Leisure Boredom , Sensation Seeking , Self-esteem , Addiction Symptoms and Patterns of Mobile Phone Use

The purpose of this study is to (1) identify addiction symptoms that are uniquely associated with mobile phone use; (2) examine how demographics and psychological attributes (such as leisure boredom, sensation seeking, and self-esteem) of individuals are related to these addiction symptoms; and (3) explore how these attributes, mobile phone addiction symptoms, and social capital can predict patterns of mobile phone use. Using a probability sample, a telephone survey was conducted with 624 young adults. Exploratory factor analysis identified four common mobile phone addiction symptoms: ‘losing control and receiving complaints,’ ‘anxiety and craving,’ ‘withdrawal/escape,’ and ‘productivity loss.’ Results show that the higher one scored on sensation seeking and leisure boredom, the higher the likelihood one was addicted to the mobile phone. Conversely, subjects who scored high on self-esteem -who perceived themselves as being in control -demonstrated less of a tendency to be addicted. Regression results also indicate that sensation seeking played the largest role in mobile phone addiction, while gender, self-esteem, and leisure boredom appeared to have a lesser but significant influence. In particular, those who were female and had low self-esteem were the most vulnerable. As expected, heavy users of the mobile phone tended to exhibit more addiction symptoms (such as losing control & receiving complaints and experiencing anxiety or craving). Regression results also show that those who used the mobile phone more in minutes per day were those who scored high on sensation seeking, and were older, but less educated. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that females tended to spend longer time on each call while those who were older and high on self-esteem talked to a larger pool of people on a Mobile Phone Addiction Symptoms and Use / Page 2 regular basis using their mobile phones. This suggests that, as a social technology, the mobile phone has become a popular communication utility and a relationship facilitator. Addiction symptoms were found to be the most powerful predictors for features use of the mobile phone. Heavy feature users of the mobile phone, for sending/receiving SMS, for entertainment, and for information, tended to be those who often felt anxious and even lost without their mobile phones, experienced a higher sense of losing control, and often received complaints from family and friends. Contrary to what was hypothesized, psychological attributes, such as leisure boredom, sensation seeking, and self-esteem, were not significantly linked to features used except for entertainment. Specifically, those who scored high on sensation seeking were those who often enjoyed the entertainment functions of sending and receiving pictures, playing electronic games, and downloading ring tones on their mobile phones. The insignificant relationship between the use of SMS and psychological attributes indicates that SMS has become a preferred method of communication for young adults despite what psychological state they are in. Demographically, young and educated females tended to use SMS more, while the entertainment features attracted the young and the information functions captivated the educated for online news and/or utilizing it as a video phone. Mobile Phone Addiction Symptoms and Use / Page 3 Leisure Boredom, Sensation Seeking, Self-esteem, Addiction Symptoms and Patterns of Mobile Phone Use  According to a study by the Pew Internet and American Life Project, 45% of 12 to 17 year-olds have mobile phones in the U.S., and 33% have used a mobile phone to send text messages (Lenhart, Madden, & Hitlin, 2005). Of those who often do texting on their mobile phone, almost one in three (29%) teenagers use it to communicate with their parents. In another cell phone use study by Pew (Rainie & Keeter, 2006), it was reported that teenagers often use their mobile phone to take still pictures (28%), play electronic games (22%), surf the Internet (14%), and send/receive emails (8%). Playing with features on the mobile phone (including reading online news and downloading songs, wallpaper, and ring tones) appears to have become the adolescent leisure phenomenon in recent years. As the phones get cheaper and more sophisticated, sales of mobile phones to teenagers become more common. However, as the mobile phones become more compact, concerns about problem use are growing. To date, there has been almost no study on whether mobile phone use is addictive or dependence-forming. This study was established and centered upon the people directly involved with a modern syndrome – adolescents and young adults for whom the mobile phone had come to dominate their lives and interests. The investigation aims to examine whether certain factors could be isolated as instrumental in the development of such a syndrome. Past research has found that the