the immunopathological changes in patients with COVID-19 provides potential targets for drug discovery and is important for clinical management.

title: The role of chemokines and chemokine receptors in multiple sclerosis
abstract: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease that is characterized by leukocyte infiltration and subsequent axonal damage, demyelinating inflammation, and formation of sclerosing plaques in brain tissue. The results of various studies in patients indicate that autoimmunity and inflammation make an important impact on the pathogenesis of MS. Chemokines are key mediators of inflammation development and cell migration, mediating various immune cell responses, including chemotaxis and immune activation, and are important in immunity and inflammation, therefore we focus on chemokines and their receptors in multiple sclerosis. In this article, we summarize the study of the role of prominent chemokines and their receptors in MS patients and MS animal modelsand discuss their potential significance in inflammatory injury and repair of MS. We have also summarized the progress in the treatment of multiple sclerosis antagonists in recent years with chemokine receptors as targets.

title: The Potential of Various Nanotechnologies for Coronavirus Diagnosis/Treatment Highlighted through a Literature Analysis
abstract: see text] With the current COVID-19 outbreak, it has become essential to develop efficient methods for the treatment and detection of this virus. Among the new approaches that could be tested, that relying on nanotechnology finds one of its main grounds in the similarity between nanoparticle (NP) and coronavirus (COV) sizes, which promotes NP–COV interactions. Since COVID-19 is very recent, most studies in this field have focused on other types of coronavirus than COVID-19, such as those involved in MERS or SARS diseases. Although their number is limited, they have led to promising results on various COV using a wide range of different types of nanosystems, e.g., nanoparticles, quantum dos, or nanoassemblies of polymers/proteins. Additional efforts deserve to be spent in this field to consolidate these findings. Here, I first summarize the different nanotechnology-based methods used for COV detection, i.e., optical, electrical, or PCR ones, whose sensitivity was improved by the presence of nanoparticles. Furthermore, I present vaccination methods, which comprise nanoparticles used either as adjuvants or as active principles. They often yield a better-controlled immune response, possibly due to an improved antigen presentation/processing than in non-nanoformulated vaccines. Certain antiviral approaches also took advantage of nanoparticle uses, leading to specific mechanisms such as the blocking of virus replication at the cellular level or the reduction of a COV induced apoptotic cellular death.

title: A Rapid Advice Guideline for the Prevention of Novel Coronavirus Through Nutritional Intervention
abstract: An unexpected and sudden outbreak of a novel infection known as a coronavirus (COVID-19) has imposed important problems to global well-being and economy. Based upon current researches, this virus is spreading from one human to another through respiratory droplets, i.e. cough and sneeze. Till now, there has not been any specific treatment found for this virus. Hence, there is a critical need to discover alternative techniques to cope with the current scenario.  This review conducted an online search for prevention of coronavirus infection with the help of nutritional interventions. It has been observed that the effect of the virus is mostly on the individual with low immunity, individual affected with diseases like diabetes, and individual using any immune-suppressed drug or having past history of major surgeries or severe medical conditions.  Therefore, consuming foods which boost immunity helps in preventing respiratory-related disorder or suppressing diseases-related problems, which could be helpful in controlling the spread of this virus. In conclusion, it has been suggested that before the beginning of generalised treatments and interventions in each infected patient, nutritional status should be evaluated, as it can help in creating a specific nutrition intervention for the infected individual.

title: Meta-analysis of transcriptomes of SARS-Cov2 infected human lung epithelial cells identifies transmembrane serine proteases co-expressed with ACE2 and biological processes related to viral entry, immunity, inflammation and cellular stress
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic resulting from the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which emerged in December 2019 in the Chinese city of Wuhan in the province Hubei has placed immense burden on national economies and global health. At present neither vaccination nor therapies are available although several antiviral agents such as remdesivir, originally an Ebola drug, nelfinavir, an HIV-1 protease inhibitor and other drugs such as lopinavir have been evaluated. Here, we performed a meta-analysis of RNA-sequencing data from three studies employing human lung epithelial cells. Of these one focused on lung epithelial cells infected with SARS-CoV-2. We aimed at identifying genes co-expressed with angiotensin I converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) the human cell entry receptor of SARS-CoV-2, and unveiled several genes correlated or inversely correlated with high significance, among the most significant of these was the transmembrane serine protease 4 (TMPRSS4). Serine proteases are known to be involved in the infection process by priming the virus spike protein. Pathway analysis revealed papilloma virus infection amongst the most significantly correlated pathways. Gene Ontologies revealed regulation of viral life cycle, immune responses, pro-inflammatory responses-several interleukins such as IL6, IL1, IL20 and IL33, IFI16 regulating the interferon response to a virus, chemo-attraction of macrophages, last and not least cellular stress resulting from activated Reactive Oxygen Species. We believe that this dataset will aid in a better understanding of the molecular mechanism(s) underlying COVID-19.

title: Treatment of COVID-19 with pentoxifylline: Could it be a potential adjuvant therapy?
abstract: The world is facing a viral pandemic of a new coronavirus called COVID-19. Pentoxifylline is a methyl-xanthine derivative and it inhibits the phosphodiesterase IV (PDE IV). This drug is known for its unique features as an immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory agent, also it could have antiviral affects. This is a scoping review, in which all related articles on COVID-19 and the probable benefits of Pentoxifylline against COVID-19 pathogenesis, in Medline, Scopus, Web of Sciences, and Google Scholar up to 20 March 2020 with proper keywords including: pentoxifylline, Pentoxil, COVID-19, coronavirus, treatment, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antifibrosis, oxygenation, circulation, bronchodilator, ARDS, and organ failure. We found many confirmatory data on proper efficacy of pentoxifylline on controlling COVID-19 and its consequences. The antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, immune-modulatory, bronchodilator and respiratory supportive effects and protective roles in organ failures of PTX, along with its main functions means better circulation-oxygenation properties, low price and safety, make it a promising drug to be considered for COVID-19 treatment, especially as an adjuvant therapy in combination with other drugs.

title: Decreased plasma levels of the survival factor renalase are associated with worse outcomes in COVID-19
abstract: Renalase (RNLS), a novel secreted plasma flavoprotein, has anti-inflammatory effects in a variety of disease processes. Severe COVID-19 disease is associated with disordered inflammatory responses. We hypothesized that reduced plasma RNLS levels could be a marker of COVID-19 disease severity.  Plasma was collected from 51 hospitalized COVID-19 patients and 15 uninfected non-hospitalized controls. Plasma RNLS and cytokine levels were measured and sociodemographic and clinical data were collected from chart review. Data were analyzed using nonparametric analyses and Kaplan Meir curve log rank analysis.  Plasma RNLs levels were negatively correlated with inflammatory markers, including IL-1b, IL-6, and TNFa (p = 0.04, p = 0.03, p = 0.01, respectively). Patients with COVID-19 disease had lower levels of RNLS than controls. Lower levels of RNLS were associated with more severe disease among COVID-19 patients. Low RNLS was also associated with worse survival among COVID-19 patients (HR = 4.54; 95% CI: 1.06-19.43; p = 0.005).  Low plasma RNLS levels are associated with severe COVID-19 disease and may be a useful additional biomarker when identifying patients with severe COVID-19 disease. Given RNLS anti-inflammatory properties and negative correlation with inflammatory markers, these findings also suggest evidence of a potential pathophysiological mechanism for severe COVID-19 disease.

title: Relationship of chest CT score with clinical characteristics of 108 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China
abstract: In December 2019, the outbreak of a disease subsequently termed COVID-19 occurred in Wuhan, China. The number of cases increased rapidly and spread to six continents. However, there is limited information on the chest computed tomography (CT) results of affected patients. Chest CT can assess the severity of COVID-19 and has sufficient sensitivity to assess changes in response to glucocorticoid therapy.  Analyze COVID-19 patients to determine the relationships of clinical characteristics, chest CT score, and levels of inflammatory mediators.  This retrospective, single-center case series of 108 consecutive hospitalized patients with confirmed COVID-19 at Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College of HUST (Wuhan, China) examined patients admitted from January 28 to February 20, 2020. Patient demographics, comorbidities, clinical findings, chest CT results, and CT scores of affected lung parenchyma were recorded. The relationships between chest CT score with levels of systemic inflammatory mediators were determined.  All patients exhibited signs of significant systemic inflammation, including increased levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), procalcitonin, chest CT score, and a decreased lymphocyte (LY) count. Chest CT score had positive associations with white blood cell (WBC) count, CRP, ESR, procalcitonin, and abnormal coagulation function, and a negative association with LY count. Treatment with a glucocorticoid increased the LY count, reduced the CT score and CRP level, and improved coagulation function.  COVID-19 infection is characterized by a systemic inflammatory response that affects the lungs, blood, digestive system, and circulatory systems. The chest CT score is a good indicator of the extent of systemic inflammation. Glucocorticoid treatment appears to reduce systemic inflammation in these patients.

title: Repurposing of clinically approved drugs for treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 in a 2019-novel coronavirus-related coronavirus model
abstract: Medicines for the treatment of 2019-novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections are urgently needed. However, drug screening using live 2019-nCoV requires high-level biosafety facilities, which imposes an obstacle for those institutions without such facilities or 2019-nCoV. This study aims to repurpose the clinically approved drugs for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a 2019-nCoV-related coronavirus model.  A 2019-nCoV-related pangolin coronavirus GX_P2V/pangolin/2017/Guangxi was described. Whether GX_P2V uses angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the cell receptor was investigated by using small interfering RNA (siRNA) -mediated silencing of ACE2. The pangolin coronavirus model was used to identify drug candidates for treating 2019-nCoV infection. Two libraries of 2406 clinically approved drugs were screened for their ability to inhibit cytopathic effects on Vero E6 cells by GX_P2V infection. The anti-viral activities and anti-viral mechanisms of potential drugs were further investigated. Viral yields of RNAs and infectious particles were quantified by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and plaque assay, respectively.  The spike protein of coronavirus GX_P2V shares 92.2% amino acid identity with that of 2019-nCoV isolate Wuhan-hu-1, and uses ACE2 as the receptor for infection just like 2019-nCoV. Three drugs, including cepharanthine (CEP), selamectin, and mefloquine hydrochloride, exhibited complete inhibition of cytopathic effects in cell culture at 10 μmol/L. CEP demonstrated the most potent inhibition of GX_P2V infection, with a concentration for 50% of maximal effect [EC(50)] of 0.98 μmol/L. The viral RNA yield in cells treated with 10 μmol/L CEP was 15,393-fold lower than in cells without CEP treatment ([6.48 ± 0.02] × 10(−4)vs. 1.00 ± 0.12, t = 150.38, P < 0.001) at 72 h post-infection (p.i.). Plaque assays found no production of live viruses in media containing 10 μmol/L CEP at 48 h p.i. Furthermore, we found CEP had potent anti-viral activities against both viral entry (0.46 ± 0.12, vs.1.00 ± 0.37 t = 2.42, P < 0.05) and viral replication ([6.18 ± 0.95] × 10(−4)vs. 1.00 ± 0.43, t = 3.98, P < 0.05).  Our pangolin coronavirus GX_P2V is a workable model for 2019-nCoV research. CEP, selamectin, and mefloquine hydrochloride are potential drugs for treating 2019-nCoV infection. Our results strongly suggest that CEP is a wide-spectrum inhibitor of pan-betacoronavirus, and further study of CEP for treatment of 2019-nCoV infection is warranted.

