nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
DELTA: DEEP LEARNING TRANSFER USING FEATURE MAP WITH ATTENTION FOR CONVOLUTIONAL NETWORKS
Authors: Xingjian Li, Haoyi Xiong, Hanchao Wang, Yuxuan Rao, Liping Liu, Jun Huan

Transfer learning through fine-tuning a pre-trained neural network with an extremely large dataset, such as ImageNet, can significantly accelerate training while the accuracy is frequently bottlenecked by the limited dataset size of the new target task. To solve the problem, some regularization methods, constraining the outer layer weights of the target network using the starting point as references (SPAR), have been studied. In this paper, we propose a novel regularized transfer learning framework DELTA, namely DEep Learning Transfer using Feature Map with Attention. Instead of constraining the weights of neural network, DELTA aims to preserve the outer layer outputs of the target network. Specifically, in addition to minimizing the empirical loss, DELTA intends to align the outer layer outputs of two networks, through constraining a subset of feature maps that are precisely selected by attention that has been learned in an supervised learning manner. We evaluate DELTA with the state-of-the-art algorithms, including L2 and L2-SP. The experiment results show that our proposed method outperforms these baselines with higher accuracy for new tasks.
MoPro: Webly Supervised Learning with Momentum Prototypes
Authors: Junnan Li, Caiming Xiong, Steven Hoi

We propose a webly-supervised representation learning method that does not suffer from the annotation unscalability of supervised learning, nor the computation unscalability of self-supervised learning. Most existing works on webly-supervised representation learning adopt a vanilla supervised learning method without accounting for the prevalent noise in the training data, whereas most prior methods in learning with label noise are less effective for real-world large-scale noisy data. We propose momentum prototypes (MoPro), a simple contrastive learning method that achieves online label noise correction, out-of-distribution sample removal, and representation learning. MoPro achieves state-of-the-art performance on WebVision, a weakly-labeled noisy dataset. MoPro also shows superior performance when the pretrained model is transferred to down-stream image classification and detection tasks. It outperforms the ImageNet supervised pretrained model by +10.5 on 1-shot classification on VOC, and outperforms the best self-supervised pretrained model by +17.3 when finetuned on 1% of ImageNet labeled samples. Furthermore, MoPro is more robust to distribution shifts. Code and pretrained models are available at https://github.com/salesforce/MoPro.
Automatic Rule Extraction from Long Short Term Memory Networks
Authors: W. James Murdoch, Arthur Szlam

Although deep learning models have proven effective at solving problems in natural language processing, the mechanism by which they come to their conclusions is often unclear.   As a result, these models are generally treated as black boxes, yielding no insight of the underlying learned patterns.  In this paper we consider Long Short Term Memory networks (LSTMs) and demonstrate a new approach for tracking the importance of a given input to the LSTM for a given output. By identifying consistently important patterns of words, we are able to distill state of the art LSTMs on sentiment analysis and question answering into a set of representative phrases. This representation is then quantitatively validated by using the extracted phrases to construct a simple, rule-based classifier which approximates the output of the LSTM.
Distributionally Robust Optimization Leads to Better Generalization: on SGD and Beyond
Authors: Jikai Hou, Kaixuan Huang, Zhihua Zhang

In this paper, we adopt distributionally robust optimization (DRO) (Ben-Tal et al., 2013) in hope to achieve a better generalization in deep learning tasks. We establish the generalization guarantees and analyze the localized Rademacher complexity for DRO, and conduct experiments to show that DRO obtains a better performance. We reveal the profound connection between SGD and DRO, i.e., selecting a batch can be viewed as choosing a distribution over the training set. From this perspective, we prove that SGD is prone to escape from bad stationary points and small batch SGD outperforms large batch SGD. We give an upper bound for the robust loss when SGD converges and keeps stable. We propose a novel Weighted SGD (WSGD) algorithm framework, which assigns high-variance weights to the data of the current batch. We devise a practical implement of WSGD that can directly optimize the robust loss. We test our algorithm on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100, and WSGD achieves significant improvements over the conventional SGD.
On the Convergence of Adam and Beyond
Authors: Sashank J. Reddi, Satyen Kale, Sanjiv Kumar

