Herzberg ’ s Two-Factor Theory 1 Herzberg ’ s Two-Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction : An Integrative

Herzberg published the two-factor theory of work motivation in 1959. The theory was highly controversial at the time it was published, claims to be the most replicated study in this area, and provided the foundation for numerous other theories and frameworks in human resource development (Herzberg, 1987). The theory states that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are affected by two different sets of factors. Therefore, satisfaction and dissatisfaction cannot be measured on the same continuum. This paper examines the historical context in which the theory was developed, the methodology used to develop the theory, the controversy and attempts to duplicate the study, and the theory’s current relevance to HRD. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 3 Herzberg published the two-factor theory of work motivation in 1959. The theory was highly controversial at the time it was published, claims to be the most replicated study in this area, and provided the foundation for numerous other theories and frameworks in human resource development (Herzberg, 1987). The theory states that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are affected by two different sets of factors. Therefore, satisfaction and dissatisfaction cannot be measured on the same continuum. Herzberg’s research was conducted during the late 1950s within a thirty mile radius of Pittsburg, which was at the time a center for heavy industry. It was a time of full employment and nearly 100% utilization of plants and facilities. Although demographical information of the workers studied was not explicitly stated by the authors in the literature, it is implied that the majority of the workers studied were white males. It was also a period of heavy unionization. This is in stark contrast to the current work environment of customer-service oriented jobs, high unemployment rates, idle and closed plants, the diverse workforce, and the decline of unionization. This paper asks the following research question: is the two-factor theory still relevant considering the historical context in which the theory was developed, the methodology used, and the changed dynamics of the workforce? I attempt to answer this question by conducting an integrative literature review. I will first give an overview of the theory. I will then describe my research method and provide an overview of the literature reviewed. Next, I will discuss key findings. Finally, I will discuss the theoretical and practical implications of this paper. Overview of the Theory The two-factor theory of job satisfaction was the result of a five year research program on job attitudes initiated by a grant from The Buhl Foundation. There was an urgent need at the time Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 4 for more and better insight about the attitudes of people towards their jobs due to the prevalence of job dissatisfaction indicators such as strikes, slow downs, and filing of grievances (Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, & Capwell, 1957). During the first stage of the program, Herzberg and his colleagues conducted a comprehensive literature review of over 2000 writings published between 1900 and 1955. The literature yielded contradictory results, and the research designs of the studies varied widely in quality and the methodologies used (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Based on their review of the literature, Herzberg et al. (1959) made core assumptions on which to base their hypothesis and research design. First, there was enough evidence to assume that there was some relationship between job attitudes and productivity. Second, the characteristics of dissatisfied workers had been well-defined in the existing literature. Third, the factors related to job attitudes had also been previously well-defined. Herzberg et al. (1959) developed an initial hypothesis that satisfaction and dissatisfaction could not be reliably measured on the same continuum. Herzberg et al. next conducted an empirical study to test the hypothesis. After two pilot programs, the design and hypothesis were further developed and expanded (Herzberg et al., 1959). The main hypothesis stated that factors leading to positive attitudes and those leading to negative attitudes will differ. The second hypothesis stated that factors and effects involved in long-range sequences of events would differ from those in short-range sequences. The major study used the critical incident technique and was conducted at nine sites within a 30 mile radius of Pittsburg. A total of 203 accountants and engineers were studied. Participants were led through a semi-structured interview in which they were asked to describe any time when they felt either exceptionally good or bad about their job. After describing the story in detail, they were asked for another story at the other end of the continuum. The Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 5 participants were then asked to rate their experience on a scale of one to 21, with one indicating that the experience hardly affected their feelings, and 21 indicating that it was an experience with serious impact. These stories were then categorized into high and low sequences. High sequences had a high impact on job attitude, and low sequences had minimal impact on job attitude. Herzberg et al. (1959) found that Maslow’s theory of personal growth and selfactualization became the keys to understanding the good feelings in these sequences. The authors found certain trends in the characteristics of high and low sequences. In the high sequences, only a small number of factors were responsible for good feelings about the job. All of those factors were related to the intrinsic factors of the job and were predominantly long lasting. When good feelings about the job were short lasting, they stemmed from specific achievements and recognition about those achievements as opposed to the job itself. The high sequence events provide contrast to the low sequence events. It was found that a great many things can be a source of dissatisfaction, but only certain factors can contribute to satisfaction (Herzberg et al., 1959). Low sequence factors were rarely found in the high sequences. Salary was the exception to these findings as it was mentioned with similar frequency in both the high and low range stories. However, when viewed within the context of the events, it became apparent to the researchers that salary is primarily a dissatisfier. When salary was mentioned as a satisfier, it was related to appreciation and recognition of a job done well and not as a factor in itself. From this data, the original hypothesis was restated and became the two-factor theory of job satisfaction (Herzberg et al., 1959). Factors that affect job satisfaction are divided into two categories. Hygiene factors surround the doing of the job. They include supervision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions, salary, company policy and administration, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 6 benefits, and job security. Motivation factors lead to positive job attitudes because they satisfy the need for self-actualization. Motivation factors are achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement. The opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction. The opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. The satisfaction of hygiene needs can prevent dissatisfaction and poor performance, but only the satisfaction of the motivation factors will bring the type of productivity improvement sought by companies (Herzberg et al., 1959). The researchers also examined the impact of the sequences on performance, turnover, attitude toward the company, and mental health (Herzberg et al., 1959). They found that attitudes influence the way the job is done and that favorable attitudes affect performance more than unfavorable attitudes. In terms of turnover, negative attitude resulted in some degree of physical or psychological withdrawal from the job. In relation to attitude toward the company, the study showed that a company can expect the degree of loyalty to vary with the degree of job satisfaction. Finally, the results showed no clear evidence for any effect on mental health, although the participants themselves perceived that a relationship existed. It is important to understand the conventional ideas of job satisfaction at the time Herzberg et al. published this theory in order to fully understand the implications. Conventional explanations of job satisfaction at the time considered satisfaction and dissatisfaction as extremes on a single continuum with a neutral condition in the midpoint in which the individual is neither satisfied nor dissatisfied (Behling, Labovitz, & Kosmo, 1968). Workers shift along this singular scale as factors are changed or introduced. Accordingly, organizations focused on hygiene factors in an attempt to improve productivity. Herzberg et al. (1959) argued that this was the wrong approach. In order to increase satisfaction, the motivation factors must be improved. According to Herzberg et al. (1959), jobs should be restructured to increase the ability of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 7 workers to achieve goals that are meaningfully related to the doing of the job. Job satisfaction can also be reached by matching the individual’s work capacity to the work he will need to do during the selection process. It is equally important to recognize the supervisor’s role in job satisfaction. They must provide recognition when needed and effectively plan and organize the work. Finally, although it is not realistic to allow the worker to set their own goals in most circumstances, the worker can often determine how they will achieve their goal. This will give workers a greater sense of achievement over their work. There are several criticisms of the two-factor theory. They are: (a) the theory appears to be bound to the critical incident method; (b) the theory confuses events causing feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the agent that caused the event to happen; (c) the reli