nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Local Identity and Authority in a Disputed Hinterland: The Pennsyvlania-Maryland Border in the 1730s

I N THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, most English colonists on the North American mainland were uncertain about the physical limits of provincial jurisdiction. Settlers on the frontiers of the British colonies often found themselves on lands claimed by the French, by an Indian tribe, by an adjacent province, or by a neighbor. Overlapping jurisdiction undercut the very foundation of authority and frequently resulted in open violence. For local inhabitants, provincial leaders, agents, and imperial administrators, such conflicts were common, lengthy, and complex. For much of the hundred years prior to the American Revolution, these controversies reflected the dramatic importance colonists attached to the related problems of extending authority, defining territorial limits, and negotiating collective identities. The jurisdictional confusion and violent episodes that punctuated life in the disputed hinterlands of colonial British America also highlighted distinctive provincial and local perspectives on authority. While leaders of adjoining colonies sought to extend formal provincial authority into regions where their claims overlapped, the inhabitants of this hinterland found ethnicity, kinship, and socioeconomic status to be far more important sources of legitimacy for leadership selection and

Field of study: History
Instructions and Reinforcement in the Modification of a Conversion Reaction

The effects of two variables, instructions and social reinforcement, were examined sequentially in a case of a conversion reaction. Reinforcement in the form of praise resulted in an increase in S's ability to walk. When reinforcement was removed, other variables including instructions, expectancy, social reinforcement from other patients, and self-reinforcement may have contributed to unexpected improvements in walking. However, reinstitution of reinforcement led to the most dramatic increases in walking.

Field of study: Psychology
Structure and energy gap of Cd1?xCaxTe and Cd1?yCaySe as a function of Ca2+ incorporation

Single crystals of Cd1?xCaxTe and Cd1?yCaySe ternaries, grown by the Bridgman technique and characterized by microprobe and x-ray techniques, showed the upper limit of x and y to be 0.05. The excitonic energy gap, determined from the derivative signature of free excitons in wavelength modulated reflectivity, shows a linear increase with increasing Ca2+ concentration in both ternary alloys. The near-band gap emissions of donor-bound and of acceptor-bound excitons observed in photoluminescence, investigated as a function of alloy composition, reveal blue shifts of donor-bound excitonic signatures, in good agreement with those observed for free excitons. The Raman spectra of Cd1?xCaxTe reveal the clear presence of CaTe-like LO phonons, confirming that the Ca incorporation has indeed resulted in a ternary Cd1?xCaxTe with a characteristic two-mode behaviour.

Field of study: Materials science
Fluctuations of radio occultation signals in sounding the Earth's atmosphere

We discuss the relationships that link the observed fluctuation
spectra of the amplitude and phase of signals used for the radio occultation
sounding of the Earth's atmosphere, with the spectra of atmospheric
inhomogeneities. Our analysis employs the approximation of the phase screen
and of weak fluctuations. We make our estimates for the following
characteristic inhomogeneity types: (1) the isotropic Kolmogorov turbulence
and (2) the anisotropic saturated internal gravity waves. We obtain the
expressions for the variances of the amplitude and phase fluctuations of
radio occultation signals as well as their estimates for the typical
parameters of inhomogeneity models. From the GPS/MET observations, we
evaluate the spectra of the amplitude and phase fluctuations in the altitude
interval from 4 to 25 km in the middle and polar latitudes. As
indicated by theoretical and experimental estimates, the main contribution
into the radio signal fluctuations comes from the internal gravity waves. The
influence of the Kolmogorov turbulence is negligible. We derive simple
relationships that link the parameters of internal gravity waves and the
statistical characteristics of the radio signal fluctuations. These results
may serve as the basis for the global monitoring of the wave activity in the
stratosphere and upper troposphere.

Field of study: Environmental science
Photodissociation of neutron deficient nuclei

The knowledge of the cross sections for photodissociation reactions like e.g. (γ, n) of neutron deficient nuclei is of crucial interest for network calculations predicting the abundances of the so-called p nuclei. However, only single cross sections have been measured up to now, i.e., one has to rely nearly fully on theoretical predictions. While the cross sections of stable isotopes are accessible by experiments using real photons, the bulk of the involved reactions starts from unstable nuclei. Coulomb dissociation (CD) experiments in inverse kinematics might be a key to expand the experimental database for p-process network calculations. The approach to test the accuracy of the CD method is explained.

