Query: spelling children font

title: The Diagnosis and Treatment of Reading and/or Spelling Disorders in Children and Adolescents.
abstract: 3 11% of children and adolescents suffer from a reading andor spelling disorder. Their poor written language skills markedly impair their scholastic performance and are often associated with other mental disorders. A great deal of uncertainty still surrounds the question of the appropriate methods of diagnosis and treatment.  We systematically searched for pertinent publications in databases and literature reference lists, summarized the evidence in six tables, and examined some of it in a meta analysis. Recommendations were developed in a consensus conference.  A reading and/or spelling disorder should only be diagnosed if performance in these areas is below average. It should be determined whether an attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety disorder, or disorder of arithmetical skills is also present. Reading and spelling performance should be reinforced with systematic instruction about letter sound and sound letter correspondences, letter syllable morpheme synthesis, and sound syllablemorpheme analysis (g' 0.32) (recommendation grade A) Spelling ability responds best to spelling rule training (recommendation grade A) Irlen lenses, visual and/or auditory perceptual training, hemispheric stimulation, piracetam, and prism spectacles should not be used (recommendation grade A) CONCLUSION Evidence and consensus based guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of reading and/or spelling disorders in children and adolescents are now available for the first time. Reading and spelling abilities should be systematically and comprehensively reinforced, and potential comorbid disorders should be sought and treated appropriately. The efficacy of many treatments now in use has not been documented; if they are to be used in the future, they must be tested in randomized, controlled trials. For adult sufferers, adequate diagnostic instruments and therapeutic methods are not yet available.

title: Young Children's spelling representations and spelling strategies
abstract: While traditional models of spelling describe the skills and knowledge required for development, the underlying cognitive processes that drive spelling success are often overlooked. Ninety six English speaking children, aged 5 to 7 years, completed two tasks which provided a direct measure of their spelling recognition and spelling production, respectively. Using a combination of performance measures and self explanations, we assessed the relationship between children's performance on both the recognition and procedural tasks. Two separate hierarchical cluster analyses identified distinct profiles based on children's spelling recognition and spelling production, respectively. While these different profiles appeared related, log linear analysis confirmed that the relations between recognition and production profiles were strongly moderated by children's spelling experience. Overall, the findings provide further support for application of the Representational Redescription (RR) and Overlapping Waves (OW) models in relation to young children's spelling acquisition within an English orthography.

title: Working Memory in Children With Learning Disabilities in Reading Versus Spelling
abstract: In transparent orthographies like German, isolated learning disabilities in either reading or spelling are common and occur as often as a combined reading and spelling disability. However, most issues surrounding the cognitive causes of these isolated or combined literacy difficulties are yet unresolved. Recently, working memory dysfunctions have been demonstrated to be promising in explaining the emergence of literacy difficulties. Thus, we applied a 2 (reading disability: yes vs. no) x 2 (spelling disability: yes vs. no) factorial design to examine distinct and overlapping working memory profiles associated with learning disabilities in reading versus spelling. Working memory was assessed in 204 third graders, and multivariate analyses of variance were conducted for each working memory component. Children with spelling disability suffered from more pronounced phonological loop impairments than those with reading disability. In contrast, domain general central executive dysfunctions were solely associated with reading disability, but not with spelling disability. Concerning the visuospatial sketchpad, no impairments were found. In sum, children with reading disability and those with spelling disability seem to be characterized by different working memory profiles. Thus, it is important to take both reading and spelling into account when investigating cognitive factors of literacy difficulties in transparent orthographies.

title: Spelling Errors in Text Copying by Children With Dyslexia and ADHD Symptoms
abstract: Spelling errors are usually studied in dictations, but teachers report that children with school difficulties often make spelling mistakes when they copy a text too. The present study examines the performance on a text copying task and a text dictation task of two groups of children known for their difficulties in spelling, that is, 22 with symptoms of ADHD and 13 with dyslexia, comparing them with matched controls to see whether children with spelling difficulties make more copying task errors than do controls, whether they make fewer mistakes when copying than when writing under dictation, and whether the pattern of errors remains the same or differs in copy and dictation tasks. Our results show that although children with spelling difficulties made fewer errors in the copying task than under dictation, they still made phonological errors and mistakes relating to accents and duplicates. The pattern of errors differed slightly between the children with dyslexia and those with ADHD, presumably as a consequence of their different underlying weaknesses related mainly to phonology and orthographic representation in the case of dyslexia and to attentional control in the case of ADHD.

title: The influence of spelling ability on handwriting production: children with and without dyslexia.
abstract: Current models of writing do not sufficiently address the complex relationship between the 2 transcription skills: spelling and handwriting. For children with dyslexia and beginning writers, it is conceivable that spelling ability will influence rate of handwriting production. Our aim in this study was to examine execution speed and temporal characteristics of handwriting when completing sentence copying tasks that are free from composing demands and to determine the predictive value of spelling, pausing, and motor skill on handwriting production. Thirty one children with dyslexia (Mage 9 years 4 months) were compared with age matched and spelling ability matched children (Mage 6 years 6 months) A digital writing tablet and Eye and Pen software were used to analyze handwriting. Children with dyslexia were able to execute handwriting at the same speed as the age matched peers. However, they wrote less overall and paused more frequently while writing, especially within words. Combined spelling ability and within word pausing accounted for over 76% of the variance in handwriting production of children with dyslexia, demonstrating that productivity relies on spelling capabilities. Motor skill did not significantly predict any additional variance in handwriting production. Reading ability predicted performance of the age matched group, and pausing predicted performance for the spelling ability group. The findings from the digital writing tablet highlight the interactive relationship between the transcription skills and how, if spelling is not fully automatized, it can constrain the rate of handwriting production. Practical implications are also addressed, emphasizing the need for more consideration to be given to what common handwriting tasks are assessing as a whole.

