nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Passive Tax Expenditures: Estimates of States’ Revenue Losses Attributable to Federal Tax Expenditures

Modern politics obligates U.S. presidents and presidential candidates to assert a commitment to tax reform. All nod in that direction; some create a spasm of reform fervor among the national leadership. Reform advocacy is bolstered by greater or lesser expression of outrage with the lunacy of particular loopholes in an incentive-destroying tax system. The polity is titillated by the display. New preferential tax treatments are devised by each Congress, and a very few minor ones are terminated. The "tax expenditure budget" grows each year, usually at a pace more rapid than the growth rate of appropriations. Eventually a new round of lamentations begins, and mostly, nothing changes. While these observations are not uncommon, and the events are barely remarkable any longer, another aspect of this situation passes almost completely unobserved, rather remarkably considering the persistent attachment of Americans in general, and officials of state governments in particular, to decentralized, federalist structures and "states rights." This aspect is the loss of state tax revenue that occurs because state governments tie their income tax systems to that of the

Field of study: Economics
Spatially resolved star formation relation in two HI-rich galaxies with central post-starburst signature

E+A galaxies are post-starburst systems that are identified based on their optical spectra. These galaxies contain a substantial young A-type stellar component but display no emission lines, which indicates only little ongoing star formation (SF). HI 21 cm line emission is found in approximately half of the nearby E+A galaxies, indicating that they contain a reservoir of gas that could fuel active SF.  We study the distribution and kinematics of atomic and molecular gas in two HI-rich galaxies, which show a typical E+A spectrum at the centre and SF at larger radii. From our results we aim to infer whether the SF activity of these galaxies is consistent with the activity seen in disc galaxies, or if it indicates a transition towards another evolutionary phase.  We present newly obtained high spatial resolution radio interferometric observations of the HI 21 cm emission line using the Karl Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) and of the CO(1-0) emission line using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). We combine these data sets to predict the star formation rate (SFR) using a pressure-based SF relation and show that it does not correlate well with the SFR derived from H alpha on sub-kpc scales. We apply a recently developed statistical model for the small-scale behaviour of the SF relation to predict and interpret the observed scatter.  We find regularly rotating HI gas that is smoothly distributed across the entire disc. The CO(1-0) emission line is not detected for either of the two galaxies. The derived upper limit on the CO mass implies a molecular gas depletion time of t(depl) less than or similar to 20 Myr. However, because of the low metallicity, the CO-to-H2 conversion factor is highly uncertain. In the relations between the H alpha-based SFR and the HI mass, we observe a substantial scatter we demonstrate results from small-number statistics of independent SF regions on sub-kpc scales.  We confirm the HI-richness of ESO534-G001 and 2dFRS S833Z022, and find that the scale dependence of the atomic SF relation in these galaxies is consistent with the predicted increase in the scatter towards small size scales. This is due to the incomplete sampling of independent HI clouds and SF regions. This finding adds to the existing literature, which has reported a scale dependence of the molecular SF relation, showing that the atomic and molecular phases are both susceptible to the evolutionary cycling of individual regions. This suggests that the atomic gas reservoirs host substantial substructure, which should be observable with future high-resolution observations.

Field of study: Physics
Inadequate performance measures affecting practices, organizations and outcomes of Ontario's family health teams.

Emphasis on quantity as the main performance measure may be posing challenges for Family Health Team (FHT) practices and organizational structures.  What healthcare practices and organizational structures are encouraged by the FHT model?



An exploratory qualitative design guided by discourse analysis was used. This paper presents findings from in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted with seven policy informants and 29 FHT leaders.



Participants report that performance measures value quantity and are not inclusive of the broad scope of attributes that comprise primary healthcare. Performance measures do not appear to be accurately capturing the demand for healthcare services, or the actual amount of services being provided by FHTs. RESULTS suggest that unintended consequences of performance measures may be posing challenges to access and health outcomes.



It is recommended that performance measures be developed and used to measure, support and encourage FHTs to achieve the goals of PHC.