title: An open resource for T cell phenotype changes in COVID-19 identifies IL-10-producing regulatory T cells as characteristic of severe cases
abstract: The pandemic spread of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 is due, in part, to the immunological properties of the host-viral interaction. The clinical presentation varies greatly from individual to individual, with asymptomatic carriers, mild to moderate-presenting patients and severely affected patients. Variation in immune response to SARS-CoV-2 may underlie this clinical variation. Using a high dimensional systems immunology platform we have analysed the peripheral blood compartment of 6 healthy individuals, 23 mild-to-moderate COVID-19 patients and 20 severe COVID-19 patients. We identify distinct immunological signatures in the peripheral blood of the mild-to-moderate and severe COVID-19 patients, including T cell lymphopenia, more consistent with peripheral hypo- than hyper-immune activation. Unique to the severe COVID-19 cases was a large increase in the proportion of IL-10-secreting regulatory T cells, a lineage known to possess anti-inflammatory properties in the lung. Annotated data is openly available (https://flowrepository.org/experiments/2713) with clinical correlates, as a systems immunology resource for the COVID-19 research community.

title: High IL‐6/IFN‐γ ratio could be associated with severe disease in COVID‐19 patients
abstract: Cytokines are important mediators of the inflammatory response, and during infection with SARS‐CoV‐2 it has been suggested that there is a cytokine storm syndrome. In this study, a meta‐analysis was performed to investigate whether the IL‐6/IFN‐γ ratio can help predict clinical severity in patients with COVID‐19. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: [When COVID-19 encounters interstitial lung disease: challenges and management].
abstract: In December 2019, a new type of coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) emerged in Wuhan, Hubei, and spread rapidly to China and over 100 countries around the world. The lung injury and repair caused by COVID-19 has many similarities with the onset and progression of interstitial lung disease (ILD) . Therefore, it is difficult to distinguish between COVID-19 and some types of new-onset ILD or other causes leading to acute exacerbation of ILD. Clinicians need to comprehensively analyze the epidemic history, disease onset characteristics, clinical manifestations, image characteristics, serological andpathogenic microorganism test results to confirm diagnosis. Because of this, the article will discuss the issues related to the differential diagnosis and management of COVID-19 and ILD, and try to provide reasonable suggestions.

title: Transcriptomic Similarities and Differences in Host Response between SARS-CoV-2 and Other Viral Infections
abstract: COVID-19 is a pandemic that shares certain clinical characteristics with other acute viral infections. Here, we studied the whole-blood transcriptomic host response to SARS-CoV-2 and compared it with other viral infections to understand similarities and differences in host response. Using RNAseq we profiled peripheral blood from 24 healthy controls and 62 prospectively enrolled patients with community-acquired lower respiratory tract infection by SARS-Cov-2 within the first 24 hours of hospital admission. We also compiled and curated 23 independent studies that profiled 1,855 blood samples from patients with one of six viruses (influenza, RSV, HRV, ebola, Dengue, and SARS-CoV-1). We show gene expression changes in peripheral blood in patients with COVID-19 versus healthy controls are highly correlated with changes in response to other viral infections (r=0.74, p<0.001). However, two genes, ACO1 and ATL3, show significantly opposite changes between conditions. Pathway analysis in patients with COVID-19 or other viral infections versus healthy controls identified similar pathways including neutrophil activation, innate immune response, immune response to viral infection, and cytokine production for over-expressed genes. Conversely, for under-expressed genes, pathways indicated repression of lymphocyte differentiation and T cell activation. When comparing transcriptome profiles of patients with COVID-19 directly with those with other viral infections, we found 114 and 302 genes were over- or under-expressed, respectively, during COVID-19. Pathways analysis did not identify any significant pathways in these genes, suggesting novel responses to further study. Statistical deconvolution using immunoStates found that M1 macrophages, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, CD14+ monocytes, CD4+ T cells, and total B cells showed change consistently in the same direction across all viral infections including COVID-19. Those that increased in COVID-19 but decreased in non-COVID-19 viral infections were CD56bright NK cells, M2 macrophages, and total NK cells. The concordant and discordant responses mapped out here provide a window to explore the pathophysiology of COVID-19 versus other viral infections and show clear differences in signaling pathways and cellularity as part of the host response to SARS-CoV-2.

title: Gut microbes as future therapeutics in treating inflammatory and infectious diseases: Lessons from recent findings
abstract: The human gut microbiota has been the interest of extensive research in recent years and our knowledge on using the potential capacity of these microbes are growing rapidly. Microorganisms colonized throughout the gastrointestinal tract of human are coevolved through symbiotic relationship and can influence physiology, metabolism, nutrition and immune functions of an individual. The gut microbes are directly involved in conferring protection against pathogen colonization by inducing direct killing, competing with nutrients and enhancing the response of the gut-associated immune repertoire. Damage in the microbiome (dysbiosis) is linked with several life-threatening outcomes viz. inflammatory bowel disease, cancer, obesity, allergy, and auto-immune disorders. Therefore, the manipulation of human gut microbiota came out as a potential choice for therapeutic intervention of the several human diseases. Herein, we review significant studies emphasizing the influence of the gut microbiota on the regulation of host responses in combating infectious and inflammatory diseases alongside describing the promises of gut microbes as future therapeutics.

title: Characterization of the Inflammatory Response to Severe COVID-19 Illness
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global threat to health. Its inflammatory characteristics are incompletely understood.  To define the cytokine profile of COVID-19, and to identify evidence of immunometabolic alterations in those with severe illness.  Levels of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and soluble TNF receptor 1 (sTNFR1) were assessed in plasma from healthy volunteers, hospitalized-but-stable COVID-19 patients (COVIDstable), COVID-19 patients requiring intensive care unit (ICU) admission (COVIDICU) and individuals with severe community-acquired pneumonia requiring ICU support (CAPICU). Immunometabolic markers were measured in circulating neutrophils from patients with severe COVID-19. The acute phase response of alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) to COVID-19 was also evaluated.  IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8 and sTNFR1 were all increased in patients with COVID-19. COVIDICU patients could be clearly differentiated from COVIDstable, and demonstrated higher levels of IL-1ß, IL-6 and sTNFR1 - but lower IL-10 - than CAPICU. COVID-19 neutrophils displayed altered immunometabolism, with increased cytosolic PKM2, phosphorylated PKM2, HIF-1&#945; and lactate. The production and sialylation of AAT increased in COVID-19, but this anti-inflammatory response was overwhelmed in severe illness, with the IL-6:AAT ratio markedly higher in patients requiring ICU admission (P<0.0001). In critically unwell COVID-19 patients, increases in IL-6:AAT predicted prolonged ICU stay and mortality, while improvement in IL-6:AAT was associated with clinical resolution (P<0.0001).  The COVID-19 cytokinemia is distinct from that of other types of pneumonia leading to organ failure and ICU need. Neutrophils undergo immunometabolic reprogramming in severe COVID-19 illness. Cytokine ratios may predict outcomes in this population.

title: How nicotine can inhibit cytokine storm in the lungs and prevent or lessen the severity of COVID-19 infection?
abstract: Statistical surveys of COVID-19 patients indicate, against all common logic, that people who smoke are less prone to the infection and/or exhibit less severe respiratory symptoms than non-smokers. This suggests that nicotine may have some preventive or modulatory effect on the inflammatory response in the lungs. Because it is known that the response to, and resolution of the SARS-CoV-2 infection depends mainly on the lung macrophages, we discuss the recent scientific findings, which may explain why and how nicotine may modulate lung macrophage response during COVID-19 infection.

title: Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Cytokines: Their Relationship in Acute Lung Injury
abstract: Acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are inflammatory diseases whose clinical severity depends on the grade of inflammatory response. Inflammatory cytokines are key elements in the pathogenesis of ALI/ARDS, and the occurrence of an imbalance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines leads to additional non-pulmonary organ dysfunction which contributes to excess mortality rates. Treatment of these patients includes nutrition support with lipids, usually soybean oil-based lipid emulsions, which are rich in omega (n)-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and deficient in n-3 PUFAs; however, too much n-6 PUFAs are detrimental due to their pro-inflammatory effects. Conversely, a large amount of experimental studies and some randomized clinical trials showed the benefits of the n-3 PUFA administration in the context of ALI because of their anti-inflammatory properties. Based on these data, several scientific societies recommended in their guidelines, with an A or B grade of recommendation, the use of n-3 PUFAs in ALI/ARDS patients. However, at present, the issue of lipid therapy in ALI/ARDS is still controversial due, at least in part, to inconclusive or contradicting results in several recent clinical trials using n-3 PUFAs.

title: Hyperglycemia, hydroxychloroquine, and the COVID-19 pandemic
abstract: Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) infection and its severity can be explained by the concentration of glycosylated severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral particles in the lung epithelium, the concentration of glycosylated angiotensin-converting enzyme receptor 2 (ACE2) in the lung epithelium, and the degree and control of the pulmonary immune response to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein at approximately day 8 to 10 after symptom onset, which may be related to both. Binding of ACE2 by SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 also suggests that prolonged uncontrolled hyperglycemia, and not just a history of diabetes mellitus, may be important in the pathogenesis of the disease. It is tempting to consider that the same mechanism acts in COVID-19 as in SARS, where an overactive macrophage M1 inflammatory response, as neutralizing antibodies to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein form at day 7 to 10, results in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in susceptible patients. It also allows consideration of agents, such as hydroxychloroquine, which may interfere with this overly brisk macrophage inflammatory response and perhaps influence the course of the disease, in particular, those that blunt but do not completely abrogate the M1 to M2 balance in macrophage polarization, as well as viral load, which in SARS appears to be temporally related to the onset of ARDS.

