nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Establishing Statistical Foundations of a Chronology for the Great Divergence: A Survey and Critique of the Primary Sources for the Construction of Relative Wage Levels for Ming–Qing China

This article is a survey and critique of recent endeavours to establish statistical foundations for a chronology for the great divergence based upon trends and levels in relative wages. Our reading of the bibliography in Chinese labour history, together with a preliminary investigation into other primary sources, suggests that the Kuznetsian paradigm for empirical economics may not be viable for the construction of analytical narratives for the Chinese and other premodern imperial economies in South and West Asia. Nevertheless, two datasets currently in print will continue to be quoted to lend support to numerically grounded speculations for levels and trends in real wages and welfare for the families of wage-dependent urban workers in China over the eighteenth century. Statistical evidence for the Ming and Qing dynasties calibrated for the purposes of comparing real wage levels for wage-dependent labour between China and western Europe can, however, be placed on a spectrum for accuracy and inferential analysis that runs from ‘unfounded guess work’ to ‘plausible conjectures’. The unwelcome contention of this article is that the data published and potentially available for China (and probably for India and the Ottoman Empire) stand close to the unfounded guess work end of that spectrum. Meanwhile, and as a speculative conclusion, we offer a conjecture that the ‘real wages’ for Qing China's tiny proletariat, whose income included high proportions of wages in kind, have remained as elusive as they were when the real wage debate began a decade ago.

Field of study: Economics, History
The control of ice slurry systems: an overview

This article outlines some typical control strategies for the basic components of an ice slurry system. From this review it became apparent that the control of terminal units is not fundamentally different from the control of classical single-phase secondary cooling systems, except from the fact that it must be based on the use of local pumps and the ON–OFF operation of actuators to avoid ice plugging problems. The safe control of the ice generator can be ensured with a simple thermostat, although the resulting ice concentration control would be approximate. It was also demonstrated that any ice accumulation in the storage tank would not prevent the ice slurry system from functioning safely. As a final precaution, it was not recommended to operate an ice slurry generator at low solute concentrations and temperatures greater than −3/−4 °C due to the risk of plugging up the distribution loop and causing mechanical wear to the ice generator.

Field of study: Engineering
Zimbabwean Female Participation in Physics: Facets of Identity Formation Considered to Be of Significance by Female Students in Relation to Physics

The study explored facets of identity formation considered to be of significance by Zimbabwean female adolescent students in physics. Four high schools that were offering physics at A' level in the Midlands Province, in Zimbabwe were targeted. Nine female adolescents doing mathematics and physics and only mathematics were chosen. Data generation instruments were semi-structured interview and classroom observation guides. The results of this study indicate that facets of identity formation as confident, fearless, intelligent, and courageous, liking physics and being determined. These facets motivated female students studying physics to develop an identity in favour of physics, resulting in them opting to study physics as a subject of choice at A' Level. On the other hand, female students who had the potential to study physics but were studying only mathematics stated that fear of failing physics, not being courageous, lacking confidence and that physics was irrelevant to their career choice were significant in influencing their non-participation in physics. These facets may have enabled female students to form an identity that contributed towards their motivation for participation or lack of it in physics. The negative physics identity influences their perceptions of physics and their low participation in the subject.  Identity formation, physics identity, facets, and participation

Field of study: Education
In vitro growth characteristics of Cryptococcus gattii VGI/VGII and their virulence diversity to Galleria mellonella

To understand the in vitro growth characteristics of Cryptococcus gattii VGⅠ and VGⅡ isolated in China and the diversity in their virulence to Galleria mellonella. 
 
 
 
Based on the results of multilocus sequence typing for eight strains of Cryptococcus gattii isolated in China, the strains were cultured in vitro to draw growth curves, observe the melanin production and measure the capsule thickness. The median lethal time (LT50) and median lethal dose (LC50) at 48 h of Cryptococcus gattii were calculated using Galleria mellonella infection test. Fourteen strains of Cryptococcus neoformans were studied for comparison. 
 
