The lagged effects of racial discrimination on depressive symptomology and interactions with racial identity.

Scholars agree on the negative impacts of racial discrimination on the mental health of African Americans (Brondolo et al., 2008). Yet research is needed to explore the impacts of everyday discrimination over time, especially compared to nonracial daily hassles, in an ecologically valid manner. It is also widely accepted that racial identity can moderate the impact of racial hassles (Sellers, Copeland-Linder, Martin, & Lewis 2006), but few studies have examined this moderating effect over time. The current study addresses gaps in the current literature by analyzing the relationship between reported racial and nonracial stressors over the course of four days. Participants were 225 college students at three institutions who participated in a 20-day daily diary study. Each day, participants reported whether they had experienced a stressful event and their depressive symptoms. We compared reports of depressive symptoms the day an event occurred and two days after for racial and nonracial stressors and examined whether racial identity served as a moderator. The results showed that individuals experienced similar increases for racial and nonracial stressors when events occur and similar decreases in the following two days. Additionally, symptom trajectories varied by racial identity. Implications for the understanding of racial discrimination's role in the well-being of African Americans are discussed.

Related papers:

title: Racism and Ambulatory Blood Pressure in a Community Sample
abstract: Racism has been identified as a psychosocial stressor that may contribute to disparities in the prevalence of cardiovascular disease. The goal of the present article was to investigate the relationship of perceived racism to ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) in a sample of American-born Blacks and Latinos.  Participants included English-speaking Black or Latino(a) adults between the ages of 24 and 65. They completed daily mood diaries and measures of perceived racism, socioeconomic status, and hostility. Participants were outfitted with ABP monitors; 357 provided data on waking hours only, and 245 provided data on both waking and nocturnal ABP.  Perceived racism was positively associated with nocturnal ABP even when controlling for personality factors and socioeconomic status.  The results suggest that racism may influence cardiovascular disease risk through its effects on nocturnal BP recovery. ABP = ambulatory blood pressure; SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; CVD = cardiovascular disease; SES = socioeconomic status; HTN = hypertension; AHA = American Heart Association; GHI = gross household income; BMI = body mass index; PEDQ-CV = Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire-Community Version.

title: A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health.
abstract: This paper reviews 138 empirical quantitative population-based studies of self-reported racism and health. These studies show an association between self-reported racism and ill health for oppressed racial groups after adjustment for a range of confounders. The strongest and most consistent findings are for negative mental health outcomes and health-related behaviours, with weaker associations existing for positive mental health outcomes, self-assessed health status, and physical health outcomes. Most studies in this emerging field have been published in the past 5 years and have been limited by a dearth of cohort studies, a lack of psychometrically validated exposure instruments, poor conceptualization and definition of racism, conflation of racism with stress, and debate about the aetiologically relevant period for self-reported racism. Future research should examine the psychometric validity of racism instruments and include these instruments, along with objectively measured health outcomes, in existing large-scale survey vehicles as well as longitudinal studies and studies involving children. There is also a need to gain a better understanding of the perception, attribution, and reporting of racism, to investigate the pathways via which self-reported racism affects health, the interplay between mental and physical health outcomes, and exposure to intra-racial, internalized, and systemic racism. Ensuring the quality of studies in this field will allow future research to reveal the complex role that racism plays as a determinant of population health.

title: Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: a meta-analytic review.
abstract: The literature indicates that perceived racism tends to be associated with adverse psychological and physiological outcomes; however, findings in this area are not yet conclusive. In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed 66 studies (total sample size of 18,140 across studies), published between January 1996 and April 2011, on the associations between racism and mental health among Black Americans. Using a random-effects model, we found a positive association between perceived racism and psychological distress (r = .20). We found a moderation effect for psychological outcomes, with anxiety, depression, and other psychiatric symptoms having a significantly stronger association than quality of life indicators. We did not detect moderation effects for type of racism scale, measurement precision, sample type, or type of publication. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

title: Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
abstract: This paper provides a review and critique of empirical research on perceived discrimination and health. The patterns of racial disparities in health suggest that there are multiple ways by which racism can affect health. Perceived discrimination is one such pathway and the paper reviews the published research on discrimination and health that appeared in PubMed between 2005 and 2007. This recent research continues to document an inverse association between discrimination and health. This pattern is now evident in a wider range of contexts and for a broader array of outcomes. Advancing our understanding of the relationship between perceived discrimination and health will require more attention to situating discrimination within the context of other health-relevant aspects of racism, measuring it comprehensively and accurately, assessing its stressful dimensions, and identifying the mechanisms that link discrimination to health.

title: A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: implications for the well-being of people of color.
abstract: A conceptualization of racism-related stress and its impact on well-being is offered that integrates existing theory and research on racism, multicultural mental health, and the stress process. The conceptualization is relevant to diverse racial/ethnic groups, considers the larger social and historical context, and incorporates attention to culture-based variables that may mediate the relationship between racism and well-being. Implications for intervention are discussed.

