Query: privacy paradox

title: Privacy attitudes and privacy behaviour: A review of current research on the privacy paradox phenomenon
abstract: Do people really care about their privacy? Surveys show that privacy is a primary concern for citizens in the digital age. On the other hand, individuals reveal personal information for relatively small rewards, often just for drawing the attention of peers in an online social network. This inconsistency of privacy attitudes and privacy behaviour is often referred to as the "privacy paradox" In this paper, we present the results of a review of research literature on the privacy paradox. We analyse studies that provide evidence of a paradoxical dichotomy between attitudes and behaviour and studies that challenge the existence of such a phenomenon. The diverse research results are explained by the diversity in research methods, the different contexts and the different conceptualisations of the privacy paradox. We also present several interpretations of the privacy paradox, stemming from social theory, psychology, behavioural economics and, in one case, from quantum theory. We conclude that current research has improved our understanding of the privacy paradox phenomenon. It is, however, a complex phenomenon that requires extensive further research. Thus, we call for synthetic studies to be based on comprehensive theoretical models that take into account the diversity of personal information and the diversity of privacy concerns. We suggest that future studies should use evidence of actual behaviour rather than self reported behaviour.

title: Explaining the privacy paradox: A systematic review of literature investigating privacy attitude and behavior
abstract: Although survey results show that the privacy of their personal data is an important issue for online users worldwide, most users rarely make an effort to protect this data actively and often even give it away voluntarily. Privacy researchers have made several attempts to explain this dichotomy between privacy attitude and behavior, usually referred to as 'privacy paradox' While they proposed different theoretical explanations for the privacy paradox, as well as empirical study results concerning the relationship of individual factors on privacy behavior and attitude, no comprehensive explanation for the privacy paradox has been found so far. We aim to shed light on the privacy paradox phenomenon by summarizing the most popular theoretical privacy paradox explanations and identifying the factors that are most relevant for the prediction of privacy attitude and behavior. Since many studies focus on the behavioral intention instead of the actual behavior, we decided to consider this topic as well. Based on a literature review, we identify all factors that significantly predict one of the three privacy aspects and report the corresponding standardized effect sizes (b) The results provide strong evidence for the theoretical explanation approach called 'privacy calculus' with possibly gained benefits being among the best predictors for disclosing intention as well as actual disclosure. Other strong predictors for privacy behavior are privacy intention, willingness to disclose, privacy concerns and privacy attitude. Demographic variables play a minor role, only gender was found to weakly predict privacy behavior. Privacy attitude was best predicted by internal variables like trust towards the website, privacy concerns or computer anxiety. Despite the multiplicity of survey studies dealing with user privacy, it is not easy to draw overall conclusions, because authors often refer to slightly different constructs. We suggest the privacy research community to agree on a shared definition of the different privacy constructs to allow for conclusions beyond individual samples and study designs.

title: Putting the privacy paradox to the test: Online privacy and security behaviors among users with technical knowledge, privacy awareness, and financial resources
abstract: Research shows that people's use of computers and mobile phones is often characterized by a privacy paradox: Their self reported concerns about their online privacy appear to be in contradiction with their often careless online behaviors. Earlier research into the privacy paradox has a number of caveats. Most studies focus on intentions rather than behavior and the influence of technical knowledge, privacy awareness, and financial resources is not systematically ruled out. This study therefore tests the privacy paradox under extreme circumstances, focusing on actual behavior and eliminating the effects of a lack of technical knowledge, privacy awareness, and financial resources. We designed an experiment on the downloading and usage of a mobile phone app among technically savvy students, giving them sufficient money to buy a paid for app. Results suggest that neither technical knowledge and privacy awareness nor financial considerations affect the paradoxical behavior observed in users in general. Technically skilled and financially independent users risked potential privacy intrusions despite their awareness of potential risks. In their considerations for selecting and downloading an app, privacy aspects did not play a significant role; functionality, app design, and costs appeared to outweigh privacy concerns.

title: Revealing the relationship between rational fatalism and the online privacy paradox
abstract: Previous research has revealed the privacy paradox, which suggests that despite concern about their online privacy, people still reveal a large amount of personal information and don't take measures to protect personal privacy online. Using data from a national wide survey, this study takes a psychological approach and uses the rational fatalism theory to explain the privacy paradox on the Internet and the social networking sites (SNSs) The rational fatalism theory argues that risks will become rational if the person believes he or she has no control over the outcome. Our results support the rational fatalism view. We found that people with higher levels of fatalistic belief about technologies and business are less likely to protect their privacy on the Internet in general, and the SNS in particular. Moreover, such relationship is stronger among young Internet users compared with older users.