title: COVID19 inhibitors: A prospective therapeutics
abstract: The inhibition of viral targets might provide new therapies for coronavirus disease abbreviated as COVID-19. The rational drug design identified as much of the recent discoveries of potent drugs molecule against any targets. This results in an improvement in bindings for better potency and selectivity. The drugs containing ethanolamine/propylamine fragments along with heterocycles have shown potential antiviral results. Similarly, there is the possibility of controlling the COVID-19 infection by nucleotide analogues. Here we also highlight drugs ACEIs/ARBs inhibitory discussing both their advantages and disadvantages. The class of compounds/antibodies inhibiting interleukin-6 works in antirheumatoid drugs are found useful in alleviating overactive inflammatory responses in the lungs of the patient. These inclusion based approaches counter some of the side-effects associated with the heterocycles and also potentiate the efficacy of the molecules. In this review article, design strategies for some of the drugs effective against SARS-CoV-2 are represented. The review also focuses on the listing of drugs that are currently testing under clinical trials for the COVID-19 virus with their mechanism of action. This conversation undertakes the opportunity to do a bit for the newer researchers working in this arena.

title: Why is SARS-CoV-2 infection more severe in obese men? The gut lymphatics - lung axis hypothesis
abstract: Consistent observations report increased severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection in overweight men with cardiovascular factors. As the visceral fat possesses an intense immune activity, is involved in metabolic syndrome and is at the crossroad between the intestines, the systemic circulation and the lung, we hypothesized that it plays a major role in severe forms of SARS-CoV-2 infection. SARS-CoV2 presents the ability to infect epithelial cells of the respiratory tract as well as the intestinal tract. Several factors may increase intestinal permeability including, direct enterocyte damage by SARS-CoV2, systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and epithelial ischemia secondary to SARS-CoV2- associated endothelial dysfunction. This increase permeability further leads to translocation of microbial components such as MAMPS (microbial-associated molecular pattern), triggering an inflammatory immune response by TLR-expressing cells of the mesentery fat (mostly macrophages and adipocytes). The pro-inflammatory cytokines produced by the mesentery fat mediates systemic inflammation and aggravate acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) through the mesenteric lymph drainage.

title: Elucidating the Pivotal Role of Immune Players in the Management of COVID-19: Focus on Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Inflammation.
abstract: The world is currently engulfed with a viral disease with no cure. So, far, millions of people are infected with the virus across the length and breadth of world with thousand losing their lives each passing day. The WHO is February 2020 classified the virus as a coronavirus and the name Coronavirus-19 (CoV-19) was offered to the virus. The disease caused by the virus was termed coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). The pathogenesis of COVID-19 is associated with elevation of several immune plays as well as inflammatory factors which contributes to cytokine storms. Currently, the detection of CoV-19 RNA is through reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are capable of suppressing several kinds of cytokines via the paracrine secretion system. Therefore, MSCs therapy could be game charges in the treatment of the current COVID-19 pandemic. Also, intravenous IG may be capable of suppressing the high expression of IL-6 by the CoV-19 resulting in lessen disease burden. Anti-inflammatory medications like, corticosteroids, tocilizumab, glycyrrhetinic acid, as well as etoposide may be very advantageous in decreasing the COVID-19 burden because, their mode of action targets the cytokine storms initiated by the CoV-19. It is important to indicate that, these medication does not target the virus itself. Therefore, potent CoV-19 anti-viral medications are needed to completely cure patients with COVID-19. Also, a vaccine is urgently needed to stop the spread of the virus. This review therefore elucidates the immune players in the management of COVID-19; focusing principally on MSCs and inflammatory mediators.

title: COVID‐19: A series of important recent clinical and laboratory reports in immunology and pathogenesis of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection and care of allergy patients
abstract: The “coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19)” outbreak was first reported in December 2019 (China). Since then, this disease has rapidly spread across the globe and in March 2020 the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID‐19 pandemic.(1) Since the outbreak was first announced, our journal has extensively focused on the clinical features, outcomes, diagnosis, immunology, and pathogenesis of COVID‐19 and its infectious agent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2).

title: COVID-19 Hyperinflammation: What about Neutrophils?
abstract: COVID-19 is often related to hyperinflammation that drives lung or multiorgan injury. The immunopathological mechanisms that cause excessive inflammation are under investigation and constantly updated. Here, a gene network approach was used on recently published data sets to identify possible COVID-19 inflammatory mechanisms and bioactive genes. First, network analysis of putative SARS-CoV-2 cellular receptors led to the mining of a neutrophil-response signature and relevant inflammatory genes. Second, analysis of RNA-seq data sets of lung cells infected with SARS-CoV-2 revealed that infected cells expressed neutrophil-attracting chemokines. Third, analysis of RNA-seq data sets of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cells from COVID-19 patients identified upregulation of neutrophil genes and chemokines. Different inflammatory genes mined here, including TNFR, IL-8, CXCR1, CXCR2, ADAM10, GPR84, MME, ANPEP, and LAP3, might be druggable targets in efforts to limit SARS-CoV-2 inflammation in severe clinical cases. The possible role of neutrophils in COVID-19 inflammation needs to be studied further.

title: Harnessing inflammation resolving-based therapeutic agents to treat pulmonary viral infections: What can the future offer to COVID-19?
abstract: Inflammation is generally accepted as a component of the host defence system and a protective response in the context of infectious diseases. However, altered inflammatory responses can contribute to disease in infected individuals. Many endogenous mediators that drive the resolution of inflammation are now known. Overall, mediators of resolution tend to decrease inflammatory responses and provide normal or greater ability of the host to deal with infection. In the lung, it seems that pro-resolution molecules, or strategies that promote their increase, tend to suppress inflammation and lung injury and facilitate control of bacterial or viral burden. Here, we argue that the demonstrated anti-inflammatory, pro-resolving, anti-thrombogenic and anti-microbial effects of such endogenous mediators of resolution may be useful in the treatment of the late stages of the disease in patients with COVID-19.

title: Role of the Backbenchers of the Renin-Angiotensin System ACE2 and AT2 Receptors in COVID-19: Lessons From SARS
abstract: The novel coronaviruses causing severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been shown to utilize angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the receptor for entry into the host cells. The involvement of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in the evolution and pathogenesis of lung diseases has been implicated in recent years. The two enzymes of RAS, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and ACE2, serve a contrasting function. ACE helps in the formation of angiotensin II (AGII) from angiotensin I (AGI), and ACE2 cleaves AGI and AGII into AG (1-9) and AG (1-7) respectively. The ACE-induced AGII has vasoconstrictor and pro-inflammatory properties via AT1R, whereas ACE2 has been shown to protect against lung injury. The less spoken about AGII receptor, angiotensin receptor type 2 (AT2R), has anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects in lung tissue and may be of significance in light of the lung pathology presentation in COVID-19. A review of articles searched in PubMed and peer-reviewed journals of importance was done using search terms “ACE2,” “AT2,” “SARS,” and COVID-19.” Lung involvement in both SARS and COVID-19 has been very severe and suggestive of severe inflammatory and immune reactions. Animal studies have shown that ACE2 and AT2 receptors counter the pro-inflammatory and other effects mediated by angiotensin II by their vasodilator, anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrotic, and anti-proliferative effects. They have been shown to protect against and revert acute lung injuries. The instrumental role of recombinant ACE2, AT2 receptor agonists, and AT1 receptor blockers may be helpful in the treatment of COVID-19.

title: An unusual case of bullous hemorrhagic vasculitis in a COVID‐19 patient
abstract: A novel Coronavirus strain, named “Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2” (SARS‐CoV‐2) was recently identified as the etiological agent of the COronaVIrus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Interestingly, a consistent number of COVID‐19‐associated skin manifestations seem to share a certain degree of vascular damage as common pathogenetic mechanism(1). Vascular injury may be due to the direct damage of endothelial cells by the virus or may represents an epiphenomenon of a dysregulated host inflammatory responses triggered by the infection(2). Here, we describe an unprecedented case of leukocytoclastic vasculitis presenting with a hemorrhagic bullous eruption in a patient affected by COVID‐19.

title: Oxidative stress-mediated epidermal growth factor receptor activation regulates PM2.5-induced over-secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators from human bronchial epithelial cells.
abstract: Exposure to PM2.5 has been associated with increased morbidity and mortality of lung diseases although the underlying mechanisms have not been fully uncovered. Airway inflammation is a critical event in the pathogenesis of lung diseases. This study aimed to examine the role of oxidative stress and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in PM2.5-induced pro-inflammatory response in a human bronchial epithelial cell line, BEAS-2B. METHODS BEAS-2B cells were exposed to 0, 20, 50, 100 and 150 μg/ml of PM2.5. Secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators including interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8 and IL-1β was determined using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were determined using flow cytometry. Phosphorylation of the EGFR was examined with immunoblotting.  PM2.5 exposure increased the secretion of IL-6, IL-8, and IL-1β in a concentration-dependent fashion. Moreover, exposure to PM2.5 elevated intracellular levels of ROS, and phosphorylation of the EGFR (Y1068). Pretreatment of BEAS-2B cells with either an antioxidant or a specific EGFR inhibitor significantly reduced PM2.5-induced IL-6, IL-8 and IL-1β secretion, implying that both oxidative stress and EGFR activation were involved in PM2.5-induced pro-inflammatory response. Furthermore, pre-treatment of BEAS-2B cells with an antioxidant significantly blunted PM2.5-induced EGFR activation, suggesting that oxidative stress was required for PM2.5-induced EGFR activation.  PM2.5 exposure induces pro-inflammatory response in human bronchial epithelial cells through oxidative stress-mediated EGFR activation.

title: New intriguing possibility for prevention of coronavirus pneumonitis: Natural purified polyphenols
abstract: COVID-19 is an infectious disease characterized by several important systemic problems such as severe pneumonia. One of mechanisms responsible of these systemic problems is the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-6(Conti et al., 2020). The binding of virus to TRL (Toll Like Receptor) can determine the release of pro-IL-1beta with successive activation and production of active mature IL-1beta, responsible of lung inflammation, fever and fibrosis(Conti et al., 2020). The interstitial pneumonia is linked to an over-production of IL-6. Based on this principle, several researchers started the use of an anti-arthritis drug, tocilizumab, for its anti-IL-6 action.

