nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Incompatability between the pigeons' unconditioned response to shock and the conditioned key-peck response.

High-speed photography was used to compare the pigeon's response to unsignalled shock with the pigeon's key-peck response. During shock, pigeons flex their neck (i.e., the distance between their eyes and shoulders decreases). Following shock, the neck is extended. During key pecking, the neck remains extended and the head moves toward the key in a slight arc as though attached to a fixed fulcrum. Response topography during pecking and shock appear to be incompatible, and it is concluded that the difficulty in key-peck training pigeons to escape electric shock is due to interference from the unconditioned flexion response. This conclusion supports the species-specific defense theory of escape and avoidance behavior.

Field of study: Biology, Psychology
The effect of selenium doping on the optical and structural properties of Ga0.5ln0.5P

Selenium doping at an electron concentration of 1018 – 1019 cm−3 is shown to cause an increase in both the band gap and the disorder of Ga0.5In0.5P films grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition on GaAs substrates. The effect of selenium is shown to be very similar to that of the p-type dopants, zinc and magnesium. Selenium doping is also shown to have a dramatic smoothing effect on the surface morphology of Ga0.5In0.5P films.

Field of study: Materials science
Heavy metals in small ruminant’s milk from Algerian area steppe

The total contents and distributions between soluble and colloidal phases of heavy metals (Pb,Cd and Cr) in milk of two ewe’s breed (Ouled-Djellal and Rumbi) (n = 20 each) and one local goat (n = 10) reared in Algerian area steppe, were evaluated. Ewes and goats were conducted in the same herd with similar housing and feeding. All animals were pastured in non-polluted region of Djelfa. Individual milk samples were collected three times during spring season and analyzed for their heavy metal contents. Ewe’s milk exhibited higher (P ≤ 0.001) levels of Pb
and Cd than goat’s milk but lower (P ≤ 0.001) value of Cr. The average Pb and Cd contents were 0.181 ± 0.062 ppm and 0.061 ± 0.021 ppm for ewe’s milk and 0.070 ± 0.023 and 0.012 ± 0.004 for goat’s milk respectively, which was considered as tolerable levels for human consumption. The concentrations of Cr were 0.054 ± 0.023 ppm and 0.131 ± 0.058 ppm for ewe and goat milks, respectively. There was no significant difference between the two breeds of Algerian ewe’s milk. Theses toxic elements were not in dangerous concentrations.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
Mexicans at Arms: Puro Federalists and the Politics of War, 1845-1848

The decades that followed independence from Spain in 1821 transformed Mexico from a strong, stable colony to a republic suffering from economic decline and political turmoil. This chaotic state hindered efforts of the young republic to meet the aggressive expansionism of the United States between 1845 and 1848. Santoni sheds new light on Mexican domestic history during the conflict--a much neglected subject--through a comprehensive examination of the only Mexican political bloc that wanted war with the United States. Led by Valentin Gomez Farias, this faction was the radical federalists, who in 1846 took the name of "puros." Santoni demonstrates the reasons for the failure of the "puros""'" attempts to reestablish federalism in Mexico, shape public opinion, develop a civic militia and forge alliances with senior army officers and opposing political groups. Santoni maintains that the economic, social, and political troubles of Mexico nullified the "puros""'" endeavors to direct armed resistance against the Americans.

Field of study: History
Optimal Contract, Imperfect Output Observation and Limited Liability

We study the optimal contract when output is imperfectly observed. When all parties are risk neutral and the agent has unlimited liability, the optimal contract remains the same regardless of whether the output is perfectly or imperfectly observed. When the agent's liability becomes limited, the optimal contract changes profoundly under imperfect information. We show that the high-productivity agent never produces at first-best and may be required to produce an effort lower than the one required from the low-productivity agent, and both types of agents can earn rents.

Field of study: Economics
Epidemiological characteristics of outpatients exposed to rabies in Weinan City in 2017

To investigate the epidemiological characteristics of outpatients exposed to rabies and to analyze the post-exposure prophylaxis in Weinan City in 2017 in order to provide a scientific basis for the prevention of rabies. 
 
