Exposure to Community Violence, Psychopathology, and Personality Traits in Russian Youth

Previous research with the US inner-city youth demonstrated the hazardous effects of community violence exposure. It remains unclear, however, whether these findings are generalizable to other cultures and populations. Furthermore, the role of factors influencing the processing of traumatic events such as personality has not been investigated. Two groups of Russian adolescents (community youth (N = 546) and male delinquents (N = 352)) completed questionnaires assessing their exposure to community violence, conduct problems, internalizing psychopathology and personality. The study demonstrates that the relationships between exposure to violence and psychopathology are similar across different populations within the same culture (community youth and juvenile delinquents), suggesting similar mechanisms behind this phenomenon. The patterns of these relationships were also similar for boys and girls, suggesting similarities in the mechanisms across gender. Hence, the effects of community violence exposure are generalizable to other cultures outside the US. The associations between personality traits and specific types of behaviors also tend to be similar across different populations. Higher levels of novelty seeking were related to more severe problem behaviors and to higher levels of witnessing and victimization, whereas higher levels of harm avoidance were related to higher levels of depression and posttraumatic stress.

Related papers:

title: Emotional impact of children's exposure to community violence: a preliminary study.
abstract: To use multiple methods and measures to investigate preliminarily the emotional impact of children's exposure to community violence.



Thirty-seven schoolchildren between the ages of 7 and 12 years were categorized into groups with "high" or "low" frequency of exposure.



Differing levels of exposure to community violence did not appear to have an impact on DSM-III-R diagnoses. Exposure to high levels of community violence was not related to internalizing behavior and disorders, but rather was associated with externalizing behavior.



There appears to be an adverse relationship between high levels of exposure to community violence and emotional and conduct problems. Vicarious learning serves as an explanatory construct for these findings.

title: The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth.
abstract: The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between chronic exposure to community violence and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a nonrandom sample (N = 221) of low-income African-American youth between 7 and 18 years old. Results showed males were more likely than females to be victims of and witnesses to violent acts; there were no other significant sociodemographic differences in the degree of exposure to violence. PTSD symptom reporting was moderately high for this sample of youth; 54 youth (27.1%) met all three of the diagnostic criteria considered. Regression analyses revealed that being victimized and witnessing violence were significantly related to the reporting of PTSD symptoms. These symptoms were more extreme among victimized females and victimized youth who had no primary males living with them in the household (i.e., fathers and/or brothers). Exposure to violence among youth is clearly significant to their reporting of PTSD symptomatology, yet the clinical implications of this relationship remain largely unexplored.

title: Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school-age children.
abstract: One hundred fifty-nine children (14.5% of the student body) were sampled after a fatal sniper attack on their elementary school playground. Systematic self-reports of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms were obtained by use of a child PTSD Reaction Index. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences by exposure but not by sex, ethnicity, or age. Additional analyses were conducted of individual item response, overall severity of PTSD reaction, symptom grouping, and previous life events. The results provide strong evidence that acute PTSD symptoms occur in school-age children with a notable correlation between proximity to the violence and type and number of PTSD symptoms. Sampling at approximately one month after the trauma provided adequate delineation among exposure groups. The symptom profile of highly exposed children lends validity to the diagnosis of acute PTSD in childhood.

title: Violent events reported by normal urban school-aged children: characteristics and depression correlates.
abstract: This paper reports data on the prevalence of morbid thoughts of death or injury and the experiences of violence for a sample of 6 to 12 year old urban school children and examines the relationship of these thoughts and experiences to the child's emotional health.



Fifty-seven of the sample of 223 children who attended the same inner-city school described violent events occurring to themselves, a relative or friend. All children were interviewed and assessed on the Children's Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R).



Significantly higher CDRS-R sum scores, indicating the presence of suspected depression or of clinical concern, were recorded for the 57 children reporting experiences with violence. As well, the subgroup of 57 children were significantly more distressed by specific symptoms of low self-esteem, weeping, and worries about death or injury.



Finding so many children reporting violent events occurring in their homes and community and that these children's experiences of violence were associated with emotional disturbances such as depression, dysphoric mood, low self-esteem, and excessive fears and worries about death or injury suggests the need for routine examination of the history of exposure to violence in the evaluation of inner-city children.

title: The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence.
abstract: The 1980s witnessed an extraordinary increase in community violence in most major cities across the United States. In 1990 the homicide rate in Boston increased by 45% over the previous year; in Denver, by 29%; in Chicago, Dallas, and New Orleans, by more than 20%; in Los Angeles, by 16%; in New York, by 11%. In Washington, DC, which has the highest per capita homicide rate in the country, the 1990 murder rate set an all time record in the District's history (Escobar 1991). Across the country, 1 out of 5 teenage and young adult deaths was gun related in 1988 - the first year in which firearm death rates for both Black and White teenagers exceeded the total for all natural causes of death combined. Also in 1988, the firearm homicide rate for young Black males increased by 35%, and Black male teens were 11 times more likely than their White counterparts to be killed by guns (Christofel 1990).

title: No safe haven: a study of violence exposure in an urban community.
abstract: To examine levels of violence exposure and reports of feeling unsafe in relation to psychological and behavioral characteristics for a general population sample of youths from an urban setting.