title: Importance of Phonological and Orthographic Skills for English Reading and Spelling: A Comparison of English Monolingual and Mandarin English Bilingual Children.
abstract: This cross sectional study examines the importance of English phonological and orthographic processing skills to English word reading and spelling in 3 groups of younger (8 9 years) and older (11 12 years) children from different language backgrounds: English monolingual, English first language (L1) Mandarin second language (L2) and Mandarin L1 English L2. Results showed that performance on tasks of English phonological and orthographic processing was dependent on age and language background status. Both English monolingual and English L1 children had better phonological processing skills compared to the Mandarin L1 children, while the younger bilingual children had better orthographic processing skills compared to the English monolingual children. Separate regression analyses found that different skills contributed to English word reading and spelling for each language background group and within each age group. Orthographic processing was the only significant predictor of word reading and spelling for the English monolingual children. In contrast, phonological processing skills were important for word reading for the bilingual children and for spelling for the younger bilingual children. Though the predictors of word reading remained the same across age groups for all language groups, the predictors of spelling were different between the younger and older bilingual children. These findings support previous research on the influence of bilingual children's early linguistic experience on L2 English literacy acquisition and question whether bilingual children follow similar stages to learning English as English monolinguals. Educational implications for bilingual learners are discussed.

title: Children's Phonological Awareness as a Predictor of Reading and Spelling
abstract: Numerous observational and experimental studies have shown that phonological awareness relates to reading and spelling. However, most studies were conducted in English speaking countries, neglecting the issue of the generalizability of the findings across different orthographies. This meta analysis focused exclusively on studies from German speaking countries and explored how measures of phonological awareness relate longitudinally to reading and spelling. It summarized 19 manuscripts reporting the results of 21 independent studies. Results indicated a mean effect size of Zr 0.318 (r .308) for the relation between phonological awareness and later reading and spelling. Moderator analyses showed that phonological awareness on the rhyme level was less related to reading and spelling than phonological awareness on the phoneme level. Furthermore, the predictive power of phonological awareness remained substantial even for children beyond the second grade. The findings suggest that research on rea.

title: A computer based method to improve the spelling of children with dyslexia
abstract: In this paper we present a method which aims to improve the spelling of children with dyslexia through playful and targeted exercises. In contrast to previous approaches, our method does not use correct words or positive examples to follow, but presents the child a misspelled word as an exercise to solve. We created these training exercises on the basis of the linguistic knowledge extracted from the errors found in texts written by children with dyslexia. To test the effectiveness of this method in Spanish, we integrated the exercises in a game for iPad, DysEggxia (Piruletras in Spanish) and carried out a within subject experiment. During eight weeks, 48 children played either DysEggxia or Word Search, which is another word game. We conducted tests and questionnaires at the beginning of the study, after four weeks when the games were switched, and at the end of the study. The children who played DysEggxia for four weeks in a row had significantly less writing errors in the tests that after playing Word Search for the same time. This provides evidence that error based exercises presented in a tablet help children with dyslexia improve their spelling skills.

title: A comparison of orthographic processing in children with and without reading and spelling disorder in a regular orthography
abstract: Orthographic processing is a construct that encompasses the skills of recognizing, storing, accessing, and applying the print conventions of a writing system. Few studies have investigated orthographic processing in dyslexic children and it is not yet clear whether lexical and sublexical orthographic processing are both impaired in these children. The present study examined orthographic processing in dyslexic children (N 19, below average word reading as well as below average spelling skills, T values <40) and typically developing children (N 32) aged 8 10 years. Different aspects of orthographic processing were measured. Word specific knowledge (lexical level) was assessed with an Orthographic Choice Task. General orthographic knowledge (sublexical level) was assessed with three pseudoword tasks. The Freq Choice Task is a choice task that measures children's knowledge of frequent double consonants (e.g. nilemm nilebb) The Pos Choice Task measures children's knowledge about legal positions of double consonants (e.g. sinnum ssinum) The Pos Speed Task measures children's ability to identify orthographic irregularities in words presented singly (e.g. mmotin) Results show that dyslexic children are able to discriminate illegal/infrequent letter pattern from legal/frequent letter pattern. Seeing either a word with legal or illegal letter patterns singly (Pos Speed Task) dyslexic children show deficits in identifying illegal letter pattern as wrong, whereas they have no problems to identify legal letter pattern as correct. Furthermore, dyslexic children show a reduced word specific orthographic knowledge. Additionally, the present study demonstrated that word representations as well as sensitivity to legal letter pattern influence reading and spelling performance.

title: Variation and repetition in the spelling of young children.
abstract: A number of investigators have suggested that young children, even those who do not yet represent the phonological forms of words in their spellings, tend to use different strings of letters for different words. However, empirical evidence that children possess a concept of between word variation has been weak. In a study by Pollo, Kessler, and Treiman (2009) in fact, prephonological spellers were more likely to write different words in the same way than would be expected on the basis of chance, not less likely. In the current study, preschool age prephonological and phonological spellers showed a tendency to repeat spellings and parts of spellings that they had recently used. However, even prephonological spellers (mean age~4 years 8 months) showed more repetition when spelling the same word twice in succession than when spelling different words. The results suggest that children who have not yet learned to use writing to represent the sounds of speech show some knowledge that writing represents words and, thus, should vary to show differences between them. The results further suggest that in spelling, as in other domains, children have a tendency to repeat recent behaviors.