title: The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination.
abstract: This study examined the role that dimensions of racial identity play regarding the antecedents and consequences of perceived racial discrimination among African Americans. A total of 267 African American college students completed measures of racial identity, perceived racial discrimination, and psychological distress at 2 time points. After controlling for previous perceptions of discrimination, racial centrality was positively associated with subsequent perceived racial discrimination. Additionally, perceived discrimination was positively associated with subsequent event-specific and global psychological distress after accounting for previous perceptions of discrimination and distress. Finally, racial ideology and public regard beliefs moderated the positive relationship between perceived discrimination and subsequent distress. The results illustrate the complex role racial identity plays in the lives of African Americans.

title: Racial Identity as a Moderator of Daily Exposure and Reactivity to Racial Discrimination
abstract: The role of racial identity in the stress process was examined in a sample (N = 174) of African American doctoral students and graduates of doctoral programs. Racial discrimination and psychological distress (negative affect, depression, and anxiety) were assessed each day for a period of two weeks. Multilevel random coefficient modeling analyses revealed that unique dimensions of racial identity were associated with greater exposure to daily racial discrimination. Individuals higher in racial centrality were more likely to report daily encounters of racial discrimination than those lower in racial centrality. In contrast, individuals higher in private regard were less likely to report these encounters than those lower in private regard. Finally, the daily association between racial discrimination and psychological distress was stronger for individuals high in racial centrality. Specifically, racial centrality exacerbated the effects of daily racial discrimination on negative affect and depression. Implications of these findings are discussed in terms of the daily experiences of African Americans in doctoral contexts.

title: Being Black and Feeling Blue: The Mental Health Consequences of Racial Discrimination
abstract: The association between racial discrimination and mental health was examined using Wave 2 (1987–1988) and Wave 3 (1988–1989) panel data from the National Survey of Black Americans (NSBA). Mental health status was assessed by psychological distress and depression. In cross-sectional analyses, the perception of racial discrimination was related to high levels of psychological distress at Waves 2 and 3. Experiencing racial discrimination was marginally related to a high likelihood of depression at Wave 2. In longitudinal analyses, reports of racial discrimination at Wave 2 were associated with high levels of psychological distress at Wave 3. High psychological distress or depression at Wave 2 was not associated with reports of racial discrimination at Wave 3—indicating that poor mental health did not predict subjective reports (perceptions) of discrimination. The Discussion focused on possible directions for a more comprehensive program of research on mental health, stress, and experiences of racially based discrimination.

title: Co-Occurring Presenting Problems in African American College Clients Reporting Racial Discrimination Distress
abstract: Ethnic minority students’ perceptions of racism may be associated with a host of secondary emotional, interpersonal, and academic difficulties that can nevertheless be the chief reason these students seek treatment at a counseling center. This study examined archival data from the Presenting Problems Checklist completed by 1555 African American clients seen at the counseling centers of 7 predominantly White Midwestern universities. Findings of ordinal correlations (Kendall’s tau-b) suggested that, for both men and women, perceived racial discrimination was associated with a broad range of co-occurring presenting problems, including academic (e.g., performance anxiety, adjustment to university), interpersonal (dating concerns), psychological/emotional (perfectionism, depression, suicide risk), and existential concerns (confusion in beliefs/values, spiritual/religious concerns). Separate analyses conducted for men and women suggested some sex differences; for example, irritability/anger had the strongest correlation with perceived discrimination for men, whereas for women the strongest correlation was for procrastination. Awareness of the full range of likely sequelae of racial discrimination could improve psychologists’ assessment and intervention efforts and lead to a better understanding of how perceived racism affects students’ functioning in multiple areas.

title: The Impact of Racial Discrimination and Coping Strategies on Internalizing Symptoms in African American Youth
abstract: The current study examined the impact of racial discrimination stress on internalizing symptoms and coping strategies in a sample of 268 African American early adolescents (mean age = 12.90; 56% female) from low-income communities. Information about discrimination stress, coping, and internalizing symptoms was obtained via adolescents’ self-report. It was predicted that discrimination stress would be positively associated with depression and anxiety, as well as culturally-specific coping. Finally, culturally-relevant coping and mainstream coping were examined as moderators of the association between discrimination stress and internalizing symptoms. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that discrimination stress was positively associated with depression and anxiety and predicted culturally-relevant coping while controlling for mainstream coping. Communalistic coping moderated the association between discrimination and anxiety, but demonstrated a vulnerability function by increasing anxiety at high levels of discrimination. The results highlight the salience of racial discrimination for African American adolescents and the importance of considering culturally-specific coping behaviors.