title: Targeted Immunosuppression Distinguishes COVID-19 from Influenza in Moderate and Severe Disease
abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is characterized by a high incidence of acute respiratory failure. The underlying immunopathology of that failure and how it compares to other causes of severe respiratory distress, such as influenza virus infection, are not fully understood. Here we addressed this by developing a prospective observational cohort of COVID-19 and influenza subjects with varying degrees of disease severity and assessing the quality and magnitude of their immune responses at the cellular and protein level. Additionally, we performed single-cell RNA transcriptional profiling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from select subjects. The cohort consists of 79 COVID-19 subjects, 26 influenza subjects, and 15 control subjects, including 35 COVID-19 and 7 influenza subjects with acute respiratory failure. While COVID-19 subjects exhibited largely equivalent or greater activated lymphocyte counts compared to influenza subjects, they had fewer monocytes and lower surface HLA-class II expression on monocytes compared to influenza subjects and controls. At least two distinct immune profiles were observed by cytokine levels in severe COVID-19 patients: 3 of 71 patients were characterized by extreme inflammation, with greater than or equal to ~50% of the 35 cytokines measured greater than 2 standard deviations from the mean level of other severe patients (both influenza and COVID-19); the other immune profile, which characterized 68 of 71 subjects, had a mixed inflammatory signature, where 28 of 35 cytokines in COVID-19 patients had lower mean cytokine levels, though not all were statistically significant. Only 2 cytokines were higher in COVID-19 subjects compared to influenza subjects (IL-6 and IL-8). Influenza and COVID-19 patients could be distinguished statistically based on cytokine module expression, particularly after controlling for the significant effects of age on cytokine expression, but again with lower levels of most cytokines in COVID-19 subjects. Further, high circulating levels of IL-1RA and IL-6 were associated with increased odds of intubation in the combined influenza and COVID-19 cohort [OR = 3.93 and 4.30, respectively] as well as among only COVID-19 patients. Single cell transcriptional profiling of COVID-19 and influenza subjects with respiratory failure identified profound suppression in type I and type II interferon signaling in COVID-19 patients across multiple clusters. In contrast, COVID-19 cell clusters were enriched for alterations in metabolic, stress, and apoptotic pathways. These alterations were consistent with an increased glucocorticoid response in COVID-19 patients compared to influenza. When considered across the spectrum of innate and adaptive immune profiles, the immune pathologies underlying severe influenza and COVID-19 are substantially distinct. The majority of COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory failure do not have a cytokine storm phenotype but instead exhibit profound type I and type II IFN immunosuppression when compared to patients with acute influenza. Upregulation of a small number of inflammatory mediators, including IL-6, predicts acute respiratory failure in both COVID-19 and influenza patients.

title: Associations between immune-suppressive and stimulating drugs and novel COVID-19—a systematic review of current evidence
abstract: Cancer and transplant patients with COVID-19 have a higher risk of developing severe and even fatal respiratory diseases, especially as they may be treated with immune-suppressive or immune-stimulating drugs. This review focuses on the effects of these drugs on host immunity against COVID-19.  Using Ovid MEDLINE, we reviewed current evidence for immune-suppressing or -stimulating drugs: cytotoxic chemotherapy, low-dose steroids, tumour necrosis factorα (TNFα) blockers, interlukin-6 (IL-6) blockade, Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors, IL-1 blockade, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, anti-CD20 and CTLA4-Ig.  89 studies were included. Cytotoxic chemotherapy has been shown to be a specific inhibitor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in in vitro studies, but no specific studies exist as of yet for COVID-19. No conclusive evidence for or against the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the treatment of COVID-19 patients is available, nor is there evidence indicating that TNFα blockade is harmful to patients in the context of COVID-19. COVID-19 has been observed to induce a pro-inflammatory cytokine generation and secretion of cytokines, such as IL-6, but there is no evidence of the beneficial impact of IL-6 inhibitors on the modulation of COVID-19. Although there are potential targets in the JAK-STAT pathway that can be manipulated in treatment for coronaviruses and it is evident that IL-1 is elevated in patients with a coronavirus, there is currently no evidence for a role of these drugs in treatment of COVID-19.  The COVID-19 pandemic has led to challenging decision-making about treatment of critically unwell patients. Low-dose prednisolone and tacrolimus may have beneficial impacts on COVID-19. The mycophenolate mofetil picture is less clear, with conflicting data from pre-clinical studies. There is no definitive evidence that specific cytotoxic drugs, low-dose methotrexate for auto-immune disease, NSAIDs, JAK kinase inhibitors or anti-TNFα agents are contraindicated. There is clear evidence that IL-6 peak levels are associated with severity of pulmonary complications.

title: Down-regulated gene expression spectrum and immune responses changed during the disease progression in COVID-19 patients
abstract: WHO characterizes novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as a pandemic. Here, we investigated the clinical, cytokine levels, T cell proportion and related gene expression occurring in COVID-19 patients on admission and after intial treatment.  11 patients diagnosed as COVID-19 with similar initial treatment regimen were enrolled in the hospital. Plasma cytokines, CyTOF and microfluidic qPCR for gene expression were conducted.  5 mild and 6 severe patients were included. Cough and fever were the top symptoms in the 11 COVID-2019 cases. The elder age, more neutrophils numbers and higher C-reactive protein level were found in severe cases. IL-10 level was significantly varied with disease progression and treatment. The decreased T cell proportions were observed in COVID-19 patients especially in severe cases, and all elevated to normal in mild patiens after initial treatment but only CD4+T cells return to normal in severe cases. The number of DEGs increased with the disease progress, and decreased after initial treatment. All down-regulated DEGs in severe cases mainly involved in Th17 cell differentiation, cytokine-mediated signaling pathway and T cell activation. After initial treatmen in severe cases, MAP2K7 and SOS1 were upregulated relative to that on admission.  Our findings show a decreased T cell proportion with down-regulated gene expression related to T cell activation and differentiation were occurred in COVID-19 severe patients, which may help to provide effective treatment strategies for COVID-19 .

title: Activation of Interleukin-32 Pro-Inflammatory Pathway in Response to Influenza A Virus Infection
abstract: Interleukin (IL)-32 is a recently described pro-inflammatory cytokine that has been reported to be induced by bacteria treatment in culture cells. Little is known about IL-32 production by exogenous pathogens infection in human individuals.  In this study, we found that IL-32 level was increased by 58.2% in the serum samples from a cohort of 108 patients infected by influenza A virus comparing to that of 115 healthy individuals. Another pro-inflammatory factor cyclooxygenase (COX)-2-associated prostaglandin E2 was also upregulated by 2.7-fold. Expression of IL-32 in influenza A virus infected A549 human lung epithelial cells was blocked by either selective COX-2 inhibitor NS398 or Aspirin, a known anti-inflammatory drug, indicating IL-32 was induced through COX-2 in the inflammatory cascade. Interestingly, we found that COX-2-associate PGE(2) production activated by influenza virus infection was significantly suppressed by over-expression of IL-32 but increased by IL-32-specific siRNA, suggesting there was a feedback mechanism between IL-32 and COX-2.  IL-32 is induced by influenza A virus infection via COX-2 in the inflammatory cascade. Our results provide that IL-32 is a potential target for anti-inflammatory medicine screening.

title: Inflammatory and Coagulative Considerations for the Management of Orthopaedic Trauma Patients with COVID-19: A Review of the Current Evidence and Our Surgical Experience
abstract: Mounting evidence suggests that the pathogenesis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) involves a hyperinflammatory response predisposing patients to thromboembolic disease and acute respiratory distress. In the setting of severe blunt trauma, damaged tissues induce a local and systemic inflammatory response through similar pathways to COVID-19. As such, patients with COVID-19 sustaining orthopaedic trauma injuries may have an amplified response to the traumatic insult due to their baseline hyperinflammatory and hypercoagulable state. These patients may have compromised physiological reserve to withstand the insult of surgical intervention before reaching clinical instability. Herein, we review the current evidence regarding pathogenesis of COVID-19 and its implications on the management of orthopaedic trauma patients by discussing a case and the most recent literature.

title: Virus-host interactome and proteomic survey of PMBCs from COVID-19 patients reveal potential virulence factors influencing SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis
abstract: The ongoing coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a global public health concern due to relatively easy person-to-person transmission and the current lack of effective antiviral therapy. However, the exact molecular mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis remain largely unknown. We exploited an integrated proteomics approach to systematically investigate intra-viral and virus-host interactomes for the identification of unrealized SARS-CoV-2 host targets and participation of cellular proteins in the response to viral infection using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from COVID-19 patients. Using this approach, we elucidated 251 host proteins targeted by SARS-CoV-2 and more than 200 host proteins that are significantly perturbed in COVID-19 derived PBMCs. From the interactome, we further identified that non-structural protein nsp9 and nsp10 interact with NKRF, a NF-КB repressor, and may precipitate the strong IL-8/IL-6 mediated chemotaxis of neutrophils and overexuberant host inflammatory response observed in COVID-19 patients. Our integrative study not only presents a systematic examination of SARS-CoV-2-induced perturbation of host targets and cellular networks to reflect disease etiology, but also reveals insights into the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 triggers cytokine storms and represents a powerful resource in the quest for therapeutic intervention.

title: Ibuprofen, a traditional drug that may impact the course of COVID-19 New effective formulation in nebulizable solution
abstract: The traditional formulation of ibuprofen is poorly soluble in water, so the administered dose must be 10 times higher than the dose required for a therapeutic effect. The development of a hydrosoluble form of ibuprofen can be a strategy to reach a high concentration in the lungs by using modern inhalation devices. Therefore, the development of an inhalable formulation with high bioavailability in the lungs was the leitmotiv of our investigation. The hypertonic ibuprofen solution to be nebulized (NIH) presents great relevant characteristics: bactericidal, virucidal, mucolytic and has a known anti-inflammatory property. Bactericidal and virucidal effects are related to the physico-chemical properties of Na-ibuprofenate as an amphipathic molecule. It has the capability to insert into the bilayer membranes destabilizing the structure, altering its biological properties and avoiding the duplication or infection. Our preliminary results indicate that the presence of this high ionic strength solution reduces 10 times the amount of ibuprofen necessary to kill bacteria, but also the time to kill 1x10(6) bacteria, from 4 hours (in its absence) to only three minutes (in its presence). That was observed using Pseudomona aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Burkholderia cepacia. Also, “in vitro'' ibuprofen demonstrated virucidal activity against the so-called enveloped virus, a family that includes coronavirus strain (2019-nCoV). We observed too, the markedly reduced local inflammation in the airways after administering NIH lays on its ability to inhibit the enzyme cyclooxygenase and to markedly diminish reactive oxygen species (ROS). Other investigators also showed the importance of actin in the rapid spread of virus infection. Furthermore, reorganization of the actin filaments is a key step in lung inflammation induced by systemic inflammatory responses caused by SARS-CoV-2. These findings suggest that the interaction between actin proteins and S1 is involved in the 2019-nCoV infection and pathogenesis. Consequently, the possibility of interfering in this interaction could represent a valid hypothesis for the development of promising therapeutic and prevention strategies. In conclusion, we consider that treating people with COVID-19 with NIH may be beneficial and an opportunity to contribute for the current global health emergency.