Field of study: Medicine, Political science
Neonatal brain injury and systemic inflammation: modulation by activated protein C ex vivo

Infection and inflammation can be antecedents of neonatal encephalopathy (NE) and increase the risk of neurological sequelae. Activated protein C (APC) has anti‐coagulant and anti‐inflammatory effects and provides neuroprotection in brain and spinal cord injury. We examined neutrophil and monocyte responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in infants with NE compared with healthy adult and neonatal controls, and also studied the effect of APC. Whole blood was incubated with LPS and APC and Toll‐like receptor (TLR)‐4 (LPS recognition), CD11b expression (activation) and intracellular reactive oxygen intermediate (ROI; function) release from neutrophils and monocytes was examined by flow cytometry serially from days 1 to 7. We found a significant increase in neutrophil ROI in infants with NE on day 3 following LPS compared to neonatal controls and this augmented response was reduced significantly by APC. Neutrophil and monocyte CD11b expression was increased significantly on day 1 in infants with NE compared to neonatal controls. LPS‐induced neutrophil TLR‐4 expression was increased significantly in infants with NE on days 3 and 7 and was reduced by APC. LPS‐induced monocyte TLR‐4 was increased significantly in infants with NE on day 7. Neutrophil and monocyte activation and production of ROIs may mediate tissue damage in infants with NE. APC modified LPS responses in infants with NE. APC may reduce the inflammatory responses in NE and may ameliorate multi‐organ dysfunction. Further study of the immunomodulatory effects of protein C may be warranted using mutant forms with decreased bleeding potential.

Field of study: Biology, Medicine
Exact enumeration of minimal paths of partitioned networks

The accuracy of the available approximate approaches for the enumeration of minimal paths of networks decomposed into two sub networks through a cut is discussed and two theorems on the sufficient conditions for a sound application of these approaches are formulated. A method is suggested which extends the applicability of the partition approach for an exact reliability analysis of composite networks with an arbitrary number of sub networks common nodes. Two illustrative examples are also included.

Field of study: Engineering
Globalization and fragmentation in the international economy

Globalization is moving much more rapidly in finance than in international trade and production. The international financial system is at present undergoverned. Necessary public goods — in furtherance of the objectives of stability, order, equity and efficiency in the global economy — are undersupplied. The world economy would benefit from stronger and more democratic macroeconomic and financial management, preferably centred in the International Monetary Fund. Development finance might best be decentralized from its present over‐concentration in the World Bank. The Chretien Government has an opportunity, as host of the Group of Seven Summit, to lead the way to a credible and representative review of global economic governance.

Field of study: Political science
The Spatial Distribution of the Basic Education Schools in Lattakia City (Syria)

The main aim of the study is to detect the spatial degree of inequality and adequacies in the provision of first and second stage of basic education schools between different wards of Lattakia city, with respect to the population they serve. Secondary data were used for this study sourced from the inventory of the Educational Direction and the Direction of Statistic of Lattakia. Statistical techniques were employed to analyze data such as Mean deviation, Locational Quotient, Lorenz Curve and Ratio Schools/pop. The findings of the study indicated that the population and number of schools are not equidistributed. This revealed the existing of gaps in access to this facility between wards with some wards experiencing glut and concentration while other suffering lack and have no adequate access to this facility: for both F.S. and S.S. schools, L.Q. value varies from 0 to 2.6, and from 1.94 to 0.6 for S.S; Ratio population/schools varies from 1:2971.7 to 1:16776, and from 1:50329 to 1:5057. Lorenz Curve indicate that about 50 % of schools are enjoined by about 50 % for F.S. schools and 60% for S.S. schools. The study concluded that there was a need for intervention of planners and government in the provision of basic schools in deficient wards to enhance human development.