A comprehensive survey of high-risk behaviors, attitudes, indicators of adaptive behavior, and daily involvements was administered to a sample of 2,248 students in the 6th, 8th, and 10th grades in an urban public school system.



More than 40% of the youths surveyed reported exposure to a shooting or stabbing in the past year, and 74% reported feeling unsafe in one or more common environmental contexts. Multiple regression analyses indicated significant relationships between violence exposure/feeling unsafe and a set of indicators of psychological and behavioral adaptation and expressed attitudes.



These results attest to the picture of violence as a common fact of inner-city life and to the demand that is placed on urban youths to accommodate in their psychological development to chronic threat and lack of safety.

title: No safe haven. II: The effects of violence exposure on urban youth.
abstract: To examine the moderating effects of gender, grade level, and ethnicity on the associations between violence exposure and adolescents' internalizing symptoms and externalizing behavior and to explore whether such relationships persist over time.



A survey of adolescents' exposure to violence, internalizing symptoms, and externalizing behavior was administered to 2 cross-sectional samples of 6th, 8th, and 10th graders (N = 2,748 in 1994 and 2,600 in 1996) in an urban school system. Approximately 1,100 adolescents participated in both surveys and served as the longitudinal sample.



Structural equation models indicated that violence exposure was closely associated with both externalizing behavior (r = 0.74-0.79) and internalizing symptoms (r = 0.36-0.38). The strength of association was similar across gender and ethnic groups. However, violence exposure was more closely related with internalizing symptoms for younger adolescents than their older counterparts. The longitudinal analysis suggested that exposure to violence reported at time 1 was related to adolescents' internalizing symptoms and externalizing behavior 2 years later.



These results document high levels of violence exposure for urban youths and indicate links to a range of psychiatric symptoms and indicators of poor adjustment. Such findings carry implications for direct clinical work with young people, as well as for program development and public policy.

title: Traumatic Stress and Children
abstract: ����� News reports, official statistics, and research data indicate that relatively large numbers of inner-city children are exposed to violence on a regular basis. Furthermore, the exposure occurs in such a manner that it and its pernicious effects are often subtle and underestimated. While child victims of violence elicit considerable concern, and rightfully so, many more children witness extreme acts of violence, often perpetrated against family and friends. This direct observation of the violent assault of another person, referred to as "co-victimization" by Shakoor1, is frequently accompanied by immersion in a violent milieu in which the child is in constant danger if, in fact, never actuaUy victimized. Such exposure to violence has serious consequences for the child's mental health, often resulting in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms similar to those resulting from direct victimization. In the absence of understanding the symptoms and the circumstances under which they occur, the child's dysfunctional behavior, which often includes poor achievement and acting out, maybe misinterpreted, inaccurately diagnosed, and inappropriately treated. This paper discusses black youths' exposure to violence, the traumatic

title: The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth.
abstract: While research has well documented that urban youth are exposed to increasing rates of community violence, little is known about what increases risk for violence exposure, what protects children from exposure to violence, and what factors reduce the most negative outcomes associated with witnessing violence. This study expands on current research by evaluating the relations between exposure to violence, family relationship characteristics and parenting practices, and aggression and depression symptoms. Data were drawn from a sample of 245 African-American and Latino boys and their caregivers from economically disadvantaged inner-city neighborhoods in Chicago. Rates of exposure could not be predicted from family relationship and parenting characteristics, although there was a trend for discipline to be related. Exposure to community violence was related to increases in aggressive behavior and depression over a 1-year period even after controlling for previous status. Future studies should continue to evaluate the role of exposure to violence on the development of youth among different neighborhoods and communities. Implications for intervention and policy are discussed.

title: Witnessed community violence and antisocial behavior in high-risk, urban boys.
abstract: Examined the longitudinal relation between children's self-report of witnessing community violence, family environment, and parent report of child antisocial behavior in a sample of 6- to 10-year-old urban American boys (N = 97) at familial risk for antisocial behavior. Boys reported high rates of lifetime exposure to community violence. Boys' reports of witnessing community violence were significantly positively related to changes over 15 months in child antisocial behavior, even after controlling for the possible effects of 3 aspects of parent-child interactions shown previously to be related to problematic child behavior. Furthermore, family environment, particularly the degree to which parents engaged in conflict with their sons, moderated the effect of witnessed violence on changes in antisocial behavior. In families with low conflict, higher levels of witnessed violence predicted increases in antisocial behavior over time. In contrast, in families with relatively high levels of parent-child conflict, high-witnessed violence had no additional influence on antisocial outcome. This is the first prospective longitudinal study to document an association between witnessed community violence and changes in antisocial behavior in young, urban boys at familial risk for antisocial behavior.

title: Adolescents' exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma.
abstract: To examine the extent to which adolescents are exposed to various types of violence as either victims or witnesses, and the association of such exposure with trauma symptoms; specifically, the hypotheses that exposure to violence will have a positive and significant association with depression, anger, anxiety, dissociation, posttraumatic stress, and total trauma symptoms.



