nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
A Proactive Restatement of the Law of Effect

Although theoretical accounts of learning exist in abundance few psychologists would doubt the validity of the empirical law of effect. Behavior which produces some reward does come to predominate over behavior that does not. Both the circularity of the law of effect and its teleological implications have been commented upon from time to time and explained away (Mowrer, 1952; Postman, 1947). It is also widely thought that larger rewards are more effective than smaller ones in 'strengthening' the behavior that produces them. However detailed examinations of the function of both primary and secondary reward have pointed to its proactive, rather than its retroactive, effects in consolidating beha~ior .~ Several methods of estimating the strength of a response have been proposed and utilized, but so far there is scant evidence showing how these measures co-vary. Skinner (1938, 1950) has argued for probability of occurrence, or rate of performance, as the most satisfactory gauge of response strength, and it is this measure that is utilized herein. It is understood that the response under discussion is that which produces a reward. The particular topography of that response is not our immediate concern. Consider the following experiment. An human S is instructed that if he presses a key, E say, a light will occasionally come on, and that pressing another key, C, in the presence of the light will activate a counter giving S a score. His task is to obtain as high a score as he can. One hand only can be used and the keys are placed so that they cannot be manipulated simultaneously. Designations E and C refer to effective and consmmatory activity, respectively. That is, a response to key E is effective in producing a reward, and a key C response 'consumes' it. These are analogous to bar pressing and eating in the typical operant experiment. Suppose each response to key E turns on the light, and each depression of key C turns it off and gives S 1 point. Then key E responses may be said to be reinforced 100% of the time.  C responses, being consummatory, are typically ignored, but under the conditions specified the two responses co-vary exactly. Suppose we now increase the amount of reward given for each depression of key E. That is, the light remains on long enough for S to make several responses to key C. Notice that we have given a larger reward for the E response, but that it is the C response that increases in rate. Responses to key E

Field of study: Psychology
The Upper Classes and Their Upper Stories: Architecture and the Aftermath of the Lima Earthquake of 1746

Adrian Pearce, José Ragas, Ricardo Ramírez, Andrés Reséndez, Stuart Schwartz, Krystyna von Henneberg, Kathryn Litherland, and the anonymous HAHR readers for their helpful suggestions. I outlined some of the arguments developed here in “Shaking the Unstable Empire: The Lima, Quito, and Arequipa Earthquakes, 1746, 1783, and 1797,” in Dreadful Visitations: Confronting Natural Catastrophe in the Age of Enlightenment, ed. Alessa Johns (New York: Routledge, 1999), 113– 44. 1. Victor Montero de Aguila, Desolación de la ciudad de Lima, y dilubio del Puerto del Callao (Lima: Imprenta Nueva, 1746), 1. I read Pablo Emilio Perez-Mallaina Bueno’s important book on the earthquake after the completion of this article and was not able to incorporate it. Retrato de una ciudad en crisis: La sociedad limeña ante el movimiento sismico de 1746 (Seville: EEHA-CSIC/Insituto Riva-Agüero, 2001).

Field of study: History
Multivariate Regression of Dummy Variates under Normality Assumptions

The most frequently used practical regression model is that in which it is supposed that the dependent variate is normal for given values of the independent variate. In this paper it is pointed out that another regression model of wide applicability may be furnished by the contrary assumption—that the independent variate is normal for given values of the dependent variate. The particular case where the dependent variate is a vector of dummy variables is explored in detail.

Field of study: Mathematics
Novel solid state vacuum quartz encapsulated growth of p-Terphenyl: the parent High Tc Oraganic Superconductor (HTOS)

We report an easy and versatile route for the synthesis of the parent phase of newest superconducting wonder material i.e. p-Terphenyl. Doped p-terphenyl has recently shown superconductivity with transition temperature as high as 120K. For crystal growth, the commercially available p-Terphenyl powder is pelletized, encapsulated in evacuated (10-4 Torr) quartz tube and subjected to high temperature (260C) melt followed by slow cooling at 5C/hour. Simple temperature controlled heating furnace is used during the process. The obtained crystal is one piece, shiny and plate like. Single crystal surface XRD (X-ray Diffraction) showed unidirectional (00l) lines, indicating that the crystal is grown along c-direction. Powder XRD of the specimen showed that as grown p-Terphenyl is crystallized in monoclinic structure with space group P21/a space group, having lattice parameters a = 8.08(2) A, b = 5.62(5) A and c= 13.58(3) A. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures of the crystal showed clear layered slab like growth without any visible contamination from oxygen. Characteristic reported Raman active modes related to C-C-C bending, C-H bending, C-C stretching and C-H stretching vibrations are seen clearly for the studied p-Terphenyl crystal. The physical properties of crystal are yet underway. The short letter reports an easy and versatile crystal growth method for obtaining quality p-terphenyl. The same growth method may probably be applied to doped p-terphenyl and to subsequently achieve superconductivity to the tune of as high 120K for the newest superconductivity wonder i.e., High Tc Oraganic Superconductor (HTOS).

