Query: the relationship between social media usage and body image satisfaction

title: The relationship between social media usage, self esteem and body image.

title: A meta analytic review of the relationship between social media use and body image disturbance
abstract: With the quickly rising popularity of social media within the past decade, researchers have started to investigate the relationship between social media use and various psychological wellbeing variables. Given social media's similarity to traditional media, and the unique types of social comparisons that may occur on these platforms, body image has been a variable of interest. However, this literature has produced mixed findings and lacks a consensus on the valence of this relationship. Thus, this meta analysis aimed to provide a quantitative review of cross sectional research on this topic to provide clarification on the relationship between social media use and body image. An analysis of sixty three independent samples (N 36,552) using a random effects model revealed an overall effect size of r 0.169, CI [0.131, 0.206] indicating a small, positive, and significant relationship between social media use and body image disturbance. Type of social media use, body image dimension, country grouping, and age were all found to be significant moderators of this relationship. Strengths and limitations of the meta analysis, as well as future directions for this line of research are discussed.

title: The Relationship between social media and body image of women: Applying Self Objectification Theory

title: Social media usage and self objectification: an investigation into the relationship between social media group membership and objectified body consciousnessn

title: Social Media and its associations with body satisfaction, exercise and eating habits in undergraduate students
abstract: 5  The Media's Portrayal of Men and Women 7 Social Media 9 Social Comparison Theory 11 Cultivation Theory 12 Body Image Satisfaction 13 Exercising Habits 14 Eating Habits 15 Research Aims 16 Hypotheses 16 Methodology 18 Participants 18   Bergen Social Media Usage Scale 51  Body Shape Questionnaire 52  Godin  Adult Eating Behaviours Questionnaire 55  Debrief Sheet 58 4 Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my family and friends for their support, patience and understanding through this stressful but rewarding process. I cannot thank my supervisor Dr. Lee Richardson enough for his feedback and patience during this time. I would like to extend my gratitude to all the DBS staff who have helped me, especially to Michael Nolan for his guidance in the planning of my study, and Dr. John Hyland for all his support and advice throughout. Last but not least, I would like to thank Pygmalion and East for giving me refuge when I was avoiding doing my thesis.  The present study aimed to investigate the differences, relationships and predictability of body image satisfaction, exercise, eating habits and social media. Participants consisted of 113 undergraduate students (45 male, 68 female) with ages ranging from 18 33 (M= 21.12, SD= 1.81) A quantitative survey design was chosen, with cross sectional and correlational components. Participants completed an online questionnaire containing four questionnaires including Bergen Social Media Usage Scale, Body Shape Questionnaire, Godin Leisure Scale and the Adult Eating Behaviours Questionnaire. The analysis revealed males were found to have higher body image satisfaction than their female counterparts. There was a significant positive correlation between body image satisfaction and exercise, and between body image satisfaction and positive eating habits. Body image satisfaction was significantly positively correlated social media usage. Body image satisfaction was found to significantly predict social media usage. 6  It is difficult to believe that a little over a decade ago social media was in its early years and had not yet gained traction. While a couple of decades ago vast sums of money would be spent on phone calls, and months would be spent waiting for letters, this has all changed partially due to social media. Social media has completely changed the way in which people communicate with one another; it has erased geographical boundaries that were once present. It has not only changed the way in which people communicate, it has also changed what and how much information can be accessed. This may not always be a good thing, as being exposed to all this information can lead to unrealistic expectations and notions of what is the norm. Advertising in recent years has been portraying what the media believe to be the ideal in many different aspects of life, i.e. the ideal car, the ideal home, the ideal body type. The ideal body type is an aspect of advertising on social media that can have extremely harmful effects on the public. In recent years substantial levels of body dissatisfaction have been reported (Levine Smolak, 2000) Research in the US suggests approximately 40% of adolescent girls are dissatisfied with their bodies (Presnell, Bearman, Stice, 2004) Similarly amongst UK samples, 48% reported to be dissatisfied with their shape, with 22% reporting that they were too fat (Sands Wardle, 2003) and these figures only increase with age, as 50% of 11 16 reported being dissatisfied (White Halliwell, 2010) Although the vast majority of research has focused on females; the attention on male body image has seen a steady increase (Pope, Phillips and Olivardia, 2000) In a society, which places heavy emphasis on physical appearance, could