A case study of constructivist instructional strategies for adult online learning

This case study explores how a constructivist-based instructional design helped adult learners learn in an online learning environment. Two classes of adult learners pursuing professional development and registered in a webbased course were studied. The data consisted of course documents, submitted artefacts, surveys, interviews, in-class observations, and online observations. The study found that the majority of the learners were engaged in two facets of learning. On the one hand, the instructional activities requiring collaboration and interaction helped the learners support one another’s learning, from which most claimed to have benefited. On the other hand, the constructivistbased course assisted many learners to develop a sense of becoming more responsible, self-directed learners. Overall, the social constructivist style of instructional strategy seems promising to facilitate adult learning, which not only helps change learners’ perceptions of the online learning, but also assists them to learn in a more collaborative, authentic and responsible way. The study, however, also disclosed that in order to maintain high-quality learning, appropriate assessment plans and adequate facilitation must be particularly reinforced. A facilitation model is thus suggested.  With the rising prevalence of the Internet, technological media for teaching and learning are becoming increasingly interactive, widely distributed and collaborative (Bonk, Hara, Dennen, Malikowski & Supplee, 2000; Chang, 2003). A collaborative, interactive, constructivist online learning environment, as opposed to a passive learning environment, is found to be better able to help students learn more actively and effectively (Murphy, Mahoney, Chen, Mendoza-Diaz & Yang, 2005). Online learning provides learners, especially adult learners, with an opportunity and flexibility for learning at Note: The research was sponsored by the National Science Council, NSC-95-2520-S-271-001. British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 41 No 5 2010 706–720 doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00965.x   As lifelong learning is considered both an economic and a social and individual interest (White, 2007), how to assist general adult learners to learn more practically and persistently through the online learning environment is of great interest. The purpose of this study is to explore whether and how nondegreepursuing adult learners benefit from engaging in a constructivist-based online course. This study first briefly reviews the notion of constructivist learning, and then the characteristics of adult learners and adult learning, followed by discussing online instructional strategies designed based on constructivist principles. Two online courses offered for adult learners are investigated to address the research questions. In addition to reporting the findings, a facilitation model for improving the constructivist-based online course geared towards adult learners is also provided at the end. The concept of constructivist learning Constructivist learning arose from Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives (Palincsar, 1998), emphasising the impact of constructed knowledge on the individual’s active, reflective thinking. While Piaget focused more on individual cognitive constructivism, Vygotsky stressed that sociocultural systems have a major impact on an individual’s learning (Siegler, 1998). According to social constructivist theory, knowledge is socially situated and is constructed through reflection on one’s own thoughts and experiences, as well as other learners’ ideas. Dewey (1938) believed that individual development is dependent upon the existing social environmental context and argued that students should learn from the genuine world through continuous interaction with others. Lave and Wenger (1991) asserted that learning is socially situated with members’ active participation in their routine, patterned activities. A constructivist, dialogical instructional approach should focus on learning about ‘why’ and learning about ‘how’, rather than conducting learning itself (Scott, 2001). In the constructivist learning environment, students are encouraged to actively engage in learning: to discuss, argue, negotiate ideas, and to collaboratively solve problems; teachers design and provide the learning context and facilitate learning activities (Palincsar). Because of their rich life and employment experience, the social, situated nature of learning through practices appears particularly authentic and appropriate for adult learners. Adult learners and adult learning The success of adult learning greatly depends upon individuals’ maturation and experiences (Mezirow, 1991, 1997; Wang, Sierra & Folger, 2003) contended that the focus of adult learning is on assisting them to become independent thinkers, rather than passive knowledge receivers. However, like younger students, adult learners also need motivation to sustain their learning, particularly those less engaged working adults (Priest, 2000). To achieve this, the course curriculum must be tailored to individual adult’s learning needs, interests, abilities and experiences (Lindeman, 1926). Learners may learn more effectively when instructional activities are designed in accordance with their personal needs, characteristics and, most importantly, their life context (Knowles, 1990). Knowles (1986) proposed the concept of contract learning as the fundamental platform for organising individual adult learning. The idea of contract learning hinges on individual learners planning their own learning based on their Constructivist adult online learning 707   The progress of the learning contract is based upon the learners’ successfully comprehending what they have learned so far (Scott, 2001). When learners set up their own learning objectives and learning outcomes through the learning contract process, they will better understand their learning style and will have better access to the desired course content (Boyer, 2003). Instructional strategies for facilitating constructivist online learning To implement a constructivist-based online course, various instructional strategies have been implemented, such as requiring students to engage in collaborative, contextualised learning by simulating and assuming an authentic role that is real in the authentic society (Auyeung, 2004; Maor, 2003; Martens, Bastiaens & Kirschner, 2007); setting a collective goal and a shared vision to motivate students’ participation and contribution levels (Gilbert & Driscoll, 2002); and requiring students to be in charge of a discussion of their teamwork (Harmon & Jones, 2000). Some online facilitators required students to plan their own learning goals, set their learning pace, and develop the methodology to achieve the set goals (Boyer, 2003; Kochtanek & Hein, 2000). While learners are expected to assume more responsibility for their learning, the role of online facilitators is crucial (Kochtanek & Hein). A number of online educators suggest that the facilitation tasks include providing feedback to learners and a summary of or specific comments on the discussed issues at the end of class discussions (eg, Graham, Cagiltay, Lim, Craner & Duffy, 2001; Maor), and intervening and promoting students’ participation in the discussion when it becomes stagnant (eg, Auyeung, 2004; Maor). Encouraging students to provide timely responses and feedback to class members helps boost the students’ sense of participation and learning in online learning communities (Gilbert & Driscoll, 2002; Hill, Raven & Han, 2002; Wegerif, 1998), which further helps boost students’ achievement (Moller, Harvey, Downs & Godshalk, 2000). Some online facilitators reinforced students’ interaction and engagement by laying out clear assessment specifications and setting aside a high percentage of the grade to the class-level online discussion activity (Maor). To facilitate online discussion activities, Murphy et al (2005) proposed a constructivist model, which involves three levels of facilitation: (1) the instructor’s mentoring (guiding the learners to develop cognitive and metacognitive skills), (2) teaching assistants’ (TA) coaching (monitoring learners in developing task management skills), and (3) learner facilitators’ moderation (facilitating required learning activities). Salmon (2002) proposed a five-stage model to facilitate online teaching and learning, in which varied facilitation skills and instructional activities are recommended in different learning stages. The five stages are: (1) access and motivation (setting up the system, welcoming and encouraging), (2) socialisation (establishing cultural, social learning environments), (3) information exchange (facilitating, supporting use of course materials), (4) knowledge construction (conferencing, moderating process), and (5) development (helping achieve personal goals) stages. When designing social constructivist pedagogy for adult learners, Huang (2002) suggested that six instructional principles be considered: interactive learning (interacting with the instructor and peers, rather 708 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 41 No 5 2010