nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Reducing Communication for Distributed Learning in Neural Networks

A learning algorithm is presented for circuits consisting of a single layer of perceptrons. We refer to such circuits as parallel perceptrons. In spite of their simplicity,these circuits are universal approximators for arbitrary boolean and continuous functions. In contrast to backprop for multi-layer perceptrons,our new learning algorithm - the parallel delta rule (p-delta rule) - only has to tune a single layer of weights,and it does not require the computation and communication of analog values with high precision. Reduced communication also distinguishes our new learning rule from other learning rules for such circuits such as those traditionally used for MADALINE. A theoretical analysis shows that the p-delta rule does in fact implement gradient descent - with regard to a suitable error measure - although it does not require to compute derivatives. Furthermore it is shown through experiments on common real-world benchmark datasets that its performance is competitive with that of other learning approaches from neural networks and machine learning. Thus our algorithm also provides an interesting new hypothesis for the organization of learning in biological neural systems.
Using upper confidence bounds for online learning

We show how a standard tool from statistics, namely confidence bounds, can be used to elegantly deal with situations which exhibit an exploitation/exploration trade-off. Our technique for designing and analyzing algorithms for such situations is very general and can be applied when an algorithm has to make exploitation-versus-exploration decisions based on uncertain information provided by a random process. We consider two models with such an exploitation/exploration trade-off. For the adversarial bandit problem our new algorithm suffers only O/spl tilde/(T/sup 1/2/) regret over T trials which improves significantly over the previously best O/spl tilde/(T/sup 2/3/) regret. We also extend our results for the adversarial bandit problem to shifting bandits. The second model we consider is associative reinforcement learning with linear value functions. For this model our technique improves the regret from O/spl tilde/(T/sup 3/4/) to O/spl tilde/(T/sup 1/2/).
Pre- and post-positioning of wenn-clauses in spoken and written German

* The corpus research on which this paper is based was supported in many and substantial ways by Benjamin Stoltenburg. Thanks to Jessica Wallace for correcting the worst blunders in my English, and to Susanne Günthner as well as to Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen and Bernd Kortmann for their comments on a previous version. 2 In recognition of the enthusiasm he has brought to all aspects of the study of spoken verbal interaction, we dedicate this series to Professor Dr.
An Improved On-line Algorithm for Learning Linear Evaluation Functions

We improve and extend results on a learning model where an algorithm has to make a sequence of choices based on an evaluation function [Lon97]. This evaluation function has to be learned on-line from partial information and is assumed to be linear. The main innovation of this paper is the introductionand analysis of a new kind of on-line algorithm which is “adaptively conservative”. This algorithm changes its current hypothesis only if the hypothesis issubstantiallywrong. The analysis of this algorithm establishes performance bounds which depend more directly on the quality of the best off-line approximation of the evaluation function. This improves and unifies previous results.
On Learning from Ambiguous Information

We investigate a variant of Probably Almost Correct learning model where the learner
has to learn from ambiguous information. The ambiguity is introduced by assuming that
the learner does not receive single instances with their correct labels as training data,
but that the learner receives tuples of instances where a tuple has a negative label if all
instances of the tuple should be labeled as negative and a tuple has a positive label if
at least one instance of the tuple should be labeled as positive. Thus, a positive tuple is
ambiguous since it is not known which of its instances is a positive instance.
Such ambiguous information is, for example, relevant in learning problems for drug
design. We present an improved algorithm for learning axis-parallel rectangles in this
model of ambiguous information. In the drug design domain such rectangles represent the
shapes of molecules with certain properties.
Why should we and how can we determine the "base language" of a bilingual conversation?

Moitos investigadores do bilinguismo senten a necesidade de establecer que un fragmento dado de fala bilingue esta "basicamente" na lingua A, ainda que dun xeito ou doutro tamen poidan estar presentes nel elementos da lingua B. O obxectivo deste traballo e discutir os limites da habilidade do analista a hora de atribuir un fragmento dado de fala bilingue a lingua A ou a lingua B -isto e, determinar unha "lingua base"-, e mais plantexar cal e o camino axeitado de actuacion dentro deses limites -isto e, naqueles casos nos que e realmente factible e util reconstruir que lingua estan os participantes falando "basicamente" nun momento dado (ou durante determinada actividade). Neste estudio sostense asi mesmo que nunha aproximacion interpretativa a alternancia de codigos, baseada na conversacion e cunha metodoloxia inspirada na analise, compre ter moito coidado para non confundir as identificacions das linguas feitas polos linguistas coas feitas polos participantes. Presentanse exemplos de como a "lingua da interaccion" e secuencialmente negociada. Xunto a estes, discutense outros casos que exemplifican as numerosas estratexias de ambiguidade polas que os participantes bilingues poden escoller deixar momentaneamente sen resolver a cuestion da lingua da interaccion
Code-switching in conversation: language, interaction and identity