title: Corticosteroids
abstract: CORTISOL secretion by the cortex of e adrenal glands  increases in response to any stress in the body, whether physical (such as illness, trauma, surgery or temperature extremes) or psychological. However, this hormone is more than a simple marker of stress levels—it is necessary for the correct functioning of almost every part of the body. Excesses or deficiencies of this crucial hormone also lead to various physical symptoms and disease states . Although cortisol is not essential for life per se, it helps an organism to cope more efficiently with its environment with particular metabolic actions on glucose production and protein and fat catabolism. Nevertheless, loss or profound diminishment of cortisol secretion leads to a state of abnormal metabolism and an inability to deal with stressors, which, if untreated, may be fatal [1, 2].

title: Severe COVID-19, Another Piece in the Puzzle of the Hyperferritinemic Syndrome. An Immunomodulatory Perspective to Alleviate the Storm
abstract: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an acute respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been declared as a worldwide public health emergency. Interestingly, severe COVID-19 is characterized by fever, hyperferritinemia, and a hyper-inflammatory process with a massive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which may be responsible for the high rate of mortality. These findings may advocate for a similarity between severe COVID-19 and some challenging rheumatic diseases, such as adult onset Still's disease, secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and catastrophic anti-phospholipid syndrome, which have been included in the "hyperferritinemic syndrome" category. Furthermore, as performed in these hyper-inflammatory states, severe COVID-19 may benefit from immunomodulatory therapies.

title: New spectrum of COVID-19 manifestations in children: Kawasaki-like syndrome and hyperinflammatory response.
abstract: Since late April 2020, data regarding Kawasaki-like syndrome and hyperinflammatory response in children associated with COVID-19 has rapidly emerged. Much remains unknown about the risk factors, pathogenesis, prognosis, and specific therapy for this emerging manifestation of COVID-19 known as Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). MIS-C is rare and early recognition is crucial though no standardized treatment guideline have been established. Worldwide collaboration will be important as more cases are recognized going forward.

title: Interferon and cytokine responses to Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever virus; an emerging and neglected viral zonoosis
abstract: Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) causes an acute disease with the potential of a fatal outcome. The virus is prevalent in about 30 countries. Clinical symptoms of infection commonly include fever, myalgia, and hemorrhages. Levels of liver enzymes are raised, and bleeding markers are often increased. A role of inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis has been suggested, and CCHFV employs a range of passive and active mechanisms to avoid induction of the antiviral type I interferons. Here, we review the most recent findings on the molecular pathogenesis and the interaction of CCHFV with the type I interferon and cytokine responses and discuss implications for pathogenesis.

title: COVID-19 Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CAPA)—From Immunology to Treatment
abstract: Like severe influenza, coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) resulting in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) has emerged as an important disease that predisposes patients to secondary pulmonary aspergillosis, with 35 cases of COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA) published until June 2020. The release of danger-associated molecular patterns during severe COVID-19 results in both pulmonary epithelial damage and inflammatory disease, which are predisposing risk factors for pulmonary aspergillosis. Moreover, collateral effects of host recognition pathways required for the activation of antiviral immunity may, paradoxically, contribute to a highly permissive inflammatory environment that favors fungal pathogenesis. Diagnosis of CAPA remains challenging, mainly because bronchoalveolar lavage fluid galactomannan testing and culture, which represent the most sensitive diagnostic tests for aspergillosis in the ICU, are hindered by the fact that bronchoscopies are rarely performed in COVID-19 patients due to the risk of disease transmission. Similarly, autopsies are rarely performed, which may result in an underestimation of the prevalence of CAPA. Finally, the treatment of CAPA is complicated by drug–drug interactions associated with broad spectrum azoles, renal tropism and damage caused by SARS-CoV-2, which may challenge the use of liposomal amphotericin B, as well as the emergence of azole-resistance. This clinical reality creates an urgency for new antifungal drugs currently in advanced clinical development with more promising pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles.

title: Prognostic value of interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin in patients with COVID-19
abstract: The inflammatory response plays a critical role in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and inflammatory cytokine storm increases the severity of COVID-19.  To investigate the ability of interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), and procalcitonin (PCT) to predict mild and severe cases of COVID-19.  This retrospective cohort study included 140 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 from January 18, 2020, to March 12, 2020. The study population was divided into two groups according to disease severity: a mild group (MG) (n = 107) and a severe group (SG) (n = 33). Data on demographic characteristics, baseline clinical characteristics, and the levels of IL-6, CRP, and PCT on admission were collected.  Among the 140 patients, the levels of IL-6, CRP, and PCT increased in 95 (67.9 %), 91 (65.0 %), and 8 (5.7 %) patients on admission, respectively. The proportion of patients with increased IL-6, CRP, and PCT levels was significantly higher in the SG than in the MG. Cox proportional hazard model showed that IL-6 and CRP could be used as independent factors to predict the severity of COVID-19. Furthermore, patients with IL-6 > 32.1 pg/mL or CRP > 41.8 mg/L were more likely to have severe complications.  The serum levels of IL-6 and CRP can effectively assess disease severity and predict outcome in patients with COVID-19.

title: Dynamic Innate Immune Responses of Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Associated Coronavirus Infection
abstract: Human lung epithelial cells are likely among the first targets to encounter invading severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Not only can these cells support the growth of SARS-CoV infection, but they are also capable of secreting inflammatory cytokines to initiate and, eventually, aggravate host innate inflammatory responses, causing detrimental immune-mediated pathology within the lungs. Thus, a comprehensive evaluation of the complex epithelial signaling to SARS-CoV is crucial for paving the way to better understand SARS pathogenesis. Based on microarray-based functional genomics, we report here the global gene response of 2B4 cells, a cloned bronchial epithelial cell line derived from Calu-3 cells. Specifically, we found a temporal and spatial activation of nuclear factor (NF)κB, activator protein (AP)-1, and interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3/7 in infected 2B4 cells at 12-, 24-, and 48-hrs post infection (p.i.), resulting in the activation of many antiviral genes, including interferon (IFN)-β, -λs, inflammatory mediators, and many IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). We also showed, for the first time, that IFN-β and IFN-λs were capable of exerting previously unrecognized, non-redundant, and complementary abilities to limit SARS-CoV replication, even though their expression could not be detected in infected 2B4 bronchial epithelial cells until 48 hrs p.i. Collectively, our results highlight the mechanics of the sequential events of antiviral signaling pathway/s triggered by SARS-CoV in bronchial epithelial cells and identify novel cellular targets for future studies, aiming at advancing strategies against SARS.

title: Targeting the Linear Ubiquitin Assembly Complex to Modulate the Host Response and Improve Influenza A Virus Induced Lung Injury
abstract: Influenza virus infection is characterized by symptoms ranging from mild congestion and body aches to severe pulmonary edema and respiratory failure. While the majority of those exposed have minor symptoms and recover with little morbidity, an estimated 500,000 people succumb to IAV-related complications each year worldwide. In these severe cases, an exaggerated inflammatory response, known as “cytokine storm”, occurs which results in damage to the respiratory epithelial barrier and development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Data from retrospective human studies as well as experimental animal models of influenza virus infection highlight the fine line between an excessive and an inadequate immune response, where the host response must balance viral clearance with exuberant inflammation. Current pharmacological modulators of inflammation, including corticosteroids and statins, have not been successful in improving outcomes during influenza virus infection. We have reported that the amplitude of the inflammatory response is regulated by Linear Ubiquitin Assembly Complex (LUBAC) activity and that dampening of LUBAC activity is protective during severe influenza virus infection. Therapeutic modulation of LUBAC activity may be crucial to improve outcomes during severe influenza virus infection, as it functions as a molecular rheostat of the host response. Here we review the evidence for modulating inflammation to ameliorate influenza virus infection-induced lung injury, data on current anti-inflammatory strategies, and potential new avenues to target viral inflammation and improve outcomes.

title: Differential Effects of Interleukin‐12 and Interleukin‐10 on Superantigen‐Induced Expression of Cutaneous Lymphocyte‐Associated Antigen and αEβ7 Integrin (CD103) by CD8(+) T cells
abstract: The interaction with adhesion molecules expressed by vascular endothelium is the first step in lymphocyte infiltration into tissues. At both cutaneous and mucosal sites interleukin‐10 (IL‐10), IL‐12 and transforming growth factor (TGF)‐β are important regulators of chronic inflammatory disease, where cutaneous lymphocyte‐associated antigen (CLA) and αE integrin (CD103) may be expressed. Unlike CLA, CD103 is not believed to play a role in tissue‐specific homing but may help to retain T cells within epithelial layers. We have previously shown that IL‐12 alone can together with an unknown cofactor increase the expression of CLA. Stimulation with streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin C (SpeC) increased the expression of CD103 by CD8(+) but not CD4(+) T cells. While IL‐12 increased superantigen‐stimulated expression of CLA, this cytokine strongly inhibited the CD103 expression, and a combination of IL‐12 and TGF‐β completely abrogated the induced CD103 expression. Conversely, IL‐10 suppressed CLA but increased CD103 expression. These findings indicate that, in addition to suppressing the development of Th1‐mediated inflammatory responses, IL‐10 may also inhibit the migration of CD8(+) T cells into the skin while IL‐12 promotes such migration. Thus, the expression of CLA and CD103 may be antagonistically regulated by IL‐10 and IL‐12, and the balance between these cytokines could influence the T‐cell migration of inflammatory cells into epithelial tissues.

