A Framework for Understanding Sustainable Public Purchasing

Increasing scholarship within business and public management identifies the significant promise that sustainable public purchasing (SPP) has for reducing negative environmental impacts throughout the supply chain. While these studies identify the merits and limitations of SPP adoption and the mechanics of SPP implementation, a growing number of researchers identify the need for a broader conceptual framework of the factors related to SPP adoption. This paper responds to this need by developing a framework of SPP adoption that consists of three theoretical constructs – capacity, disposition, and stakeholders. It discusses the multiple dimensions of each construct and how the overall framework is nested within the broader economic setting. The constructs are the basis for research propositions that inform a broader research agenda for understanding the important issue of sustainable purchasing in the public sector.

Related papers:

title: Assessment of criteria development for public procurement from a strategic sustainability perspective
abstract: Green public procurement has emerged as a policy instrument with a significant potential to steer procurers' and producers' decisions in a sustainable direction. The purpose of this study is to assess the process for development of green public procurement criteria at a Swedish governmental expert body from a strategic sustainability perspective, i.e. to identify strengths and weaknesses from such a perspective as a basis for making this process more supportive of sustainable product and service innovation. A previously published framework for strategic sustainable development is used for the assessment. The assessment shows that the criteria development process is transparent, well-documented and that it encourages a high level of participation by the members of the working groups. However, the assessment also points to several weaknesses of the process. These include, e.g., a limited impact perspective and lack of a clear definition of sustainability objectives. The development process therefore results in criteria which mainly concern a selection of current environmental impacts outside the context of long-term objectives and consequently there are no strategies to prepare for future processes. The conclusion is that the current process may result in improvements as regards some known environmental problems, but to allow for a strategic approach that could more significantly promote innovative product-service system solutions in support of sustainable development, process changes are needed. Essential process changes are proposed in this paper.

title: Using public procurement to achieve social outcomes
abstract: The use of public procurement to achieve social outcomes is widespread, but detailed information about how it operates is often sketchy and difficult to find. This article is essentially a mapping exercise, describing the history and current use of government contracting as a tool of social regulation, what the author calls the issue of ‘linkage’. The article considers the popularity of linkage in the 19 th century in Europe and North America, particularly in dealing with issues of labour standards and unemployment. The use of linkage expanded during the 20 th century, initially to include the provision of employment opportunities to disabled workers. During and after World War II, the use of linkage became particularly important in the United States in addressing racial equality, in the requirements for non-discrimination in contracts, and in affirmative action and set-asides for minority businesses. Subsequently, the role of procurement spread both in its geographical coverage and in the subject areas of social policy that it was used to promote. The article considers examples of the use of procurement to promote equality on the basis of ethnicity and gender drawn from Malaysia, South Africa, Canada, and the European Community. More recently, procurement has been used as an instrument to promote human rights transnationally, also by international organizations such as the International Labour Organisation. The article includes some reflections on the relationship between ‘green’ procurement, ‘social’ procurement, and sustainable development, and recent attempts to develop the concept of ‘sustainable procurement.

title: Sustainable procurement in the public sector: an international comparative study
abstract: Public bodies are being encouraged to procure sustainably, to reduce their social and environmental footprint and in order to stimulate sustainability in the private sector. However, little is known about how public sector organisations internationally are responding to this encouragement or of the conditions that are most conducive to sustainable procurement (SP). The purpose of this paper is to address these gaps in our knowledge so as to inform policy development at the government and organisational levels. 
 
 The authors report the findings of a survey of SP practices within a sample of over 280 public procurement practitioners from 20 countries and with collective responsibility for expenditure totalling $45bn p.a. 
 
 The authors' analysis shows that some SP practices are evident in public sector procurement practice and that the extent and nature of SP practices varies significantly across regions. In addition, the authors highlight the main facilitators of, and barriers to, engagement with SP and investigate their importance for engagement with particular dimensions of SP. 
 
 Survey respondents are volunteers and may to some degree be more interested in, or engaged with, SP than other public sector organisations. The analysis is cross-sectional and therefore provides only a snapshot of SP practice in the public sector organisations studied. 
 
 The paper identifies how policy and practice in SP vary across regions, providing practical insights into whether and how government policies are being implemented around the world. 
 
 The paper provides the first systematic and comprehensive insight into how public bodies are implementing SP internationally and of the major situational factors that are shaping engagement with SP. The authors evaluate the current effectiveness of policy initiatives regarding SP and highlight the organisational catalysts and inhibitors of greater involvement in SP. 
 
 The authors report the findings of a survey of SP practices within a sample of over 280 public procurement practitioners from 20 countries and with collective responsibility for expenditure totalling $45bn p.a. 
 
 The authors' analysis shows that some SP practices are evident in public sector procurement practice and that the extent and nature of SP practices varies significantly across regions. In addition, the authors highlight the main facilitators of, and barriers to, engagement with SP and investigate their importance for engagement with particular dimensions of SP. 
 
 Survey respondents are volunteers and may to some degree be more interested in, or engaged with, SP than other public sector organisations. The analysis is cross-sectional and therefore provides only a snapshot of SP practice in the public sector organisations studied. 
 
 The paper identifies how policy and practice in SP vary across regions, providing practical insights into whether and how government policies are being implemented around the world. 
 
 The paper provides the first systematic and comprehensive insight into how public bodies are implementing SP internationally and of the major situational factors that are shaping engagement with SP. The authors evaluate the current effectiveness of policy initiatives regarding SP and highlight the organisational catalysts and inhibitors of greater involvement in SP.

title: PUBLIC PROCUREMENT RE-EXAMINED
abstract: Academically, public procurement has been a neglected area of study even though governmental entities and public procurement practitioners have diligently worked to improve public procurement practices. This article will identify common elements of public procurement knowledge through a brief analysis of the literature and will provide a summary of government efforts to improve public procurement practices. In addition, this article will comprehensively re-examine public procurement by using a systems approach as a method of inquiry. Finally, implications of the proposed public procurement system regarding future research and study will be discussed.

title: Green Public Procurements (GPP) as an Instrument of Implementation of Sustainable Development. Analysis of the Experience of the Łódź Region Local Government
abstract: This paper discusses the situation on the Polish green public procurements (GPP) market, with special emphasis on the results of a GPPinfoNET project realised in the Łódź region. The identification of the main barriers hindering the application of GPP in the Polish practice is the departure point to formulating recommendations concerning organisational and legal changes which would make it possible to increase the share of GPP in the Polish economic practice. Implementation of green public procurement is considered as an important element of sustainable development. Streszczenie W artykule przedmiotem analizy jest sytuacja na polskim rynku zielonych zamówień publicznych, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem efektów projektu GPPinfoNET realizowanego w regionie łódzkim. Punktem wyjścia do sformułowania rekomendacji dotyczących zmian organizacyjnych i prawnych służących popularyzacji ZZP jest identyfikacja głównych barier hamujących stosowanie takich zamówień w polskiej praktyce gospodarczej. Wdrażanie zielonych zamówień publicznych jest traktowane jako ważny element realizacji zrównoważonego rozwoju.