title: School diversity and racial discrimination among African-American adolescents.
abstract: The study presented here examined school context as a moderator in the relation between daily perceptions of racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. The sample included 75 Black adolescents who completed daily surveys for 14 days. The results indicated that approximately 97% of adolescents reported experiencing at least one discriminatory experience over the 2-week period. During the daily diary period, the 2-week average was 26 discriminatory experiences with a daily average of 2.5 discriminatory events. The results indicated perceptions of racial discrimination were linked to increased depressive symptoms on the following day. This relation was apparent for Black youth attending predominantly Black and White high schools, but not for Black youth attending schools with no clear racial majority.

title: Cultural, Sociofamilial, and Psychological Resources That Inhibit Psychological Distress in African Americans Exposed to Stressful Life Events and Race-Related Stress
abstract: Empirical evidence suggests that African Americans (herein, all nonimmigrant persons of African heritage living in the United States) are at increased risk for exposure to stressful life events (e.g., Karlsen & Nazroo, 2002; McCord & Freeman, 1990; Thoits, 1991; Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2003). Moreover, the health consequences associated with this increased risk are exacerbated by daily encounters with individual, institutional, and cultural racism (Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999;  2000; Nazroo, 2003; C. E. Thompson & Neville, 1999; V. L. Thompson, 2002; Utsey & Ponterotto, 1996). Stressful life events and race-related stress have important consequences for the psychological and physical health of African Americans. As such, an important theoretical and practical question is: What protective factors can mitigate this stress and the subsequent risk for negative mental and physical health outcomes among African Americans? A significant related need is further understanding of the mechanisms whereby protective factors function to alleviate stress. In the present study, we examined the role of cultural, sociofamilial, and psychological resources in mitigating the deleterious effects of stressful life events and race-related stress in a sample of African American undergraduate college students. Our research examined the relative contributions of stressful life events versus race-related stress on psychological distress and compared two distress-deterring models (Ensel & Lin, 1991) to determine the specific mechanisms whereby psychological resources and cultural resources buffered participants from stress or enabled them to cope with psychological distress.

title: Perceived racism and blood pressure: A review of the literature and conceptual and methodological critique
abstract: Racial disparities in health, including elevated rates of hypertension (HT) among Blacks, are widely recognized and a matter of serious concern. Researchers have hypothesized that social stress, and in particular exposure to racism, may account for some of the between-group differences in the prevalence of HT and a portion of the within-group variations in risk for HT However, there have been surprisingly few empirical studies of the relationship between perceived racism and blood pressure (BP) or cardiovascular reactivity (CVR), a possible marker of mechanisms culminating in cardiovascular disease. This article reviews published literature investigating the relationship of perceived racismto HT-relatedvariables, including self-reported history of HT, BP level, or CVR. Strengths andweaknesses of the existing research are discussed to permit the identification of research areas that may elucidate the biopsychosocial mechanisms potentially linking racism to HT We hope to encourage investigators to invest in research on the health effects of racism because a sound and detailed knowledge base in this area is necessary to address racial disparities in health.

title: Why is discrimination stressful? The mediating role of cognitive appraisal.
abstract: This study attempts to shed light on past findings that experiences of racial and gender discrimination are associated with poor psychological and physical health outcomes by investigating the role of cognitive appraisal as a mediator of the relationship between experiences of discrimination and affective stress reactions. African American female college students (N = 115) imagined themselves in an audiotaped scenario in which they overheard 2 European American male classmates make negative evaluations of them. Participants then completed measures of causal attributions, cognitive appraisal, and affective stress reactions. Multiple regression analyses supported the hypotheses that attributions to racism and to discrimination that combines racism and sexism were associated with increased stress reactions. This relationship was mediated by cognitive appraisals of centrality.

title: Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
abstract: Although several psychological theories predict that members of stigmatized groups should have low global self-esteem, empirical research typically does not support this prediction. It is proposed here that this discrepancy may be explained by considering the ways in which membership in a stigmatized group may protect the self-concept It is proposed that members of stigmatized groups may (a) attribute negative feedback to prejudice against their group, (b) compare their outcomes with those of the ingroup, rather than with the relatively advantaged outgroup, and (c) selectively devalue those dimensions on which their group fares poorly and value those dimensions on which their group excels. Evidence for each of these processes and their consequences for self-esteem and motivation is reviewed. Factors that moderate the use of these strategies and implications of this analysis for treatment of stigmas are also discussed. For more than three decades, social psychological research on prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination has examined both the content of stereotypes about a variety of social groups

title: Social Stigma: The Affective Consequences of Attributional Ambiguity
abstract: Two experiments investigated the hypothesis that the stigmatized can protect their self-esteem by attributing negative feedback to prejudice. Fifty-nine women participated in the 1st experiment. Women who received negative feedback from a prejudiced evaluator attributed the feedback to his prejudice and reported less depressed affect than women who received negative feedback from a nonprejudiced evaluator. In the 2nd experiment, 38 Black and 45 White students received interpersonal feedback from a White evaluator, who cither could see them or could not. Compared with Whites, Blacks were more likely to attribute negative feedback to prejudice than positive feedback and were more likely to attribute both types of feedback to prejudice when they could be seen by the other student. Being seen by the evaluator buffered the self-esteem of Blacks from negative feedback but hurt the self-esteem of Blacks who received positive feedback.