the presence of social media be to blame for these recent increases? Research has shown convincing evidence that the unrealistic body image ideals displayed in the media can lead to body dissatisfaction (Grabe, Ward, Hyde, 2008) 7 The Media's portrayal of men and women In recent decades the media has been the primary source of what the public see, in the past this content was conveyed through mediums such as television, newspapers and magazines, these forms are a slightly less prevalent due to the launch of the Internet. The media is now more reliant on the Internet and information technology for conveying its message to the public. The Internet has changed what and how much is seen; it is responsible for vast amounts of information. Social media is highly visual and interactive; many social media platforms are based on a currency of likes and followers. Sherman et al, (2016) conducted a study using a social media platform similar to the photo sharing app Instagram, in which 32 adolescents between 11 16 were asked to take part. Upon receiving high numbers of likes on their photos, there was a high level of activity seen across a wide variety of regions of the brain. A part of the striatum (nucleus accumbens) which is part of the brain's reward circuitry, was especially active, this shows that likes from a social media platform translate to a level of achievement in the brain. This study also reported that when shown the exact same photo with a lot of likes to half the participants and a just a few likes to the other half, they were significantly more likely to like it themselves in the photo with more likes. Teens react differently to information when they believe many endorse it. Social media networking is the primary way young people connect and communicate, it can be considered their main channel to the outside world. It has been previously reported that greater usage of sexually objectifying media may be associated with higher levels of self objectification (Aubrey Frisby, 2011; Baker, 2005) Social media allows its user to see the world through a filter rather than real life. It is largely responsible for what the public sees as the ideal man and 8 woman (McCabe et al. 2007) Many of the advertisements that use social media as a medium to convey their message put heavy emphasis on physical appearance and the importance of being considered physically attractive, this in turn puts pressure on men and women to conform to these unattainable standards that have been set. McCabe et al, (2007) reported that these advertisements might have unfavourable effects on both men and women, noting that women are more susceptible to these effects. From a young age unattainable standards are constantly presented, beginning with every young girls beloved Barbie. An eating awareness campaign by Slayen (2011) constructed a life size Barbie according to her doll size measurements. The life size Barbie showed shocking dimensions, including an 18inch waist. If this Barbie were a real person it was reported that she would walk on all fours, with a BMI of 16.24 which would be considered anorexic, putting her at high risk of osteoporosis, amenorrhea (not being able to menstruate) and low heart rate. In the 1940's the ideal for women was to have a large bust and small waist, at the time Marilyn Monroe was the pinnacle of sexiness and her measurements now would be ones that would be fat shamed. This quickly changed in the 1960s, curves were no longer important and the look to have was one that could be considered an emaciated look. Between the years of 1960 and 1980 research has shown that the female body shown in the media has become smaller and smaller (Grogan, 2008) In the past there was not as much pressure on men as there was on women, but in recent years this has changed. As women are gaining financial power, which they did not have in the past, men now have to bring more to the table. In 2012 CNN (Strickland, 2012) reported 'in addition to being financially successful, they need to be well groomed, in good shape, emotionally skilled in relationships and 9 the emphasis on looking good is just part of the bigger packagethe stakes have been raised' (Stickland, 2012) Over centuries there has been a drastic change in what has been the ideal male body, in roman times 800 BC the ideal was considered to be a body that would now be considered overweight, this was the ideal at the time as it showed that the male had substantial means to feed himself. Recent empirical research shows a man's desire to increase muscularity (Morrison Morrison, 2006) From an evolutionary perspective humans develop psychological mechanisms to find a potential mating partner who is reproductively fit (Cosmides Tooby, 1992) For men their physique conveys information about their reproductive fitness, a male who is muscular, strong and large is deemed to have the most vigorous set of genes (Singh, 1995) Those who process these preferences are more successful in their reproductive goals. This places great emphasize on being physically fit and muscular. This importance has only increased in recent years, with popular films such as 'Rocky' and 'Rambo' having their protagonist as an extremely muscular man. Social Media Since the launch of MySpace in 2003, as one of the world first social networking sites, they (Social networking sites) have only become more plentiful. Following MySpace, Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat have emerged. Millions of new people are joining every year; between 2012 and 2017 Facebook's users grew from 1 billion to 2 billion users.