title: COVID-19 and Crosstalk With the Hallmarks of Aging
abstract: Within the past several decades, the emergence of new viral diseases with severe health complications and mortality is evidence of an age-dependent, compromised bodily response to abrupt stress with concomitantly reduced immunity. The new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, SARS-CoV-2, causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It has increased morbidity and mortality in persons with underlying chronic diseases and those with a compromised immune system regardless of age and in older adults who are more likely to have these conditions. While SARS-CoV-2 is highly virulent, there is variability in the severity of the disease and its complications in humans. Severe pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, lung fibrosis, cardiovascular events, acute kidney injury, stroke, hospitalization, and mortality have been reported that result from pathogen–host interactions. Hallmarks of aging, interacting with one another, have been proposed to influence health span in older adults, possibly via mechanisms regulating the immune system. Here, we review the potential roles of the hallmarks of aging, coupled with host–coronavirus interactions. Of these hallmarks, we focused on those that directly or indirectly interact with viral infections, including immunosenescence, inflammation and inflammasomes, adaptive immunosenescence, genomic instability, mitochondrial dysfunction, epigenetic alterations, telomere attrition, and impaired autophagy. These hallmarks likely contribute to the increased pathophysiological responses to SARS-CoV-2 among older adults and may play roles as an additive risk of accelerated biological aging even after recovery. We also briefly discuss the role of antiaging drug candidates that require paramount attention in COVID-19 research.

title: Immune modulation in COVID-19: Strategic considerations for personalized therapeutic intervention
abstract: We are learning that the host response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is complex and highly dynamic. Effective initial host defense in the lung is associated with mild symptoms and disease resolution. Viral evasion of the immune response can lead to refractory alveolar damage, ineffective lung repair mechanisms, and systemic inflammation with associated organ dysfunction. The immune response in these patients is highly variable and can include moderate to severe systemic inflammation and/or marked systemic immune suppression. There is unlikely to be a “one size fits all” approach to immunomodulation in patients with COVID-19. We believe that a personalized, immunophenotype-driven approach to immunomodulation that may include anti-cytokine therapy in carefully selected patients and immunostimulatory therapies in others is the shortest path to success in the study and treatment of patients with critical illness due to COVID-19.

title: Contingency plans in a radiation oncology department amid the 2019-nCoV outbreak in Switzerland
abstract: The ongoing novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) pandemic is expected to develop into an unprecedented stress test for health care systems worldwide. This brief report, written from a radiation oncology perspective during the developing outbreak of 2019-nCoV in Switzerland, highlights the challenges identified and measures taken in our department to mitigate risks and ensure continued operations during the outbreak.

title: Inflammasomes and Pyroptosis as Therapeutic Targets for COVID-19
abstract: The inflammatory response to severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 infection has a direct impact on the clinical outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 patients. Of the many innate immune pathways that are engaged by severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2, we highlight the importance of the inflammasome pathway. We discuss available pharmaceutical agents that target a critical component of inflammasome activation, signaling leading to cellular pyroptosis, and the downstream cytokines as a promising target for the treatment of severe coronavirus disease 2019-associated diseases.

title: COVID-19, immune system response, hyperinflammation and repurposing antirheumatic drugs
abstract: In the Wuhan Province of China, in December 2019, the novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a severe involvement of the lower respiratory tract leading to an acute respiratory syndrome. Subsequently, coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) provoked a pandemic which is considered a life-threatening disease. The SARS-CoV-2, a family member of betacoronaviruses, possesses single-stranded positive-sense RNA with typical structural proteins, involving the envelope, membrane, nucleocapsid and spike proteins that are responsible for the viral infectivity, and nonstructural proteins. The effectual host immune response including innate and adaptive immunity against SARS-Cov-2 seems crucial to control and resolve the viral infection. However, the severity and outcome of the COVID-19 might be associated with the excessive production of proinflammatory cytokines "cytokine storm" leading to an acute respiratory distress syndrome. Regretfully, the exact pathophysiology and treatment, especially for the severe COVID-19, is still uncertain. The results of preliminary studies have shown that immune-modulatory or immune-suppressive treatments such as hydroxychloroquine, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1 antagonists, commonly used in rheumatology, might be considered as treatment choices for COVID-19, particularly in severe disease. In this review, to gain better information about appropriate anti-inflammatory treatments, mostly used in rheumatology for COVID-19, we have focused the attention on the structural features of SARS-CoV-2, the host immune response against SARS-CoV-2 and its association with the cytokine storm.

title: The hypercoagulable state in COVID-19: Incidence, pathophysiology, and management
abstract: The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) presents with a large variety of clinical manifestations ranging from asymptomatic carrier state to severe respiratory distress, multiple organ dysfunction and death. While it was initially considered primarily a respiratory illness, rapidly accumulating data suggests that COVID-19 results in a unique, profoundly prothrombotic milieu leading to both arterial and venous thrombosis. Consistently, elevated D-dimer level has emerged as an independent risk factor for poor outcomes, including death. Several other laboratory markers and blood counts have also been associated with poor prognosis, possibly due to their connection to thrombosis. At present, the pathophysiology underlying the hypercoagulable state is poorly understood. However, a growing body of data suggests that the initial events occur in the lung. A severe inflammatory response, originating in the alveoli, triggers a dysfunctional cascade of inflammatory thrombosis in the pulmonary vasculature, leading to a state of local coagulopathy. This is followed, in patients with more severe disease, by a generalized hypercoagulable state that results in macro- and microvascular thrombosis. Of concern, is the observation that anticoagulation may be inadequate in many circumstances, highlighting the need for alternative or additional therapies. Numerous ongoing studies investigating the pathophysiology of the COVID-19 associated coagulopathy may provide mechanistic insights that can direct appropriate interventional strategies.

title: Targeting the NO‐cGMP‐PDE5 pathway in COVID‐19 infection
abstract: A pandemic outbreak of COVID‐19 has been sweeping the world since December. It begins as a respiratory infection that, mainly in men with diabetes or renal impairment, evolves into a systemic disease, with SARDS, progressive endothelial cell damage, abnormal clotting and impaired cardiovascular and liver function. Some clinical trials are testing biological drugs to limit the immune system dysregulation, “cytokines storm”, that causes the systemic complications of COVID‐19. The contraindications of these drugs and their cost raise concerns over the implications of their widespread availability. Numerous clinical and experimental studies have revealed a role for the nitric oxide (NO)‐cyclic GMP‐phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) pathway in modulating low‐grade inflammation in patients with metabolic diseases, offering cardiovascular protection. PDE5 inhibition favors an anti‐inflammatory response by modulating activated T cells, reducing cytokine release, lowering fibrosis, increasing oxygen diffusion, stimulating vascular repair. PDE5 is highly expressed in the lungs, where its inhibition improves pulmonary fibrosis, a complication of severe COVID‐19 disease. We performed a systematic review of all evidence documenting any involvement of the NO‐cGMP‐PDE5 axis in the pathophysiology of COVID‐19, presenting the ongoing clinical trials aimed at modulating this axis, including our own “silDEnafil administration in DiAbetic and dysmetaboLic patients with COVID‐19 (DEDALO trial)”. The reviewed evidence suggests that PDE5 inhibitors could offer a new strategy in managing COVID‐19 by (i) counteracting the Ang‐II‐mediated downregulation of AT‐1 receptor; (ii) acting on monocyte switching, thus reducing pro‐inflammatory cytokines, interstitial infiltration and the vessel damage responsible for alveolar hemorrhage‐necrosis; (iii) inhibiting the transition of endothelial and smooth muscle cells to mesenchymal cells in the pulmonary artery, preventing clotting and thrombotic complications. If the ongoing trials presented herein should provide positive findings, the low cost, wide availability and temperature stability of PDE5 inhibitors could make them a major resource to combat COVID‐19 in developing countries.

title: SARS-CoV-2 Inflammatory Syndrome. Clinical Features and Rationale for Immunological Treatment
abstract: The current pandemic coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, is a global health emergency because of its highly contagious nature, the great number of patients requiring intensive care therapy, and the high fatality rate. In the absence of specific antiviral drugs, passive prophylaxis, or a vaccine, the treatment aim in these patients is to prevent the potent virus-induced inflammatory stimuli from leading to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which has a severe prognosis. Here, the mechanism of action and the rationale for employing immunological strategies, which range from traditional chemically synthesized drugs, anti-cytokine antibodies, human immunoglobulin for intravenous use, to vaccines, are reviewed.

title: Understanding PRRSV Infection in Porcine Lung Based on Genome-Wide Transcriptome Response Identified by Deep Sequencing
abstract: Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) has been one of the most economically important diseases affecting swine industry worldwide and causes great economic losses each year. PRRS virus (PRRSV) replicates mainly in porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) and dendritic cells (DCs) and develops persistent infections, antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), interstitial pneumonia and immunosuppression. But the molecular mechanisms of PRRSV infection still are poorly understood. Here we report on the first genome-wide host transcriptional responses to classical North American type PRRSV (N-PRRSV) strain CH 1a infection using Solexa/Illumina's digital gene expression (DGE) system, a tag-based high-throughput transcriptome sequencing method, and analyse systematically the relationship between pulmonary gene expression profiles after N-PRRSV infection and infection pathology. Our results suggest that N-PRRSV appeared to utilize multiple strategies for its replication and spread in infected pigs, including subverting host innate immune response, inducing an anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory state as well as developing ADE. Upregulation expression of virus-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules and inflammatory enzymes and inflammatory cells, antibodies, complement activation were likely to result in the development of inflammatory responses during N-PRRSV infection processes. N-PRRSV-induced immunosuppression might be mediated by apoptosis of infected cells, which caused depletion of immune cells and induced an anti-inflammatory cytokine response in which they were unable to eradicate the primary infection. Our systems analysis will benefit for better understanding the molecular pathogenesis of N-PRRSV infection, developing novel antiviral therapies and identifying genetic components for swine resistance/susceptibility to PRRS.