title: Sustainable supply chains: An introduction
abstract: Consideration is given to the convergence of supply chains and sustainability. In doing so, the focus on environmental management and operations is moved from local optimization of environmental factors to consideration of the entire supply chain during the production, consumption, customer service and post-disposal disposition of products. This is a critical and timely topic that captures increasing concerns over sustainability, whether driven by current legislation, public interest, or competitive opportunity. As such, sustainable development is a rich area for academic research that is still in its infancy and has the potential to affect future government policy, current production operations, and identify new business models. This paper provides a background to better understand current trends in this multidisciplinary field that intersect with operations management, and the research opportunities and challenges it presents.

title: Theoretical perspectives in purchasing and supply chain management: an analysis of the literature
abstract: This paper attempts to seek answers to four questions. Two of these questions have been borrowed (but adapted) from the work of Defee et al.: RQ1. To what extent is theory used in purchasing and supply chain management (P&SCM) research? RQ2. What are the prevalent theories to be found in P&SCM research? Following on from these questions an additional question is posed: RQ3. Are theory-based papers more highly cited than papers with no theoretical foundation? Finally, drawing on the work of Harland et al., the authors have added a fourth question: RQ4. To what extent does P&SCM meet the tests of coherence, breadth and depth, and quality necessary to make it a scientific discipline? 
 
 A systematic literature review was conducted in accordance with the model outlined by Tranfield et al. for three journals within the field of “purchasing and supply chain management”. In total 1,113 articles were reviewed. In addition a citation analysis was completed covering 806 articles in total. 
 
 The headline features from the results suggest that nearly a decade-and-a-half on from its development, the field still lacks coherence. There is the absence of theory in much of the work and although theory-based articles achieved on average a higher number of citations than non-theoretical papers, there is no obvious contender as an emergent paradigm for the discipline. Furthermore, it is evident that P&SCM does not meet Fabian's test necessary to make it a scientific discipline and is still some way from being a normal science. 
 
 This study would have benefited from the analysis of further journals, however the analysis of 1,113 articles from three leading journals in the field of P&SCM was deemed sufficient in scope. In addition, a further significant line of enquiry to follow is the rigour vs relevance debate. 
 
 This article is of interest to both an academic and practitioner audience as it highlights the use theories in P&SCM. Furthermore, this article raises a number of important questions. Should research in this area draw more heavily on theory and if so which theories are appropriate? 
 
Social implications – The broader social implications relate to the discussion of how a scientific discipline develops and builds on the work of Fabian and Amundson. 
 
 The data set for this study is significant and builds on a number of previous literature reviews. This review is both greater in scope than previous reviews and is broader in its subject focus. In addition, the citation analysis (not previously conducted in any of the reviews) and statistical test highlights that theory-based articles are more highly cited than non-theoretically based papers. This could indicate that researchers are attempting to build on one another's work.

title: Activities related to purchasing and supply management involvement in supplier alliances
abstract: Many firms have experienced significant benefits from engaging in supplier alliances. However, alliance relationships do not evolve in isolation. Support factors for supplier alliances include purchasing’s accountability for their actions, the use of information technology, the perceived importance of the purchasing and supply management (PSM) function, and the degree of participation in strategic purchasing activities. In addition, PSM engages in cost and price‐related activities associated with supplier alliances, including total cost of ownership, understanding specific supplier costs, target costing, and market monitoring. Empirical results from a survey indicate that significant relationships exist between support factors, cost and price activities, and supplier alliance involvement by the PSM function. The exploratory findings suggest that support factors must be in place and continually improved to facilitate purchasing’s involvement in alliances. PSM involvement in cost and price activities is also strongly related to supplier alliance participation. For purchasing firms to obtain long‐term benefits from alliances with suppliers, purchasing professionals must continually provide valuable input into these relationships through their corporate influence, use of information technology, and participation in various proactive purchasing activities.

title: From a literature review to a conceptual framework for sustainable supply chain management
abstract: Academic and corporate interest in sustainable supply chain management has risen considerably in recent years. This can be seen by the number of papers published and in particular by journal special issues. To establish the field further, the purpose of this paper is twofold. First, it offers a literature review on sustainable supply chain management taking 191 papers published from 1994 to 2007 into account. Second, it offers a conceptual framework to summarize the research in this field comprising three parts. As starting point related triggers are identified. This allows putting forward two distinct strategies: (1) supplier management for risks and performance, and (2) supply chain management for sustainable products. It is evident that research is still dominated by green/environmental issues. Social aspects and also the integration of the three dimensions of sustainability are still rare. Both practitioners in companies and academics might find the review useful, as it outlines major lines of research in the field. Further, it discusses specific features of sustainable supply chains as well as limitations of existing research; this should stimulate further research.

title: The role of purchasing in corporate social responsibility : a structural equation analysis
abstract: Researchers in the field of corporate social responsibility (CSR) have examined a broad array of activities including environmental management, ethical issues, the advancement of a diverse workplace, safety, human rights, philanthropic donations, and community involvement. Yet despite over 30 years of inquiry in this field, there has been no holistic, empirical investigation of the particular dimensions or sets of activities that are encompassed by CSR and the relationship between ethics and CSR. In the purchasing and supply management literature, similar sets of activities have been investigated, but generally as separate, standalone streams of research with little recognition of their potential inter-relatedness. The current study empirically identified the dimensions of purchasing's involvement in CSR and applied the label purchasing social responsibility (PSR).

title: Fostering sustainability through sourcing from small businesses: public sector perspectives
abstract: This article examines the opportunities for fostering sustainable development through public sector sourcing from small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Buying from small businesses can make such contributions in a variety of forms, ranging from a contribution to local economic development through providing innovative green products and services, particularly in the food sector, to helping the public sector organisation to better align its operations with its community. Sourcing from small businesses also has implications for the governance of sourcing processes and can benefit from a partnership approach. Barriers to public sector sourcing from small businesses are discussed and suggestions made on how these can be overcome.