 
 
The eight Cryptococcus gattii strains were six VGⅠ and two VGⅡ. The growth curves of Cryptococcus gattii VGⅠ and VGⅡ were similar to that of Cryptococcus neoformans when culture at 30℃. The total number for each of them could reach 108 CFU/ml at 96 h under 30℃. However, the total number at any time point at 37℃ was less than that at 30℃. There was no significant difference in the amount of melanin produced by Cryptococcus neoformans under 30℃ and 37℃, but both VGⅠand VGⅡ types of Cryptococcus gattii could produce more amount of melanin under 37℃ than under 30℃. The ratio of capsule/cell wall diameter of Cryptococcus gattii VGⅠwas greater at 37℃ than that at 30℃ with statistical significance (P<0.001). Cryptococcus neoformans showed the longest LT50, followed by VGⅠand VGⅡ types of Cryptococcus gattii. The LT50 of Cryptococcus gattii VGⅡ at the concentration of 1×106 CFU/ml was 72 h, and its LC50 at 48 h was 1×108 CFU/ml. 
 
 
 
Like Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii VGⅠ and VGⅡ grew faster under 30℃ than under 37℃, but more melanin was produced and thicker capsule was formed under 37℃ than under 30℃. Among Cryptococcus neoformans and VGⅠ and VGⅡ types of Cryptococcus gattii, Cryptococcus gattii VGⅡ showed the shortest LT50 and the strongest virulence to Galleria mellonella. 
 
 
 
Cryptococcus gattii; Molecular type; Growth characteristics; Galleria mellonella; Virulence

Field of study: Biology
SOA Based Web Services Composition System

SOA provides an effective way for constructing loose-coupled Web services composition system. On the basis of studying the generic process of Web services composition, this paper proposes a method for constructing Web services composition system which is based on SOA and a layered protocol stack. This paper also presents a layered service model and a layered protocol stack. Finally, this paper designs and realizes a loose-coupled prototype system for composing Web services which will be a flexible experiment and development platform for both of the researches on Web services composition and applications of enterprise.

Field of study: Computer science
Reconstitution of denatured E. coli alkaline phosphatase with E. coli ribosome.

E. coli alkaline phosphatase was denatured by physical/chemical means. In vitro reconstitution of this denatured enzyme was assisted by 70S E. coli ribosome, as shown by the recovery of its catalytic competence. Almost total recovery of activity of the totally inactivated enzyme was obtained in presence of equimolar concentration of 70S ribosome at 50 degrees C.

Field of study: Biology, Chemistry, Physics
Algorithmic shaping and misbehavior in the acquisition of token deposit by rats.

In two experiments, rats were trained to deposit ball bearings down a hole in the floor, using an algorithmic version of shaping. The experimenter coded responses expected to be precursors of the target response, ball bearing deposit; a computer program reinforced these responses, or not, according to an algorithm that mimicked the processes thought to occur in conventional shaping. In the first experiment, 8 of 10 rats were successfully shaped; in the second, 5 of 5 were successfully shaped, and the median number of sessions required was the same as for a control group trained using conventional shaping. In both experiments, "misbehavior," that is, excessive handling and chewing of the ball bearings, was observed, and when the algorithmic shaping procedure was used, misbehavior could be shown to occur in spite of reduced reinforcement for the responses involved.

Field of study: Biology, Psychology
Subsidence history and continental margin evolution of the Western Pyrenean and Basque Basins

We have studied Cretaceous sedimentary sequences of four sedimentary basins along the European and north Iberian continental margins of the Western Pyrenean realm and the Basque Basin: the Depression Intermediaire, Sare-Vera basin and Ulzama basin in the Western Pyrenees and the Zumaya basin along the southern margin of the Bay of Biscay. The formation of these basins was largely due to Upper Cretaceous sinistral strike-slip tectonics during Iberian plate motion resulting in wrench basins (oblique-slip and pull-apart basins). A detailed biostratigraphic framework and paleobathymetric calculations based on sedimentologic and benthic foraminiferal data were used to construct decompacted and backstripped subsidence history curves for each basin. From these curves two major changes in subsidence history are apparent: (1) increased subsidence since Late Albian and (2) decrease in subsidence and/or initial uplift since Early Campanian. These changes are closely related to plate tectonic events, namely spreading in the Bay of Biscay followed by European-Iberian plate convergence.