Field of study: Physics
From Vecten’s Theorem to Gamow’s Problem: Building an Empirical Classification Model for Sequential Instructional Problems in Geometry

In the current study, I will be presenting a literature review regarding the importance of students building a problem’s representation and the role modeling a real-world problem plays in students’ progressive mathematization. I shall introduce five types of geometrical problems applying the meaning of Linking Visual Active Representations (LVARs). Concrete examples will be presented in the next sections (i.e., Euclid’s proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, Vecten’s theorem, Gamow’s problem). I shall also introduce the meanings of hybrid object and diagram, as well as the meaning of dynamic section in a dynamic geometry environment, through examples. To summarize, I created an empirical classification model of sequential instructional problems in geometry. Its contribution to our knowledge in the area of the didactics of mathematics lies in the fact that this sequence of problems is regarded as a process whereby students develop a sequentially deeper understanding and increasingly more coherent reasoning that raises their van Hiele level.  dynamic section, hybrid object, Euclid “Elements”, Pythagorean Theorem, Vecten’s Theorem, Gamow’s problem, problem-solving.

Field of study: Education
Design and Evaluation of a Yield Monitoring System for Pistachios

Information on the yield of individual trees within an orchard can be used to improve management practices. To achieve this goal, an automated yield monitoring system has been developed that is capable of correctly identifying trees in a commercial orchard and measuring yields of pistachio trees with small errors. Two commercial pistachio catch-frame harvesters were retrofitted and operated at approximately 75% of commercial harvesting field capacity. The system consists of a weighing bucket that measures individual tree yields in the transition between harvested trees. When the subsequent tree is shaken, nuts are weighed, dumped into the harvester's internal conveyor, and an embedded computer automatically records tree identification and yield. A DGPS-based automated row identification system was developed and tested throughout the 2006-2008 seasons. Inside dense orchard canopies, where a DGPS signal cannot be received with reliable accuracy, an algorithm was developed using real-time sensed odometric information to localize trees. System performance was tested in a commercial orchard by measuring yield and location of more than 70,000 trees over a six-year period. Tree identification and yield data were collected and mapped. Calibrations and validations of the weighing system resulted in weighing prediction standard errors of approximately 0.9 kg, while DGPS row identification was 100% accurate in over 480 estimates, and individual tree identification was highly accurate over 70,000 observations. The ability to measure individual tree yield provides previously unattainable information on tree productivity, facilitates precision field management, and enables the investigation of the mechanisms underlying fruit production and alternate bearing. The data recorded by the use of this system have been used in experimental studies to improve the productivity and management of pistachio orchards, investigate alternate bearing behavior, and provide the basis for developing efficient nutrient management protocols.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
Study on Two-level Supply Chain Inventory Management Collaboration Strategies under Carbon Emission Caps

This paper bulids the carbon-emission-based Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) model in the two level supply chain with a supplier and a retailer, and studies the effects of interests of enterprises and supply chain system caused by three different collaboration ways of supply chain considering the carbon emission caps. These three collaboration ways are listed as follow: ①the retailer or supplier is dominant and another is compliant; ②the retailer and supplier have equal status and collaborate with independent carbon emission caps; ③the retailer and supplier have equal status and collaborate with shared carbon emission caps.

Field of study: Engineering
Simultaneous analysis of noble gases, sulfur hexafluoride, and other dissolved gases in water.

We developed an analytical method for the simultaneous measurement of dissolved He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, SF6, N2, and O2 concentrations in a single water sample. The gases are extracted from the water using a head space technique and are transferred into a vacuum system for purification and separation into different fractions using a series of cold traps. Helium is analyzed using a quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS). The remaining gas species are analyzed using a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS) for analysis of Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, N2, and O2 and an electron capture detector (GC-ECD) for SF6 analysis. Standard errors of the gas concentrations are approximately 8% for He and 2-5% for the remaining gas species. The method can be extended to also measure concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Tests of the method in Lake Lucerne (Switzerland) showed that dissolved gas concentrations agree with measurements from other methods and concentrations of air saturated water. In a small artificial pond, we observed systematic gas supersaturations, which seem to be linked to adsorption of solar irradiation in the pond and to water circulation through a gravel bed.

Field of study: Environmental science
Regulation of health-related technologies in Germany.