title: Buying into our future: sustainability initiatives in local government procurement
abstract: Local government in the United Kingdom is well placed to make a contribution to sustainable development in its area. Although only enjoying partial autonomy from central government without its own constitutional basis, its aggregate purchasing expenditure dwarfs that of central government. Case study research into procurement by local authorities in England reveals a wide range of activities aimed at addressing the challenges of sustainable development, covering environmental and social as well as economic development aspects. However, these initiatives are still of a patchy nature, in terms of both differences between aspects of sustainability and variation between local authorities. Many sustainability initiatives also have cost implications for local government, which may clash with other priorities. To overcome such barriers, local authorities could cooperate with other public sector organizations in the United Kingdom and beyond, as well as with the private sector, to learn from the sustainability experience elsewhere.

title: Promoting competitive markets: The role of public procurement
abstract: The study presented here examines how public procurement agencies address establishing and maintaining competitive markets; a topic still in its academic infancy. Cases are used to address impediments and improve understanding of strategic priorities in managing for competitive markets. Public policy academics have observed many competing policies in the wider public sector. Specifically, this paper identifies a need for research on supplier incentives at a market level, on the post contract management of suppliers and as an important sub-set, key supplier relationship management, along with professional development.

title: What factors influence the uptake of GPP (green public procurement) practices? New evidence from an Italian survey
abstract: Green public procurement (GPP) is becoming a cornerstone of environmental policies both at European Union and Member State levels. Drawing upon a database of public authorities located in three Italian regions, this paper assesses the determinants and drawbacks of green procurement adoption. In particular, using an econometrical approach we tested the following propositions: (i) the existing awareness on GPP practices, tools and regulations does support public authorities to develop GPP strategies; (ii) the support of external experts in purchasing function does support public authorities to develop GPP practices; (iii) the small dimension of public authority is an obstacle to adopting GPP practices; (iv) ISO 14001 certified public authorities are more likely to develop GPP practices. The econometric analysis shows that the dimension of public authorities and the level of awareness of the existing tools for supporting GPP have a positive and significant effect on the probability that they adopt GPP practices.

title: The relationship between sustainable procurement and e-procurement in the public sector
abstract: This study examines the relationship between sustainable procurement and e-procurement, two recent initiatives in public procurement in many countries. A survey of sustainable procurement and e-procurement adoption was conducted with a sample of over 280 public procurement practitioners from 20 countries and with collective responsibility for expenditure totalling $45 BN. Using multiple regression, we develop a model to show that e-procurement and communication with suppliers supports some types of sustainable procurement, and hinders others. E-procurement and communication with suppliers may help environmental, labour, health and safety aspects of sustainable procurement. Conversely, e-procurement may hinder buying from small local firms that are not e-enabled.

title: Drawbacks and opportunities of green public procurement: an effective tool for sustainable production
abstract: As “green public procurement” (GPP) is playing an increasingly important role in stimulating the demand for environmentally friendly products and services, there is a strongly emerging need to analyze which factors drive the inclusion of environmental criteria in public tenders. Working on data from Italian municipalities, our statistical analysis confirmed that intensifying information and raising awareness on GPP techniques can strongly support the development of public green tenders. Moreover, our work reveals that good GPP performance cannot be achieved through the mere adoption of a certified Environmental Management System (EMS) by a public authority alone, but rather through the level of maturity of the certified EMS that provides a growing “value added” to GPP practices. Finally, findings of this study demonstrate that the relevant limitations linked to the small size of public authorities can be overcome by the progress in GPP brought by several European, national and local supporting initiatives.

title: A STRATEGIC DECISION FRAMEWORK FOR GREEN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT
abstract: The number of organizations contemplating the integration of environmental practices into their strategic plans and daily operations is continuously increasing. Numerous initiatives have provided incentives for organizations to become more environmentally benign. Some of these regulation driven programs are mandatory, but increasingly numerous voluntary environmental programs are also introduced by organizations. Organizations view many of these environmental programs, which may include technological and organizational development projects, as possible alternatives for gaining or maintaining a competitive advantage. One environmental program area that continues to gain in importance is one that focuses on the external relationships among organizations. To help evaluate alternatives that will effect this relationship we present a strategic decision framework that will aid managerial decision-making. This decision framework is based on literature and practice in the area of environmentally conscious business practices. The focus of this paper will be on the components and elements of green supply chain management and how they serve as a foundation for the decision framework. We shall explore the applicability of a dynamic non-linear multiattribute decision model, defined as the analytical network process, for decision making within the green supply chain. Issues facing the modeling approach are also discussed.

title: Comparing Public and Private Organizations
abstract: This article presents a number of propositions about differences in public and private organizations, which have implications for their management.1 The propositions extend and refine consideration of the question which was recently addressed by Michael A. Murray in this Review (36). Murray suggests that public and private organizations are converging and facing similar constraints and challenges, and that management in all types of organizations should be viewed as a generic process. Yet our inquiry into this comparative question points to the conclusion that it is premature to discount the significance of publicprivate differences and their implications for management training and practice. Numerous scholars and observers, of considerable reputation and experience, have addressed themselves to the comparative issue, and it is important that their observations be compiled and considered. Yet no systematic effort at integration has covered relatively recent contributions.2 In making such a review, we found consensus on a number of important distinctions, which are relevant to research, training, and practice. Moreover, in addition to these specific points of agreement, there are general reasons to approach the subject of public-private comparisons carefully, and to avoid premature dismissal of its significance: 1. Normative,  There are widely discussed concerns over whether various aspects of the convergence of the two sectors are good or bad. Solutions are proposed and arguments made concerning the appropriate roles and functions of the organizations in the two sectors. A ready example is the concern over "capture" of the regulatory agencies, and the proposal that some activities be deregulated. Generally, then, which techniques and attributes of public and private organizations should be preserved or abolished, exchanged or kept separate? 2. Implications for Knowledge and Understanding. Prescriptions will be no better than our understanding of the phenomena. Deregulation proposals, for instance, will provide successful solutions only if their underlying assumptions about the effects of market competition are accurate. To the extent, then, that there is still a divergence between public and private organizations and their management, the divergence should be isolated and studied as a source of information

title: Public procurement design: Lessons from the private sector
abstract: Public procurement regulations put constraints on the contracts and award mechanisms that public procurement agencies can use. These constraints are not present in the private sector, and recent studies suggest that the added flexibility in private sector procurement offers efficiency advantages. This paper offers a short progress report of these recent studies, and argues for the need to enhance the tools that are currently at the disposal of public sector procurement offices.