Several recently proposed stochastic optimization methods that have been successfully used in training deep networks such as RMSProp, Adam, Adadelta, Nadam are based on using gradient updates scaled by square roots of exponential moving averages of squared past gradients. In many applications, e.g. learning with large output spaces, it has been empirically observed that these algorithms fail to converge to an optimal solution (or a critical point in nonconvex settings). We show that one cause for such failures is the exponential moving average used in the algorithms. We provide an explicit example of a simple convex optimization setting where Adam does not converge to the optimal solution, and describe the precise problems with the previous analysis of Adam algorithm. Our analysis suggests that the convergence issues can be fixed by endowing such algorithms with ``long-term memory'' of past gradients, and propose new variants of the Adam algorithm which not only fix the convergence issues but often also lead to improved empirical performance.
Semi-Supervised Boosting via Self Labelling
Authors: Akul Goyal, Yang Liu

Attention to semi-supervised learning grows in machine learning as the price to expertly label data increases. Like most previous works in the area, we focus on improving an algorithm's ability to discover the inherent property of the entire dataset from a few expertly labelled samples. In this paper we introduce Boosting via Self Labelling (BSL), a solution to semi-supervised boosting when there is only limited access to labelled instances. Our goal is to learn a classifier that is trained on a data set that is generated by combining the generalization of different algorithms which have been trained with a limited amount of supervised training samples. Our method builds upon a combination of several different components. First, an inference aided ensemble algorithm developed on a set of weak classifiers will offer the initial noisy labels. Second, an agreement based estimation approach will return the average error rates of the noisy labels. Third and finally, a noise-resistant boosting algorithm will train over the noisy labels and their error rates to describe the underlying structure as closely as possible. We provide both analytical justifications and experimental results to back the performance of our model. Based on several benchmark datasets, our results demonstrate that BSL is able to outperform state-of-the-art semi-supervised methods consistently, achieving over 90% test accuracy with only 10% of the data being labelled.
Learnability Lock: Authorized Learnability Control Through Adversarial Invertible Transformations
Authors: Weiqi Peng, Jinghui Chen

Owing much to the revolution of information technology, recent progress of deep learning benefits incredibly from the vastly enhanced access to data available in various digital formats. Yet those publicly accessible information also raises a fundamental issue concerning Intellectual Property, that is, how to precisely control legal or illegal exploitation of a dataset for training commercial models. To tackle this issue, this paper introduces and investigates a new concept called ''learnability lock'' for securing the process of data authorization. In particular, we propose adversarial invertible transformation, that can be viewed as a mapping from image to image, to encrypt data samples so that they become ''unlearnable'' by machine learning models with negligible loss of visual features. Meanwhile, authorized clients can use a specific key to unlock the learnability of the protected dataset and train models normally. The proposed learnability lock leverages class-wise perturbation that applies a universal transformation function on data samples of the same label. This ensures that the learnability can be easily restored with a simple inverse transformation while remaining difficult to be detected or reverse-engineered. We empirically demonstrate the success and practicability of our method on visual classification tasks.
UNSUPERVISED SENTENCE EMBEDDING USING DOCUMENT STRUCTURE-BASED CONTEXT
Authors: Taesung Lee, Youngja Park

We present a new unsupervised method for learning general-purpose sentence embeddings.
Unlike existing methods which rely on local contexts, such as words
inside the sentence or immediately neighboring sentences, our method selects, for
each target sentence, influential sentences in the entire document based on a document
structure. We identify a dependency structure of sentences using metadata
or text styles. Furthermore, we propose a novel out-of-vocabulary word handling
technique to model many domain-specific terms, which were mostly discarded by
existing sentence embedding methods. We validate our model on several tasks
showing 30% precision improvement in coreference resolution in a technical domain,
and 7.5% accuracy increase in paraphrase detection compared to baselines.
Out-of-Distribution Detection Using Layerwise Uncertainty in Deep Neural Networks
Authors: Hirono Okamoto, Masahiro Suzuki, Yutaka Matsuo