The study employed a survey design using an anonymous self-report questionnaire administered to students (grades 9 through 12) in six public high schools during the 1992-1993 school year.



Sixty-eight percent of the students attending the participating schools during the survey participated in the study (N = 3735). Ages ranged from 14 to 19 years; 52% were female; and 35% were African American, 33% white, and 23% Hispanic.



All hypotheses were supported. Multiple regression analyses of the total sample revealed that violence exposure variables (and to a lesser extent, demographic variables) explained a significant portion of variance in all trauma symptom scores, including depression (R2 = .31), anger (R2 = .30), dissociation (R2 = .23), posttraumatic stress (R2 = .31), and total trauma (R2 = .37).



A significant and consistent association was demonstrated linking violence exposure to trauma symptoms within a diverse sample of high school students. Our findings give evidence of the need to identify and provide trauma-related services for adolescents who have been exposed to violence.

title: Trauma, Drugs and Violence Among Juvenile Offenders
abstract: Trauma typically occurs when one experiences a situation where life has been threatened or lost. If the trauma is not resolved, negative residual effects may result in alcohol and drug use, involvement in violent activities as well as the development of mental health problems such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Findings from a National Institute on Drug Abuse-funded study examining the link between trauma, drug use and violence among youth are presented. Results from interviews with 414 juveniles remanded to the Office of Children and Family Services (formerly New York State Division For Youth) for assault, sexual assault, robbery or homicide, document the trauma experienced by these youth, as well as how it correlated with their drug usage and participation in violent, illegal activities. Discussion of these findings, their implications for understanding and intervening, and recommendations for future research are highlighted.

title: What children can tell us about living in danger.
abstract: Developmental challenges faced by children growing up in situations of chronic danger linked to community violence and communal conflict are reviewed. The concept of post-traumatic stress disorder is expanded to include situations of chronic and on-going traumatic stress associated with dangerous environments--war zones and inner city neighborhoods plagued by violence and crime. Of particular importance is the impact of chronic stress and danger on the child's world view, the child's social map, and the child's moral development. On the basis of field work in 5 war zones, the article points to the importance of adult-led "processing" of the young child's experience to his or her psychological coping and moral development. Some of the contradictions operating in such environments are explored--for example, that "fanatical" ideology may provide short-term support for adults and children but also may serve to prolong communal conflict, impede the necessary processing of experience, and increase vulnerability in the long run.

title: Violence exposure and mental health of adolescents in small towns: an exploratory study.
abstract: This study explores the impact of violence exposure on the mental health of the adolescents in a rural small town. A structured questionnaire was used to survey 347 adolescents. Violence experienced and witnessed by the adolescents at school, in the neighbourhood, and at home was measured. Mental health was represented by the psychiatric symptoms, depression level, and self-esteem. The level of violence perpetrated by the adolescents was also explored. Results of the multiple regression analysis show that adolescents who have been exposed to more violence, either as a victim or as a witness, report more psychiatric symptoms, higher levels of depression, and more problems of self-esteem. Being a witness of violence also contributes significantly to the variance of violence committed by the adolescents. The implications of the findings to violence prevention are discussed in the conclusion.

title: Violence exposure, posttraumatic stress, and personality in juvenile delinquents.
abstract: To assess posttraumatic stress and its relationship to comorbid psychopathology, violence exposure, and personality traits in Russian male juvenile delinquents.



Posttraumatic stress and comorbid psychopathology were assessed by a semistructured psychiatric interview (Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version) in 370 delinquent youths during winter-spring of 1999. In addition, violence exposure, personality, and psychopathology were assessed by self-reports.



Most delinquents reported some degree of posttraumatic stress: 156 subjects (42%) fulfilled partial criteria and 87 (25%) fulfilled full DSM-IV criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Violence-related experiences (witnessing and victimization) were the most common types of trauma. Higher levels of posttraumatic stress were accompanied by higher rates of comorbid psychopathology, with the most striking differences occurring between the groups with full versus partial PTSD criteria. Violence exposure was related to temperamental behavior activation (novelty seeking), whereas PTSD symptom scores were predominantly related to behavior inhibition and poor coping (high harm avoidance and low self-directedness).



Similar to findings from American samples, Russian juvenile delinquents represent a severely traumatized population, mainly due to high levels of violence exposure. Those with full PTSD are the most severely traumatized and have highest rates of psychopathology, as compared to those with no or partial PTSD, and they require the most clinical attention and rehabilitation. Both exposure to violence and levels of posttraumatic stress are related to personality traits, which influence degree of exposure and individual perception of stress. The latter should be considered in individualized approaches to rehabilitation.

title: Posttraumatic stress disorder in incarcerated juvenile delinquents.
abstract: To assess the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in severely delinquent subjects and to measure associated personality characteristics.



Eighty-five incarcerated boys (mean age 16.6, SD = 1.2) with mostly violent offenses were studied. The sample was representative of the California Youth Authority population. They received a standard psychiatric screen, a semistructured interview for PTSD, and self-report questionnaires measuring personality traits and defenses. A nonclinical sex- and age-matched group was used for comparing psychometrics.