Field of study: Education, Sociology
Study on Weldability Window of Resistance Spot Welding and Electrode Wear Properties of Different Galvanized Steel Sheet

The weldability window of resistance spot welding and electrode wear properties of different galvanized steel sheet, pure zinc plating(GI) steel and zinc alloy plating(GA) steel, were studied. The results show that the width of GA steel plate welding process window is more wide than that of GI steel plate at the same welding conditions, and the welding process window locate between the boundary, which are more close to the GI steel plate. The wear resistance of GA steel plate is better than that of GI steel plate.

Field of study: Materials science
Nuclear pion absorption in the Skyrme model

The description of pion absorption in nuclei in the Skyrme model is similar to that used in phenomenological meson theory. The main absorption mechanism can be described as a two-nucleon mechanism in which the initial pion is rescattered once prior to final absorption. The long range parts of the rescattering amplitudes for theS- andP-wave rescattering mechanisms have the conventional pion exchange form. The model predicts a strong increase of the isospin evenS-wave rescattering contribution to the absorption rate above threshold, which in the case of the deuteron would cause a rapid decrease of the netS-wave absorption rate with increasing pion energy.

Field of study: Physics
Ventricular arrhythmia evoked by microinjection of picrotoxin into brain areas in rabbits.

To explore the main areas of brain responsible for arrhythmia evoked by icv picrotoxin (Pic), a very small dose of Pic (3 micrograms) was injected into different areas of brain in anesthetized rabbits. The short latency of arrhythmia was found after microinjection of Pic into posterior hypothalamus (PH, 5.6 +/- 0.9 min) and the medial part of tuberal region (7.5 +/- 2.9 min). The ventricular arrhythmia was abolished by vagotomy, iv phentolamine or diazepam, or pretreatment with adrenalectomy or vagotomy. Microinjection of phentolamine or diphenhydramine into PH prior to Pic postponed the arrhythmia. The results indicate that PH and the medial part of tuberal region are the most effective areas for Pic to induce arrhythmia, activations of both sympathoadrenomedullary and parasympathetic systems are involved in the genesis of arrhythmia.

Field of study: Biology, Chemistry, Medicine
Modelling agro-forestry scenarios for ammonia abatement in the landscape

Ammonia emissions from livestock production can have negative impacts on nearby protected sites and ecosystems that are sensitive to eutrophication and acidification. Trees are effective scavengers of both gaseous and particulate pollutants from the atmosphere making tree belts potentially effective landscape features to support strategies aiming to reduce ammonia impacts. This research used the MODDAS-THETIS a coupled turbulence and deposition turbulence model, to examine the relationships between tree canopy structure and ammonia capture for three source types—animal housing, slurry lagoon, and livestock under a tree canopy. By altering the canopy length, leaf area index, leaf area density, and height of the canopy in the model the capture efficiencies varied substantially. A maximum of 27% of the emitted ammonia was captured by tree canopy for the animal housing source, for the slurry lagoon the maximum was 19%, while the livestock under trees attained a maximum of 60% recapture. Using agro-forestry systems of differing tree structures near 'hot spots' of ammonia in the landscape could provide an effective abatement option for the livestock industry that complements existing source reduction measures.

Field of study: Environmental science
ALMOST PERIODIC VARIANCES

0.  Second-order stationary random sequences, especially if Gaussian, may be of statistical interest because their covariances may, under certain conditions, be consistently estimated with finite realizations of the sequences. It is shown that there is a class of non-stationary random sequences, namely sequences of orthogonal random variables with zero means and variances ft which form a uniformly almost periodic sequence, which are of statistical interest, at least in the Gaussian case, in the following sense. ft admits a generalized Fourier series expansion, and the Fourier coefficients ys of this expansion can be consistently estimated with finite realizations of the sequences. In certain situations, the nonconstant variance sequence ft may be directly estimated. The sequences of interest may be converted, via Fourier transformations, into second-order stationary random functions, and the Fourier coefficients yYs, of the expansion of ft, are shown to form a sequence of stationary covariances. A multiplicative representation is given for the nonstationary sequences considered.