In this paper, we tackle the problem of detecting samples that are not drawn from the training distribution, i.e., out-of-distribution (OOD) samples, in classification. Many previous studies have attempted to solve this problem by regarding samples with low classification confidence as OOD examples using deep neural networks (DNNs). However, on difficult datasets or models with low classification ability, these methods incorrectly regard in-distribution samples close to the decision boundary as OOD samples. This problem arises because their approaches use only the features close to the output layer and disregard the uncertainty of the features. Therefore, we propose a method that extracts the uncertainties of features in each layer of DNNs using a reparameterization trick and combines them. In experiments, our method outperforms the existing methods by a large margin, achieving state-of-the-art detection performance on several datasets and classification models. For example, our method increases the AUROC score of prior work (83.8%) to 99.8% in DenseNet on the CIFAR-100 and Tiny-ImageNet datasets.
Continual Learning in Deep Networks: an Analysis of the Last Layer
Authors: Timothee LESORT, Thomas George, Irina Rish

We study how different output layers in a  deep neural network learn and forget in continual learning settings. The following three  factors  can affect catastrophic forgetting in the output layer: (1) weights modifications, (2) interference, and (3) projection drift. In this paper, our goal is to provide more insights into how changing the output layers may address (1) and (2).  Some potential solutions to those issues are proposed and evaluated here in  several continual learning scenarios. We show that the best-performing type of the output layer  depends on the data distribution drifts and/or the amount of data available. In particular, in some cases where a standard linear layer would fail, it turns out that changing  parameterization is sufficient in order to  achieve a significantly better performance, whithout introducing a continual-learning algorithm and instead using the standard SGD to train a model.  Our analysis and results  shed light on the dynamics of the output layer in continual learning scenarios,  and suggest a way of  selecting the best type of  output layer for a given scenario.
Principled Hybrids of Generative and Discriminative Domain Adaptation
Authors: Han Zhao, Zhenyao Zhu, Junjie Hu, Adam Coates, Geoff Gordon

We propose a probabilistic framework for domain adaptation that blends both generative and discriminative modeling in a principled way. Under this framework, generative and discriminative models correspond to specific choices of the prior over parameters. This provides us a very general way to interpolate between generative and discriminative extremes through different choices of priors. By maximizing both the marginal and the conditional log-likelihoods, models derived from this framework can use both labeled instances from the source domain as well as unlabeled instances from \emph{both} source and target domains. Under this framework, we show that the popular reconstruction loss of autoencoder corresponds to an upper bound of the negative marginal log-likelihoods of unlabeled instances, where marginal distributions are given by proper kernel density estimations. This provides a way to interpret the empirical success of autoencoders in domain adaptation and semi-supervised learning. We instantiate our framework using neural networks, and build a concrete model,  \emph{DAuto}. Empirically, we demonstrate the effectiveness of DAuto on text, image and speech datasets, showing that it outperforms related competitors when domain adaptation is possible.
A closer look at the approximation capabilities of neural networks
Authors: Kai Fong Ernest Chong