title: Racial discrimination and the stress process.
abstract: The unique and combined effects of chronic and daily racial discrimination on psychological distress were examined in a sample of 174 African American doctoral students and graduates. Using a daily process design, 5 models of the stress process were tested. Multilevel random coefficient modeling analyses revealed that chronic exposure to racial discrimination predicted greater daily discrimination and psychological distress. Further, results show that differences in daily discrimination and negative events accounted for meaningful variation in daily distress responses. Finally, findings indicate that daily discrimination and negative events mediated the relationship between chronic discrimination and psychological distress. The study provides support for the need to measure chronic strains as distinctive from daily stressors in the lives of African Americans.

title: Comparison of African American college students' coping with racially and nonracially stressful events.
abstract: Racial discrimination, a common experience for many African Americans, has been conceptualized within a stress and coping framework. However, few have examined whether racially stressful events are appraised and coped with differently from nonracially stressful events. The present study uses a daily diary method to examine African American college students' appraisals and coping behaviors in racially and nonracially stressful situations. The study examines the following 3 questions: 1) Do African Americans appraise racially stressful events differently from nonracially stressful events? 2) Do they cope with racially stressful events differently from nonracially stressful events? and 3) Do they cope with racially stressful events differently from nonracially stressful events, even after controlling for differences in cognitive appraisals of the events? The present sample consists of 35 participants who reported experiencing at least one racially stressful event and at least one nonracially stressful event during a 20-day diary study. Overall, no differences were found in students' appraisals in the racially stressful versus nonracially stressful events. Participants used less planful problem solving and more confrontive, ruminative, and avoidance coping strategies in the racially stressful events as compared with the nonracially stressful events. These findings suggest a need for race-specific models for coping with racial discrimination.

title: The perseverative cognition hypothesis: a review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health.
abstract: Perseverative cognition, as manifested in worry and rumination, is a common response to stress, but biopsychological models of stress and health have largely ignored it. These models have generally focused on physiological activation that occurs during stress and have insufficiently addressed effects that occur in anticipation of, or following, stressful events. We argue that perseverative cognition moderates the health consequences of stressors because it can prolong stress-related affective and physiological activation, both in advance of and following stressors. We review evidence that worry, rumination, and anticipatory stress are associated with enhanced cardiovascular, endocrinological, immunological, and neurovisceral activity. The findings yield preliminary support for our hypothesis, suggesting that perseverative cognition might act directly on somatic disease via enhance activation via the cardiovascular, immune, endocrine, and neurovisceral systems.

title: Development and Validation of the Prolonged Activation and Anticipatory Race-Related Stress Scale
abstract: This article describes two separate studies that were conducted to develop and validate a measure of the prolonged stress activation and anticipatory race-related stress response in African American adults (Prolonged Activation and Anticipatory Race-Related Stress Scale [PARS]). In Study 1, an exploratory factor analytic procedure (N = 292) resulted in a17-item measure with four underlying factors: (a) Perseverative Cognition, (b) Secondary Appraisal, (c) Anticipatory Race-Related Stress Scale–Psychological, and (d) Anticipatory Race-Related Stress Scale–Physiological. In Study 2 (N = 227), a confirmatory factor analytic procedure was conducted to evaluate and compare the underlying factor structure for several competing models of the PARS. This procedure supported a four-factor oblique solution as having the best fit to the data. Study 2 also provided evidence for the convergent validity of the PARS in that its factor scores correlated, in the anticipated direction, with scores on measures of related constructs.

title: Racial microaggressions and daily well-being among Asian Americans.
abstract: Although epidemiological studies and community surveys of Asian Americans have found that lifetime occurrences of racial discrimination are associated with increased risk for psychological morbidity, little is known about how exposure to racial discrimination is patterned in everyday life. Extrapolating from previous qualitative research (Sue, Bucceri, Lin, Nadal, & Torino, 2007), this study presents data on the prevalence and psychological correlates of everyday racial microaggressions that reflect the Asian American experience. Measures of positive affect, negative affect, somatic symptoms, and racial microaggressions were completed by 152 Asian Americans each day for up to 14 consecutive days. Approximately 78% of participants reported some form of racial microaggression within the 2-week study period. Multilevel analyses indicated that elevations in daily microaggressions, as well as greater microaggressions on average, predicted increases in somatic symptoms and negative affect. Implications of these findings for racial microaggression research and clinical practice are discussed.