Against the background of a financial crisis and supposed inefficiencies due to inappropriate use or the use of ineffective technologies in the German health care system, increasing awareness of the role of coverage decisions and the use of health technologies has stimulated interest in the regulation of health technologies. A systematic analysis of the decision processes at the levels of licensing/market admission, coverage by statutory health insurance and steering of diffusion and usage reveals considerable inconsistencies in different health care sectors. With regard to different types of technology, an explicit licensing procedure conforming to international standards is required for drugs and medical devices. Concerning coverage decisions, the ambulatory sector appears to be much more regulated than the in-hospital sector. This applies also to diffusion and usage of technologies. However, steering of usage of health related technologies is generally weak in Germany since only non-binding guidelines are in place.

Field of study: Medicine, Political science
Microbial diversity-productivity relationships in aquatic ecosystems.

Thanks to recent advances in molecular biology, one's knowledge of microbial co-occurrence patterns, microbial biogeography and microbial biodiversity is expanding rapidly. This MiniReview explores microbial diversity-productivity relationships in the light of what is known from the general ecology literature. Analyses of microbial diversity-productivity relationships from 70 natural, experimental, and engineered aquatic ecosystems reveal patterns that are strikingly similar to those that have long been documented for communities of macroorganisms. Microbial ecology and the general science of ecology are thus continuing to converge.

Field of study: Biology, Environmental science
Rough justice in an unjust world

general, one had best hope that Blake is, as quickly as possible, recognised for what it is: the Junior Books Ltd v Veitchi88 of contract remedies. What is more, after taking a rather long time since Wrotham Park to get into its full stride, the entertainment has only just really begun with Blake. For one suspects that 'eff1ciency' may be at work in more areas of contract remedies than the rare situation of a defendant breaching a contract to maximise future gain. What will we do when it is realised that, horror of horrors, the defendant usually breaches a contract in a deliberate attempt to minimise future loss, and that it is the basic function of remedies for breach is to allow this because it also is efficient?

Field of study: Law
Applying Alternative Teaching Methods to Impart a Rounded, Liberal Arts and Sciences (LAS) Education: Students' Reflections on the Role of Magazines as Instructional Tools.

In a constantly and rapidly changing social world, students from all disciplines ought to attain a rounded education within the tradition of a “Liberal Arts and Sciences” (LAS) context. Students outside of the natural sciences must be encouraged to appreciate the place of those sciences in their lives. Conversely, students in the natural sciences must be encouraged to envision the role of other subjects in their lives. In order to accomplish this, however, we need to go beyond basic instructional approaches by applying alternatives such as using magazines and newspapers. This paper reports students’ reflections on the use of newspapers as supplementary instructional materials to enhance learning. Data were collected from an introductory liberal arts physics course using a survey instrument. The survey had five descriptive measures: student perceptions; creativity based on activities learned; ability to link concepts learned in class to articles in the news journal; ability to impart knowledge acquired; and identifying lessons based on a case study of a selected news article from the newspaper. Student reflections indicate that magazines can effect a positive learning experience and stimulate curiosity to read. It is concluded that this approach can be used to enhance student motivation and persistence in introductory classes, particularly in schools where resources are limited.  improvisation, Liberal Arts and Science education, magazines, student reflections.

Field of study: Education
Social Justice is the Only Ethical Population Policy

Science does not have a distinguished record when it comes to assessing population growth. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, there were scholarly treatises depicting child-bearing and child-rearing as burdens, some expressing the fear that people would soon have so few children that the very survival of the human species was at stake. 1 I was reading these scary books, telling me that children are on the wane at the very time that the post-World War II baby boom was beginning, and death rates in many parts of the world were coming down, fueling population growth. But soon some academics spawned a whole new literature and a new fear. The new fear you can guess from the titles of some books published in the late 1960s and early 1970s, such as The Population Bomb; Famine 1975; and World Population Crisis: The United States Response. 2 Once again, academics led the way in yet another of history's ironies: When in 1965 I became a member of a newly formed, heavily endowed, Center for Population Studies at Harvard University, a great deal of money, energy, and scholarship was being generated at the very time when the rate of population growth in the world was beginning to decline.3 Indeed, according to a recent United Nations medium projection, the world's population will stabilize (that is, attain replacement level fertility rates [about 2.1 children per woman] shortly after 2200.4 The crisis orientation to population growth died down from about the late 1970s until more recently. I see some signs of its revival presently. But the push for controlling popUlation growth and government sponsored family planning programs for the purpose of bringing down birth rates has never seriously waned. Academics with this orientation are represented in significant numbers in the American Public Health Association and the Population Association of America; they are also found in foundations, planned parenthood organizations, and the United Nations, particularly its Population Division.

