Pedagogy-driven design of Serious Games : An overall view on learning and game mechanics mapping , and cognition-based models

This paper presents findings emerging from the EU-Funded Games and Learning Alliance (GALA) Network of Excellence on serious games (SGs) that has a focus upon pedagogy-driven design of SGs. The overall framework presented in this paper concerns some elements that we consider key for the design of a new generation of more pedagogically-effective and easily author-able SGs: pedagogical perspectives, learning goals mapping to game mechanics and cognition-based SGs models. The paper also includes two corresponding illustrative case studies, developed by the network, on (1) the analysis of the Re-mission game based on the developed analytical framework of learning and game mechanics and (2) the Sandbox SGs cognition-based model in the Travel in Europe project.  What is already known about this topic:  Early studies have demonstrated the valuable contributions of game-based approaches in education and training.  Early work has revealed particular strengths in some entertainment game mechanics, some of which look suited for serious and educational games.  There are however no established practices, framework, models in serious games design and development (mechanics, development framework, etc.).  Games and learning have separate mechanics and Serious Games Mechanics have yet to be defined. What this paper adds:  An overall and integrated view of pedagogy-driven considerations related to SG design.  The introduction to an analytical model that maps learning mechanics to game mechanics (LMGM model) towards defining Serious Games mechanics essential for the design and development of games for learning.  The discussion on a cognition-based SG design model, the Sandbox SG model (SBSG), that seems to have the potential to contextualise learning in a meaningful virtual environment. Implications for practice and/or policy:  The two models will support the design of a game-based learning environment that encapsulates various learning theories and approaches (in particular considering education at schools and universities) be they objectivist, associative, cognitive or situative, and combine contents with mechanics that sustain interest and engagement.  The definition of Serious Games Mechanics will help bridge the gap between the expected learning outcomes and the desired positive engagement with the game-based learning environment.  Formal deployment of game-based intervention for training and education can be further encouraged if pedagogy plays a key role in the design, development and deployment of serious games. The role of educators/practitioners in the development process is also key to encouraging the uptake of game-based intervention.  The increasing use of pervasive and ubiquitous digital gaming technologies gives a significant opportunity for enhancing education methods, in particular thanks to the games’ ability to appeal a wide population. Yet, despite the digital games’ potential in terms of interactivity, immersion and engagement, much work must still be done to understand how to better design, administrate and evaluate digital games across different learning contexts and targets (Alvarez and Michaud, 2008; Ulicsac, 2010; de Freitas and Liarokapis, 2011). Also, games have now evolved exploiting a variety of modules ranging from social networking and multiplayer online facilities to advanced natural interaction modalities (ISFE, 2010). A new typology of digital games has emerged, namely serious games (SG) for education and training, that are designed with a primary pedagogical goal. Samples such as America’s Army or Code of Everand have become increasingly popular, reaching large numbers of players and engaging them for long periods of time. Early studies undertaken in the US and Europe attest to the valuable contributions of game-based approaches in education (e.g. Kato et al., 2008; Knight et al., 2010). And improvements can be further achieved by better understanding the target audience, pedagogic perspectives, so to make learning experiences more immersive, relevant and engaging. A recent survey by the International Software Federation of Europe (ISFE, 2010) revealed that 74% of those aged 16-19 considered themselves as gamers (n=3000), while 60% of those 20-24, 56% 25-29 and 38% 30-44 considered themselves regular players of games. And the projected growth figures for SGs currently stand at 47% per year until 2015 (Alvarez and Michaud, 2008). The importance of pedagogy at the heart of game development is alien to digital game development for entertainment. The absence of game mechanics and dynamics specifically designed and dedicated for learning purposes is an issue, which makes such intervention unsuited for educational purposes. Certainly, the SGs’ educational potential and actual effectiveness may vary appreciably as a consequence of the pedagogical choices made a priori by the game designer (Squire, 2005). Thus, a more thought-out design is key to meet the end-user and stakeholder requirements that are twofold, on the entertainment and education sides. On the one hand, it is undeniable that a fine-tuned pedagogy plays a major role in sustaining learning effectiveness (Bellotti et al., 2010). On the other hand, one of the biggest problems of educational games to date is the inadequate integration of educational and game design principles (e.g. Kiili, 2005; 2008; Lim et al., 2011) and this is also due to the fact that digital game designers and educational experts do not usually share a common vocabulary (Bellotti et al., 2011). In this paper we report the working experience of the Games and Learning Alliance (GALA, www.galanoe.eu) Network of Excellence, funded by the European 7 th Research Framework Programme, which brings together both the research and industry SG development communities, especially from the context of Technology Enhanced Learning in order to give the nascent industry opportunities to develop, find new markets and business models and utilise IP and scientific and pedagogic outcomes. This paper presents the GALA reflections on these topics that rely on a systematic review methodology (eg. Connolly et al., 2012) and the study of models and frameworks that have been developed by the GALA partners. The paper’s main added value consists in providing an overall and integrated view of pedagogically driven design of SGs. The paper begins with an examination of the pedagogical perspectives of SGs and highlights an analytical view of the importance of mapping game mechanics to pedagogical goals. A promising cognition-based model for SG development is discussed, demonstrating some specific development strategies, which are opening up new possibilities for efficient SG production. This paper highlights illustrative case studies on the Remission and Travel in Europe games, developed by the network and associate partners Pedagogical perspective of SGs Pedagogy lies at the heart of the distinction of what is considered as games for learning compared to other entertainment games. From a pedagogical perspective, SGs are not designed mainly for entertainment purposes (Michael and Chen, 2006), but to exploit the game appeal and the consequent player motivation to support development of knowledge and skills (Doughty et al., 2009). SGs offer an effective and engaging experience (Westera et al, 2008) and careful balancing to achieve symbiosis between pedagogy and game-play is needed (Dror, 2008a). Naively transcribing existing material and instructional methods into a SG domain is detrimental (Bruckman, 1999; Dror, 2008b). SGs should have knowledge transference as a core part of their game mechanics (Shute et al, 2009; Baek, 2010). Thus, understanding how game mechanics can relate to relevant educational strategies is needed. Pedagogy is the practice of learning theory, and applying learning theory in practice is a craft that has been developed in traditional education and training contexts for many hundreds of years. In SGs, however, the standard approach has been to take established theories of learning such as associative, cognitive or situative (de Freitas and Jameson, 2012), and to seek to extend these theories within virtual and game environments. Given the many theories of learning available as candidates for application, this approach is arbitrary and possibly ineffectual. However, it is fair to say that, in general, games have to date largely implemented task-centred and cognitive theories; in particular, experiential learning and scaffolded learning approaches have been tested in game environments. In a few cases game use has led to the development of new learning theories such as the exploratory learning model (de Freitas and Neumann, 2009); however well established theories mainly prevail. A key issue for SG design is to match the desired learning outcomes with the typical game characteristics. Games are quite varied in terms of features and can potentially offer different kinds of learning experience. So, it is urgent to understand how different game elements can contribute to an effective facilitation of learning and appropriate measures supporting effectiveness assessment are needed. Measures should include both learning outcomes (knowledge transfer including cognitive and skill-based abilities) and engagement (affective learning experience). Schiphorst (2007) stated that technology should be designed “as” experience and not only “for” experience. The reason why games are good learning environments is because they allow the learner to live through experiences, interact with learning objects and have social interactions with others including teachers and peers. Real value exists in designing learning experiences to support an exploratory and open-ended model of learning to encourage learners to make their own reflections and summations and to come to an understanding in their own way (de Freitas and Neumann, 2009). These two aspects of SGs (engagement