title: Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of 74 cases of coronavirus-infected disease 2019 (COVID-19) with gastrointestinal symptoms
abstract: The SARS-CoV-2-infected disease (COVID-19) outbreak is a major threat to human beings. Previous studies mainly focused on Wuhan and typical symptoms. We analysed 74 confirmed COVID-19 cases with GI symptoms in the Zhejiang province to determine epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics.  COVID-19 hospital patients were admitted in the Zhejiang province from 17 January 2020 to 8 February 2020. Epidemiological, demographic, clinical, laboratory, management and outcome data of patients with GI symptoms were analysed using multivariate analysis for risk of severe/critical type. Bioinformatics were used to analyse features of SARS-CoV-2 from Zhejiang province.  Among enrolled 651 patients, 74 (11.4%) presented with at least one GI symptom (nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea), average age of 46.14 years, 4-day incubation period and 10.8% had pre-existing liver disease. Of patients with COVID-19 with GI symptoms, 17 (22.97%) and 23 (31.08%) had severe/critical types and family clustering, respectively, significantly higher than those without GI symptoms, 47 (8.14%) and 118 (20.45%). Of patients with COVID-19 with GI symptoms, 29 (39.19%), 23 (31.08%), 8 (10.81%) and 16 (21.62%) had significantly higher rates of fever >38.5°C, fatigue, shortness of breath and headache, respectively. Low-dose glucocorticoids and antibiotics were administered to 14.86% and 41.89% of patients, respectively. Sputum production and increased lactate dehydrogenase/glucose levels were risk factors for severe/critical type. Bioinformatics showed sequence mutation of SARS-CoV-2 with m(6)A methylation and changed binding capacity with ACE2.  We report COVID-19 cases with GI symptoms with novel features outside Wuhan. Attention to patients with COVID-19 with non-classic symptoms should increase to protect health providers.

title: Naringenin, a flavanone with antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects: A promising treatment strategy against COVID-19
abstract: At the end of 2019, a novel flu-like coronavirus named COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) was recognized by World Health Organization. No specific treatments exist for COVID-19 at this time. New evidence suggests that therapeutic options focusing on antiviral agents may alleviate COVID-19 symptoms as well as those that lead to the decrease in the inflammatory responses. Flavonoids, as phenolic compounds, have attracted considerable attention due to their various biological properties. In this review, the promising effects and possible mechanisms of action of naringenin, a citrus-derived flavonoid, against COVID-19 were discussed. We searched PubMed/Medline, Science direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases up to March 2020 using the definitive keywords. The evidence reviewed here indicates that naringenin might exert therapeutic effects against COVID-19 through the inhibition of COVID-19 main protease, 3-chymotrypsin-like protease (3CLpro), and reduction of angiotensin converting enzyme receptors activity. One of the other mechanisms by which naringenin might exert therapeutic effects against COVID-19 is, at least partly, by attenuating inflammatory responses. The antiviral activity of the flavanone naringenin against some viruses has also been reported. On the whole, the favorable effects of naringenin lead to a conclusion that naringenin may be a promising treatment strategy against COVID-19.

title: In Brief

title: [Dynamic inflammatory response in a critically ill COVID-19 patient treated with corticosteroids].
abstract: To investigate the effect of corticosteroids therapy on the inflammatory response in a critically ill coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patient.  A 55-year old female patient with critical ill COVID-19 was admitted in Taizhou Hospital on January 19, 2020. The patient was treated with methylprednisolone 80 mg on the 2nd day after admission. Thereafter, the dose was adjusted in a timely manner and the therapy lasted for 13 days. The peripheral lymphocyte subsets (CD3+T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T, NK cells, B cells), as well as serum levels of lymphocyte factors (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, IFN-γ) were dynamically monitored.  On D1 of admission, the numbers of peripheral blood CD3+ T, CD4+ T, CD8+ T, and NK cells were significantly lower than the normal range. With the improvement of the disease, the numbers of CD3+ T, CD8+ T and CD4 + T cells gradually recovered and showed a linear growth trend (linear fitting equation: Y=18.59X+109.4, P<0.05). On D2 of admission, the patient's IL-6 and IL-10 levels were significantly higher than normal values, IFN-γ was at a normal high value, and then rapidly decreased; IL-2, IL-4, and TNF-α were all in the normal range. On the D6 and D7, the IL-6 and IL-10 decreased to the normal range for the first time. On the D18, the sputum virus nucleic acid test was negative for the first time, and the fecal virus nucleic acid test was still positive; on the D20 the sputum and fecal virus nucleic acid test were both negative. On D34, the patient recovered and was discharged. At the discharge the muscle strength score of the patient was 44 and the daily life ability evaluation was 90.  In the absence of effective antiviral drugs, early use of appropriate doses of corticosteroids in critically ill patient with COVID-19 can quickly alleviate inflammatory response and improve clinical symptoms, however, it may reduce the number of T cells, and to adjust the dose in time is necessary.

title: Is aberrant CD8+ T cell activation by hypertension associated with cardiac injury in severe cases of COVID-19?

title: Understanding the age divide in COVID-19: why are children overwhelmingly spared?
abstract: The rapid emergence and subsequent global dissemination of SARS-CoV-2 disease (COVID-19) has resulted in over 4 million cases worldwide. The disease has a marked predilection for adults, and children are relatively spared. Understanding the age-based differences in pathophysiological pathways and processes relevant to the onset and progression of disease both in the clinical course and in experimental disease models may hold the key to the identification of therapeutic targets. The differences in the clinical course are highlighted by the lack of progression of the SARS-CoV-2 infection beyond mild symptoms in a majority of children, whereas in adults the disease progresses to acute lung injury and an acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)-like phenotype with high mortality. The pathophysiological mechanisms leading to decreased lung injury in children may involve the decreased expression of the mediators necessary for viral entry into the respiratory epithelium and differences in the immune system responses in children. Specifically, decreased expression of proteins, including angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and Transmembrane Serine Protease 2 (TMPRSS2) in the airway epithelium in children may prevent viral entry. The immune system differences may include a relative preponderance of CD4(+) T cells, decreased neutrophil infiltration, decreased production of proinflammatory cytokines, and increased production of immunomodulatory cytokines in children compared with adults. Notably, the developing lung in children may have a greater capacity to recover and repair after viral infection. Understanding the relative contributions of the above processes to the protective phenotype in the developing lung can guide the trial of the appropriate therapies in adults.

title: Early Short Course Corticosteroids in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19
abstract: There is no proven antiviral or immunomodulatory therapy for COVID-19. The disease progression associated with the pro-inflammatory host response prompted us to examine the role of early corticosteroid therapy in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19.  We conducted a single pre-test, single post-test quasi-experiment in a multi-center health system in Michigan from March 12 to March 27, 2020. Adult patients with confirmed moderate to severe COVID were included. A protocol was implemented on March 20, 2020 using early, short-course, methylprednisolone 0.5 to 1 mg/kg/day divided in 2 intravenous doses for 3 days. Outcomes of standard of care (SOC) and early corticosteroid groups were evaluated, with a primary composite endpoint of escalation of care from ward to ICU, new requirement for mechanical ventilation, and mortality. All patients had at least 14 days of follow-up.  We analyzed 213 eligible subjects, 81 (38%) and 132 (62%) in SOC and early corticosteroid groups, respectively.The composite endpoint occurred at a significantly lower rate in the early corticosteroid group (34.9% vs. 54.3%, p=0.005). This treatment effect was observed within each individual component of the composite endpoint. Significant reduction in median hospital length of stay was also observed in the early corticosteroid group (8 vs. 5 days, p < 0.001). Multivariate regression analysis demonstrated an independent reduction in the composite endpoint at 14-days controlling for other factors (aOR: 0.41; 95% CI [0.22 - 0.77]).  An early short course of methylprednisolone in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 reduced escalation of care and improved clinical outcomes.

title: IL6 inhibition in critically ill COVID-19 patients is associated with increased secondary infections
abstract: Anti-inflammatory therapies such as IL-6 inhibition have been proposed for COVID-19 in a vacuum of evidence-based treatment. However, abrogating the inflammatory response in infectious diseases may impair a desired host response and predispose to secondary infection. To determine whether IL-6 inhibition is associated with an increased occurrence of secondary infections in patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). We retrospectively reviewed the medical record of patients during an 8-week span and compared the incidence of secondary infection in patients who did and did not receive tocilizumab. The study was approved by the IRB. Additionally, we included representative histopathologic post-mortem findings from several COVID-19 cases that underwent autopsy at our institution. The study was conducted in a cohorted COVID-19 ICU at a tertiary care university medical center. Patients 18 years of age or older admitted to the adult COVID-19 intensive care unit with COVID-19 were randomly selected. We reviewed the occurrence and nature of secondary infections and clinical outcomes in patients who did and did not receive tocilizumab. Measures were formulated prior to the study. For autopsy findings, we were interested in the lung pathology. 60 patients were selected of which 28 had received tocilizumab while 32 had not. Receiving tocilizumab was associated with a higher risk of secondary bacterial (64.3% vs. 31.3%, p=0.010) and fungal (7.1% vs. 0%, p=0.096) infections. 7 cases underwent autopsy. In 3 cases, tocilizumab had previously been given. All 3 patients demonstrated evidence of pneumonia on pathology. Of the 4 cases that had not been given tocilizumab, 2 showed evidence of aspiration pneumonia and 2 exhibited diffuse alveolar damage. Experimental therapies are currently being applied to COVID-19 outside of clinical trials. Anti-inflammatory therapies such as anti-IL-6 therapy have the potential to impair viral clearance, predispose to secondary infection, and cause harm. We seek to raise physician awareness of these issues and highlight the need to better understand the immune response in COVID-19.

title: Coronavirus infection and immune system: an insight of COVID-19 in cancer patients
abstract: The novel coronavirus respiratory illness (COVID-19) is a public health emergency of global concern. Patients with cancer are at high risk of infections, due to an overall immunocompromised status. However, this connection is not straightforward for coronavirus (CoV) infection, in which the host immune response is the main driver of tissue damage. We performed a thorough review of data on CoV pathogenesis and morbidity rate in cancer patients, through the analysis of the previous CoV pandemics. Considering the interaction between CoV and the host immune system, cancer patients receiving immunotherapy might be more at risk for an aberrant immune response in case of infection, and might therefore deserve additional precautions. The limited available data do not allow us to provide practical indications for the management of cancer patients in this critical situation. Efforts should be made to prospectively collect data, to identify effective interventions to guide treatment decision.