 
 
Clinical data of all outpatients with exposure to rabies in Wei-nan were collected.Ecxcel 2007 was used for data entry and SPSS13.0 for Chi-square test. 
 
 
 
A total of 32 094 cases were reported with an annual exposure rate of 625.64/100 000 in Weinan in 2017.Animal bites mainly occurred in spring and summer, accounting for 47.47% of the total cases in 2017.There were statistically differences in exposure rate among different age groups (χ2=15.858, P=0.003). Farmers accounted for the largest proportion of the outpatients exposed to rabies (52.34%). Among 31 435 outpatients, 28 181(89.65%) received wound care and rabies vaccination.The vaccination rate of rabies immunoglobulin for patients with grade Ⅲ exposure was 46.93%. 
 
 
 
Comprehensive measures with focuses on compulsory vaccination for domestic dogs and adoption of stray dogs should be implemented to prevent human rabies.Meanwhile, health education rabieson prevention and control should also be strengthened. 
 
 
 
Rabies; Exposure; Rabies post-exposure prophylaxis clinic

Field of study: Biology
The effect of 2'deoxyguanosine on human lymphocyte responses. II. 2'deoxyguanosine enhances PWM-induced B cell differentiation.

Addition of 40 microM 2'deoxyguanosine (2'd Guo) results in enhancement of human lymphocyte cultures stimulated with pokeweed mitogen, assessed by staining intracytoplasmic immunoglobulins. Furthermore, B cell responses were enhanced under experimental conditions favouring T cell suppression rather than help. Experiments with enriched B cell fractions indicate that 2'dGuo does not directly stimulate B cell responses. The enhancement by 2'dGuo was still observed in the presence of irradiated (non-proliferating) T cells. The mechanism of enhancement by 2'dGuo is discussed in terms of its effect on proliferation-independent suppressor T cells.

Field of study: Biology, Medicine
DNA diagenesis and palaeogenetic analysis: Critical assessment and methodological progress

Palaeogenetic data obtained from fossilizing or fossil bones and teeth are of great importance to studies of vertebrate evolution, human biological and cultural evolution, plant and animal domestication and reconstructions of palaeoenvironment and palaeoecology. These studies are based on the retrieval of DNA preserved in fossilizing bones and teeth. DNA is present in fossils, if at all, in only very small amounts, which makes its amplification with PCR necessary for detailed sequence analysis. Erroneous nucleotides can be incorporated during in vitro amplification either because of post-mortem base damage of the original DNA template or simply because the fidelity of DNA polymerases is not absolute and can be decreased by suboptimal buffer conditions or possibly by compounds in the fossil extracts. These erroneously introduced nucleotides can be mistaken for authentic mutations of the ancient sequence compared to the closest extant sequence. Moreover, contamination by modern DNA, which is not chemically modified and therefore a better substrate for the Taq polymerase, can also lead to erroneous results. Here, we will present the procedures that we have developed in order to (i) ensure negligible mutagenicity of the PCR reaction, (ii) eliminate contamination by DNA molecules originating from previous PCR reactions and cloning procedures, (iii) prevent contamination with modern DNA of fossil bones and teeth during and after their excavation, and (iv) prevent degradation of ancient DNA after excavation. Finally, we will discuss our results on DNA preservation as a function of the taphonomy of the skeletal part that is analyzed and of the depositional context of preservation.