title: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE AND EVENT ATTENDEES SATISFACTION AT CARNIVAL EVENT
abstract: Social media is important as marketing tools and play an important role to market an event. This study was conducted to determine the relationship between social media usage and event attendee satisfaction. Three variables were identified in this study. The variables are information, self belonging and communication, and socialization. The study consisted of 97 usable questionnaires that had been collected randomly from event attendees. The finding showed that information is the most important in social media usage in determining event attendee satisfaction. The research also indicated that there is relationship between the social media usages and event attendee satisfaction. Discussion and conclusions are detailed. In addition, the recommendation contained are put forward and presented.

title: The relationship between social media use and perceptions of body image

title: Association Among Internet Usage, Body Image and Eating Behaviors of Secondary School Students
abstract: Presently, the internet plays a big role in daily life, especially for adolescents. In this age group, they are more concerned about their face and body shape. Despite the numerous studies on the effect traditional media has on body image, very few have focused on the effect of newer forms of media (e.g. online media) And almost none have looked at the relationship between time spent online and body image.  To study the associations between time spent on the internet, body image satisfaction and eating behaviors of students grades 7 to 12 in the Thai educational system.  The sample group included 620 students, who were selected using simple random sampling from 6 secondary schools in Bangkok. Data were collected using the Media and Internet use behavior questionnaires, The Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults: Thai version (BESAA) Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS: males only) The Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale: Thai version, Eating Attitude Test 26: Thai version (EAT 26) and the eating behaviors at risk of obesity questionnaire.  Mean (sd) age of the sample was 15.7 (1.9) years, 246 participants (39.7% were male and 374 (60.3% were female. Using the internet and social networks for content related to body image and eating behaviors, was negatively associated with body image satisfaction but positively associated with inappropriate eating attitudes/behaviors, binging, purging, use of laxatives/diuretics and drive for muscularity with respect to behaviors and attitudes, and was associated with eating behaviors that carried a risk for obesity.  Time spent on internet, especially engaged in activities related to self image, and eating attitudes and behaviors, were associated with a decrease in body image satisfaction and problematic eating behaviors.

title: The Impact of Appearance Comparisons through Social Media on Young Women's Body Image
abstract: Sociocultural models of body image highlight the role of the media in the development and maintenance of women's body image concerns, and suggest that appearance comparisons may be responsible for this association. Most of this past research has been conducted on traditional media formats (e.g. magazines, television) but much less is known about the impact that social media has on women's body image. This program of research used a mixed methods approach to examine the relationship between social media usage (particularly Facebook) and body image concerns among young women, as well as the role of appearance comparisons in that relationship. Correlational studies found that Facebook usage was positively associated with body image concerns (in Study 1) and self objectification (in Study 2) and that these relationships were mediated by young women's tendency to make appearance comparisons, particularly to peers on Facebook. In an experimental study (Study 3) brief exposure to Facebook had no impact on women's appearance concerns. However, spending even a brief amount of time on Facebook put women in a more negative mood, and for women who were high on appearance comparison tendency, spending time on Facebook made them more concerned about certain aspects of their face, hair, or skin. Study 4 used ecological momentary assessments to examine the frequency and impact of appearance comparisons through social media and other mediums (e.g. traditional media, in person) in women's everyday lives. Women reported more appearance comparisons through social media than any other media type (e.g. magazines, television) and the majority of comparisons made through social media were upward in direction. Furthermore, upward comparisons through social media were associated with the most negative mood, and were associated with less appearance satisfaction and more thoughts of dieting and exercising than were comparisons made in person. These findings highlight the important role of appearance comparisons through social media on young women's body image. Given the popularity of social media, and the potential negative impact it has on its users, it will be important for future research to identify ways to minimise any negative influence of social media usage.