title: The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review of Concepts, Research and Practice
abstract: In this review, the primary subject is the ‘business case’ for corporate social responsibility (CSR). The business case refers to the underlying arguments or rationales supporting or documenting why the business community should accept and advance the CSR ‘cause’. The business case is concerned with the primary question: What do the business community and organizations get out of CSR? That is, how do they benefit tangibly from engaging in CSR policies, activities and practices? The business case refers to the bottom-line financial and other reasons for businesses pursuing CSR strategies and policies. In developing this business case, the paper first provides some historical background and perspective. In addition, it provides a brief discussion of the evolving understandings of CSR and some of the long-established, traditional arguments that have been made both for and against the idea of business assuming any responsibility to society beyond profit-seeking and maximizing its own financial well-being. Finally, the paper addresses the business case in more detail. The goal is to describe and summarize what the business case means and to review some of the concepts, research and practice that have come to characterize this developing idea.

title: The Business Case for Corporate Sustainability:: Literature Review and Research Options
abstract: In the last ten years, the notion of a ‘business case’ for corporate sustainability has increasingly been used by the corporate sector, environmental organizations, consultancies and so on, to seek justification for sustainability strategies within organizations. In this paper, we aim to systemize and assess existing research and tools related to this increasingly popular concept. We present a review of (1) theoretical frameworks, (2) instrumental studies aiming to either prove or disprove a hypothesized causal sequence between corporate social or environmental performance and financial performance, (3) descriptive studies examining manager’s actual perceptions and practices, and finally (4) tools. We identify a clearly insufficient understanding of manager’s key arguments or business logic for adopting corporate sustainability strategies (how ‘business cases’ are built, how effective they are and what barriers they face). We attribute this primarily to lack of descriptive research in these areas.

title: Public procurement and innovation?Resurrecting the demand side
abstract: Demand is a major potential source of innovation, yet the critical role of demand as a key driver of innovation has still to be recognised in government policy. This article discusses public procurement as one of the key elements of a demand-oriented innovation policy. The paper starts by signaling the new significance of public procurement for innovation policy strategies at the EU level and in a range of European countries. It then defines the concept of public procurement and embeds this concept within a taxonomy of innovation policies. The rationales and justifications of public procurement policies to spur innovation are discussed, followed by a consideration of the challenges and potential pitfalls as well as appropriate institutional arrangements and strategies, including some recent empirical examples of good practice. It concludes by confronting the public procurement approach with two of the most common objections to it and by considering future prospects.

title: Public procurement as an innovation policy tool: The role of institutions
abstract: Policy-makers in the EU have increasingly emphasised the role of public procurement as a policy instrument that can be used to stimulate innovation. This development reflects and responds to a growing concern among EU member states about how to maintain competitive advantage in an economic environment increasingly subject to global competition. To contribute to these emerging policies, this paper develops an innovation theory-based approach regarding public procurement of innovations, by elaborating an institutional focus. In contrast to current institutional approaches in innovation studies, the approach applied here brings in the often neglected endogenous perspective. The empirical studies cited in this paper suggest that the needs of endogenous, or informal, institutions also need to be taken into account in order to understand better the institutional set-up enabling public procurement of innovations.

title: Procurement for sustainable local economic development
abstract: The paper seeks to demonstrate how local entities, such as cities and counties, can use environmentally preferable purchasing plans as a tool in developing the local green economy. First, the authors focus specifically on either the rise of economic development programs through buy‐local efforts, or the focus on environmental sustainability through green procurement programs. Second, the authors discuss how locally driven, environmentally preferable purchasing could be used as a strategy to marry these goals together and utilize procurement as a tool to achieve green local economic development. This research used qualitative methods to examine both procurement for economic development through the use of buy local campaigns, in addition to environmentally preferable procurement policies that have been used to bolster environmental quality in communities. Green local economic development can be achieved by melding together procurement programs previously sing...

title: The Challenge of Competitive Procurement: Value for Money Versus Small Business Support
abstract: Both UK government and small firms believe that public sector procurement is a good way of helping to support small business and may even lead to improvements in service delivery. The article begins by examining the extensive government literature on procurement-related policies and initiatives, followed by a brief consideration of the SME policy context. It then presents and discusses evidence of procurement practice from public sector organizations, and assesses the implications for the small business sector.

title: Bureaucratic Theory Meets Reality: Public Choice and Service Contracting in U.S. Local Government
abstract: Public choice theory suggests that if public officials monopolize service delivery, then the result is oversupply and inefficiency (Blais and Dion, 1992; Jackson, 1982; McMaster and Sawkins, 1996; Mueller, 1989). By contrast, if services are contracted out, then the pressures of a competitive market lead to improved performance. The advocates of service contracting in local government have been influenced strongly by public choice arguments on bureaucracy that were developed in the 1960s (Downs, 1967; Niskanen, 1968, 1971; Tullock, 1965). For example, Savas (1974, 474) argues that "since most city agencies are monopolies, their staffs are automatically in a position to exercise that monopoly power for their own parochial advantage -- and efficiency is rarely seen as an advantage. In short, we have unwittingly built a system in which the public is at the mercy of its servants" (see also Bennett and Johnson, 1979). The production of public services by external agencies has grown substantially since the early 1970s. As Miranda and Andersen (1994, 28) note, "although the use of contracting varies across service areas, contracts have been used for every service local governments provide." The expansion of contracting out can be viewed as a huge natural experiment that effectively tests the validity of public choice propositions concerning the behavior of public managers who possess monopoly powers. Indeed, seldom has the major practical recommendation of an abstract model of bureaucracy been so widely implemented. Public choice theory is perhaps uniquely blessed (or cursed) by policy developments that its creators may have desired, but could not have foreseen. Reviews of the evidence on local service contracting have generally concluded that it does produce the results that public choice theory predicts. For example, Stein (1990, 498) claims that "research on contracting for individual goods and services has consistently found this mode of service arrangement to be more efficient than direct service provision and production" (emphasis added). Similarly, Kiewiet (1991, 66) concludes that "virtually every study that has ever compared the operations of public bureaus with those of private firms providing identical services has found data to support the inefficiency hypothesis" (emphasis added). Finally, Bennett and Johnson (1980, 392-93) assert that "without exception, the empirical findings indicate that the same level of output could be provided at substantially lower costs if output were produced by the private sector rather than the public sector.... The private sector production of public services offers an excellent opportunity for tax reductions without sacrifice of services; the best of all possible worlds, at least in this case, can be achieved" (emphasis added; for similar arguments see Ferris, 1986; McGuire, Ohsfeldt, and Van Cott, 1987; Miranda, 1994a; Savas, 1979). Such claims on the beneficial effects of local service contracts have also been made in other countries, for example the U.K. (Boyne, 1998a). This article aims to reappraise the empirical evidence on the effects of service contracting in U.S. local government and to evaluate the implications of this evidence for public choice models of public administration. The first part of the article identifies three specific public choice hypotheses on the impact of service contracting on spending and efficiency. The second part of the article evaluates whether these hypotheses are supported by the empirical evidence on contracting with private organizations and other units of government. It is important to note at the outset that this article evaluates evidence that compares local government agencies and external contractors as producers of public services. The aim is not to compare the relative merits of wholly public and completely private provision of local services (studies that contain evidence on this issue include Hirsch, 1965 and Pier, Vernon, and Wicks, 1974, on refuse collection; Becker and Sloan, 1985, on hospitals; Nelson, 1990, Primeaux, 1977, and Yonker, 1975, on electricity; and Bruggink, 1982 and Teeples and Glyer, 1987, on water supply). …