Field of study: Environmental science, Geography
The Zeiss-MKM system for frameless image-guided approach in epidural motor cortex stimulation for central neuropathic pain.

OBJECT
Twelve patients (seven female, and five male, mean age 55.6 years) suffering from refractory central (ischemic/traumatic [eight cases]) and neuropathic pain (trigeminal neuropathy [four cases]) underwent surgery for the implantation of an epidural motor cortex stimulation (MCS) device in which the authors used a frameless neuronavigation system, the Zeiss-MKM microscope.



The authors assessed the spatial accuracy of the neuronavigation system and its potential contribution to improve the quality of targeting pain. In these patients, the positions of the central sulcus, defined by stereotactic magnetic resonance MR imaging, intraoperative somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) and subdural visual verification, were correlated into the stereotactic neuronavigation planning procedure. The mean spatial accuracy of distance between (MR) imaging-defined and actual central sulcus was 2.4 mm (range 5-10 mm). The intraoperative SSEPdefined central sulcus was close to that defined by MR imaging (mean distance 6.4 mm). Although very precise, intraoperative SSEP recordings were impaired by artifacts and wave attenuation in six of the 12 patients. Stereotactic correlations between anatomical and functional data in the navigation system corrected final targeting in 10 of 12 cases. Pain relief was obtained in eight patients. Indeed, inappropriate targeting probably explains the reported variable success rate of MCS and certainly underestimates the actual efficacy.



Since intraoperative SSEP monitoring has, for many years, been considered the standard procedure to approach motor target, the development of an accurate stereotactic image guidance system could help to increase the efficacy of MCS on the alleviation of pain. The excellent spatial accuracy provided by the Zeiss-MKM navigation system allows precise data correlations that represent a remarkable means to validate functional MR imaging as an alternative to SSEP. The authors believe that developing stereotactic image guidance with such a navigation system could improve the success rate of MCS.

Field of study: Medicine
The development of marine indicators for coastal zone management

An indicator is essentially a statistic based upon a time trend data set which is relevant to a particular issue of concern. The “added value” of an indicator over a raw data set is that the indicator is presented in a way which represents the broader significance or implications of the data. Indicators tell a story. Indicators could be a useful tool within coastal zone management for purposes of communication and decision making. The National Marine Indicators Working Group has been tasked with developing indicators of marine ecosystem health and sustainable resource use in Canada. The methods, criteria and categories used by the Working Group as a part of Canada’s national set of environmental indicators are presented. A list of marine indicators is outlined along with an example (Pacific herring fishery).

Field of study: Environmental science
Gendered Futures in Higher Education: Critical Perspectives for Change (review)

ity” and “a minimal-element quality assurance model” (p. 239). The philosophy of quality is built on partnerships within and outside the institution, a strong link with teaching and learning, an improvement-centered culture, recognition of diverse missions and individual talents, and the use of multiple indicators and external standards for judging the performance of students and campus services. Bogue and Hall offer a simple quality assurance model that centers first on student performance and attitude indicators at four points in time: upon admission, at the end of the sophomore year, at graduation, and following graduation. A decision focus at the time of admission is to ascertain readiness for college work; at the end of the sophomore year, to ensure mastery of appropriate knowledge and skills; at graduation, to ensure mastery of concepts in the major field; and following graduation, to assess alumni satisfaction with campus programs and services. A second component of the model focuses on the assessment of programs and services, particularly the quality of leadership and support that undergirds them. Unfortunately, the tabular presentation of this second component is difficult to follow, perhaps because at least a page of it was omitted from the text (Table 12.2, which begins on page 248, contains the note that it is “continued,” but the preceding page contains Table 12.1, not the beginning of 12.2). Chapter 12 concludes with a call for a strategic vision of quality that integrates quality assurance practices to further the campus mission, values, and priorities; promotes personnel development; and strengthens community. Of course achievement of this vision requires leadership that is caring and daring. Quality and Accountability is a competent overview of quality assurance practices that scholars and students of higher education will find useful. It is a fitting sequel to The Evidence for Quality.