title: The Asian American Racism-Related Stress Inventory: Development, factor analysis, reliability, and validity
abstract: The development of the 29-item Asian American Racism-Related Stress Inventory (AARRSI) is presented. In the first study, data from 161 Asian American respondents were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis, which yielded 3 subscales composed of Socio-Historical Racism (14 items), General Racism (8 items), and Perpetual Foreigner Racism (7 items). The data also revealed initial evidence of AARRSI's reliability and concurrent and discriminant validity. In the second study, data from 142 Asian American respondents were subjected to a confirmatory factor analysis, which provided support for the factor structure derived from the first study. Additional evidence of AARRSI's reliability and concurrent and discriminant validity were also found. In the third study, data from 38 Asian American respondents yielded evidence of AARRSI's test-retest reliability.

title: Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice.
abstract: Racial microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color. Perpetrators of microaggressions are often unaware that they engage in such communications when they interact with racial/ethnic minorities. A taxonomy of racial microaggressions in everyday life was created through a review of the social psychological literature on aversive racism, from formulations regarding the manifestation and impact of everyday racism, and from reading numerous personal narratives of counselors (both White and those of color) on their racial/cultural awakening. Microaggressions seem to appear in three forms: microassault, microinsult, and microinvalidation. Almost all interracial encounters are prone to microaggressions; this article uses the White counselor--client of color counseling dyad to illustrate how they impair the development of a therapeutic alliance. Suggestions regarding education and training and research in the helping professions are discussed.

title: Racial discrimination and substance use: longitudinal associations and identity moderators
abstract: Current research indicates that racial discrimination is pervasive in the lives of African Americans. Although there are a variety of ways in which discrimination may contribute to health, one potentially important pathway is through its impact on substance use. Addressing the paucity of longitudinal research on this topic, the present study examined the influence of teacher discrimination on changes in substance use over time among African American adolescents and considered three dimensions of racial identity as moderators of this association (centrality, private regard, and public regard). Latent variable SEM analyses indicated that, on average, levels of discrimination were associated with increases in substance use across the high school years. However, public regard was found to moderate this association such that discrimination was less strongly associated with increases in substance use for individual who reported lower levels of public regard. The implications of these findings are discussed.

title: The relation of racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization to discrimination-distress: a meta-analysis of Black Americans.
abstract: This meta-analysis synthesized the results of 27 studies examining the relations of racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization to discrimination-distress for Black Americans. The purpose was to uncover which constructs connected to racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization most strongly correlate with racial discrimination and psychological distress. Discrimination significantly related to aspects of racial identity, including immersion-emersion, public regard, encounter, Afrocentricity/racial centrality/private regard, and internalization. Distress significantly correlated with preencounter/assimilation, encounter, public regard, immersion-emersion, and Afrocentricity/racial centrality/private regard. Several of these relationships were significantly moderated by the measure of racial identity or demographic variables (gender or age). Implications of these findings are discussed.

title: Racial Identity Matters: The Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning in African American Adolescents
abstract: This study examines the interrelationships among racial discrimination, racial identity, and psychological functioning in a sample of 314 African American adolescents. Racial discrimination was associated with lower levels of psychological functioning as measured by perceived stress, depressive symptomatology, and psychological well-being. Although individuals who believe that other groups hold more negative attitudes toward African Americans (low public regard) were at greater risk for experiencing racial discrimination, low public regard beliefs also buffered the impact of racial discrimination on psychological functioning. More positive attitudes about African Americans were also associated with more positive psychological functioning. The results further illustrate the utility of a multidimensional framework for understanding the role of racial identity in the relationship between racial discrimination and psychological outcomes among African American adolescents.

title: Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: A Reconceptualization of African American Racial Identity
abstract: Research on African American racial identity has utilized 2 distinct approaches. The mainstream approach has focused on universal properties associated with ethnic and racial identities. In contrast, the underground approach has focused on documenting the qualitative meaning of being African American, with an emphasis on the unique cultural and historical experiences of African Americans. The Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI) represents a synthesis of the strengths of these two approaches. The underlying assumptions associated with the model are explored. The model proposes 4 dimensions of African American racial identity: salience, centrality, regard, and ideology. A description of these dimensions is provided along with a discussion of how they interact to influence behavior at the level of the event. We argue that the MMRI has the potential to make contributions to traditional research objectives of both approaches, as well as to provide the impetus to explore new questions.

title: Private Regard, Identity Protection and Perceived Racism among African American Males
abstract: Previous research has documented the negative effects of racism on the psychological health of African American males. However, consideration of racial identity as a potential buffer against racist experiences has received limited attention. This analysis investigates whether one dimension of the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity, private regard, reduces the effect of racism on internalizing symptoms in 107 African American late-adolescent males. Findings show that racist experiences were positively associated with greater anxiety and depressive symptoms. Results also indicated that private regard reduced the impact of racist experiences, but only for anxiety symptoms. Specifically, males with lower private who also experienced racism had greater anxiety as compared to those with higher private regard. The potential clinical benefits of private regard for African American males are discussed.