Subjects suffered from PTSD at higher rates than other adolescent community samples and at higher rates than those found in county probation camps. Thirty-two percent fulfilled criteria for PTSD, 20% partial criteria. One half of the subjects described the witnessing of interpersonal violence as the traumatizing event. Psychometric results converged in the predicted way: Subjects with PTSD showed elevated distress, anxiety, depression, and lowered restraint, impulse control, and suppression of aggression; they had high levels of immature defenses such as projection, somatization, conversion, dissociation, and withdrawal.



PTSD occurs at high rates in delinquents, and this finding has implications for management and treatment. Personality characteristics that might put individuals at risk for the development of PTSD were identified.

title: Adolescent psychopathology as a function of informant and risk status.
abstract: Adolescents selected for delinquency risk in a community study, their parents, and teachers completed versions of the Child Behavior Checklist, with the raw scores representing the adolescents' level of psychopathology. All three informants rated high risk adolescents as showing higher levels of delinquency as well as other forms of psychopathology, particularly anxiety, aggression, social problems, thought problems, and, to a slightly less consistent extent, withdrawn behavior. In addition, compared with parents and adolescents, teachers rated psychopathology in African-American adolescents higher than that in Anglo-American adolescents. The results are analyzed using knowledge drawn from social and child psychiatry.

title: Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults.
abstract: To ascertain the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and risk factors associated with it, we studied a random sample of 1007 young adults from a large health maintenance organization in the Detroit, Mich, area. The lifetime prevalence of exposure to traumatic events was 39.1%. The rate of PTSD in those who were exposed was 23.6%, yielding a lifetime prevalence in the sample of 9.2%. Persons with PTSD were at increased risk for other psychiatric disorders; PTSD had stronger associations with anxiety and affective disorders than with substance abuse or dependence. Risk factors for exposure to traumatic events included low education, male sex, early conduct problems, extraversion, and family history of psychiatric disorder or substance problems. Risk factors for PTSD following exposure included early separation from parents, neuroticism, preexisting anxiety or depression, and family history of anxiety. Life-style differences associated with differential exposure to situations that have a high risk for traumatic events and personal predispositions to the PTSD effects of traumatic events might be responsible for a substantial part of PTSD in this population.

title: Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups.
abstract: The frequency and impact of 10 potentially traumatic events were examined in a sample of 1,000 adults. Drawn from four southeastern cities, the sample was half Black, half White, half male, half female, and evenly divided among younger, middle-aged, and older adults. Over their lifetimes, 69% of the sample experienced at least one of the events, as did 21% in the past year alone. The 10 events varied in importance, with tragic death occurring most often, sexual assault yielding the highest rate of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and motor vehicle crash presenting the most adverse combination of frequency and impact. Numerous differences were observed in the epidemiology of these events across demographic groups. Lifetime exposure was higher among Whites and men than among Blacks and women; past-year exposure was highest among younger adults. When impact was analyzed as a continuous variable (perceived stress), Black men appeared to be most vulnerable to the effects of events, but young people showed the highest rates of PTSD.

title: Post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: an epidemiological study.
abstract: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was studied in the Piedmont region of North Carolina. Among 2985 subjects, the lifetime and six month prevalence figures for PTSD were 1.30 and 0.44% respectively. In comparison to non-PTSD subjects, those with PTSD had significantly greater job instability, family history of psychiatric illness, parental poverty, child abuse, and separation or divorce of parents prior to age 10. PTSD was associated with greater psychiatric comorbidity and attempted suicide, increased frequency of bronchial asthma, hypertension, peptic ulcer and with impaired social support. Differences were noted between chronic and acute PTSD on a number of measures, with chronic PTSD being accompanied by more frequent social phobia, reduced social support and greater avoidance symptoms.

title: Traumas and posttraumatic stress disorder in a community population of older adolescents.
abstract: The prevalence of DSM-III-R traumas and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and their impact on psychosocial functioning were examined in a community population of older adolescents.



Subjects were 384 adolescents participating in an ongoing longitudinal study. When subjects were aged 18 years, the NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule, Version IIIR, was used to identify lifetime traumatic events and diagnoses of PTSD, major depression, phobias, and substance dependence. Behavioral, emotional, and academic functioning in later adolescence was evaluated through self-report measures and school records.



More than two fifths of adolescents experienced at least one DSM-III-R trauma by age 18 years; PTSD developed in 14.5% of these affected youths or 6.3% of the total sample. Youths with PTSD demonstrated widespread impairment at age 18, including more overall behavioral-emotional problems, interpersonal problems, academic failure, suicidal behavior, and health problems, as well as an increased risk for additional disorders. An equally striking finding was that youths who experienced traumas but did not develop PTSD also showed deficits in many of these areas when compared with their peers who had not experienced traumas.