title: The privacy paradox in the context of online social networking: A self identity perspective
abstract: Drawing on identity theory and privacy research, this article argues that the need for self identity is a key factor affecting people's privacy behavior in social networking sites. I first unpack the mainstream, autonomy centric discourse of privacy, and then present a research model that illustrates a possible new theorization of the relationship between self identity and information privacy. An empirical study with Facebook users confirms the main hypotheses. In particular, the data show that the need for self identity is positively related to privacy management behaviors, which in turn result in increased self disclosure in online social networks. I subsequently argue that the so called "privacy paradox" is not a paradox per se in the context of online social networking; rather, privacy concerns reflect the ideology of an autonomous self, whereas social construction of self identity explains voluntary self disclosure.

title: The Privacy Paradox in the Big Data Era? No Thanks, We Are the E People: The E People in the Big Data Era
abstract: The objective of this work is to propose a new perspective in understanding the phenomenon of online behaviors, termed the privacy paradox, i.e. worry on preserving personal data and contents, but a little attention to disclose them, and thus introducing the new definition of e people. The provocative hypothesis of this study regards the internet users who, in the Big Data era, are affected by a common covariation of being e popular/e visible, e narcissist, e (socially) accepted, e remembered. These e behaviors will be conceptually gathered under the term of Achilles' paradigm. A structured web questionnaire was submitted to a convenience sample of 198 internet users. First and second order confirmatory factor analyses together with latent means models concretely supported the existence of the Achilles' paradigm and its impact on the privacy paradox concerns. As a result, the privacy paradox is not an effective paradox anymore: self disclosing privacy online seems to be a well accepted behavior.

title: Uncovering the Privacy Paradox: the Influence of Distraction on Data Disclosure Decisions
abstract: The discrepancy between individuals' intention to disclose data and their actual disclosure behaviour is called the privacy paradox. Although a wide range of research has investigated the privacy paradox, it remains insufficiently understood due to mental processes' role in decision making being mostly neglected. This research in progress provides a theoretical concept that examines the cognitive processes underlying data disclosure decisions to provide a better understanding of the privacy paradox. We apply the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) which suggests that the mental shortcuts that individuals take when making their actual data disclosure decision, which differs from their selfreported data disclosure intention, cause the privacy paradox. We propose a two step, mixed method approach comprising a survey and an online experiment to empirically explore the intended and actual data disclosure. The study takes theoretical and methodological issues in prior literature into account and enhances our understanding of individuals' paradoxical data disclosure behaviour from a psychological point of view.

title: Privacy paradox in the mobile environment: The influence of the emotions
abstract: The increasing relevance of personal information has sparked a broad debate on privacy issues on the ubiquitous Internet. The so called 'privacy paradox' aims to explain through rational decision making models the contradictions between stated digital privacy concerns and the actual behaviors in mobile platforms. An analysis of the emotions that arise when users know about unauthorized personal data disclosure is proposed. A survey of smartphone users was conducted shortly after the Cambridge Analytica Facebook scandal took place, in order to analyze the nature and intensity of a user's emotions in relation to their knowledge of privacy breaches. The results support the paradox of privacy from an emotional perspective: although the reported emotions are intense, there is no relationship between the management that users make of their privacy settings in social networks and mobile applications and the nature and intensity of the emotions reported.

title: Cognitive Biases, Dark Patterns, and the 'Privacy Paradox'
abstract: Scholars and commentators often argue that individuals do not care about their privacy, and that users routinely trade privacy for convenience. This ignores the cognitive biases and design tactics platforms use to manipulate users into disclosing information. This essay highlights some of those cognitive biases from hyperbolic discounting to the problem of overchoice and discusses the ways in which platform design can manipulate disclosure. It then explains how current law allows this manipulative and anti consumer behavior to continue and proposes a new approach to reign in the phenomenon.

title: A New Privacy Paradox? Youth Agentic Practices of Privacy Management Despite "Nothing to Hide" Online.
abstract: Focus groups conducted with Canadian teenagers examining their perceptions and experiences with cyber risk, center on various privacy strategies geared for impression management across popular social network sites (SNS) We highlight privacy concerns as a primary reason for a gravitation away from Facebook toward newer, more popular sites such as Instagram and Snapchat, as well as debates about the permeability of privacy on Snapchat in particular. The privacy paradox identifies a disjuncture between what is said about privacy and what is done in practice. It refers to declarations from youth that they are highly concerned for privacy, yet frequently disregard privacy online through "oversharing" and neglecting privacy management. However, our participants, especially older teens, invoked a different mindset: that they have "nothing to hide" online and therefore do not consider privacy relevant for them. Despite this mindset, the strategies we highlight suggest a new permutation of the privacy paradox, rooted in a pragmatic adaptation to the technological affordances of SNS, and wider societal acquiescence to the debasement of privacy online.