title: The CES-D Scale
abstract: The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.

title: Factorial invariance of the CES-D in low socioeconomic status African Americans compared with a nationally representative sample
abstract: This study examined the factor structure of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) in low socioeconomic status African Americans (n=426). Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the four factors-(1) depressed affect, (2) positive affect, (3) somatic complaints, and (4) interpersonal problems-of the CES-D scale previously found in the general population were supported in this sample. These results were cross-validated in other nationally representative samples of African-American participants (n=988) and Caucasians (n=666), and the four-factor structure of the CES-D scale replicated in all three groups in this study. An alternative model was also tested with the factors depressed affect and somatic complaints combined as a single factor, a finding often reported in minority groups. Results indicated a significantly poorer fit for the three-factor model compared with the four-factor model for all three groups. In addition, higher loading differences were significantly evident between African-American and Caucasian groups, while higher loading similarities were found between the two African-American groups. These findings provide further evidence of measurement equivalency of the CES-D scale in samples with differential characteristics including race and socioeconomic status.

title: Measuring Depression in African American Cancer Survivors: The Reliability and Validity of the Center for Epidemiologic Study—Depression (CES-D) Scale
abstract: The Center for Epidemiologic Study—Depression (CES-D) Scale has been used to assess levels of depressive symptomatology in cancer survivors but has not been validated in African American cancer survivors. The current study assessed the reliability and validity of the CES-D in 216 African American cancer survivors. A Cronbach alpha was calculated to determine internal consistency reliability, and correlations were computed between the CES-D and other measure of mood states (Profile of Mood States—Short Form and Bradburn Positive and Negative Affect Scales) to assess concurrent validity. The CES-D demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (= .90), and the concurrent validity was supported by significant correlations with other measures of mood states. These analyses indicate that the CES-D is a reliable and valid measure for use with African American cancer survivors. The mean CES-D score (M = 15.7, SD = 11.89) further suggests that this sample of African American cancer survivors exhibit significant levels of depressive symptomatology.

title: Gender differences in depression. Critical review.
abstract: With few exceptions, the prevalence, incidence and morbidity risk of depressive disorders are higher in females than in males, beginning at mid-puberty and persisting through adult life.



To review putative risk factors leading to gender differences in depressive disorders.



A critical review of the literature, dealing separately with artefactual and genuine determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders.



Although artefactual determinants may enhance a female preponderance to some extent, gender differences in depressive disorders are genuine. At present, adverse experiences in childhood, depression and anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence, sociocultural roles with related adverse experiences, and psychological attributes related to vulnerability to life events and coping skills are likely to be involved. Genetic and biological factors and poor social support, however, have few or no effects in the emergence of gender differences.



Determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders are far from being established and their combination into integrated aetiological models continues to be lacking.

title: Campus Racial Climate and the Adjustment of Students to College: A Comparison Between White Students and African-American Students.
abstract: Benefits associated with a college degree are multiple. From a societal standpoint, a college graduate is far less likely to commit a crime and approximately 30% less likely to be unemployed compared to a student who has simply earned a high-school diploma (Hossler, Braxton, & Coopersmith, 1989; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). From an individual perspective, each additional year of schooling past high school seems to prolong life by 0.4%, or nearly 2 percentage points, upon graduation from college (Hossler, Braxton, & Coopersmith, 1989). Moreover, earning a college degree is known to produce greater gains in occupational prestige (e.g., Lin & Vogt, 1996) and economic returns (e.g., Leslie & Brinkman, 1986) as compared to simply attaining a high-school diploma. A precondition for the attainment of these benefits is persistence to graduation. Although persistence rates have remained remarkably stable at roughly 45% as far back as 1885 (Tinto, 1982; Porter, 1990), there are notable variations when the ethnicity of the student is introduced. Compared to White students, African Americans are 20% less likely to complete college within a six-year period (Porter, 1990). For every two White students who drop out in that time frame, three African Americans have departed from a postsecondary institution (Porter, 1990). Several hypotheses have been advanced that may account for enrollment and persistence trends of minority students. Hauser and Anderson (1991) explored the extent to which declines in college participation rates could be attributed to changes in college aspirations and changes in high-school completion rates among African Americans. Tinto (1987) argued that overall differences in persistence rates between African Americans and non-minorities were primarily due to differences in their academic preparedness rather than differences in their socioeconomic backgrounds. Tinto contended that differences in ability arise from prior educational experiences at elementary and secondary school levels that tend to favor the educational achievement and persistence of nonminorities relative to minorities. Other researchers speculate these trends could be attributed to changes in the composition of federal financial aid packets and patterns of financing higher education exhibited by minority students (Mortenson & Wu, 1990; Olivas, 1985 Porter, 1990; St. John, 1994). Exposure to a climate of prejudice and discrimination in the classroom and on campus has gained attention as the main factor accounting for differences in withdrawal behavior between minorities and non-minorities (e.g., Fleming, 1984; Hurtado, 1992, 1994; Hurtado, Carter, & Spuler, 1996; Smedley, Myers, & Harrel, 1993). The role of perceived discriminatory behavior on the maladaptive behavior of minority students to college has been scrutinized through two conceptualizations. The first approach relies on Student-Institution Fit models (Bean, 1990; Spady, 1970; Tinto, 1993) and views prejudice and discrimination as a factor interfering with a student's integration into his or her social and academic environments. A second, more recent approach uses transactional models of stress and coping behaviors as their theoretical premises (Munoz, 1987; Smedley, Myers, & Harrell, 1993). The transactional model (Munoz, 1987; Smedley, Myers, & Harrell, 1993) regards experiences of racism and discrimination on campus as psychological and sociocultural stressors. Like other stressors, experiences of prejudice and discrimination are associated with psychological distress that can lead to the maladjustment of students at their respective institutions. Unlike other stressors, however, experiences of discrimination are considered unique in that they (a) are present only among minority students and (b) heighten the feeling of not belonging at the institution with spillover effect on a student's academic performance. Proponents of the Student-Institution Fit perspective argue that intolerance toward the minority student plays a key role for explaining his or her maladjustment with the institution. …