Field of study: Environmental science, Geography
Models of glaciomarine sedimentation and their application to the interpretation of ancient glacial sequences

This paper argues that glaciomarine environments can be regarded as special, glacially-influenced types of continental margin environments (e.g. continental shelf, slope, rise and basin plain). Knowledge of the stratigraphic architecture and typical sedimentary sequences of non-glacial margins is becoming well-known but remains limited for those that have been glacially modified. The principal influences on sedimentation in these environments relate to the glacial sediment input (controlled by relief of basin margin, glacier thermal regime and ice flow dynamics) and depositional environments (influence of traction currents, substrate relief and proximity to nearby ice margins). Typical ranges of sedimentation rates can be established for glacially-influenced continental margin environments and these may provide a framework for ancient sequences. Starvation of sediment supply to glacially-influenced continental margins is common. The nature of sub ice shelf sedimentation, a model that has been applied to many ancient glacial sequences is critically reviewed; the significance of such sedimentation in the rock record has probably been exaggerated because of oversimplistic interpretations of diamictite sequences. Existing process models of glaciomarine sedimentation derived from study of modern environments are sometimes difficult to employ in investigation of ancient sedimentary sequences because simple lithofacies criteria and typical vertical profiles are not available to aid in interpretation. In addition compositional data emphasized by many workers for distinguishing glaciomarine from continental glacial diamict(ite)s frequently fingerprint sediment source and not mode of deposition. The importance of facies analysis methods for isolating depositional environments is illustrated by three examples of ancient glaciomarine sequences. These are the Early Proterozoic Gowganda Formation (∼2.3 Ga) of northern Ontario, Canada; the Late Proterozoic Port Askaig Formation (∼670 Ma) of Scotland and Ireland, and the Late Cenozoic Yakataga Formation (∼20 Ma to recent) of the Gulf of Alaska. These examples illustrate the significance of detailed genetic studies of ancient glacial rocks in the interpretation of palaeogeographic and tectonic settings. Diamictite units in ancient glaciomarine sequences cannot be easily interpreted in terms of climatic or ice advance/retreat cycles, because of the varied controls on diamict accumulation and diamictite preservation in marine basins.

Field of study: Environmental science, Geography
Racial/ethnic disparities in therapist effectiveness: a conceptualization and initial study of cultural competence.

As a result of mental health disparities between White and racial/ethnic minority clients, researchers have argued that some therapists may be generally competent to provide effective services but lack cultural competence. This distinction assumes that client racial/ethnic background is a source of variability in therapist effectiveness. However, there have been no direct tests of the therapist as a source of health disparities. We provided an initial test of the distinction between general and cultural competence by examining client racial/ethnic background as a source of variability in therapist effectiveness. We analyzed cannabis use outcomes from a psychotherapy trial (N = 582) for adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence using Bayesian multilevel models for count outcomes. We first tested whether therapists differed in their effectiveness and then tested whether disparities in treatment outcomes varied across therapist caseloads. Results suggested that therapists differed in their effectiveness in general and that effectiveness varied according to client racial/ethnic background. Therapist effectiveness may depend partially on client racial/ethnic minority background, providing evidence that it is valid to distinguish between general and cultural competence.

Field of study: Psychology
Hypoxia induces universal but differential drug resistance and impairs anticancer mechanisms of 5-fluorouracil in hepatoma cells.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most refractory cancers. The mechanisms by which hypoxia further aggravates therapeutic responses of advanced HCC to anticancer drugs remain to be clarified. Here, we report that hypoxia (1% O2) caused 2.55-489.7-fold resistance to 6 anticancer drugs (sorafenib, 5-fluorouracil [5-FU], gemcitabine, cisplatin, adriamycin and 6-thioguanine) in 3 HCC cell lines (BEL-7402, HepG2 and SMMC-7721). Among the 6 drugs, sorafenib, the sole one approved for HCC therapy, inhibited proliferation with little influence from hypoxia and displayed the smallest variation among the 3 HCC cell lines tested. By contrast, the inhibition of proliferation by 5-FU, which has been extensively tested in clinical trials but has not been approved for HCC therapy, was severely affected by hypoxia and showed a large variation among these cell lines. In 5-FU-treated HCC cells, hypoxia reduced the levels of basal thymidylate synthase (TS) and functional TS, leading to decreased dTMP synthesis and DNA replication. Hypoxia also affected the accumulation of FdUTP and its misincorporation into DNA. Consequently, both single-strand breaks and double-strand breaks in DNA were reduced, although hypoxia also inhibited DNA repair. In 5-FU-treated HCC cells, hypoxia further abated S-phase arrest, alleviated the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, diminished the activation of caspases, and finally resulted in reduced induction of apoptosis. Thus, hypoxia induces universal but differential drug resistance. The extensive impacts of hypoxia on the anticancer mechanisms of 5-FU contributes to its hypoxia-induced resistance in HCC cells. We propose that hypoxia-induced drug resistance and interference of hypoxia with anticancer mechanisms could be used as candidate biomarkers in selecting and/or developing anticancer drugs for improving HCC therapy.