title: Managing public service contracts: Aligning values, institutions, and markets
abstract: The contracting of public services has been an integral part of public managers’ work for a long time, and it is here to stay. This essay sums up current research on the topic for busy practitioners and scholars. Where are we today with respect to the problems and pitfalls of contracting out, from balancing equity with efficiency to confronting the frequent problem of imperfect markets?

title: State Social Services Contracting: Exploring the Determinants of Effective Contract Accountability
abstract: This article examines the effectiveness of contract accountability in social service contracts. The analysis is based on five case studies of Kansas contracts for selected welfare, Medicaid, and foster care and adoption services. Results indicate the state has achieved moderate to high levels of accountability effectiveness, especially in terms of specifying social service contracts and selecting appropriate accountability strategies. However, accountability is undermined by the use of risk shifting, reliance on a system of multiple competing providers, and the adoption of new information technologies. These conclusions contradict the conventional wisdom, theory, and existing research on contracting.

title: Environmentally preferable purchasing: Who is doing what in the united states?
abstract: In recent years, concerns over environmental degradation and environmental sustainability have pushed governments to search for new ways to combat environmental problems. One such approach, which is gaining in popularity, is environmentally preferable purchasing (EPP). EPP attempts to address environmental challenges by taking advantage of government's vast purchasing power to create strong markets for environmentally friendly products and services. This article reviews governments’ experience with EPP in the United States. Specifically, the article describes the development of EPP in the federal government and reviews EPP activities at both the national and subnational levels. Next, the article presents several broad strategies that governments and procurement professionals can pursue in implementing EPP. The article concludes by identifying several challenges facing EPP.

title: Loopholes to Load-Shed: Contract Management Capacity, Representative Bureaucracy, and Goal Displacement in Federal Procurement Decisions
abstract: Federal contracting is complicated by the conflict between system maintenance and the more intangible, normative goals of government. This study focuses on a federal procurement program that explicitly pursues equity as a normative goal in the contracting of services from small and disadvantaged businesses. For many federal agencies, low contract management capacity makes the pursuit of this goal difficult, prompting these agencies to focus on goals that are more proximate, easily achievable, and tangible. We argue that both behavioral and representative bureaucracy theories help explain how organizations can synthesize goals in this particular context, thereby reducing the propensity of federal agencies to displace equity for the more proximately achievable goal of system maintenance. Our findings indicate support for this argument. We discuss the contributions of this study to studies of goal displacement and, more generally, to theory integration in public management scholarship.

title: Technology-Based Small Firms and Regional Innovation Potential: The Role of Public Procurement *
abstract: Traditional regional policies largely failed to attract a balanced range of skills to the regions, leaving them deficient in all but ‘blue collar’ craft skills. Thus, regional policies have hardly equipped the regions to survive during a period when technology is becoming an increasingly important element in competitiveness. In most countries, industry in the regions is composed mainly of mature companies producing traditional products and which often experience great difficulty in adapting to the rapidly changing requirements of the latter part of the twentieth century. Small firms, and especially new small firms appear, in contrast, better able to adapt. Regional policies should, therefore, be directed more towards the creation and growth of technology-based new small firms in the regions. Technology-based large firms are, of course, less dependent on the local environment than on their smaller counterparts and are better able to overcome local technical and market deficiencies. In order to stimulate the growth of innovative small firms, it is necessary to create an innovation infrastructure in the development regions, which, generally, have only limited innovation potential. This infrastructure will comprise a set of policy instruments on both the supply side and the demand side, while at the same time attempting to create a fiscal and regulatory climate conducive to innovatory endeavours by local firms. Perhaps the potentially most powerful element in this environment would be the establishment of local innovation oriented procurement procedures. A number of guidelines for the development of a viable system of innovation-oriented procurement are provided in the final section of this paper.

title: Equity in Federal Contracting: Examining the Link between Minority Representation and Federal Procurement Decisions
abstract: The federal government increasingly relies on nongovernmental organizations for procuring goods and services. This long-term trend presents a significant challenge for administrators because it risks the egalitarian values of democracy by further distancing administrative action from direct, participative, democratic oversight. The authors put forward a theory of representative bureaucracy as a way to reconcile democracy with the reality of the contemporary policy process in which unelected officials are the principal decision makers. The theory is tested in the domain of federal procurement, specifically within the contract award decisions of 60 federal agencies over three years. The authors argue that increased minority representation in leadership positions results in an increased proportion of federal contracts awarded to small minority-owned firms.

title: A Resource-Based View of the Firm
abstract: The paper explores the usefulness of analysing firms from the resource side rather than from the product side. In analogy to entry barriers and growth-share matrices, the concepts of resource position barrier and resource-product matrices are suggested. These tools are then used to highlight the new strategic options which naturally emerge from the resource perspective.

title: Organizational Routines as Sources of Connections and Understandings
abstract: Organizational routines are increasingly identified as an aspect of organizations that allows them to achieve the balance between adaptability and stability. We contribute to this discussion by showing that the connections that organizational routines make between people contribute to both stability and the ability to adapt. We argue that the connections between people that are formed as they engage together in organizational routines are important for developing understandings about both what needs to be done in a specific instance of performing a routine and about the goals of the organization that routines presumably help accomplish. Together the two sets of understandings influence organizational performance by affecting the ability of organizations to adapt to changing circumstances. These arguments lead to a general recognition of the importance to organizations of connections and the suggestion that the connections, themselves, may be an important outcome of organizational routines.

title: Organizational Routines as a Source of Continuous Change
abstract: In this paper I claim that organizational routines have a great potential for change even though they are often perceived, even defined, as unchanging. I present descriptions of routines that change as participants respond to outcomes of previous iterations of a routine. Based on the changes in these routines I propose a performative model of organizational routines. This model suggests that there is an internal dynamic to routines that can promote continuous change. The internal dynamic is based on the inclusion of routine participants as agents. When we do not separate the people who are doing the routines from the routine, we can see routines as a richer phenomenon. Change occurs as a result of participants' reflections on and reactions to various outcomes of previous iterations of the routine. This perspective introduces agency into the notion of routine. Agency is important for understanding the role of organizational routines in learning and in processes of institutionalization.