title: Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A Preliminary Investigation of Reliability and Construct Validity
abstract: The present study presents preliminary evidence regarding the reliability and validity of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI). The MIBI consists of 7 subscales representing 3 stable dimensions of African American racial identity (Centrality, Ideology, and Regard). Responses to the MIBI were collected from 474 African American college students from a predominantly African American university (n = 185) and a predominantly White university (n = 289). As the result of factor analysis, a revised 51 -item scale was developed. Evidence was found for 6 subscales. The Public Regard subscale was dropped because of poor internal consistency. Interscale correlations suggest that the MIBI is internally valid. Relationships among the MIBF subscales and race-related behavior suggest that the instrument has external validity. Descriptive statistics for the revised MIBI are provided for the entire sample as well as by school. Racial identity is one of the most heavily researched aspects of African Americans' psychological lives. Racial identity has been associated with a number of phenomena including selfesteem (Hughes & Demo, 1989; Parham & Helms, 1985; Row

title: Measures of self-esteem.
abstract: Self-esteem is a popular and important construct in the social sciences and in everyday life. The State of California has actually established a "Commission on Self-Esteem," presumably to devise and implement policies to increase feelings of self-worth among its citizens. Most Americans believe intuitively that "poor" or "low" self-esteem is undesirable, and indeed research links low self-esteem with loneliness (Peplau & Perlman, 1982), depression (Shaver & Brennan, this volume, Chap. 6), social anxiety (Leary, 1983), and alienation (Johnson, 1973). The popular notion of self-esteem is straightforward. According to the dictionary definition, "To esteem a thing is to prize it, to set a high mental valuation upon it; when applied to persons, esteem carries also the warmer interest of approval, cordiality, and affection" (Williams, 1979, p. 309). In common parlance, then, self-esteem is the extent to which one prizes, values, approves, or likes oneself. In the social sciences, self-esteem is a hypothetical construct that is quantified, for example, as the sum of evaluations across salient attributes of one's self or personality. It is the overall affective evaluation of one's own worth, value, or importance. This conception underlies the assumption that measuring attitudes toward, or evaluations of, one's self reflects a person's self-esteem. The concept of self-esteem goes by a variety of names (e.g., self-worth, self-regard, self-respect, self-acceptance) all of which are compatible with the dictionary definition of "esteem" ascribed to the self. Regardless of the exact definition or label one chooses to employ, self-esteem is usually thought to be the evaluative component of a broader representation of self, the self-concept, the latter being a more inclusive construct than self-esteem, one that contains cognitive and behavioral components as well as affective ones. As a result, cognitions about the self (contained in the self-concept) may or may not influence self-esteem. For example, believing that one is a terrible singer may be a part of one's self-concept but may not bear any relation to one's feelings of self-worth. Feeling mildly or severely depressed because one cannot sing, however, is a matter of self-esteem, as is the behavioral consequence of jumping off the roof of an 18-story building to end one's humiliation over this deficiency. According to current models of affect and attitudes (e.g., Frijda, 1986; Lazarus, 1984; Weiner, 1986), appraisals or judgments (e.g., " I 'm attractive/unattractive," "intelligent/unintelligent," "hardworking/lazy") underlie positive or negative feelings about the self. To the extent that such evaluations cover a relatively broad spectrum of personal attributes, self-esteem is an appropriate label. Over time, consistency in such judgments results in a relatively stable affective appraisal that is readily accessible to the individual