The substantial risk faced by youths in community settings for experiencing traumas and PTSD, along with associated impairments in later adolescence, underscores the need for programs of prompt intervention.

title: The role of social and cognitive processes in children's adjustment to community violence.
abstract: This study examined associations of community violence exposure and psychological well-being among 99 8-12 year old children (M = 10.7 years) using home interviews with mothers and children. Both moderators and mediators of the links between violence exposure and well-being were tested. After demographics and concurrent life stressors were controlled for violence exposure was significantly associated with intrusive thinking, anxiety, and depression. Regression analyses indicated that intrusive thinking partially mediated associated between violence exposure and internalizing symptoms. Planned comparisons revealed that violence exposure had the strongest effect on well-being among children with low social support or high levels of social strains. Furthermore, children with high levels of intrusive thinking were most likely to show heightened internalizing symptoms when they had inadequate social support.

title: Validation of the tridimensional personality questionnaire in a sample of male drug users
abstract: One hundred seventy-three male drug using volunteers for drug-related studies completed the Cloninger Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ), with most of these S s also completing the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, the Eysenck I.7, the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory, the Symptom Check List 90, the Elliott-Huizinga Lifetime Criminality Measure, the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for DSM-III, and the Personality Disorders Questionnaire. TPQ novelty seeking was correlated with impulsivity, aggression, and criminality, TPQ harm avoidance was correlated with introversion, neuroticism, low venturesomeness, and high psychological distress, while TPQ reward dependence was correlated with extraversion, low psychoticism, and empathy. With the possible exception of novelty seeking, the TPQ scales did not, as predicted by Cloninger, correlate with specific personality disorders or alcohol and drug abuse. The rationale for the construction of the TPQ scales was generally not supported in the present sample.

title: Behaviour/emotional problems in male juvenile delinquents and controls in Russia: the role of personality traits
abstract: Recent studies based on the psychobiological theory of personality by Cloninger postulate a relationship between certain personality traits and various psychopathological manifestations. To test this theory, we administered the Temperament and Character Inventory and the Youth Self‐Report to 188 male delinquents from a juvenile correction centre in Northern Russia, and to 111 age‐matched male controls recruited from among schoolchildren. As assumed by previous studies, psychological symptoms were primarily positively correlated with harm avoidance and negatively correlated with self‐directedness. At the same time, the higher levels of aggressive and delinquent behaviour were positively correlated with novelty‐seeking and negatively correlated with co‐operativeness. The possible mechanisms underlying these findings are discussed.