Code Switching, the alternating use of two or more languages ation, has become an increasingly topical and important field of research. Now available in paperback, Code-Switching in Conversation brings together contributions from a wide variety of sociolinguistics settings in which the phenomenon is observed. It addresses not only the structure and the function, but also the ideological values of such bilingual behaviour. The contributors question many views of code switching on the empirical basis of many European and non European contexts. By bringing together linguistics, anthropological and socio-psychological research, they move towards a more realistic conception of bilingual conversation action.
From codeswitching via language mixing to fused lects

A continuum of language alternation phenomena is discussed which spans out between the prototypes labelled codeswitching (CS),language mixing(LM),and fused lects (FLs), with CS and FLs representing the polar extremes of the continuum and LM a point in between. In addition, an interpretation of this continuum is suggested according to which the transition CS-LM-FL can be understood as a case of structural sedimentation.
Language in Time: The Rhythm and Tempo of Spoken Interaction

The authors here promote the reintroduction of temporality into the description and analysis of spoken interaction. They argue that spoken words are, in fact, temporal objects and that unless linguists consider how they are delivered within the context of time, they will not capture the full meaning of situated language use. Their approach is rigorously empirical, with analyses of English, German, and Italian rhythm, all grounded in sequences of actual talk-in-internation.
Dialect Levelling and the Standard Varieties in Europe

This issue of Folia Linguistica is devoted to the relationship between the European Standard varieties and the on-going changes in the dialects for which they represent the overarching variety. It is widely assumed in (social) dialectology that the Standard varieties have gained momentum in the repertoires of most European speech communities, particularly during this Century. Indeed, there is overwhelming evidence that the relevance of the Standard varieties in everyday life has increased greatly äs a consequence of modernization and mobility in the industrialized European societies, äs a result of the centralization of the state and the spreading mass media, and in particular following the changes in the educational system, which for the first time brought the Standard varieties — in their written, bul also in their spoken form — into the reach of the 'masses'. Although the linguistic changes which followed suit were different from one country to the other (and often not even uniform within one country), there can be littie doubt that the addition of a Standard variety to the repertoire of large parts of the population which hitherto had only spoken dialect has had an important structural impact on the (traditional, or base) dialects. This impact can be described in terms of convergence, i.e. the structural assimilation of the low (=dialect) to the high (=standard) variety. In the simplest case of what should rather be called "advergence" (Mattheier 1996:34), this means that the dialects lose their distinctive traits and adopt those of the Standard variety. All too often, however, the process is a two-sided one and the ongoing changes are therefore of a more complex nature: not only do the dialects converge to the Standard, the Standard also converges towards the dialects, i.e., it takes on regional features ("destandardization"; et*. Auer 1997). In both cases, structural levelling takes place: after a period of transition in which variability may increase due to the co-existence of various competing forms, one of them is relinquished. Levelling on the standard-dialect dimension is usually both verticaP and 'horizontal': in jointly converging towards the Standard variety, the
Approximating Hyper-Rectangles: Learning and Pseudorandom Sets

The PAC learning of rectangles has been studied because they have been found experimentally to yield excellent hypotheses for several applied learning problems. Also, pseudorandom sets for rectangles have been actively studied recently because (i) they are a subproblem common to the derandomization of depth-2 (DNF) circuits and derandomizing randomized logspace, and (ii) they approximate the distribution ofnindependent multivalued random variables. We present improved upper bounds for a class of such problems of “approximating” high-dimensional rectangles that arise in PAC learning and pseudo- randomness.
Learning how to play the game: An investigation of role-played job interviews in East Germany

The political and economic changes which have taken place as part of the transformation of the German Democratic Republic into the 'New States' (Neue Bundeslander) of the Federal Republic of Germany have also had important repercussions on the communicative genres used in official and semiofficial situations in the East of Germany. The present paper investigates one of the genres, i.e., the job interview. On the basis of role-played data which were recorded in East and West Germany in 1993 it is argued that East and West German participants employ very different stylistic resources. The differences are analyzed on various levels, focussing on the more formal means used by East Germans, their borrowings from the state-and-party style, and the stylistic incongruities and breaks that were found to be characteristic of their performances. These differences are interpreted in terms of a process of acquisition of a communicative genre hitherto largely unknown or dealt with under very different conditions
InLiSt No . 6 Interaction and Linguistic Structures From Code-switching via Language Mixing to Fused Lects : Toward a Dynamic Typology of Bilingual Speech