Field of study: Education
Graphene-filter-mounted tin-oxide-nanowire-transistor for chemical sensor

When attempting to measure the chemical concentration in water using a semiconductor sensor, an abnormal current change occurs when the semiconductor channel is directly exposed to the water containing the chemical substance. To accurately measure the concentration of the chemical substances in the water, it is necessary to cover the semiconductor channel region with a selective filter that allows the chemical vapor to pass through but not the chemical solution and water. In this study, we investigated a method for detecting chemical substances present in water, using a tin oxide (SnO2) nanowire transistor incorporated with a three-dimensional (3D)-graphene-based selective filter with (heptadecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrodecyl)trichlorosilane (HDF-S), which selectively allowed the chemical vapor to pass through, but blocked the liquid chemical and water. When the chemical vapors, such as nitric acid, toluene, and benzene, in water penetrated the 3D-graphene-based selective filter with HDF-S and contacted the SnO2 nanowire channel, the conductivity of the SnO2 nanowire transistor changed according to the chemical concentration. Thus, the SnO2 nanowire transistor used as a chemical sensor was immersed in water containing chemical substances, to determine the chemical concentration accurately.

Field of study: Materials science
Interfacial reaction between multicomponent lead-free solders and Ag, Cu, Ni, and Pd substrates

The interfacial reaction between two prototype multicomponent lead-free solders, Sn-3.4Ag-1Bi-0.7Cu-4In and Sn-3.4Ag-3Bi-0.7Cu-4In (mass%), and Ag, Cu, Ni, and Pd substrates are studied at 250°C and 150°C. The microstructural characterization of the solder bumps is carried out by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive x-ray analysis. Ambient temperature, isotropic elastic properties (bulk, shear, and Young’s moduli and Poisson’s ratio) of these solders along with eutectic Sn-Ag, Sn-Bi, and Sn-Zn solders are measured. The isotropic elastic moduli of multicomponent solders are very similar to the eutectic Sn-Ag solder. The measured solubility of the base metal in liquid solders at 250°C agrees very well with the solubility limits reported in assessed Sn-X (X=Ag, Cu, Ni, Pd) phase diagrams. The measured contact angles were generally less than 15° on Cu and Pd substrates, while they were between 25° and 30° on Ag and Ni substrates. The observed intermediate phases in Ag/solder couples were Ag3Sn after reflow at 250°C and Ag3Sn and ζ (Ag-Sn) after solid-state aging at 150°C. In Cu/solder and Ni/solder couples, the interfacial phases were Cu6Sn5 and (Cu,Ni)6Sn5, respectively. In Pd/solder couples, only PdSn4 after 60-sec reflow, while both PdSn4 and PdSn3 after 300-sec reflow, were observed.

Field of study: Materials science
Reconsideration of the "Attenuation Paradox"--and Some New Paradoxes in Test Validity.

A number of mental-test theorists have called attention to the fact that increasing test reliability beyond an optimal point can actually lead to a decrement in the validity of that test with respect to a criterion. This non-monotonic relation between reliability and validity has been referred to by Loevinger as the “attentuation paradox,” because Spearman’s correction for attenuation leads one to expect that increasing reliability will always increase validity. In this paper a mathematical link between test reliability and test validity is derived which takes into account the correlation between error scores on a test and error scores on a criterion measure the test is designed to predict. It is proved that when the correlation between these two sets of error scores is positive, the non-monotonic relation between test reliability and test validity which has been viewed as a paradox occurs universally.

Field of study: Education
Measurement of the surface profile of a curved optical surface with rotation phase-shifting lateral shear cyclic path optical configuration.