The universal approximation theorem, in one of its most general versions, says that if we consider only continuous activation functions σ, then a standard feedforward neural network with one hidden layer is able to approximate any continuous multivariate function f to any given approximation threshold ε, if and only if σ is non-polynomial. In this paper, we give a direct algebraic proof of the theorem. Furthermore we shall explicitly quantify the number of hidden units required for approximation. Specifically, if X in R^n is compact, then a neural network with n input units, m output units, and a single hidden layer with {n+d choose d} hidden units (independent of m and ε), can uniformly approximate any polynomial function f:X -> R^m whose total degree is at most d for each of its m coordinate functions. In the general case that f is any continuous function, we show there exists some N in O(ε^{-n}) (independent of m), such that N hidden units would suffice to approximate f. We also show that this uniform approximation property (UAP) still holds even under seemingly strong conditions imposed on the weights. We highlight several consequences: (i) For any δ > 0, the UAP still holds if we restrict all non-bias weights w in the last layer to satisfy |w| < δ. (ii) There exists some λ>0 (depending only on f and σ), such that the UAP still holds if we restrict all non-bias weights w in the first layer to satisfy |w|>λ. (iii) If the non-bias weights in the first layer are *fixed* and randomly chosen from a suitable range, then the UAP holds with probability 1.
GATED FAST WEIGHTS FOR ASSOCIATIVE RETRIEVAL
Authors: Imanol Schlag, Jürgen Schmidhuber

We improve previous end-to-end differentiable neural networks (NNs) with fast
weight memories. A gate mechanism updates fast weights at every time step of
a sequence through two separate outer-product-based matrices generated by slow
parts of the net. The system is trained on a complex sequence to sequence variation
of the Associative Retrieval Problem with roughly 70 times more temporal
memory (i.e. time-varying variables) than similar-sized standard recurrent NNs
(RNNs). In terms of accuracy and number of parameters, our architecture outperforms
a variety of RNNs, including Long Short-Term Memory, Hypernetworks,
and related fast weight architectures.
Implicit Gradient Regularization
Authors: David Barrett, Benoit Dherin

Gradient descent can be surprisingly good at optimizing deep neural networks without overfitting and without explicit regularization. We find that the discrete steps of gradient descent implicitly regularize models by penalizing gradient descent trajectories that have large loss gradients. We call this Implicit Gradient Regularization (IGR) and we use backward error analysis to calculate the size of this regularization. We confirm empirically that implicit gradient regularization biases gradient descent toward flat minima, where test errors are small and solutions are robust to noisy parameter perturbations. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the implicit gradient regularization term can be used as an explicit regularizer, allowing us to control this gradient regularization directly. More broadly, our work indicates that backward error analysis is a useful theoretical approach to the perennial question of how learning rate, model size, and parameter regularization interact to determine the properties of overparameterized models optimized with gradient descent.
TreeCaps: Tree-Structured Capsule Networks for Program Source Code Processing
Authors: Vinoj Jayasundara, Nghi Duy Quoc Bui, Lingxiao Jiang, David Lo

Program comprehension is a fundamental task in software development and maintenance processes. Software developers often need to understand a large amount of existing code before they can develop new features or fix bugs in existing programs. Being able to process programming language code automatically and provide summaries of code functionality accurately can significantly help developers to reduce time spent in code navigation and understanding, and thus increase productivity. Different from natural language articles, source code in programming languages often follows rigid syntactical structures and there can exist dependencies among code elements that are located far away from each other through complex control flows and data flows. Existing studies on tree-based convolutional neural networks (TBCNN) and gated graph neural networks (GGNN) are not able to capture essential semantic dependencies among code elements accurately. In this paper, we propose novel tree-based capsule networks (TreeCaps) and relevant techniques for processing program code in an automated way that encodes code syntactical structures and captures code dependencies more accurately. Based on evaluation on programs written in different programming languages, we show that our TreeCaps-based approach can outperform other approaches in classifying the functionalities of many programs.
Temporal Alignment Prediction for Supervised Representation Learning and Few-Shot Sequence Classification
Authors: Bing Su, Ji-Rong Wen

