The assessment of time management in middle-school students

A self-assessment of time management is developed for middle-school students. A sample of entering seventh-graders (N = 814) from five states across the USA completed this instrument, with 340 students retested 6 months later. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis suggested two factors (i.e., Meeting Deadlines and Planning) that adequately explain the variance in time management for this age group. Scales show evidence of reliability and validity; with high internal consistency, reasonable consistency of factor structure over time, moderate to high correlations with Conscientiousness, low correlations with the remaining four personality dimensions of the Big Five, and reasonable prediction of students’ grades. Females score significantly higher on both factors of time management, with gender differences in Meeting Deadlines (but not Planning) mediated by Conscientiousness. Potential applications of the instrument for evaluation, diagnosis, and remediation in educational settings are discussed.  The assessment of time management in middle-school students In our technologically enriched society, individuals are constantly required to multitask, prioritize, and work against deadlines in a timely fashion (Orlikowsky & Yates, 2002). Time management has caught the attention of educational researchers, industrial organizational psychologists, and entrepreneurs, for its possible impact on academic achievement, job performance, and quality of life (Macan, 1994). However, research on time management has not kept pace with this enthusiasm, with extant investigations suffering from a number of problems. Claessens, Van Eerde, Rutte, and Roe’s (2007) review of the literature suggest that there are three major limitations to research on time management. First, many measures of time management have limited validity evidence. Second, many studies rely solely on one-shot self-report assessment, such that evidence for a scale’s generalizability over time cannot be collected. Third, school (i.e., K-12) populations have largely been ignored. For example, all studies in the Claessens et al. (2007) review focus on adult workplace samples (e.g., teachers, engineers) or university students, rather than students in K-12. The current study involves the development of a time management assessment tailored specifically to middle-school students (i.e., adolescents in the sixth to eighth grade of schooling). Time management may be particularly important at the onset of adolescence for three reasons. First, the possibility of early identification and remediation of poor time management practices. Second, the transition into secondary education, from a learning environment involving one teacher to one of time-tabled classes for different subjects with different teachers setting assignments and tests that may occur contiguously. Successfully navigating this new learning environment requires the development of time management skills. Third, adolescents use large amounts of their discretionary time on television, computer gaming, internet use, and sports: Average estimates are 3=4 and 2=4 h per day for seventh-grade boys and girls, respectively (Van den Bulck, 2004). With less time left to do more administratively complex schoolwork, adolescents clearly require time management skills to succeed academically. 1.1. Definitions and assessments of time management Time management has been defined and operationalized in several different ways: As a means for monitoring and controlling time, as setting goals in life and keeping track of time use, as prioritizing goals and generating tasks from the goals, and as the perception of a more structured and purposive life (e.g., Bond & Feather, 1988; Britton & Tesser, 1991; Burt & Kemp, 1994; Eilam & Aharon, 2003). The various definitions all converge on the same essential element: The completion of tasks within an expected timeframe while maintaining outcome quality, through mechanisms such as planning, organizing, prioritizing, or multitasking. To the same effect, Claessens et al. (2007) defined time management as ‘‘behaviors that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed activities” (p. 36). Four instruments have been used to assess time management in adults: The Time Management Behavior Scale (TMBS; 0191-8869/$ see front matter 2009  Corresponding author.  E-mail address: lliu@ets.org (O.L. Liu). Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009)