title: Panacea, common sense, or just a label?: The value of ISO 14001 environmental management systems
abstract: An increasing number of corporations around the world are certifying their environmental management systems by ISO 14000 series standards. Advocates of ISO 14001 claim substantial operational, managerial, and competitive benefits for corporations that adopt the international guidelines. Critics contend that ISO 14001 does not ensure either legal compliance or continued performance improvements. They claim that at plants or facilities already complying with environmental regulations, ISO 14001 certification may merely be an image-building or public relations effort. Theoretically, ISO 14001 could serve as a comprehensive framework for significantly improving performance in a firm with minimal environmental management capacity (in a sense, a 'panacea') or as a set of common sense guidelines for enhancing performance in a firm with regulatory compliant practices. Some firms may, indeed, simply use ISO 14001 as a 'label' for image-building. The following Case Study of an operationally efficient and regulatory-compliant aluminum plant that certified its environmental management system under ISO 14001 guidelines in 1996 identifies the impacts three years later. Drawing on the literature of program evaluation, and using archival material, interviews with managers, and a concept mapping exercise, four sets of impacts were found of certifying the plant's environmental management system by ISO 14001 standards. They included improvements in (1) employee awareness, (2) operational efficiency, (3) managerial awareness, and (4) operational effectiveness. Many of the world's largest multinational corporations have certified their environmental management systems (EMS) under ISO 14000 standards during the past few years, and many other companies are in the process of doing so. ISO 14000, the International Organization for Standardization's guidelines for environmental management systems, has become the international benchmark by which corporations can voluntarily develop and assess their environmental practices. The ISO 14000 standards, approved in 1996, describe the components and characteristics of an effective system for managing a corporation's environmental impacts (Tibor and Feldman, 1996). They offer a format for developing an environmental policy, identifying environmental aspects, defining objectives and targets, implementing a program to attain a company's goals, monitoring and measuring effectiveness, correcting deficiencies and problems, and reviewing management systems to promote continuous improvement. Some firms are using ISO 14000 guidelines to develop new environmental management systems, or adapting their environmental practices to the international standard, without formally certifying them. Other corporations, government agencies, and environmental interest groups are skeptical about the real impacts of ISO 14000 certification, and either ignore the guidelines or question their effectiveness in improving environmental performance (Krut, R. and Gleckman, H. 1998). But an increasing number of corporations are, through external registrars, formally certifying their EMSs based on ISO 14000 standards or the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). Despite the growing interest in voluntary environmental management standards for industry, little empirical information exists and few in-depth case studies have been done on the effects of adopting an ISO 14000-certified EMS. Why and how do companies adopt voluntary EMSs? What impacts does ISO 14000 certification have on a plant or facility? How does certification affect the operations and management of a manufacturing plant? Is certification merely a formality, or does it change the way management and employees conceive of and deal with the environmental impacts of their operations? Are there significant benefits to companies that have certified their quality management systems under ISO 9002 of also certifying their environmental management systems under ISO 14001? In this article we assess the impacts of ISO 14000 certification through an in-depth case study of a plant that began preparing in 1995, more than a year before the international standards were officially approved. The analysis focuses on the Alumax aluminum ingot production facility, called Mt Holly, in South Carolina. Alcoa purchased the plant in 1998. This study traces the history of the ISO 14001-certification process at Alumax -- which already had strong environmental practices in place and had earlier certified its quality management system under ISO 9002 -- and analyzes its impacts. The case study demonstrates how the certification of a manufacturing facility affects both its operations and management processes. Data were derived from archival sources, from plant site visits, from interviews with key personnel involved in the development of Mt Holly's EMS, and from a concept-mapping exercise involving 15 of the plant's managers and pollution prevention team members. The researchers also interviewed environmental, health, and safety (EHS) managers at other Alcoa facilities and drew heavily on the program evaluation literature in applying the concept mapping exercise.

title: Predicting the Cost of Environmental Management System Adoption: The Role of Capabilities, Resources and Ownership Structure
abstract: This research explores why some facilities accrue greater costs when adopting an environmental management system (EMS) and why costs vary among three different ownership structures. Using survey data of organizations that documented their EMS adoption costs over a three-year period, the results show that publicly traded facilities had stronger complementary capabilities prior to EMS adoption and therefore lower adoption costs. By contrast, government facilities and privately owned enterprises had fewer capabilities and accrued higher EMS adoption costs. The development of organizational capabilities and resources therefore appears to be a function of both organizational exploitation of imperfect or incomplete market factors, and the institutional context of these decisions.

title: A Natural-Resource-Based View of the Firm
abstract: Historically, management theory has ignored the constraints imposed by the biophysical (natural) environment. Building upon resource-based theory, this article attempts to fill this void by proposing a natural-resource-based view of the firm—a theory of competitive advantage based upon the firm's relationship to the natural environment. It is composed of three interconnected strategies: pollution prevention, product stewardship, and sustainable development. Propositions are advanced for each of these strategies regarding key resource requirements and their contributions to sustained competitive advantage.

title: A Three‐Stage Adoption Process for Social Media Use in Government
abstract: Social media applications are slowly diffusing across all levels of government. The organizational dynamics underlying adoption and use decisions follow a process similar to that for previous waves of new information and communication technologies. The authors suggest that the organizational diffusion of these types of new information and communication technologies, initially aimed at individual use and available through markets, including social media applications, follows a three-stage process. First, agencies experiment informally with social media outside of accepted technology use policies. Next, order evolves from the first chaotic stage as government organizations recognize the need to draft norms and regulations. Finally, organizational institutions evolve that clearly outline appropriate behavior, types of interactions, and new modes of communication that subsequently are formalized in social media strategies and policies. For each of the stages, the authors provide examples and a set of propositions to guide future research.

title: Institutions, Policy Innovation, and E-Government in the American States
abstract: Examining the rankings of American states in one fast-growing policy area, e-government, states with the most sophisticated and comprehensive policies varied over a five-year period. What factors account for change in digital government policy innovation over time? Using time-series analysis and 50-state data, the authors find that state institutional capacity is important for continued innovation. They also find an association between reinvention in state governments and the institutionalization of information technology, suggesting a more general orientation toward government reform and modernization. Although state wealth and education were not significant in previous studies, they emerge as predictors of later innovation. The theoretical contribution of this study is to better understand the dynamic character of innovation over time and the role of institutions. The link between reinvention and e-government raises the possibility that the modernization of state institutions generally facilitates innovation.