title: Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature.
abstract: Critically examines the "violence breeds violence" hypothesis broadly defined. Organized into seven sections, the literature review includes (a) the abuse breeds abuse hypothesis; (b) reports of small numbers of violent/homicidal offenders; (c) studies examining the relationship of abuse and neglect to delinquency, (d) to violent behavior, and (e) to aggressive behavior in infants and young children; (f) abuse, withdrawal, and self-destructive behavior; and (g) studies of the impact of witnessing or observing violent behavior. A detailed discussion of methodological considerations and shortcomings precedes the review. The author concludes that existing knowledge of the long-term consequences of abusive home environments is limited and suggests that conclusions about the strength of the cycle of violence be tempered by the dearth of convincing empirical evidence. Recommendations are made for further research.  The aim of this study by Widom was to provide a comprehensive and critical assessment of the "violence breeds violence" hypothesis by examining the empirical literature found in the fields of psychology, sociology, criminology, psychiatry, social work and nursing.  The author conducted a non-experimental exploratory study, evaluating literature collected from computerized searches of psychological and educational abstracts, as well as from the national database on child abuse, through the year 1985.  The author began with an examination of methodologies employed in studies in the field of violence, and concluded that the many methodological problems that are evident hamper current research. The definition and criteria for child abuse and neglect vary widely, making research less replicable and therefore less reliable. The retrospective nature of the data makes its accuracy questionable, due to possible recall problems. Sampling techniques are often weak, using populations chosen for convenience rather than for representativeness. Many studies are ex post facto in nature, so prediction power is not strong. Most also rely on correlations, so that the issue of causality cannot be addressed. Abused and neglected children are usually treated as one group, which may hide important distinctions between the two. There is generally a lack of control groups in most studies, with no consideration of statistical base rates. The outcome variables usually include general delinquency, rather than violent criminal behavior. Finally, few of the studies examine the long-term effects of childhood abuse and neglect upon behavior in adulthood. The author broke down the "cycle of violence" hypothesis into a number of constituent parts. The first hypothesis found within the broader area is that "abuse breeds abuse." According to this belief, adults who were abused as children will be more likely to abuse their own children. The sparse empirical evidence for this hypothesis is hampered by an over-dependence upon retrospective and self-report data, as well as little use of control groups. Despite this, it seems that if abused as children adults are more likely to be abusers. However, most abusive parents were not victims of abuse as children. A second type of evidence for the "cycle of violence" hypothesis is the use of case studies of violent or homicidal offenders in clinical settings. Studies have found a history of abuse in the backgrounds of these people. However, the studies use no control groups, do not control for confounding factors and rely upon small numbers of subjects who report retrospectively about prior abuse. In order to examine the consequences of abuse and neglect in a larger and more controlled context, other researchers have examined the relationship between abuse or neglect and delinquency. In studies using a prospective design, fewer than 20% of abused or neglected children later exhibit delinquency. In retrospective studies, the rates of abuse in the backgrounds of delinquents range from 8% to 26%. Other studies examine the relationship between abuse or neglect and violent behavior, using either delinquent or patient groups for samples. Studies using juvenile delinquency find support for a relationship between abuse in childhood and later violent behavior, with violent boys being more likely to have experienced or witnessed abuse than non-violent boys. A smaller number of studies examine groups of patients, and conclude that violent patients are more likely to have been abused as children. These studies provide tentative support for the "cycle of violence" hypothesis, although some contradictory results do exist. In developmental psychology research examining the relationship between abuse, neglect and aggressive behavior in young children, much research has been in the form of experimental laboratory studies. In general, these studies suggest that abused children will exhibit more aggression and problem behavior than those without such victimization experiences. Other studies have examined the notion that abuse in childhood results not only in external aggression, but also to internal aggression, withdrawal and self-destructive behavior. Findings suggest that childhood abuse can lead to self-abuse and ultimately to suicidal tendencies. Many studies have examined the consequences of observing violence between parents or on television. Studies of children observing marital violence have found modest but consistent relationships between witnessing family aggression as a child and marital violence in the next generation. Among children witnessing family violence, 16% to 17% report marital violence in their own later relationships. Exposure to violence on television has been found to increase aggression, both immediately after viewing and in the long-term, as well as to lead to emotional insensitivity to violence and to a distorted perception of real-life violence. The author concluded that despite the many studies in the field of family violence, researchers still do not know much about the consequences of an abusive family environment. It was suggested that the magnitude of the problem is hard to ascertain because of methodological flaws in many of the studies, as well as a simplistic conceptualization of the relationship between child abuse and violence.  The author suggested a number of approaches to improve research in the area of violence. Included in these were the need to distinguish between abuse and neglect, and to include control variables such as measures of social desirability, number of children in the household and income level. More discriminating analyses, with protective factors such as personal attributes, environmental context, biological predisposition and positive events that could mediate the negative effects of violence should also be included, in order to understand why many children do not suffer the adverse effects of abuse and neglect. The author also cited the need for more sophisticated methodologies, and for a recognition of the shortcomings of previous work.  The author clearly and concisely presents a thorough review of the literature, as well as an important discussion of methodological problems and excellent suggestions for future research. This paper provides a valuable piece of critical evaluation for the study of the relationship between childhood abuse and violence. ( Regents of the University of Colorado) N1 - Call Number: F-26, AB-26 KW - 1980s KW - Intergenerational Transmission of Child Abuse KW - Intergenerational Transmission of Violence KW - Domestic Violence Effects KW - Domestic Violence Causes KW - Domestic Violence Offender KW - Domestic Violence Victim KW - Long-Term Effects KW - Child Abuse Effects KW - Child Abuse Victim KW - Child Abuse Offender KW - Child Abuse Causes KW - Child Physical Abuse Causes KW - Child Physical Abuse Effects KW - Child Physical Abuse Offender KW - Child Physical Abuse Victim KW - Child Victim KW - Childhood Experience KW - Childhood Victimization KW - Victim Turned Offender KW - Adult Parent KW - Adult Offender KW - Adult Violence KW - Child Victim KW - Parent Offender KW - Literature Review Language: en

title: Assessment of Exposure to Political Violence and Other Potentially Traumatizing Events. A Critical Review
abstract: This paper focuses on the common use of internal-consistency reliability, test-retest, and interrater correlations based on counts of events, events sampling, and factor-analytic techniques in assessment of exposure to political violence and other potentially traumatizing events. The author attributes the continued use of these strategies to a tendency among researchers to identify items from conventional events lists as effect indicators. Through a discussion of four alternative measurement models, the rationale is provided for the proposition that exposure to political violence and similar constructs should be treated as composite variables with causal indicators, rather than as latent variables with effect indicators.

title: Post-traumatic stress reactions in children after the 1988 Armenian earthquake.
abstract: One and a half years after the devastating earthquake in Armenia in 1988, 231 children from three cities at increasing distances from the epicentre were randomly screened in their schools to determine the frequency and severity of post-traumatic stress reactions, using the Children's Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index (CPTSD-RI). A systematic clinical assessment of PTSD based on DSM-III-R criteria was also conducted on approximately half of this sample. A high CPTSD-RI score was strongly correlated with a clinical diagnosis of PTSD. A strong positive correlation was found between proximity to the epicentre and overall severity of post-traumatic stress reaction, as well as severity of core component symptoms of PTSD. High rates of chronic, severe post-traumatic stress reactions were found among children in the two most damaged cities, Spitak and Gumri. Analyses controlling for exposure revealed that girls reported more persistent fears than boys. These findings indicate that after catastrophic natural disaster, post-traumatic reactions in children may reach epidemic proportions, remain high for a prolonged period, and jeopardise the well-being of the child population of a large region. Systematic screening of children for PTSD can provide critical information for a rational public mental health programme after such a disaster.