Field of study: Medicine, Philosophy
Trapdoors for Lattices: Simpler, Tighter, Faster, Smaller

We give new methods for generating and using "strong trapdoors" in cryptographic lattices, which are simultaneously simple, efficient, easy to implement (even in parallel), and asymptotically optimal with very small hidden constants. Our methods involve a new kind of trapdoor, and include specialized algorithms for inverting LWE, randomly sampling SIS preimages, and securely delegating trapdoors. These tasks were previously the main bottleneck for a wide range of cryptographic schemes, and our techniques substantially improve upon the prior ones, both in terms of practical performance and quality of the produced outputs. Moreover, the simple structure of the new trapdoor and associated algorithms can be exposed in applications, leading to further simplifications and efficiency improvements. We exemplify the applicability of our methods with new digital signature schemes and CCA-secure encryption schemes, which have better efficiency and security than the previously known lattice-based constructions.

Field of study: Computer science, Mathematics
Exploring Relationships of Trust in ‘Adventure’ Recreation

A central concept in the notion of leisure, and therefore also of recreation, is freedom. In this article we argue that freedom in organised recreation, especially in activities involving some degree of deliberate risk‐taking (i.e. in adventure recreation), is preserved through relationships of trust between recreation organisers and participants. This article seeks to outline the theoretical field of trust and to begin to explore the concept of trust in the context of adventure recreation. A recent criminal conviction in New Zealand has highlighted the issue of trust in recreation and serves as a point of departure for the purposes of exploring conceptualisations of trust and their application to the adventure recreational context. Trust does not appear to have attracted attention in the recreation literature to date, yet it may provide a useful means of negotiating the contested terrain created at the nexus of recreation culture (in particular adventure recreation), recreation management and application of the law.

Field of study: Sociology
Up-regulation of GDNFR-alpha and c-ret mRNA in facial motor neurons following facial nerve injury in the rat.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), a powerful trophic factor for developing, and injured adult motor neurons, has recently been shown to mediate its physiological effects via a multi-component receptor system comprising the GDNFR-alpha binding protein and the c-ret receptor tyrosine kinase. Using in situ hybridization histochemistry this study investigated whether adult motor neurons express mRNAs encoding GDNFR-alpha and c-ret, and explored possible time-dependent changes in these mRNA species following facial nerve resection and crush injury. Levels of mRNA for the signaling component of the GDNF receptor, c-ret, were increased approximately 1.4-fold in the ipsilateral facial nucleus, 1 and 3 days after unilateral facial nerve crush and resection, but returned to contralateral levels by 7-21 days. GDNFR-alpha mRNA was increased from 2 to 3-fold in the facial nucleus at 1 and 3 days after facial nerve crush and to similar, but more sustained (up to 21 days), levels after resection. In contrast, GDNF mRNA was not detectable in normal or injured facial motor neurons. The gradual return of c-ret and GDNFR-alpha mRNAs to control levels 21 days after facial nerve crush, parallels the axonal regeneration process, while nerve damage by resection has more severe consequences compared to nerve crush, reflected by the prolonged time course of increased GDNFR-alpha mRNA, similar to markers such as the NGF-receptor, galanin and GAP-43. These findings confirm the importance of GDNF trophic/signaling systems after nerve injury and suggest the potential for broad biological and therapeutic actions of GDNF or related factors in the CNS, particularly on damaged motor neurons.

Field of study: Biology
Microwave emission due to anisotropic quasiparticle injection into an ErBa/sub 2/Cu/sub 3/O/sub y/ superconductor

We report the observation of microwave emission and the dc measurements on tunnel injection of quasiparticles into a ErBa/sub 2/Cu/sub 3/O/sub y/ (EBCO) thin film using the samples with antenna geometry which are nearly free from the parallel overlapping effect of the injector current and the thin film current. The injector consists of two EBCO/insulator/Au (S/I/N) gate junctions. The samples were fabricated by lift-off photolithography technique. The microwave emission intensity from the junction was measured under the condition of broadband non-resonant matching using a superheterodyne radiometric receiver at frequencies f/sub REC/=36 GHz and 47 GHz. The detected microwave emission power increased nearly linearly with the injection current. The emitted power was greater for the higher receiving frequency. The observed maximum emitted broad band spectrum power at frequency f/sub REC/=47 GHz was about 10 pW for an integrating time of 1 sec. The phenomenon is discussed in terms of the nonequilibrium dynamics together with the ionic nature of oxide superconductor.

Field of study: Physics