title: The Information Technology Interaction Model: A Foundation for the MBA Core Course
abstract: This paper presents a teaching model that has been used successfully in the MBA core course in information systems at several universities. The model is referred to as the "Information Technology Interaction Model" because it maintains that the consequences of information systems in organizations follow largely from the interaction of the technology with the organization and its environment. The model serves a number of pedagogical purposes: to integrate the various course components, to provide a formal foundation for the course content, to foster practical analytical skills, and to provide a framework for discussions and student projects. Moreover, the model is intended to acquaint students with the dynamics of information systems in organizations and to help them recognize the benefits, dangers, and limitations of these systems. The paper includes a discussion and examples of how the model can be used for proactive and reactive analyses, and it concludes with observations on the model's effectiveness in the core course.

title: Why Japanese Firms Choose to Certify: A Study of Managerial Responses to Environmental Issues
abstract: This paper examines empirically the determinants that led large Japanese manufacturers to (1) incorporate environmental goals in their decisions, (2) obtain environmental certification (ISO 14001), and (3) become early adopters of environmental certification. We estimate two sets of models: (1) models based on a profit maximization assumption and (2) models which incorporate utility maximization arguments, recognizing that managers' values, attitudes, and beliefs may also influence firms' decisions. The empirical analysis suggests that while the costs and benefits of voluntary actions to enhance or protect the environment and the capacity to act are significant determinants of voluntary environmental commitment, so are the environmental values, beliefs, and attitudes of managers.

title: A Resource-Based Theory of Strategic Alliances
abstract: The resource-based view of the firm has not been systematically applied to strategic alliances. By examining the role of firm resources in strategic alliances, we attempt, in this paper, to put forward a general resource-based theory of strategic alliances, synthesizing the various findings in the literature on alliances from a resource-based view. The proposed theory covers four major aspects of strategic alliances: rationale, formation, structural preferences, and performance. The resource-based view suggests that the rationale for alliances is the value-creation potential of firm resources that are pooled together. We note that certain resource characteristics, such as imperfect mobility, imitability, and substitutability, promise accentuated value-creation, and thus facilitate alliance formation. We discuss how the resource profiles of partner firms would determine their structural preferences in terms of four major categories of alliances: equity joint ventures, minority equity alliances, bilateral c...

title: Strategic Alliance Formation and Structural Configuration
abstract: While previous research considering the emergence of strategic alliances has typically viewed their formation through a single theoretical lens, we suggest that multiple theoretical perspectives are needed to understand their complexity. This research conceptually integrates the resource-based view and institutional theory to assess variations in firm-level motivations to form strategic alliances. Applying these ideas to the context of complex environmental problems, we propose that strategic alliances typically are either competency- or legitimacy-oriented, and that four structural dimensions characterize both types of alliances—organization learning, partner diversity, governance structure, and partner relations. We present research propositions that describe how alliances differ along these dimensions, and offer an important broader perspective on alliance formation that is applicable towards understanding their strategic and social outcomes.

title: Alliances and networks
abstract: This paper introduces a social network perspective to the study of strategic alliances. It extends prior research, which has primarily considered alliances as dyadic exchanges and paid less attention to the fact that key precursors, processes, and outcomes associated with alliances can be defined and shaped in important ways by the social networks within which most firms are embedded. It identifies five key issues for the study of alliances: (1) the formation of alliances, (2) the choice of governance structure, (3) the dynamic evolution of alliances, (4) the performance of alliances, and (5) the performance consequences for firms entering alliances. For each of these issues, this paper outlines some of the current research and debates at the firm and dyad level and then discusses some of the new and important insights that result from introducing a network perspective. It highlights current network research on alliances and suggests an agenda for future research.

title: Public Values
abstract: Exploring boundaries and meanings of public value, the authors seek to identify some of the impediments to progress in the study of public values. The study of public values is often hamstrung by more general problems in the study of values. The authors begin by identifying analytical problems in the study of values and public values. Then they take stock of the public values universe. To identify public value concepts, relevant literature is reviewed and interpreted. Finally, the analytical questions posed in the first section are addressed, focusing specifically on issues related to the hierarchy, causality, and proximity of public values.

title: A Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship as Firm Behavior
abstract: This article outlines a conceptual model of entrepreneurship as an organizational-level phenomenon. The model is intended to depict the organizational system elements that relate to entrepreneurial behavior among larger, established firms, but may also be applicable in varying degrees to many smaller firms. Entrepreneurship is described as a dimension of strategic posture represented by a firm's risk-taking propensity, tendency to act in competitively aggressive, proactive manners, and reliance on frequent and extensive product innovation. The proposed model delineates the antecedents and consequences of an entrepreneurial posture as well as the variables that moderate the relationship between entrepreneurial posture and firm performance. The advantages of a firm-behavior perspective on entrepreneurship are discussed, as are the theoretical and managerial implications of such a perspective.

title: Clarifying the Entrepreneurial Orientation Construct and Linking It To Performance
abstract: The primary purpose of this article is to clarify the nature of the entrepreneurial orientation (EO) construct and to propose a contingency framework for investigating the relationship between EO and firm performance. We first explore and refine the dimensions of EO and discuss the usefulness of viewing a firm's EO as a multidimensional construct. Then, drawing on examples from the EO-related contingencies literature, we suggest alternative models (moderating effects, mediating effects, independent effects, interaction effects) for testing the EO-performance relationship.

title: The Value of Mission Statements in Public Agencies
abstract: Many public management scholars have argued that defining a strong mission for public agencies is a useful step toward performance improvement. Public managers and elected officials have begun widespread adoption offormal mission statements to do just that. However, remarkably little empirical research has examined the case for or against mission statements. We looked at the mission statements of 304 public schools, with data about school characteristics and performance before and after the adoption of the mission statement. We asked whether missions vary across agencies doing the same work, whether some mission statements have an impact on performance, and whether the impact is positive or negative. Although skeptics doubt that talking about organizational mission is constructive, our results suggest that missions do vary substantially and that the choices that managers make in the content and rhetorical style of their mission statements can have consequences that facilitate or impair subsequent performance. Long a staple of corporate practice, mission statements are increasingly found on the walls and in the publications of public agencies (Ehrenhalt 1997). "Define the agency's mission" has become one of the few public management prescriptions warmly embraced by scholars of diverse disciplinary backgrounds, from rational choice to urban planning to law to public administration to human resource management to public policy (for just a few examples: Altshuler 1996; Senge 1990; Behn 1991; Wilson 1989; Miller 1992; Osborne and Plastrik 1997). It also has pervaded the 193/Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory We are grateful to the University of Michigan Business School for financial support for this research and for doctoral student support for Sandy Piderit; to Philip Kearney and Trevor Leutscher for access to the Integrated Database on Michigan Education; and to Milbrey McLauglin, David K. Cohen, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Jane E. Dutton, and the anonymous referees of this journal for helpful and constructive critiques and