title: An inventory for measuring depression.
abstract: The difficulties inherent in obtaining consistent and adequate diagnoses for the purposes of research and therapy have been pointed out by a number of authors. Pasamanick12in a recent article viewed the low interclinician agreement on diagnosis as an indictment of the present state of psychiatry and called for "the development of objective, measurable and verifiable criteria of classification based not on personal or parochial considerations, but on behavioral and other objectively measurable manifestations." Attempts by other investigators to subject clinical observations and judgments to objective measurement have resulted in a wide variety of psychiatric rating scales.4,15These have been well summarized in a review article by Lorr11on "Rating Scales and Check Lists for the Evaluation of Psychopathology." In the area of psychological testing, a variety of paper-and-pencil tests have been devised for the purpose of measuring specific

title: A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants. A proposal.
abstract: A systematic method for clinical description and classification of both normal and abnormal personality variants is proposed based on a general biosocial theory of personality. Three dimensions of personality are defined in terms of the basic stimulus-response characteristics of novelty seeking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence. The possible underlying genetic and neuroanatomical bases of observed variation in these dimensions are reviewed and considered in relation to adaptive responses to environmental challenge. The functional interaction of these dimensions leads to integrated patterns of differential response to novelty, punishment, and reward. The possible tridimensional combinations of extreme (high or low) variants on these basic stimulus-response characteristics correspond closely to traditional descriptions of personality disorders. This reconciles dimensional and categorical approaches to personality description. It also implies that the underlying structure of normal adaptive traits is the same as that of maladaptive personality traits, except for schizotypal and paranoid disorders.

title: Temperament and novelty seeking in adolescent substance use: convergence of dimensions of temperament with constructs from Cloninger's theory.
abstract: This study investigated the convergence of temperament dimensions with constructs from C. R. Cloninger's (1987a) theory using data from a sample of 949 adolescents (M age = 13.6 years). Substantial convergence was found, and both types of constructs were related in predicted ways to self-regulation variables and adolescent substance use. Structural modeling procedures tested a mediational model for substance use; results showed mediation through self-control, academic competence, negative life events, and deviant peer affiliations. Interactions indicated that substance use could be predicted from a balance of systems for good control and poor control. Poor self-control was present for dimensions implicated in both externalizing and internalizing disorders. Results are discussed with reference to self-regulation models of substance use and the comorbidity of substance abuse and mental disorder.

title: Reliability and Validity of the Japanese Version of the Temperament and Character Inventory
abstract: The Temperament and Character Inventory was translated into Japanese, and, to confirm the psychometric properties of the inventory, three samples were recruited from a nonpatient population. In nonpatient population A (N = 555), the full version (240 items) of the inventory with dichotomous measuring, along with the General Health Questionnaire and the Social Desirability Scale, were distributed to the subjects. Factor analyses of the subscales showed that the factor structure of the inventory was consistent with Cloninger's theory. Correlations of the scale scores with the General Health Questionnaire and the Social Desirability Scale scores were almost negligible, indicating that the scale is resistant to the current psychopathology and response bias. In this and the other two university student samples (ns = 395 and 377), Cronbach coefficients α of the scale scores were substantially high except for the short version (125 items) of the inventory with dichotomous measures. The Japanese version of the inventory appears to have internal reliability and content and construct validity in a Japanese population.

title: Relationships between Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire Dimensions and DSM-III-R personality traits in Italian adolescents.
abstract: The predictions of Cloninger's neurobiologic learning model on the relationships between novelty seeking (NS), harm avoidance (HA), reward dependence (RD), and persistence (P) and the traditional DSM-III-R personality disorders (PDs) were tested on a sample of 2,889 (1,475 males and 1,414 females) Italian high school students aged 16 to 18 years, using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Personality Disorders-self-report (SCID-II) and the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ). All relationships were in the predicted direction for antisocial, narcissistic, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive PD alone, and at least two were in the predicted direction for schizoid, histrionic, borderline-explosive, dependent, and passive-aggressive PD. Eight of nine relationships were in the predicted direction for NS, but only seven of nine for HA and RD. This study provides substantial support for Cloninger's neurobiologic learning model as a useful tool to describe and classify personality variants and, because of the supposed neurochemical implications, to link personality traits to the underlying neurochemical and neuroanatomic substrate.

title: Unidimensional Versus Domain Representative Parceling of Questionnaire Items: An Empirical Example
abstract: Two alternative methods for parceling questionnaire items for use in confirmatory analyses are presented. The first method requires that parcels must (a) pass a minimum standard of reliability and (b) provide indications of unidimensionality to be retained for analysis. The second method requires that parcels be equally representative of the multiple aspects of a domain. The parcels may then serve as adequate indicators for the general construct. The latter method is consistent with the rationale underlying aggregation of measures, a procedure currently recommended for improving the psychometric properties of behavioral measures of personality. The two methods for parceling and a comparison are illustrated with an empirical example.

title: Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit
abstract: This article is concerned with measures of fit of a model. Two types of error involved in fitting a model are considered. The first is error of approximation which involves the fit of the model, with optimally chosen but unknown parameter values, to the population covariance matrix. The second is overall error which involves the fit of the model, with parameter values estimated from the sample, to the population covariance matrix. Measures of the two types of error are proposed and point and interval estimates of the measures are suggested. These measures take the number of parameters in the model into account in order to avoid penalizing parsimonious models. Practical difficulties associated with the usual tests of exact fit or a model are discussed and a test of “close fit” of a model is suggested.

title: Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: a review of the past 10 years.
abstract: To review current knowledge about the clinical presentation, assessment, and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in children.