Field of study: Physics
Design and Implementation of Topic Crawler in the Agricultural Products Supply System

Introduces the working principle of topic crawler and with the function of it, puts forward the design of topic crawler in the agricultural product supply and demand docking system module and analyzes the design and function of each module. Achieves the concrete implementation of the topic Web crawler in the system. When the number of effective post topic in the system is below to a certain threshold,Web crawler can crawl other similar sites and fetch relevant information and establish index at the aim of making the system better rec-ommended to the user and allowing the user obtain useful information.

Field of study: Computer science
Adsorption/Desorption of Copper by a Sandy Soil Amended with Various Rates of Manure, Sewage Sludge, and Incinerated Sewage Sludge

Organic amendments are sometimes applied to agricultural soils to improve the physical, chemical, and microbiological properties of the soils. The organic fractions in these soil amendments also influence metal reaction, particularly the adsorption and desorption of metals, which, in turn, determine the bioavailability of the metals and hence their phytotoxicities. In this study, a Quincy fine sandy (mixed, mesic, Xeric Torripsamments) soil was treated with 0 to 160 g kg−1 rates of either manure, sewage sludge (SS), or incinerated sewage sludge (ISS) and equilibrated in a greenhouse at near field capacity moisture content for 100 days. Following the incubation period, the soil was dried and adsorption of copper (Cu) was evaluated in a batch equilibration study at either 0, 100, 200, or 400 mg L−1 Cu concentrations in a 0.01M CaCl2 solution. The desorption of adsorbed Cu was evaluated by three successive elutions in 0.01M CaCl2. Copper adsorption increased with an increase in manure rates. At the highest rate of manure addition (160 g kg−1 soil), Cu adsorption was two-fold greater than that by the unamended soil at all rates of Cu additions. With increasing rates of Cu additions, the adsorption of Cu decreased from 99.4 to 77.6% of Cu applied to the 160 g kg−1 manure amended soil. The desorption of Cu decreased with an increase in rate of manure amendment. Effects of sewage sludge amendments on Cu adsorption were somewhat similar to those as described for manure additions. Likewise, the desorption of Cu was the least at the high rate of SS addition (160 g kg−1), although at the lower rates there was not a clear indication of the rate effects. In contrast to the above two amendments, the ISS amendment had the least effect on Cu adsorption. At the highest rate of ISS amendment, the Cu adsorption was roughly 50% of that at the similar rate of either manure or SS amendments, across all Cu rates.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
Global analysis of urban surface water supply vulnerability

This study presents a global analysis of urban water supply vulnerability in 71 surface-water supplied cities, with populations exceeding 750 000 and lacking source water diversity. Vulnerability represents the failure of an urban supply-basin to simultaneously meet demands from human, environmental and agricultural users. We assess a baseline (2010) condition and a future scenario (2040) that considers increased demand from urban population growth and projected agricultural demand. We do not account for climate change, which can potentially exacerbate or reduce urban supply vulnerability. In 2010, 35% of large cities are vulnerable as they compete with agricultural users. By 2040, without additional measures 45% of cities are vulnerable due to increased agricultural and urban demands. Of the vulnerable cities in 2040, the majority are river-supplied with mean flows so low (1200 liters per person per day, l/p/d) that the cities experience ‘chronic water scarcity’ (1370 l/p/d). Reservoirs supply the majority of cities facing individual future threats, revealing that constructed storage potentially provides tenuous water security. In 2040, of the 32 vulnerable cities, 14 would reduce their vulnerability via reallocating water by reducing environmental flows, and 16 would similarly benefit by transferring water from irrigated agriculture. Approximately half remain vulnerable under either potential remedy.

Field of study: Environmental science
Growth of First Galaxies: Impacts of Star Formation and Stellar Feedback