title: Baricitinib restrains the immune dysregulation in COVID-19 patients
abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the ongoing pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The majority of patients with COVID-19 have a good prognosis, but variable percentages in different countries develop pneumonia associated with lymphocytopenia and severe inflammatory response due to uncontrolled release of cytokines. These immune mediators are transcriptionally regulated by JAK-STAT molecular pathways, which can be disabled by small molecules. Here, we provide evidences on the efficacy of baricitinib, a JAK1/JAK2 inhibitor, in correcting the immune abnormalities observed in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Indeed, we demonstrate a significant reduction in serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1{beta} and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), a rapid recovery in circulating T and B cell frequencies and an increased antibody production against SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in baricitinib-treated patients. Moreover, treated patients underwent a rapid reduction in oxygen flow need and progressive increase in the P/F. Our work provides the basis on developing effective treatments against COVID-19 pathogenesis using on-target therapy.

title: Characteristics of inflammatory factors and lymphocyte subsets in patients with severe COVID-19
abstract: To investigate the inflammatory factors and lymphocyte subsets which play an important role in the course of severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). A total of 27 patients with severe COVID-19 who were admitted to Tongji Hospital in Wuhan from 1 to 21 February 2020 were recruited to the study. The characteristics of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-2 receptor (IL-2R), IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF)-&#945;, C-reactive protein (CRP), serum ferritin and procalcitonin (PCT), and lymphocyte subsets of these patients were retrospectively compared before and after treatment. Before treatment, there was no significant difference in most inflammatory factors (IL-1ß, IL-2R, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, CRP, and serum ferritin) between male and female patients. Levels of IL-2R, IL-6, TNF-&#945;, and CRP decreased significantly after treatment, followed by IL-8, IL-10, and PCT. Serum ferritin was increased in all patients before treatment but did not decrease significantly after treatment. IL-1ß was normal in most patients before treatment. Lymphopenia was common among these patients with severe COVID-19. Analysis of lymphocyte subsets showed that CD4+ and particularly CD8+ T lymphocytes increased significantly after treatment. However, B lymphocytes and natural killer cells showed no significant changes after treatment. A pro-inflammatory response and decreased level of T lymphocytes were associated with severe COVID-19.

title: Highlight of Immune Pathogenic Response and Hematopathologic Effect in SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-Cov-2 Infection
abstract: A sudden outbreak of COVID-19 caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, in Wuhan, China in December 2019 quickly grew into a global pandemic, putting at risk not only the global healthcare system, but also the world economy. As the disease continues to spread rapidly, the development of prophylactic and therapeutic approaches is urgently required. Although some progress has been made in understanding the viral structure and invasion mechanism of coronaviruses that may cause severe cases of the syndrome, due to the limited understanding of the immune effects caused by SARS-CoV-2, it is difficult for us to prevent patients from developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pulmonary fibrosis (PF), the major complications of coronavirus infection. Therefore, any potential treatments should focus not only on direct killing of coronaviruses and prevention strategies by vaccine development, but also on keeping in check the acute immune/inflammatory responses, resulting in ARDS and PF. In addition, potential treatments currently under clinical trials focusing on killing coronaviruses or on developing vaccines preventing coronavirus infection largely ignore the host immune response. However, taking care of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients with ARDS and PF is considered to be the major difficulty. Therefore, further understanding of the host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is extremely important for clinical resolution and saving medication cost. In addition to a breif overview of the structure, infection mechanism, and possible therapeutic approaches, we summarized and compared the hematopathologic effect and immune responses to SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. We also discussed the indirect immune response caused by SARS and direct infection, replication, and destroying of immune cells by MERS-CoV. The molecular mechanisms of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infection-induced lymphopenia or cytokine storm may provide some hint toward fight against SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus. This may provide guidance over using immune therapy as a combined treatment to prevent patients developing severe respiratory syndrome and largely reduce complications.

title: Respuesta inflamatoria en relación con COVID-19 y otros fenotipos protrombóticos./ Respuesta inflamatoria en relación con COVID-19 y otros fenotipos protrombóticos./ Inflammatory Response in Relation to COVID-19 and Other Prothrombotic Phenotypes
abstract: The haemostatic system acts in concert with inflammation, so that after inflammatory response various mediators activate the haemostatic system through endothelial dysfunction, platelet activation and coagulation promoting thrombosis, which is termed thromboinflammation. In this process, the inflammasome acquires special relevance; its stimulation promotes innate and adaptive immune responses. Inflammasome activation plays an important physiopathological role in several disorders with inflammatory and thrombotic phenomena. The role of thromboinflammation has become relevant in the COVID-19 pandemic, in which a cytokine storm has been described as one of the responsible mechanisms.

title: Pathogenic T cells and inflammatory monocytes incite inflammatory storm in severe COVID-19 patients

title: Extrapulmonary and atypical clinical presentations of COVID‐19
abstract: The novel coronavirus (SARS‐CoV2) has led to outbreak of multiple cases of pneumonia in Wuhan city in December 2019. The disease caused by this virus was named coronavirus disease 2019 or “COVID‐19”, which was declared by WHO as a global pandemic in March 2020. It typically presents with respiratory symptoms and febrile illness. However, there are few reported extrapulmonary and atypical presentations, such as haemoptysis, cardiac, neurological, gastrointestinal, ocular and cutaneous manifestations, as well as venous and arterial thrombosis. Lack of awareness of these presentations might lead to misdiagnosis, delayed diagnosis and isolation of suspected patients which increases the risk of transmission of infection between patients and doctors. All these issues will be discussed in this review. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

title: COVID-19 severity correlates with airway epithelium-immune cell interactions identified by single-cell analysis
abstract: To investigate the immune response and mechanisms associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), we performed single-cell RNA sequencing on nasopharyngeal and bronchial samples from 19 clinically well-characterized patients with moderate or critical disease and from five healthy controls. We identified airway epithelial cell types and states vulnerable to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In patients with COVID-19, epithelial cells showed an average three-fold increase in expression of the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2, which correlated with interferon signals by immune cells. Compared to moderate cases, critical cases exhibited stronger interactions between epithelial and immune cells, as indicated by ligand-receptor expression profiles, and activated immune cells, including inflammatory macrophages expressing CCL2, CCL3, CCL20, CXCL1, CXCL3, CXCL10, IL8, IL1B and TNF. The transcriptional differences in critical cases compared to moderate cases likely contribute to clinical observations of heightened inflammatory tissue damage, lung injury and respiratory failure. Our data suggest that pharmacologic inhibition of the CCR1 and/or CCR5 pathways might suppress immune hyperactivation in critical COVID-19.

title: Are patients with inflammatory bowel disease at increased risk for Covid-19 infection?
abstract: Crohn's disease (CD)] and ulcerative colitis (UC), the main inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) in human beings, are chronic, immune-inflammatory diseases, whose pathogenesis implicates a complex interaction between environmental factors and genetic susceptibility. These disabling conditions affect millions of individuals and, together with the drugs used to treat them, can put patients at risk of developing complications and other conditions. This is particularly relevant nowadays, as coronavirus disease (Covid-19) has rapidly spread from China to countries where IBD are more prevalent and there is convincing evidence that Covid-19-mediated morbidity and mortality are higher in subjects with comorbidities. The primary objectives of this Viewpoint are to provide a focused overview of the factors and mechanisms by which the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infects the cells and to illustrate the link between such determinants and the intestinal inflammation. We also provide clues about the reasons why the overall IBD population might have no increased risk to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 and highlight the potential of cytokine blockers, used to treat IBD patients, to prevent Covid-driven pneumonia.

title: Recognizing COVID-19-related myocarditis: The possible pathophysiology and proposed guideline for diagnosis and management
abstract: Human coronavirus-associated myocarditis is known, and a number of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19)-related myocarditis cases have been reported. The pathophysiology of COVID-19-related myocarditis is thought to be a combination of direct viral injury and cardiac damage due to the host's immune response. COVID-19 myocarditis diagnosis should be guided by insights from previous coronavirus and other myocarditis experience. The clinical findings include changes in electrocardiogram and cardiac biomarkers, and impaired cardiac function. When cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is not feasible, cardiac computed tomographic angiography with delayed myocardial imaging may serve to exclude significant coronary artery disease and identify myocardial inflammatory patterns. Because many COVID-19 patients have cardiovascular comorbidities, myocardial infarction should be considered. If the diagnosis remains uncertain, an endomyocardial biopsy may help identify active cardiac infection through viral genome amplification and possibly refine the treatment risks of systemic immunosuppression. Arrhythmias are not uncommon in COVID-19 patients, but the pathophysiology is still speculative. Nevertheless, clinicians should be vigilant to provide prompt monitoring and treatment. The long-term impact of COVID-19 myocarditis, including the majority of mild cases, remains unknown.

title: Coagulopathy in COVID-19
abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has become an urgent issue in every country. Based on recent reports, the most severely ill patients present with coagulopathy, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)-like massive intravascular clot formation is frequently seen in this cohort. Therefore, coagulation tests may be considered useful to discriminate severe cases of COVID-19. The clinical presentation of COVID-19-associated coagulopathy is organ dysfunction primarily, while hemorrhagic events are less frequent. Changes in hemostatic biomarkers represented by increase in D-dimer and fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products indicate the essence of coagulopathy is massive fibrin formation. In comparison with bacterial-sepsis-associated coagulopathy/DIC, prolongation of prothrombin time, and activated partial thromboplastin time, and decrease in antithrombin activity is less frequent and thrombocytopenia is relatively uncommon in COVID-19. The mechanisms of the coagulopathy are not fully elucidated, however. It is speculated that the dysregulated immune responses orchestrated by inflammatory cytokines, lymphocyte cell-death, hypoxia, and endothelial damage are involved. Bleeding tendency is uncommon, but the incidence of thrombosis in COVID-19 and the adequacy of current recommendations regarding standard venous thromboembolic dosing are uncertain.

title: Inflammation, Immunity and Immunogenetics in COVID-19: A Narrative Review
abstract: The novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), that began in Wuhan Province, China was labelled as an International Public Health Emergency on January 30, 2020 and later was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organisation (WHO) on March 11, 2020. The causative agent, SARS-CoV-2 was the third coronavirus responsible for causing major disease outbreaks in human population after Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) caused by SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV respectively. The patients of COVID-19 present with a clinical feature resembling mild form of viral pneumonia which in certain cases progress to a severe form characterised by adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and/or multiorgan failure leading to death. The transition from mild to severe form of COVID-19 is affected by a lot of factors like age, co-morbidities etc. In the absence of an absolute cure, it is essential to explore the molecular pathogenesis of the disease to identify people at risk of developing severity so that alternative treatment modalities may be planned. The aim of this review is to provide an update on the general characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and highlight the inflammatory changes and immune dysregulation that may help in identification of molecular predictors of disease severity.