The literature on PTSD in children is examined.



Over the past 10 years, PTSD has been described in children exposed to a variety of traumatic experiences. Little is known about the epidemiology of the disorder in children. Partial symptomatology and comorbidity are common. A variety of factors influence response to trauma and affect recovery. They include characteristics of the stressor and exposure to it; individual factors such as gender, age and developmental level, and psychiatric history; family characteristics; and cultural factors. Since the condition is likely to occur after disaster situations, much of the literature describes the child's response to disaster and interventions tend to include efforts within schools and/or communities. A number of clinical approaches have been used to treat the condition.



While assessment has been studied extensively, the longitudinal course of PTSD and treatment effectiveness have not been. Biological correlates of the condition also warrant greater attention.

title: Exposure to violence and presence of depression among low-income, African-American youth.
abstract: Distributional properties and correlates of the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) were presented for a sample (n = 221) of low-income, African-American youths between 7 and 18 years of age. The results showed that younger children and those living in a household without their mother reported more depressive symptoms. Regression analyses revealed that victims of violence reported more depressive symptoms. However, chronic exposure to violence, in the form of witnessing violent acts, was not significantly related to depression. On further inspection, it was discovered that witnessing violence had a negative effect on depression. This finding, although somewhat unexpected, may be the result of some youths possessing a set of extraordinary coping mechanisms that help to insulate them from negative environmental experiences.

title: Youth exposure to violence: prevalence, risks, and consequences.
abstract: Recent empirical work on the distribution, determinants, and consequences of children and adolescents' witnessing of community violence are reviewed. Major findings across studies indicate that males, ethnic minorities, and urban residents are at increased risk for witnessing violence, and that higher rates of PTSD, depression, distress, aggression, and externalizing behavior disturbances are reported among those who witness violence. Degree of family conflict, domestic violence, and family support were demonstrated to modify the impact of exposure to violence. Research and policy recommendations are offered.

title: Behavioral and physiological antecedents of inhibited and uninhibited behavior.
abstract: 4-month-old infants were specifically selected for patterns of affective and motoric reactivity that were hypothesized to be associated with later inhibited and uninhibited behavior. Infants were classified as high on motor activity and negative affect, high on motor activity and positive affect, or low on motor activity and affect. Brain electrical activity was assessed in these infants at 9 months of age, and behavior toward novelty was observed at 14 months of age. Infants who were high on motor activity and negative affect exhibited greater right frontal EEG activation at 9 months of age and inhibited behavior at 14 months of age. Infants classified as high motor/high positive at 4 months of age exhibited uninhibited behavior at 14 months of age. No relations were found between frontal asymmetry at 9 months of age and inhibited behavior at 14 months of age. However, greater activation in both the left and right frontal hemispheres was associated with higher inhibition scores at 14 months of age. These findings are discussed in terms of the role that affective and physiological reactivity may play in the development of social behavior during toddlerhood.

title: The role of frontal activation in the regulation and dysregulation of social behavior during the preschool years
abstract: We examined whether the interaction of resting frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry and social behavior during peer play was related to the occurrence of maladaptive behavior in preschoolers. Two independent cohorts of children were observed interacting in same-age and -gender play quartets at 4 years of age. Each child was also seen individually for a psychophysiology session during which time measures of EEG activity were recorded. We found that highly sociable children who exhibited greater relative right frontal EEG asymmetry were more likely to exhibit externalizing problems than sociable children who exhibited greater relative left frontal EEG asymmetry. We also found that shy children who exhibited greater relative right frontal EEG asymmetry were more likely to exhibit internalizing problems than shy children who exhibited left frontal EEG asymmetry. These findings suggest that the pattern of frontal EEG asymmetry in combination with social behavioral style is a significant predictor of maladaptive behavior problems during the preschool period.

title: Emotion and Affective Style: Hemispheric Substrates
abstract: Research on cerebral asymmetry and the experience and expression of emotion is reviewed. The studies described use electrophysiological procedures to make inferences about patterns of regional cortical activation. Such procedures have sufficient temporal resolution to be used in the study of brief emotional experiences denoted by spontaneous facial expressions. In adults and infants, the experimental arousal of positive, approach-related emotions is associated with selective activation of the left frontal region, while arousal of negative, withdrawal-related emotions is associated with selective activation of the right frontal region. Individual differences in baseline measures of frontal asymmetry are associated with dispositional mood, affective reactivity, temperament, and immune function. These studies suggest that neural systems mediating approach- and withdrawal-related emotion and action are, in part, represented in the left and right frontal regions, respectively, and that individual differences in the activation levels of these systems are associated with a coherent nomological network of associations which constitute a person's affective style.