We present the results of cosmological hydrodynamic simulations with zoom-in initial conditions, and investigate the formation of the first galaxies and their evolution towards observable galaxies at $z \sim 6$. We focus on three different galaxies which end up in halos with masses $M_{h} = 2.4 \times10^{10}~h^{-1}\; M_{\odot}$ (Halo-10), $1.6 \times10^{11}~h^{-1}\; M_{\odot}$ (Halo-11) and $0.7 \times10^{12}~h^{-1} M_{\odot}$ (Halo-12) at z=6. Our simulations also probe impacts of different sub-grid assumptions, i.e., SF efficiency and cosmic reionization, on SF histories in the first galaxies. We find that star formation occurs intermittently due to supernova (SN) feedback at z > 10, and then it proceeds more smoothly as the halo mass grows at lower redshifts. Galactic disks are destroyed due to SN feedback, while galaxies in simulations with no-feedback or lower SF efficiency models can sustain galactic disk for long periods > 10 Myr. The expulsion of gas at the galactic center also affects the inner dark matter density profile. However, SN feedback does not seem to keep the shallow profile of dark matter for a long period. Our simulated galaxies in Halo-11 and Halo-12 reproduce the star formation rates (SFR) and stellar masses of observed Lyman-$\alpha$ emitters (LAEs) at z = 7-8 fairly well given observational uncertainties. In addition, we investigate the effect of UV background radiation on star formation as an external feedback source, and find that earlier reionization extends the quenching time of star formation due to photo-ionization heating, but does not affect the stellar mass at z=6.

Field of study: Physics
TH‐C‐BRB‐02: Professional — SAM

Currently, a common initiative in many fields is quality improvement. This endeavor is especially prominent in the medical community with concerns on patient safety and reduction of medical errors. As part of its certification oversight, the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) has made QI one of the four sections of its Maintenance of Certification (MOC) process. This is particularly relevant to those medical physicists with time limited ABR certificates or for other ABR Diplomates voluntarily enrolled in the MOC program. One of the key aspects of The ABR expectation for Practice Quality Improvement (PQI), Part IV of the ABR MOC program, is that Diplomates provide evidence of an ongoing program of improvement of practice either as an individual or within the system the individual is employed. For physicists, this may seem somewhat nebulous due to the many duties and responsibilities in the clinical realm. For diagnostic physicists, this may seem even more undefined, especially for consultants. As a beginning dialogue related to PQI, suggestions for projects appropriate for physicists are presented. Another method for fulfillment of the PQI section is participation in society based PQI programs. Such programs are under development within AAPM and details on a program for diagnostic imagingphysicists is presented.  At the conclusion of the presentation, an individual will 1. Gain knowledge of the basic aspects of PQI as pertain to physicists. 2. Learn about examples of projects that would be acceptable for demonstration of PQI for physicists. 3. Learn about the development of a society based program for PQI for diagnostic imagingphysicists within the AAPM.

Field of study: Medicine, Physics
Electroconvulsive shock exposure prevents neuronal apoptosis after kainic acid-evoked status epilepticus.

In the aftermath of prolonged continuous seizure activity (status epilepticus, SE), neuronal cell death occurs in the brain regions through which the seizure propagates. The vulnerability to adrenalectomy-induced apoptotic neuronal death was recently reported to be reduced by prior exposure to repeated daily noninjurious electroconvulsive shock (ECS). The present studies identified apoptosis and apoptosis-associated gene products in the neurodegenerative response to experimentally controlled periods (1 or 2 h) of SE in the rat, and determined whether exposure to ECS can interrupt these apoptotic responses mechanisms. Internucleosomal DNA fragmentation and the presence of apoptotic-like neurons (as assessed by in situ double labeling technique) was detected in hippocampus and rhinal cortex at 24 h after SE. Under these conditions, levels of both mRNA and protein encoded by the 'death promoting' bcl-XS gene were increased in the same brain areas. Pretreatment of animals for 7 days with low intensity (minimal) ECS conferred resistance to SE-evoked neurodegeneration, as assessed histopathologically by silver staining. Associated with this neuroprotective action was a reduction in the incidence of apoptosis-like neuronal morphology and DNA fragmentation, and a prevention of the increase in Bcl-XS protein and mRNA in hippocampus and rhinal cortex. These data suggest that pre-exposure to controlled, brief noninjurious seizures decreases vulnerability to programmed neuronal cell death, that this neuroprotective action occurs upstream from Bcl-XS, and that increases in bcl-XS gene expression may serve as a sensitive indicator of neurodegeneration following SE.

Field of study: Biology
Evidence for lahar-triggering mechanisms in complex stratigraphic sequences: the post-twelfth century eruptive activity of Cotopaxi Volcano, Ecuador