title: Facebook's Effect on Relationships and Self Esteem
abstract: Much research has shown a pattern between low satisfaction within relationships and low self esteem due to Facebook usage, but there is little research done on how Facebook affects romantic relationships in terms of self esteem and negative emotions. This study examined these constructs. La Salle undergraduates between the ages of 18 21, both male and female, who are in committed relationships, were recruited. Measurements presented via Qualtrics included Facebook usage levels, relationship satisfaction, relationship conflicts, and self esteem assessments. The findings indicated that Facebook usage has no impact on the romantic relationship satisfaction levels or self esteem scores, but associations between negative impacts on Facebook and relational issues were significant. Facebook's effect on relationships and self esteem Ortiz 3 Facebook's effect on relationships and self esteem Relationships are constantly changing in ways that not many of us realize and our selfesteem levels are impacted as well. What if social media is one of the causes of these changes? The online world is extremely prevalent in our lives in variety of ways. We use social media for jobs, school, personal uses, and it has become part of our daily activities. Romantic relationships are an example of social media's compelling influence. Facebook is just one out of the many social networking sites that we use as a platform to create, develop, and keep our relationships together. Romantic relationships can become an issue when Facebook engagement is relatively high. There can be some potential negative outcomes on a romantic relationship in many ways (Kerkhof, Finkenauer, Muusses, 2011) Breakups, communication, jealousy, and Facebook intrusion are examples of some potential outcomes from someone's involvement in Facebook. There have been numerous studies done to measure Facebook's impact on romantic relationships, as well as studies that focused on Facebook's effects on self esteem. What we know from previous studies is that high social media usage can be problematic to psychological well being (Naeemia, Tamam Hassan, Bolong, 2014) Studies have shown that satisfaction levels for relationships are more likely to be negative when engaging into Facebook specific conflicts that can damage the relationship. Some concerns that arise from this issue could be: Are our relationships satisfaction decreasing from our media usage? Does Facebook related activities influence our romantic relationships? This can create a barrier between a healthy and unhealthy relationship with a significant other. Facebook can also cause some negative emotional responses. Jealousy and self consciousness can erupt from the pressures of social media (Elphinston Noller, 2011) Facebook's effect on relationships and self esteem Ortiz 4 A study was done by Clayton and his colleagues (2013) to examine if Facebook is to blame for relationship breakups. In their research, they measured the usage of Facebook from 205 users of an 18 82 year population. In their study, it was concluded that the majority of their sample use Facebook extensively. Their survey questioned if there was any relationship conflicts that occurred while Facebook was actively being used. The results consisted of communication issues and jealousy that came from monitoring their partner online. These Facebook related conflicts in their study mediated the negative relationships outcomes and Facebook usage. It is safe to conclude that in this study, negative impacts on relationships resulted from Facebook usage (Clayton. Nagurney, Smith, 2013) Negative impacts might include trust in partner or jealousy. Social media can affect our relationships as an active user and high usage can lead into a person into engaging in inappropriate activities. These negative outcomes included cheating, separation, and divorce. (Clayton, Nagurney, Smith, 2013) Facebook usage has also been affecting many people's own behaviors and emotions as well as their partner's. The amount of time a person spends on Facebook can be causing behavioral issues like intrusion and distraction. In Elphinston and Noller's (2011) study, they "speculate that individuals who are seriously affected by Facebook intrusion may also experience jealousy in their current romantic relationship because of the propensity of Facebook to disrupt their personal lives and interpersonal relationships" (3) It can be essential for studies such as this one to measure the amount of time spent online and the satisfaction level of the relationship. The habit of getting on the Facebook page and scrolling pass hundreds of post can become addictive and intrusive to the relationship due to the lack of attention given in person contrary to the attention spent online (Elphinston Noller 2011) This study will be able to examine if Facebook usage is affecting college students' romantic relationships today. Issues in the Facebook's effect on relationships and self esteem Ortiz 5 relationship can result into jealousy or feelings of neglectfulness, which then can lead into lowering self esteem. Self esteem and Facebook has been repeatedly measured in many research studies. (e.g. Kim, LaRose Peng 2011; de Vries Kuhne, 2015; Anderson, Fagan, Woodnutt and ChamorrPremuzic's 2012) There are various ways to affect someone without having to touch or hear their voice. Someone can simply write a comment that can positively or negatively affect another person's self esteem. (de Vries Kuhne, 2015) In de Vries and Kuhne's (2015) study, they measured how Facebook can be detrimental to a person's well being. In addition, Anderson, Fagan, Woodnutt and Chamorr Premuzic's (2012) study indicates that issues with self esteem might create a barrier between authentic relationships with a significant other and maintaining good mental health. Because of the power Facebook has on a person's self esteem, can that be providing us an effective way to express our emotions to one another? This study further indicates Facebook affects self esteem because of the person's emotional response from disclosing online. The lower self esteem levels are from those who disclose online in order to get acceptance from others and popularity.  Considering that, there are consequences for excessively using Facebook on relationships and self esteem, research on these two topics would be valuable.