The Effects of Objectifying Hip-Hop Lyrics on Female Listeners

Research has demonstrated support for objectification theory and has established that music affects listeners’ thoughts and behaviors, however, no research to date joins these two fields. The present study considers potential effects of objectifying hip hop songs on female listeners. Among African American participants, exposure to an objectifying song resulted in increased self-objectification. However, among White participants, exposure to an objectifying song produced no measurable difference in self-objectification. This finding along with interview data suggests that white women distance themselves from objectifying hip hop songs, preventing negative effects of such music. EFFECTS OF OBJECTIFYING HIP HOP 3 The Effects of Objectifying Hip-Hop Lyrics on Female Listeners Music is an important part of adolescents’ and young adults’ lives. It is a way to learn about our social world, express emotions, and relax (Agbo-Quaye, 2010). Music today is highly social, shared and listened to in social situations as a way to bolster the mood or experience. However, the effects of music are not always positive. Considering this, how does music affect young adults? Specifically, how does hip-hop music with objectifying lyrics affect female listeners? To begin to answer this question, I will first present previous research on music’s effects, specifically the effects of aggressive, sexualized, and misogynistic lyrics. Next, I will discuss theories regarding the processing of lyrics. Another important aspect of this question is objectification theory, thus I will explain this theory and the evidence to support it. I will then discuss further applications of this theory to various visual media forms. Finally, I will describe gaps in research, as well as the importance of this study. Multiple studies have looked at the effects of music’s lyrics on listeners. Various aspects and trends in popular music have been considered. Anderson, Carnagey, and Eubanks (2003) examined the effects of songs with violent lyrics on listeners. Participants who had been exposed to songs with violent lyrics reported feeling more hostile than those who listened to songs with non-violent lyrics. Those exposed to violent lyrics also had an increase in aggressive thoughts. Researchers also considered trait hostility and found that, although correlated with state hostility, it did not account for the differences in condition. Other studies have explored music’s effects on behavior. One such study considered the effects of exposure to sexualized lyrics (Carpentier, Knobloch-Westerwick, & Blumhoff, 2007). After exposure to overtly sexualized pop lyrics, participants rated potential romantic partners EFFECTS OF OBJECTIFYING HIP HOP 4 with a stronger emphasis on sexual appeal in comparison to the ratings of those participants who heard nonsexual pop songs. Another study exposed male participants to either sexually aggressive misogynistic lyrics or neutral lyrics (Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2006). Those participants who had been exposed to the sexually aggressive lyrics demonstrated more aggressive behaviors towards females. The study was replicated with female participants and aggressive man-hating lyrics and similar results were found. Similarly, another study found that exposure to misogynous rap music influenced sexually aggressive behaviors (Barongan & Hall, 1995). Participants were exposed to either misogynous or neutral rap songs and then presented with three vignettes and were informed they would have to select one to share with a female confederate. Those who listened to the misogynous song selected the assaultive vignette at a significantly higher rate. The selection of the assaultive vignette demonstrated sexually aggressive behavior. These studies demonstrate the real and disturbing effects that music can have on listener’s behaviors. There are multiple theories as to why these lyrical effects are found. Some researchers suggest that social learning and cultivation theories are responsible (Sprankle & End, 2009). Both theories argue that our thoughts and our actions are influenced by what we see. Social learning theory suggests that observing others’ behaviors and the responses they receive will influence the observer’s behavior. As most rap music depicts the positive outcomes of increased sexual activity and objectification of women and downplays or omits the negative outcomes, listeners will start to engage in these activities and consider them acceptable. Cultivation theory argues that the more a person observes the world of sex portrayed in objectifying music, the more likely they are to believe that that world is reality. That is, the more they see “evidence” of EFFECTS OF OBJECTIFYING HIP HOP 5 the attitudes and behaviors portrayed in hip hop, the more likely they are to believe that such behaviors are normal. Cobb and Boettcher (2007) suggest that theories of priming and social stereotyping support the findings that exposure to misogynistic music increases sexist views. They also suggest that some observed gender differences in these responses are the result of different kinds of information processing. Women, as the targets of these lyrics, will process misogynistic lyrics centrally and will attempt to understand the information they are receiving more thoroughly. Thus, they are more likely to reject the lyrics. This finding highlights the importance of attention and how the lyrics are received and the impact these factors can have on listeners’ reactions. These theories were supported in their study as participants exposed to misogynistic music demonstrated few differences from the control group, in which participants were not exposed to any music, in levels of hostile and benevolent sexism (Cobb & Boettcher, 2007). However, exposure to nonmisogynistic rap resulted in significantly increased levels of hostile and benevolent sexism. Researchers suggested that this may be because the processing of misogynistic lyrics meant that listeners were aware of the sexism present in the lyrics and thus the music was unable to prime their latent sexism. However, we live in a society in which rap music is associated with misogyny and violence (Fried, 1999). When participants listened to nonmisogynistic lyrics this association was primed. Because the lyrics weren’t explicit the processing involved was not critical and these assumptions went unchallenged and latent sexism was primed. Objectification theory provides another hypothesis for the processing and potential effects of media. Objectification theory posits that in a society in which women are frequently objectified, that is, seen as bodies that perform tasks rather than as people, women begin to selfEFFECTS OF OBJECTIFYING HIP HOP 6 objectify, or see themselves as objects for others’ viewing (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). They internalize an outsider’s perspective of their body. This self-objectification comes with anxiety and shame as well as frequent appearance monitoring (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The authors suggest that the frequent objectification and self-objectification that occurs in our society could contribute to depression and eating disorders. They also suggest that frequent selfmonitoring, shame, and anxiety could make it difficult to reach and maintain peak motivational states (that is, an extended period of time in which we are voluntarily absorbed in a challenging physical or mental task with the goal of accomplishing something that’s considered worthwhile). These states are psychologically beneficial. Multiple studies support this theory. One such study looked at the effects of being in a self-objectifying state on the ability to reach and maintain a peak motivational state (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998). Participants were asked to try on either a swimsuit or a sweater and spend some time in that article of clothing. After this time they were asked questions about their self-objectifying behaviors and attitudes, such as depressed mood, self-surveillance, and body shame. They were then asked to complete a difficult math task, an activity meant to produce a peak motivational state. A similar study was completed with members of different ethnic groups (Hebl, King, & Lin, 2004). In this study a nearly identical procedure was followed. In addition, researchers aimed to create a more objectifying state for men, having them wear Speedos rather than swim trunks. In both of these studies female participants wearing swimsuits performed significantly worse on the math test than female participants wearing sweaters. There were no significant differences between the swim trunks and sweater conditions for male participants. However, when male participants wore Speedos they performed significantly worse on the math test. Further, the results of measures of self-objectifying EFFECTS OF OBJECTIFYING HIP HOP 7 behaviors, like body shame and surveillance, were significantly higher for those in the swimsuit condition. These findings demonstrate support for objectification theory and suggest that it crosses ethnic boundaries. The decreased math scores for men in Speedos suggest that it is possible to put anyone in a self-objectifying state. However, it is women who most often find themselves in this situation in our society. With empirical support for the central premises of objectification theory, research has turned to effects of popular media on self-objectification of women. One such study looked at the links between music video consumption, self-surveillance, body esteem, dieting status, depressive symptoms, and math confidence (Grabe & Hyde, 2009). Researchers found a positive relationship between music video consumption, self-objectification, and the host of psychological factors proposed by Fredrickson and Roberts, such that as music video consumption increased, so did self-objectifying behaviors. Another study looked at the effects of portrayals of the thin ideal in m