Query: expenditure of shadow education

title: The Analysis of the Effect of Shadow Education Expenditure Reduction Policy: Focusing on Middle.High School Student in Busan

title: A Longitudinal Analysis on Shadow Education Expenditure of Parents by High School Type in Seoul Focusing on 6 year Trend from Middle School

title: Exploration of Influencing Factors of Households' Expenditure on Shadow Education Expenses and Analysis of Differential Effects by Expenditure Quantile

title: History of Shadow Education in Korea
abstract: Since the 1950s, private tutoring for college admission exams has spread widely in Korea, raising social controversies and tension within society that the government has consistently implemented policies to reduce (Ko 2013) However, in spite of these policies, the place of hakwons in Korean education has increased sharply in numerous aspects, for example, the number of hakwons, the expenditure on hakwons, the number of enrolled students, and the number of teachers. According to Lee et al. (2010) participation rates in hakwons have increased rapidly, totaling 6.23% in 1979, 14.9% in 1980, 59.4% in 1997 and 75.1% in 2008.

title: The Effects of Maternal Employment and Occupational Prestige on Academic Achievement among Middle School Students: Focusing on the Mediation and Interaction by Parental Involvement and Expenditure on Shadow Education

title: The Effect of Public Education Expenditure on Shadow Economy: A Cross Country Analysis
abstract: This paper empirically examines whether devoting more resources to education can reduce the size of the shadow economy on a cross section of countries. The findings show a negative relationship between public education expenditure and the size of the shadow economy, which is robust to the inclusion of different proxies for the control variables, a large set of policy variables, regional differences and endogeneity. The findings also emphasize the role of education, suggesting that public policies devoted to higher education level imply a decreasing effect on the shadow economy.

title: Shadow Education Research through TIMSS and PIRLS: Experiences and Lessons in the Republic of Georgia
abstract: In Malaysia, private tutoring is widely perceived as a household necessity. A 2004/05 household expenditure survey recorded that 20.1 per cent of households with at least one child aged seven to 19 indicated expenditures on private tutoring (Kenayathulla 2013, p.634) In a smaller sample of urban students, Tan (2011) surveyed 1,600 Year 7 (lower secondary) students from eight schools in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur, and found that 88.0 per cent had received tutoring during their primary schooling

title: Shadow Education: School Quality and Demand for Private Tutoring in Korea
abstract: Private tutoring is known to be pervasive in many parts of the world, and yet has received scanty attention from economists. This paper empirically examines the determinants of the demand for private tutoring in South Korea, where the thriving and expanding industry of private tutoring industry already constitutes a major conduit for education alongside formal schooling. Korean households spend about 2.9% of GDP on private tutoring at the primary and secondary levels, a figure within striking distance of 3.4% in public expenditure for formal schooling. This paper presents econometric evidence that lower school quality stimulates demand for private tutoring significantly. The result supports the view that institutional features in student's learning environments are among the key driving factors for the demand for the shadow education, and not just high stakes tests and academic achievement incentives. The result is also in line with the view that the mushrooming of private tutoring is a natural market response to underprovided and overregulated formal schooling in Korea.

title: A consumer demand approach to estimating the education quality component of housing cost
abstract: A consumer demand based approach is proposed for estimating the shadow price of education relative to housing for households with children in state schools. This approach can be used together with or in place of a hedonic approach in countries in which the location of households is not disclosed in publicly available data. An empirical illustration is provided using UK data from the family expenditure surveys.

title: Post Crisis Gender Gaps: Women Workers and Employment Precariousness
abstract: The Gender Gap Index (GGI) is very useful when it comes to international comparisons, and it offers diverse and interesting approaches to equality, human wellbeing, and development. The central goal of this paper is to demonstrate the way in which this index is indirectly related to the distribution of public expenditure in different strategic sectors of economic development. When reducing healthcare and education expenditures in order to service the external debt due to institutional investors of the shadow financial system (SFS) the gender gap widens because of the austerity policies implemented by the state. This contributes to deepening of the unpaid work within the household, alongside widening the gender gap.