title: Self-Perceptions of Black Americans: Self-Esteem and Personal Efficacy
abstract: This study examines the determinants of personal self-esteem, racial self-esteem, and personal efficacy in a 1980 national sample of black Americans. The findings show that the three dimensions are interrelated each is anchored in interpersonal relations with family and friend. However, the three dimensions are produced by fundamentally different processes. Personal self-esteem is most strongly influenced by microsocial relations with family, friends, and community, while personal efficacy is generated through experiences in social statuses embedded in macrosocial systems of social inequality. We conclude that black self-esteem is insulated from systems of racial inequality, while personal efficacy is not, and suggest that this explains why black Americans have relatively high self-esteem but low personal efficacy. The belief that racial discrimination, rather than individual failure, accounts for low achievement among blacks is irrelevant to personal self-esteem and personal efficacy. In contrast, racial self-esteem is produced by a combination of education, interracial contact, and ideological processes.

title: Centering Decisions in Hierarchical Linear Models: Implications for Research in Organizations
abstract: Organizational researchers are increasingly interested in model ing the multilevel nature of organizational data. Although most organi zational researchers have chosen to investigate these models using traditional Ordinary Least Squares approaches, hierarchical linear models (i.e., random coefficient models) recently have been receiving increased attention. One of the key questions in using hierarchical linear models is how a researcher chooses to scale the Level-1 indepen dent variables (e.g., raw metric, grand mean centering, group mean centering), because it directly influences the interpretation of both the level-1 and level-2 parameters. Several scaling options are reviewed and discussed in light of four paradigms of multilevellcross-level research in organizational science: incremental (i.e., group variables add incremental prediction to individual level outcomes over and above individual level predictors), mediational (i.e., the influence of group level variables on individual outcomes are mediated...

title: Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions
abstract: Interactions between Continuous Predictors in Multiple Regression The Effects of Predictor Scaling on Coefficients of Regression Equations Testing and Probing Three-Way Interactions Structuring Regression Equations to Reflect Higher Order Relationships Model and Effect Testing with Higher Order Terms Interactions between Categorical and Continuous Variables Reliability and Statistical Power Conclusion Some Contrasts Between ANOVA and MR in Practice

title: The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States.
abstract: The survey data presented here are on the national prevalences of major life-time perceived discrimination and day-to-day perceived discrimination; the associations between perceived discrimination and mental health; and the extent to which differential exposure and differential emotional reactivity to perceived discrimination account for the well-known associations between disadvantaged social status and mental health. Although more prevalent among people with disadvantaged social status, results show that perceived discrimination is common in the total population, with 33.5 percent of respondents in the total sample reporting exposure to major lifetime discrimination and 60.9 percent reporting exposure to day-to-day discrimination. The associations of perceived discrimination with mental health are comparable in magnitude to those of other more commonly studied stressors, and these associations do not vary consistently across subsamples defined on the basis of social status. Even though perceived discrimination explains only a small part of the observed associations between disadvantaged social status and mental health, given its high prevalence, wide distribution, and strong associations with mental health, perceived discrimination needs to be treated much more seriously than in the past in future studies of stress and mental health.

title: African American College Students’ Experiences With Everyday Racism: Characteristics of and Responses to These Incidents
abstract: African American college students reported their experiences with everyday forms of racism at a predominantly European American university using a daily diary format. Their reported incidents represented verbal expressions of prejudice, bad service, staring or glaring, and difficulties in interpersonal exchanges (e.g., rudeness or awkward and nervous behavior). Both women’s and men’s experiences with interpersonal forms of prejudice were common, often occurred with friends and in intimate situations, and had significant emotional impact on them in terms of decreasing their comfort and increasing their feelings of threat during the interaction. Moreover, anger was the most frequently reported emotional reaction to these events. Participants were not passive targets, however, with many responding either directly or indirectly to the incidents. Findings from this study converged upon patterns of results found in in-depth interviews and surveys while also adding information to a growing body of literature on everyday experiences with racism.

title: Relationships among perceived racial stress, intolerance of uncertainty, and worry in a black sample.
abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships among chronic worry, perceived racial stress, and intolerance of uncertainty in a sample of adults who racially identify as Black. Intolerance of uncertainty has been associated with worry and generalized anxiety disorder in predominantly White samples. Given that racial stress is likely to increase worry, perhaps through the mechanism of intolerance of uncertainty, intolerance of uncertainty was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between perceived racial stress and chronic worry. A nonclinical sample of 77 Black undergraduate students at an urban university completed a series of questionnaires assessing the constructs of interest. Both perceived racial stress and intolerance of uncertainty were significantly correlated with chronic worry in this sample. Moreover, intolerance of uncertainty fully mediated the relationship between perceived racial stress and worry for these Black individuals. These findings are discussed in terms of directions for future research and implications for clinical interventions for Black individuals who are both exposed to racial stress and suffer from chronic worry.