Explainable distances for sequence data depend on temporal alignment to tackle sequences with different lengths and local variances. Most sequence alignment methods infer the optimal alignment by solving an optimization problem under pre-defined feasible alignment constraints, which not only is time-consuming, but also makes end-to-end sequence learning intractable. In this paper, we propose a learnable sequence distance called Temporal Alignment Prediction (TAP). TAP employs a lightweight convolutional neural network to directly predict the optimal alignment between two sequences, so that only straightforward calculations are required and no optimization is involved in inference. TAP can be applied in different distance-based machine learning tasks. For supervised sequence representation learning, we show that TAP trained with various metric learning losses achieves completive performances with much faster inference speed. For few-shot action classification, we apply TAP as the distance measure in the metric learning-based episode-training paradigm. This simple strategy achieves comparable results with state-of-the-art few-shot action recognition methods.
Sigma Delta Quantized Networks
Authors: Peter O'Connor, Max Welling

Deep neural networks can be obscenely wasteful. When processing video, a convolutional network expends a fixed amount of computation for each frame with no regard to the similarity between neighbouring frames. As a result, it ends up repeatedly doing very similar computations. To put an end to such waste, we introduce Sigma-Delta networks. With each new input, each layer in this network sends a discretized form of its change in activation to the next layer. Thus the amount of computation that the network does scales with the amount of change in the input and layer activations, rather than the size of the network. We introduce an optimization method for converting any pre-trained deep network into an optimally efficient Sigma-Delta network, and show that our algorithm, if run on the appropriate hardware, could cut at least an order of magnitude from the computational cost of processing video data.
EnGAN: Latent Space MCMC and Maximum Entropy Generators for Energy-based Models
Authors: Rithesh Kumar, Anirudh Goyal, Aaron Courville, Yoshua Bengio

Unsupervised learning is about capturing dependencies between variables and is driven by the contrast between the probable vs improbable configurations of these variables, often either via a generative model which only samples probable ones or with an energy function (unnormalized log-density) which is low for probable ones and high for improbable ones. Here we consider learning both an energy function and  an efficient approximate sampling mechanism for the corresponding distribution. Whereas the critic (or discriminator) in generative adversarial networks (GANs) learns to separate data and generator samples, introducing an entropy maximization regularizer on the generator can turn the interpretation of the critic into an energy function, which separates the training distribution from everything else, and thus can be used for tasks like anomaly or novelty detection. 

This paper is motivated by the older idea of sampling in latent space rather than data space because running a Monte-Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) in latent space has been found to be easier and more efficient, and because a GAN-like generator can convert latent space samples to data space samples. For this purpose, we show how a Markov chain can be run in latent space whose samples can be mapped to data space, producing better samples. These samples are also used for the negative phase gradient required to estimate the log-likelihood gradient of the data space energy function. To maximize entropy at the output of the generator, we take advantage of recently introduced neural estimators of mutual information. We find that in addition to producing a useful scoring function for anomaly detection, the resulting approach produces sharp samples (like GANs) while covering the modes well, leading to high Inception and Fréchet scores.
Dynamic Channel Pruning: Feature Boosting and Suppression
Authors: Xitong Gao, Yiren Zhao, Łukasz Dudziak, Robert Mullins, Cheng-zhong Xu

Making deep convolutional neural networks more accurate typically comes at the cost of increased computational and memory resources. In this paper, we reduce this cost by exploiting the fact that the importance of features computed by convolutional layers is highly input-dependent, and propose feature boosting and suppression (FBS), a new method to predictively amplify salient convolutional channels and skip unimportant ones at run-time. FBS introduces small auxiliary connections to existing convolutional layers. In contrast to channel pruning methods which permanently remove channels, it preserves the full network structures and accelerates convolution by dynamically skipping unimportant input and output channels. FBS-augmented networks are trained with conventional stochastic gradient descent, making it readily available for many state-of-the-art CNNs. We compare FBS to a range of existing channel pruning and dynamic execution schemes and demonstrate large improvements on ImageNet classification. Experiments show that FBS can respectively provide 5× and 2× savings in compute on VGG-16 and ResNet-18, both with less than 0.6% top-5 accuracy loss.