Field of study: Biology, Chemistry, Medicine
A 'transitional' context for health policy development: the Palestinian case.

The objective of this article is to focus on the challenges and opportunities the Palestinian health care system is currently facing in a 'transitional period', which started subsequent to the Oslo Agreement in 1993. The characteristics of 'transition' have to be highlighted in order to understand the context and peculiarities in which the Palestinian health care system is operating. A descriptive analysis is provided of the historical, political, economic and socio-demographic elements to gain an insight into the complex context of the Occupied Palestinian Territories, a country in 'transition'.

Field of study: Medicine, Political science
Instability of solutions of a semilinear heat equation with a neumann boundary condition

A semilinear heat equation u t = u x x + eup, 0 0, subject to u x (0,t) = 0,u x (1,t) = -u - q (1,t), q > 0 is studied. The set of stationary states is characterized, their instability is analyzed, and the large time behavior of positive solutions is discussed.

Field of study: Mathematics
Detailed investigation of SEM-results by TEM at one sample using FIB-technique

We show how different analytical methods were applied to one sample to get maximum information. By SEM strings of an unknown material in the centre of the array, where bitline shorts appeared, were detected. For the identification of the material and the technology step which caused the fail the modification from the compact SEM-sample to a thin foil for TEM-analysis was necessary. The most critical steps were executed by FIB. Using analytical TEM the origins of the shorts were determined as different materials.

Field of study: Engineering
Literary Culture and U.S. Imperialism: From the Revolution to World War II (review)

to the recovery of working-class cultural traditions. Among other things, Hapke's history serves as an important reference work; it provides a wealth of material that might serve as valuable starting points for future inquiries. In any case, it should be read—and pondered—by anyone interested in the representation of workers in American fiction or in the larger issue of class in American society as a whole.

Field of study: Art
Trust in government increased during the Covid‐19 pandemic in Australia and New Zealand

Using an online panel, we surveyed a representative sample of 500 each in Australia and New Zealand during July 2020, in the middle of the Covid-19 pandemic We find trust in government has increased dramatically, with around 80% of respondents agreeing government was generally trustworthy Around three quarters agreed management of the pandemic had increased their trust in government Over 85% of respondents have confidence that public health scientists work in the public interest Testing four hypotheses, we find that income and education predict trust in government and confidence in public health scientists, as does voting for the political party in government Trust in government and confidence in public health scientists strongly predict Covid-19 phone application use, largely through convincing people the App is beneficial Trust in government then is both an outcome and antecedent of government effectiveness Building trust is important for governments implementing difficult policy responses during a crisis

Field of study: Political science
Resurgence and alternative-reinforcer magnitude.