I would like to thank Li Wei, one of the organizers of the conference, for his encouragement to turn the lecture into writing. Previous versions have also been presented and discussed at the Universities of Berlin (FU, JFK-Institute) and Barcelona (Univ. Autonoma). Thanks also to Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen, Monica Heller and Yaron Matras for critical and helpful comments. II In recognition of the enthusiasm he has brought to all aspects of the study of spoken verbal interaction, we dedicate this series to Professor Dr.  Over the last few decades, a wide range of phenomena have been described in which two languages are juxtaposed in discourse and/or within a sentence, variously called language alternation, code-switching, code-mixing, etc. It seems worthwhile (and possible) at this stage of research to consider the ways in which these phenomena may be subject to a typology. The present paper aims at such a typological approach. A continuum of language alternation phenomena will be presented which spans out between three well-documented cases (conceived as prototypes) which will be labelled code-switching (CS), language mixing (LM) and fused lects (FLs), with CS and FLs representing the polar extremes of the continuum and LM a point inbetween. Since these three prototypes have been amply documented in the literature,the continuum rests on relatively secure empirical grounds. However, I will also suggest an interpretation of it which is somewhat more tentative, i.e., to see the continuum CS —> LM —> FL as a case of structural sedimentation which some might call " grammaticalization ". Particular attention will therefore be given to the transitions, CS —> LM and LM —> FL. The possibility of such transitions has been hinted at, in particular, by Scotton 1988 who suggests that " overall switching as an unmarked choice seems to be the first step to what has been called the development of a semi-autonomous 'Mix' " (165), for which she also uses the term " fused variety " (158). Generally speaking, however, particularistic, differential and historical studies of bilingualism have often been hidden under the more universalistic interests dominating the past decades of research. For this reason, little is known about the dynamic aspects of speech in individual bilingual communities over a period of time. The terms CS, LM and FLs will be used in the following way: CS will be reserved for those cases in which the juxtaposition of two codes (languages) is perceived and …
Subjective and Objective Parameters Determining "Salience" in Long-Term Dialect Accommodation.

In this article, we will present empirical results of a longitudinal study on long-term dialect accommodation in a German dialect setting. An important model of explaining which linguistic structures undergo such convergence and which do not makes use of the notion of ‘salience’. Dialect features which are perceived by the speakers as ‘salient’ are taken up and given up more easily and faster than those which are perceived as ‘less salient’. The notion of salience has a tradition which goes back to the 1920s. We will discuss this research tradition, apply the criteria for salience that played a role in it to our results, and discuss the question of whether perceived (subjective) salience can be explained in objective (structural-phono logical or phonetic) terms.
Approximating hyper-rectangles: learning and pseudo-random sets

The PAC learning of rectangles has been studied because they have been found experimentally to yield excellent hypotheses for severaf applied learning problems. Also, pseudorandom sets for rectangles have been actively studied recently because (i) they are a subpmblem common to the derandomization of depth-2 (DIW) circuits and derandotnizing Randomized Logspace, and (ii) they approximate the distribution of n independent multivalued random variables. We present improved upper bounds for a class of such problems of “approximating” highdlmensional rectangles that arise in PAC learning and pseudorandomness.
Labour Markets and Organisational Change: Future Working Structures for an Ageing Work Force

Flexible manufacturing systems, team work with decentralisation of decision-making, integration of tasks and multiple allocation across functional barriers demand a skilled work force prepared for continuous learning and adaptation. It is common to see a younger, well-educated and trained work force as being required for such a production environment. A closer empirical look at most of the internal labour markets in this study shows that existing labour market structures do not match this image. Existing labour markets consist very often of an older (and ageing) labour force with relatively low skills and with resistance to continuous training. These structural features have, over the last ten years — despite the existence of costly early retirement measures and new entries into internal labour markets — not much improved, and in many cases have even deteriorated.While age-related exit measures have contributed to maintaining sound corporate cultures in offering socially cushioned exit options and have also prevented internal labour markets from growing older too rapidly, they have — in the “lean employment environment” of mature industrial sectors — not led to a sustained restructuring of internal labour markets. The ending of many of the age-related exit measures owing to their impact on public and company budgets could lead to a growing mismatch between the structure of demand and the structure of supply in internal labour markets. This could have negative effects on company performance and increase the probability of unemployment for workers if no proactive policies for managing the age problem are introduced. Such proactive policies might consist of appropriate age-related training, age-related flexible working time and work organisation patterns.
Standardized observation of team-work in design