heaviest substance users or addicts tended to be those who scored high on sensation seeking and leisure boredom and low on self-esteem (Gordon & Caltabiano 1996; Iso-Ahola & Crowley, 1991; Iso-Ahola & Weissinger, 1990). As a result, theoretical constructs, such as leisure boredom, sensation seeking, and self-esteem, will be used as the basis from which to explain addiction symptoms and mobile phone use. Mobile Phone Addiction Symptoms and Use / Page 4 Theoretical Frameworks Mobile Phone Addiction This research was initiated based upon previous studies (Beard, 2002; Beard & Wolf, 2001; Chak & Leung, 2004; Griffiths, 1998, 2000; Katz & Akhus, 2002; Leung, 2004; Ling, 2004; Scherer, 1997;  1999) which indicated that some online users were becoming addicted to the Internet in much the same way that others became addicted to gambling, drugs, and alcohol. Traditionally, the concept “addiction” was based on a medical model and is properly reserved for bodily and psychological dependence on a physical substance – and not a behavioral pattern. Recent research has argued that addiction should be widened to cover a broader range of behaviors (Lemon, 2002;  2001; Shaffer, 1996). As a subset of behavioral addiction, Griffiths (1996) proposed the concept of technological addiction, which is operationally defined as human-machine interaction and is non-chemical in nature. Despite whether the excessive use of various technologies, such as Internet surfing, TV watching, and computer gaming, can be or should be called an “addiction,” scholars have argued that excessive use of technology can be considered problematic (Griffiths, 1998; Griffiths & Hunt, 1998; Shotton, 1989). Today, as the capability of the mobile phone becomes more and more sophisticated and multifunctional, adolescents and young users are becoming increasingly dependent or “addicted” to this technology not only for mediated interpersonal communication through voice or text (such as SMS), but also as a tool for seeking information online, for entertainment, relaxation, passing time, picture and video taking, expression of status and identity, and other yet-to-be invented applications. To clinically define addictive use of the mobile phone, it is necessary to compare it against criteria for other established addictions. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (known as DSM) has established Mobile Phone Addiction Symptoms and Use / Page 5 objective and measurable criteria for assessing “substance dependence” (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The main diagnostic criterion is a maladaptive pattern of substance use, leading to significant psychological impairment. This impairment is manifested by seven symptoms from a list of conditions including withdrawal, tolerance, preoccupation with the substance, loss of control over the substance, more use of the substance than intended, continued consumption of the substance despite adverse consequences, and loss of interest in other social, occupational, and recreational activities. Addictive mobile phone use can be regarded as an impulse control disorder that does not involve an intoxicant and is similar to pathological gambling. Bianchi & Phillips (2005) identified a number of signs that mobile phone addicts would exhibit and developed the mobile phone problem-use scale. It was found that dependents of mobile phones preoccupy themselves with the mobile phone (e.g., when out of range for some time, users become worried with the thought of missing a call); use the mobile phone for an increasing amount of time in order to achieve satisfaction; repeat unsuccessful efforts to control, cut back or stop mobile phone use; feel lost, restless, moody, depressed or irritable when attempting to cut down use of the mobile phone; stay on the mobile phone longer than originally intended; hide from family and friends, or others to conceal the extent of involvement with the mobile phone; and use the mobile phone as a way of escape from problems or to relieve a dysphoric mood (e.g., feeling of isolation, anxiety, loneliness, and depression). Given the lack of similar research in this area, this study expands the work by Bianchi and Phillips (2005) and seeks predictors from the addiction literature and other psychological theories such as leisure boredom, sensation seeking, and self-esteem in order to differentiate the addicts and the non-addicts and to explain usage patterns of mobile phones. In particular, this study asked: (1) what mobile phone addiction symptoms can be identified among a group of adolescents and young adults? And (2) who are the mobile phone addicts and to Mobile Phone Addiction Symptoms and Use / Page 6 what extent are adolescents and young adults addicted to mobile phone use? Leisure Boredom Research suggests that unless leisure is optimally arousing, it is experienced as boredom (Iso-Ahola, 1980), and that individuals who experience high levels of leisure boredom may engage in deviant activities such as substance