title: An Institutional Perspective on Performance Measurement and Management in the 'New Public Sector'
abstract: In what has become known as "The New Public Sector", in the 1990s many services in advanced economics such as those of the UK and Scandinavia have come under pressure to become more efficient and effective so as to reduce their demands on taxpayers while maintaining the volume and quality of services supplied to the public. To achieve this they have been subjected to the introduction of various "private sector" management techniques and the frequent adoption of some form of neo-market system in which the purchasers and providers of public services have been split and frequently required to contract with each other. In this paper, we explore the implications of institutional theory for the successful public sector. In particular, broadening the two-party, funders and professional service providers framework of traditional institutional theory to include purchasers of public services allows us to analyse the likely impact of purchaser: provider splits on multi-dimensional performance measurement systems in the public sector. We show that the differing nature of the interrelationships between these three key stakeholders will influence the extent to which performance measurement in the focal service-provider organisations will be balanced and integrated. We also discuss the influence of these core concepts on the possibilities of achieving some balance between the stakeholders interests examined in the overall control of provider organizations. Five research propositions are advanced, three relating to the relationships between the focal organizations and funders and professional service providers, respectively, and two concerning the focal organization?s links with purchasers. Future empirical research in this are should take the form of longitudinal case studies to track differing paths of development and their effects through time.

title: The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence, and Implications
abstract: ?The stakeholder theory has been advanced and justified in the management literature on the basis of its descriptive accuracy, instrumental power, and normative validity. These three aspects of the theory, although interrelated, are quite distinct; they involve different types of evidence and argument and have different implications. In this article, we examine these three aspects of the theory and critique and integrate important contributions to the literature related to each. We conclude that the three aspects of stakeholder theory are mutually supportive and that the normative base of the theory-which includes the modern theory of property rights-is fundamental. If the unity of the corporate body is real, then there is reality and not simply legal fiction in the proposition that the managers of the unit are fiduciaries for it and not merely for its individual members, that they are . . . trustees for an institution [with multiple constituents] rather than attorneys for the stockholders.

title: Resource Efficiency Strategies and Market Conditions
abstract: In this paper we analyze the factors that drive the adoption of innovative resource efficiency strategies to reduce energy and material use, under different market conditions. We uncover the “paradox” of lower adoption of resource efficiency strategies in an economic downturn and identify the characteristics of firms that adopt these strategies. Using data from a French survey with responses from 5,877 firms, we show that only 10% of the firms in our sample adopt resource efficiency strategies in perceived economic downturn as compared to 46% in perceived steady or growing market conditions. However, the probability of adopting such strategies in downturn conditions rises to 24% for firms that focus on cost leadership strategies, have adopted environmental standards, conduct their research internally and are vertically integrated. We provide recommendations to encourage more widespread adoption of resource efficiency strategies.

title: Creating Economic and Environmental Value through Industrial Symbiosis
abstract: Although relatively under-studied, industrial symbiosis may be a particularly valuable type of interfirm action for creating value under economic constraints, such as increased environmental regulations, because it involves firms collaborating to find economical ways to “do more with less”, by taking wastes and excess resources from one firm and processing them into valuable inputs for another. To better understand its value-creating potential, we analyzed firm- and policy-level environmental and economic outcomes for 313 industrial symbiosis exchanges across the United Kingdom, during a period of increasing environmental taxation and regulation. We found that, 1) exchanges involving larger volumes of material resources are more likely to create firm- and policy-level value; 2) firms with prior industrial symbiosis experience are more likely to create firm-level value; and, 3) exchanges involving dedicated waste firms are more likely to create policy-level value, although somewhat less likely to create firm-level value. Extending prior work on intra-firm action research, we show how firms can also create value through interfirm industrial symbiosis collaborations in response to regulatory constraints. We develop a deeper understanding of the types of outcomes likely to occur from industrial symbiosis exchanges, and detail firm- and policy-level implications and questions for future research.

title: State and Local Government Procurement and the Winter Commission
abstract: The Winter Commission proposed a state and local government procurement reform agenda that placed public managers at the core of a depoliticized, deregulated, and more pragmatic public sector contracting process. Drawing on the literature and data from several state and local government surveys, this article shows that between 1992 and 2003, state and local governments’ contracting practices moved in directions consistent with the commission’s reform agenda. By 2003, state and local governments had decentralized and deregulated their contracting processes, were contracting more effectively and in circumstances in which it is more likely to be successful, and had adopted several innovative technologies and management practices.

title: Collaborative Procurement: A Relational View of Buyer–Buyer Relationships
abstract: Collaborative procurement is increasingly on the policy agenda in many countries, yet problems with collaboration occur. This article adopts a relational theory perspective to explore the enablers of and barriers to collaboration in purchasing, helping identify success factors. The authors adopted a mixed qualitative/quantitative methodology and interviewed 51 senior staffers in the United Kingdom. They found that collaborative public procurement is hindered by local politics and differing priorities, supplier resistance, reliance on suppliers for data, and a lack of common coding systems. Enabling factors for collaborating with local governments include dealing with local issues and buying from small and medium-sized enterprises. For health care providers, important themes are product innovation and ensuring supply. The authors develop a list of enabling factors and show their effect on collaboration success. This may assist policy makers in identifying areas of guidance and help practitioners prevent problems in collaboration.

title: Development of Purchasing Groups during Their Life Cycle: From Infancy to Maturity
abstract: Increasingly, public sector organizations collaborate to buy products and services. They collectively form purchasing groups to deliver more value for money. What is the progress of these small-scale developments of public sector purchasing groups to date, in the early phases of their life cycle? Although previous research provides general descriptions of life-cycle phases, little attention has been paid to detailed small-scale developments that take place within each life-cycle phase. As a result, little knowledge is available about small-scale developments of purchasing groups. More insight is important in order to better understand how purchasing groups can develop over time from one life-cycle phase into another. Three in-depth case studies from different countries offer a unique comparative overview of small-scale developments in these early life-cycle phases for their five dimensions. Most small-scale problems follow a predictable path, but the way in which the purchasing groups deal with such problems differs depending on the specific situation of the group.