Resurgence is defined as an increase in the frequency of a previously reinforced target response when an alternative source of reinforcement is suspended. Despite an extensive body of research examining factors that affect resurgence, the effects of alternative-reinforcer magnitude have not been examined. Thus, the present experiments aimed to fill this gap in the literature. In Experiment 1, rats pressed levers for single-pellet reinforcers during Phase 1. In Phase 2, target-lever pressing was extinguished, and alternative-lever pressing produced either five-pellet, one-pellet, or no alternative reinforcement. In Phase 3, alternative reinforcement was suspended to test for resurgence. Five-pellet alternative reinforcement produced faster elimination and greater resurgence of target-lever pressing than one-pellet alternative reinforcement. In Experiment 2, effects of decreasing alternative-reinforcer magnitude on resurgence were examined. Rats pressed levers and pulled chains for six-pellet reinforcers during Phases 1 and 2, respectively. In Phase 3, alternative reinforcement was decreased to three pellets for one group, one pellet for a second group, and suspended altogether for a third group. Shifting from six-pellet to one-pellet alternative reinforcement produced as much resurgence as suspending alternative reinforcement altogether, while shifting from six pellets to three pellets did not produce resurgence. These results suggest that alternative-reinforcer magnitude has effects on elimination and resurgence of target behavior that are similar to those of alternative-reinforcer rate. Thus, both suppression of target behavior during alternative reinforcement and resurgence when conditions of alternative reinforcement are altered may be related to variables that affect the value of the alternative-reinforcement source.

Field of study: Biology, Psychology
A Note on the Mechanical Characterization of Non-Homogeneous and Graded Vulcanized Rubbers

Ample experimental evidence exists in the literature suggesting the spatial variation of mechanical properties of vulcanized rubbers. Although standard testing methods are based on the homogeneity assumption for rubber specimens, some researchers used these tests without modification to characterize the non-homogeneous rubbers. Within the framework of non-homogeneous material models, this paper proves the inadequacy of the standard mechanical tests and suggests the full-field measurement of displacement–strain in deformed rubber specimens for an accurate characterization. This view is theoretically illustrated by analyzing the deformation of a non-homogeneous rubber slab in a standard shear test.

Field of study: Materials science
Disability, Child Abuse and Criminal Justice

The problems facing the sexually abused child involved in the criminal justice system have been well rehearsedl and steps have been taken to respond to their plight.2 But there has so far been little recognition of the added difficulties confronting children with disabilities3 and relatively few cases involving such children have so far reached the courts. Children whose disability results in a lack of verbal skills are particularly disadvantaged in a legal culture which takes oral communication for granted and relies heavily upon it. This article will consider the vulnerability of disabled children to abuse. It will then go on to examine the communication difficulties which affect many of them and the extent to which these difficulties inhibit or debar them at each stage of the criminal process. Finally, it will suggest what needs to be done to ensure that disabled children are afforded equal access to the criminal justice system.

Field of study: Law
Real-time segmentation of various insulators using generative adversarial networks

The conventional inspection of fragile insulators is critical to grid operation and insulator segmentation is the basis of inspection. However, the segmentation of various insulators is still difficult because of the great differences in colour and shape, as well as the cluttered background. Traditional insulator segmentation algorithms need many artificial thresholds, thereby limiting the adaptability of algorithms. A compact end-to-end neural network, which is trained in the framework of conditional generative adversarial networks, is proposed for the real-time pixel-level segmentation of insulators. The input image is mapped to a visual saliency map, and various insulators with different poses are filtered out at the same time. The proposed two-stage training and empty samples are also used to improve the segmentation quality. Extensive experiments and comparisons are performed on many real-world images. The experimental results demonstrate superior segmentation and real-time performance. Meanwhile, the effectiveness of the proposed training strategies and the trade-off between performance and speed are analysed in detail.

Field of study: Computer science
Philosophical study of sports training: theories, hot topics and expectations

Philosophy is a scale for people to understand the world. Exploring philosophical issues in sports training is the intrinsic need of disciplinary development. Knowledge systems, concept connotations, thinking scope, value orientation, principles and patterns, experience examination and practice criticism in the overall philosophical morphology of sports training, are contents concerned by philosophy. Sports training is a complete process of practice, letting people sense the limits and limitations of body abilities in motion, and proving the existence of life form in the way of production performance. Issues such as ontology, epistemology, axiology and methodology in sports training, are the core part of philosophical study, also the foundation for building the disciplinary system. The authors carried out scientific examination, collation and analysis on issues, speculative hot topics and theory expectations regarding philosophical study of sports training, so as to provide new perspectives, ideas and methods for understanding philosophical issues in sports training.

Field of study: Education