Cotopaxi volcano is situated in the Eastern Cordillera of the Ecuadorian Andes and consists of a symmetric volcanic cone that reaches an altitude of 5,897 m above sea level; it is capped over its upper 1,000 m by a permanent glacier. The volcano has erupted frequently in the past few centuries and, according to the archival records, has produced dozens of lahars by catastrophic snow and ice melting during eruptions. In this work, we present a detailed map and a stratigraphic study of the lahar deposits of the past 800 years in two different topographic settings. A thorough knowledge of the tephrostratigraphy of the explosive activity over the same time period was a first-order pre-requisite for the complete reconstruction and dating of lahar activity and also allowed us to precisely link lahar units to eruptive phases of individual eruptions. Results indicate that, during the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries, high-intensity eruptions (Plinian events or blast-like explosions) produced large debris flows that transported meter-sized boulders. A subsequent period of activity that started in 1742 was characterized by several lahar-generating eruptive episodes that were smaller in scale but with significant variability in size (the 1877 being the smallest and most recent). Analysis of events occurring in the eighteenth century suggests that eruption style affects the volume and energy of the resulting lahars, with different pyroclastic flow types causing different mechanisms of water release from the summit glacier. Lahars produced during this time period were triggered by: (1) dilute pumice and ash-rich radially distributed density currents and (2) column collapse-related radially distributed scoria and lithic-rich pyroclastic-flows. The former produced lahar deposits that are matrix-rich, block-poor, and valley-confined, while the high erosive capacity of the latter produced lahars that are block-rich, highly energetic, and widespread. The youngest (1853 and 1877) lahars were triggered by (3) confined scoria-flow lobes that had less capacity to scour and melt the glacier; resulting flows had lower energy and smaller volumes than lahars produced by eighteenth-century eruptions. We conclude that the dynamics of pyroclastic–density–current can exert a major control on the size and destructive capacity of lahar at ice-capped volcanoes. Moreover, the total extent of the glacier at the moment of eruption, which is commonly considered to exert a major control on lahar formation, may actually be a second-order factor compared with the way in which the eruptive products interact with the glacier.

Field of study: Geology
Unbiased Adaptive Estimations of the Fourth-Order Cumulant for Real Random Zero-Mean Signal

In this paper, a consistent efficient estimator of the fourth-order cumulant for real discrete-time random i.i.d. (at least up to order 8) zero-mean signal is proposed, in both, batch and adaptive versions. In batch version, the proposed estimator is not only consistent, but also unbiased and efficient. The systematical theoretical and experimental studies with comparisons between the proposed estimator and three other estimators of the fourth-order cumulant (the natural or the traditional one, the trivial unbiased estimator for the known power case and the fourth k -statistics), are undertaken, for both, normal and uniform processes. Then, the adaptive versions of the estimators (all, except the fourth k-statistics), are given and studied in detail. The convergence in mean and the convergence in mean square analyses are performed for them, first theoretically, then empirically. Finally, the whole set of analyses carried out for both batch and adaptive versions shows that from many points of view the proposed estimator is interesting for use in versatile signal processing applications, especially in real-time and short-term ones.

Field of study: Engineering
Co-expression Network Analysis of Biomarkers for Adrenocortical Carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignancy with a poor prognosis. And currently, there are no specific diagnostic biomarkers for ACC. In our study, we aimed to screen biomarkers for disease diagnosis, progression and prognosis. We firstly used the microarray data from public database Gene Expression Omnibus database to construct a weighted gene co-expression network, and then to identify gene modules associated with clinical features of ACC. Though this algorithm, a significant module with R2 = 0.64 (P = 9 × 10-5) was identified. Co-expression network and protein–protein interaction network were performed for screen the candidate hub genes. Checked by The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, another independent dataset GSE19750, and GEPIA database, using one-way ANOVA, Pearson’s correlation, survival analysis, diagnostic capacity (ROC curve) and expression level revalidation, a total 12 real hub genes were identified. Gene ontology and KEGG pathway analysis of genes in the significant module revealed that the hub genes are significantly enriched in cell cycle regulation. Moreover, gene set enrichment analysis suggests that the samples with highly expressed hub genes are correlated with cell cycle. Taken together, our integrated analysis has identified 12 hub genes that are associated with the progression and prognosis of ACC; these hub genes might lead to poor outcomes by regulating the cell cycle.

Field of study: Biology
Crystal Instabilities and Elastic Responses of Metals under Extreme Strain Rates.

Despite of some progresses in investigating the roles of the higher-order strain gradients on elastic stabilities of solids, the physical nature on the higher-order elastic instabilities of crystals, especially under extreme strain rates, is still a mystery. In this work, a generalized elastic instability criterion for infinite crystals is consistently established at both continuum and atom level under frameworks of a higher-order phenomenological theory. The established criterion could consistently reproduce the well-known strain-based lattice instability criteria, such as modified Born criterion, {\Lambda}-criterion, as well as a higher-order one proposed by Bardenhagen et al. Our results show that modified Born criterion is not as precise as the {\Lambda}-criterion under heterogeneous stress states. Different from the higher-order criterion, contributions from the third order gradients of displacements are considered so that the well-known sign paradox in the first strain-gradient theory could be reproduced. According to microscopic comprehensions on the higher-order phenomenological theory, the sign paradox is well clarified. Finally, the established criterion is employed to investigate the elastic stabilities of single crystalline copper and aluminum. The obtained results could well explain the singularities of elastic responses of the two metals under ramp compressions.

Field of study: Physics