Field of study: Mathematics
Optimal Designs of Two-Phase Studies

The two-phase design is a cost-effective sampling strategy to evaluate the effects of covariates on an outcome when certain covariates are too expensive to be measured on all study subjects. Under such a design, the outcome and inexpensive covariates are measured on all subjects in the first phase and the first-phase information is used to select subjects for measurements of expensive covariates in the second phase. Previous research on two-phase studies has focused largely on the inference procedures rather than the design aspects. We investigate the design efficiency of the two-phase study, as measured by the semiparametric efficiency bound for estimating the regression coefficients of expensive covariates. We consider general two-phase studies, where the outcome variable can be continuous, discrete, or censored, and the second-phase sampling can depend on the first-phase data in any manner. We develop optimal or approximately optimal two-phase designs, which can be substantially more efficient than the existing designs. We demonstrate the improvements of the new designs over the existing ones through extensive simulation studies and two large medical studies.

Field of study: Mathematics
Relationship analysis between transient thermal control mode and image quality for an aerial camera.

Thermal control and temperature uniformity are important factors for aerial cameras. This paper describes the problems with existing systems and introduces modifications. The modifications have improved the temperature uniformity from 12.8°C to 4.5°C, and they enable images to be obtained at atmospheric and low pressures (35.4 KPa). First, thermal optical analysis of the camera is performed by using the finite element analysis method. This modeled the effect of temperature level and temperature gradient on imaging. Based on the results of the analysis, the corresponding improvements to the thermal control measures are implemented to improve the temperature uniformity. The relationship between the temperature control mode and temperature uniformity is analyzed. The improved temperature field corresponding to the thermal optical analysis is studied. Taking into account that the convection will be affected by the low pressure, the paper analyzes the thermal control effect, and imaging results are obtained in low pressure. The experimental results corroborate the analyses.

Field of study: Physics
Crystal structure, morphology and chemical reactivity of TlxV5S8

U 22 increases indicating modified interatomic interactions of the Tl atoms, an enhanced mobility or static disorder. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that with decreasing temperature the one-dimensional disorder of the Tl atoms increases. Time dependent topotactic removal of Tl using molecular iodine in donor solvents proceeds in two steps: a relatively fast step is followed by a slow diffusion controlled reaction. About 20% of the Tl is removed within the first 60 min. After about 13 d the composition Tl 0.3 V 5 S 8 was reached. Further reaction results in the formation of a mixture of Tl 0.3 V 5 S 8 and V 5 S 8 . The reaction product between I 2 and Tl was identified as TlI 3 which demonstrates that Tl in Tl x V 5 S 8 is in a formal oxidation state clearly below +1. The host material V 5 S 8 is not attacked by I 2 as could be demonstrated by SEM. These observations imply that the vanadium sulfide is not directly involved in the redox reaction. With decreasing Tl abundance the internal mechanical stress due to anisotropic changes of the lattice parameters is increased resulting in an increased brittleness of the crystals. X-ray powder diffractometry was found to be a useful analytical tool to quantitatively determine the Tl content without destroying the sample.

Field of study: Materials science
Adiabatic calorimetry and solid state properties above ambient temperature

Some developments in the use of adiabatic-shield calorimeters above ambient temperature are reported, with emphasis on their importance in the study of slow reactions. In addition to the usual demonstration of calorimeter performance in terms of the heat capacity of a-Al203, fractional enthalpy of fusion determinations as well as heat-capacity measurements on solid/solid transitions ought to be considered as testing experiments. In this connection results on indium and tin are presented. The larger variety of heat-capacity behavior in two- component systems are considered for solid/solid transitions in Ag2Se, quartz and cristobalite. The usefulnes of adiabatic calorimetry in the study of transitions from metastable to stable states is shown for the NiS phases and for wiistite.