In the research project ‘Team-work in Engineering Design Practice’, engineers and psychologists investigate design processes in industry by detailed observation. The aim is to comprehend how the external conditions in conjunction with the individual designer's and the group's prerequisites influence the design process and the solution. Therefore, the design process has to be documented in a standardized form. The paper presents a method for standardized observation of design team-work in industrial practice. In an example of an observed and recorded group setting, some abilities of the protocol analysis methods are demonstrated. After discussing the non-participating observation of design processes with on-line recordings, the planned future work is introduced. Apart from further investigation methods, experiences from first investigations in industry are mentioned.
The Pre-Front Field in Spoken German and its Relevance as a Grammaticalization Position

In German and many other Germanic languages, there is no fixed order of S and O as in an SVO language such as English. Rather, the topology of the declarative non-dependent sentence is canonically defined by the position of the finite and (where relevant) the non-finite parts of the verb. Together, they build up the sentence'brace', i.e., they define the front-field (before the finite verb), middle field (between finite and non-finite parts of the verb), and end-field (which often remains empty, but accommodates, for instance, post-positioned subordinate phrases). The front-field, also called topic position, may be filled by any constituent of the sentence, obligatory or non-obligatory. However, exactly one constituent (which, of course, may be of considerable complexity) can occupy this position.2 This restriction also applies to sentence adverbials and adverbial clauses, and to relative or complement clauses. Cf. the examples in Fig. 1. English, of course, allows more than one constituent before the finite verb, for instance a subject preceded by a disjunct or conjunct (Quirk & Greenbaum 1973:242ff; also cf. Allerton & Cruttenden 7974), or an adverbial clause. Cf. the translations of the German examples (a) and (c):
From Context to Contextualization

It seems to be a cornmon-place enough statement to note that language depends on context. For example, under the notion of deixis, certain linguistic structures (i.e., deictics like I, here, or now) show a dependence on context that is thought to be essential. However, the relationship between language and context is far from clear and has been the centre of a debate which has gained mornenturn over the past ten years. The controversy begins with the question of how much in language and which parts of it are context-dependent, but it also, and perhaps more s~bstantiall~, includes the question of how the relationship between language and context should be conceptualized in more theoretical terms. In this paper, 1 will follow some lines of argument of this debate. 1 will start with the traditional notion of context-in-language and show that it is too restrictive by listing linguistic structures beyond deixis which must be interpreted with reference to context in order to be understood properly. 1 will also give a typology of contextual elements (Le., co-textual features, physical surroundings of the speech situation, social situation, participants common background knowledge and the channel or mediurn) which may play a role in understanding. In the second part of the paper, 1 will deal with the context-text link and 1 will try to show that the notion of contextualization is superior to that of context-Apendence to account in an adequate theoretical and empirical way for this link.
Learning of depth two neural networks with constant fan-in at the hidden nodes (extended abstract)

We present algorithms for learning neural networks where the hidden depth two nodes are threshold gates with constant fan-in. The transfer function of the output node might be more general: we have results for the cases when the threshold function, the logistic function or the identity function is used as the transfer function at the output node. We give batch and on-line learning algorithms for these classes of neural networks and prove bounds on the performance of our algorithms, The batch algorithms work for real valued inputs whereas the on-line algorithms assume that the inputs are discretized. The hypotheses of our algorithms are essentially also neural networks of depth two. However, their number of hidden nodes might be much larger than the number of hidden nodes of the neural network that haa to be learned. Our algorithms can handle such a large number of hidden nodes since they rely on multiplicative weight updates at the output node, and the performance of these algorithms scales only logarithmically with the number of hidden nodes used. Address: Department of Computer Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064.   University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064.  Permission to make dlgitallhard copies of all or part of tids material for peraoml or classroom use is granted without fee provided that the copies are not made or dk%ributed for profit or commercial advantage, the. copyright notice, the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice IS given tha} copyright is by permission of the.ACM, Inc. To co~>yotherwise, to repubhsh, to post on servers or to distribute to Ms, requires specitic permission and/or fee. COLT’96, Desenzano del Garda, Italy @1996 ACM 0-89791-8 1143/9fj/ofj ..$3 .5t)