We present a new (to our knowledge) technique for introducing phase shifts between the laterally sheared emergent beam components of a cyclic path optical configuration (CPOC). The phase shifts are introduced by applying a small change in the angle of incidence of the incident beam due to the small angular rotation of the CPOC setup. Phase-shifting interferometry has been applied along with this phase-shifting technique for a CPOC with lateral shear to find the surface slope/profile of curved optical surfaces. Results for a spherical optical surface have been discussed. An optical setup for measurement of the surface profile of toroidal beam line mirrors of synchrotron radiation sources is proposed.

Field of study: Physics
Sizing Response of the Ultra-High Sensitivity Aerosol Size Spectrometer (UHSAS) and Laser Aerosol Spectrometer (LAS) to Changes in Submicron Aerosol Composition and Refractive Index

We evaluate the sensitivity of the size calibrations of two commercially-available, high-resolution optical particle sizers to changes in aerosol composition and complex refractive index (RI). The Droplet Measurement Technologies Ultra-High Sensitivity Aerosol Size Spectrometer (UHSAS) and the TSI, Inc. Laser Aerosol Spectrometer (LAS) are two commonly used instruments for measuring the portion of the aerosol size distribution with diameters larger than nominally 60–90 nm. Both instruments illuminate particles with a laser and relate the single-particle light scattering intensity and count rate measured over a wide range of angles to the size-dependent particle concentration. While the optical block geometry and flow system are similar for each instrument, a significant difference between the two models is the laser wavelength (1054 nm for the UHSAS and 633 nm for the LAS) and intensity (about 100x higher for the UHSAS), which may affect the way each instrument sizes non-spherical or absorbing aerosols. Here, we challenge the UHSAS and LAS with laboratory-generated, mobility-size-classified aerosols of known chemical composition to quantify changes in the optical size response relative to that of ammonium sulphate (RI of 1.52 + 0i at 532 nm) and NIST-traceable polystyrene latex spheres (PSLs with RI of 1.59 + 0i at 589 nm). Aerosol inorganic salt species are chosen to cover the real refractive index range of 1.32 to 1.78, while chosen light-absorbing carbonaceous aerosols include fullerene soot, nigrosine dye, humic acid, and fulvic acid standards. The instrument response is generally in good agreement with the electrical mobility diameter. However, large undersizing deviations are observed for the low-refractive-index fluoride salts and the strongly absorbing nigrosine dye and fullerene soot particles. Polydisperse size distributions for both fresh and aged wildfire smoke aerosols from the recent Fire Influence on Regional to Global Environments Experiment – Air Quality (FIREX-AQ) and the Cloud, Aerosol, and Monsoon Processes Philippines Experiment (CAMP2EX) airborne campaigns show good agreement between both optical sizers and contemporaneous electrical mobility sizing and particle time-of-flight mass spectrometric measurements. We assess the instrument uncertainties by interpolating the laboratory response curves using previously-reported RIs and size distributions for multiple aerosol type classifications. These results suggest that, while the optical sizers may underperform for strongly absorbing laboratory compounds and fresh tailpipe emissions measurements, sampling aerosols within the atmospherically-relevant range of refractive indices are likely to be sized to better than ±10–20 % uncertainty over the submicron aerosol size range when using instruments calibrated with ammonium sulphate.

Field of study: Environmental science
Research on the Selection of Helicopter Patrol Equipment for Overhead Transmission Line at High Altitude

The requirement for models and airborne equipment of helicopter patrol that operate on overhead transmission lines in high altitude areas is quite different from the equipment used in ordinary area. Especially in Yunnan with its complex terrain, the selection of helicopter patrol equipment is particularly crucial considering large difference in relative altitude. Based on the characteristics of Yunnan Power Grid, this paper focuses on the selection of models and airborne equipment of helicopter patrol used in the overhead transmission line operating at altitudes of 2500 meters and above. The suitable equipment for overhead line patrol at high altitude is determined to ensure the safety and quality of operations.

Field of study: Engineering