Field of study: Chemistry
Rates of stomatal opening in conifer seedlings in relation to air temperature and daily carbon gain

Experiments were conducted on well watered 1-year-old Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco], western hemlock [Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.] and western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn) seedlings to determine the effects of temperature on whole-plant photosynthetic and stomatal responses to short-term fluctuations in irradiance (Q). Following a step change in Q, time constants (τ, the period over which 63% of the total change occurs) for stomatal conductance (gs) and assimilation rate (A) decreased linearly with increasing air temperature (Tair). For example, in western redcedar τA decreased from 30 ± 4 min at 5 °C to 10 ± 1 min at 25 °C. In all cases, τA was within 10–15% of τgs. There was considerable variation in τ among individuals within a given species. Differences between species became more pronounced with decreasing temperature. Multiplicative models that included functions for τ accounted for 99% of the diurnal variability in A and gs for seedlings exposed to varying air temperature, irradiance and vapour pressure deficit. Estimates of daily A were within 2% of those measured. Intermittent cloud cover and understory shading were approximated by exposing seedlings to 3–4 episodes (≥1 h) of shade (200 or 500 μmol m−2 s−1) or complete darkness during the day. In such cases, daily A was overestimated by up to 4 and 21%, respectively, if a function for τ was excluded from the models. Our results suggest that there is scope for selecting seedling stock for increased carbon assimilation on the basis of reduced time constants. For example, in western redcedar, a 40% reduction in τ could lead to increases in daily carbon gains of almost 5% depending on the frequency and degree of shading. If these daily gains were translated into increased dry matter production and compounded, seasonal gains would be even larger.

Field of study: Environmental science
Oxide charge measurements in EEPROM devices

A method to measure “on site” programmed charges in EEPROM devices is presented. Electrical AFM based techniques (Electric Force Microscopy (EFM) and Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy (SKPM)) are used to probe directly floating gate potentials. Both preparation and probing methods are discussed. Sample preparation to access floating gate/oxide interfaces at a few nanometers distance without discharging the data reveals to be the key point, more than the probing technique itself.

Field of study: Engineering
Polyhalogenated carbazoles in sediments from Lake Tai (China): Distribution, congener composition, and toxic equivalent evaluation.

Polyhalogenated carbazoles (PHCZs) have attracted mounting environmental concerns since they were recently discovered in sediments and soil. Current knowledge on their occurrence, environmental behavior and fate remains very limited in general. In the present study, 11 PHCZ congeners were screened in surface sediments of Lake Tai, an important freshwater system located in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Total concentrations of PHCZs (∑PHCZs) ranged up to 15.8 ng/g dry weight (median: 1.54 ng/g dw), rivaling those of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (∑PBDEs, 0.07-15.9 ng/g dw) in the same sediments. The PHCZ congener composition profiles revealed a dominance of 3,6-dichlorocarbazole and 3,6-dibromocarbazole with comparable concentrations. These two dominant congeners differed in spatial distribution patterns in Lake Tai, indicating different sources or origins. Potential toxic effects associated with the levels of PHCZs in the sediments were evaluated via the toxic equivalent (TEQ) approach. The TEQs of PHCZs in Lake Tai sediments ranged up to 1.36 pg TEQ/g dw. As the first report on the occurrence of PHCZs in an Asian waterbody, our findings suggest that PHCZs should be given more attention during environmental monitoring and risk assessments of hazardous chemicals, as they may represent another group of persistent organic pollutants with dioxin-like effects and wide distributions.

Field of study: Environmental science
[ONNO]-type amine bis(phenolate)-based vanadium catalysts for ethylene homo- and copolymerization

The synthesis and solution and solid-state structural characterization of a family of amine bis(phenolate) [ONNO]-vanadium complexes is reviewed. These compounds have oxidation states ranging from vanadium(II) to vanadium(V), and were evaluated as olefin polymerization catalysts. In association with EtAlCl2 cocatalyst, we studied the homopolymerization of ethylene, propene, and 1-hexene, as well as the copolymerization of ethylene with α-olefins (1-hexene, 1-octene) and cycloolefins (norbornene, cyclopentene). Some of these catalysts were shown to produce copolymers with a good activity and comonomer content.

Field of study: Chemistry