nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Creole Appointments and the Sale of Audiencia Positions in the Spanish Empire under the Early Bourbons, 1701–1750

Soon after Philip V assumed the Spanish throne in 1700, he began selling appointments of oidor, alcalde del crimen , and fiscal for the American audiencias. By 1750 he and his successor Ferdinand VI had sold about one-fourth of all appointments; the Crown added over 1,000, 000 pesos to the treasury by resorting to this expedient. Primarily through purchasing judicial appointments, numerous creoles (Spaniards born in America) entered these prestigious tribunals.

Field of study: Political science
Baric and temperature dependences for the thermal conductivity of sedimentary rocks

The effective thermal conductivity of secondary rocks (sandstone, dolomite, aleurolite) is studied under high pressures of up to 400 MPa and temperatures of 273–523 K. It is established that the temperature and baric functions of thermal conductivity depend substantially on the degree of crystallization and the mosaicity of rock-forming compounds.

Field of study: Physics
Historical biogeography of the cicadas of Wallacea, new Guinea and the West Pacific: a geotectonic explanation

The present-day distribution patterns of the cicadas of Wallacea, New Guinea, and the West Pacific reflect the extremely complex geotectonic history of that area. The patterns found in two unrelated monophyletic groups of cicadas (Insecta, Homoptera, Cicadoidea), the subtribe Cosmopsaltriaria and the tribe Chlorocystini with its sister tribe Prasiini, are analysed and related to data from the geological literature. The two groups have a comparable distributional range over Sulawesi, Maluku, New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the East-Melanesian archipelagos, to Tonga and Samoa. The occurrence of endemic species, species groups, and genera in congruently delimited parts of this range made us recognize 14 areas of endemism. The areas of endemism coincide with geological entities, which have been isolated during a considerable period of time. Most of the areas originated from oceanic island arcs, which developed as a result of subduction along the southern and western edges of the Pacific tectonic plate, others are rifted microcontinents. Concentrations of species and especially endemic species of the various cicada genera in different areas of endemism suggest that each of these genera evolved in isolation on one of the afore mentioned geological entities. These entities can therefore be regarded as source areas for the genera. The island arc fragmented as a result of collisions first with the Asian- and later with the Australian tectonic plate and several of its parts reamalgamated at the northern craton of the Australian plate, where they now form the greater part of the island of New Guinea. After reamalgamation of the arc fragments the cicadas of the respective genera that had evolved on these fragments could disperse into adjoining areas, but since cicadas are poor dispersers the source areas of the genera can still be recognized in present-day distribution patterns. The generic relationships in the two groups of cicadas under study indicate area relationships that comply with the latest palaeogeographic reconstructions. The main vicariant speciation events in the cicada cladograms correspond with the presumed sequences of fragmentation of the island arc. Cicada phylogeny and distribution combined reflect the historic area relationships rather than the present ones.

Field of study: Environmental science, Geography
Baryon resonances in the strangeness production

We have studied the $N^*(2120)$, $\Delta^*(1940)$, and the possible $\Sigma^*(1380)$ resonances in the $\gamma p \to K^+ \Lambda(1520)$, $pp \to n K^+ \Sigma(1385)$, and $\Lambda p \to \Lambda p \pi^0$ reactions within the resonance model and the effective Lagrangian approach. It is shown that when the contributions from these baryonic states were considered, the current experimental measurement could be well reproduced. In addition, we also demonstrate that the angular distributions provide direct information of these reactions, which could be useful for the investigation of those states and may be tested by future experiments.

Field of study: Physics
A Critique of Planning Models for Postsecondary Education Current Feasibility, Potential Relevance, and a Prospectus for Further Research*

This paper reviews recent research and policy analysis in the area of postsecondary education, concluding that (1) the biases inherent in the prevailing system of research support encourage analytical excesses which obfuscate the inadequacy of existing knowledge; (2) the major historicalforces impinging on the postsecondary education system will create fundamental strains, resulting in a dramatic recasting of important policy issues; (3) in light of these forces and of the knowledge required to deal with the realities of the emerging future, previous research is of very limited relevance; and (4) if previous research is of limited usefulness, then large-scale sectoral models (specifically, the NCHEMS Federal Planning Model and the NCFPE Postsecondary Education Financing Model) which purport to integrate existing knowledge into a coherent characterization of the larger system at best provide only the appearance of rationality to policy action.

Field of study: Education
Alcohol intoxication following muscle contraction in mice decreases muscle protein synthesis but not mTOR signal transduction.

Alcohol (ethanol [EtOH]) intoxication antagonizes stimulation of muscle protein synthesis and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. However, whether the anabolic response can be reversed when alcohol is consumed after the stimulus is unknown.



A single bout of electrically stimulated muscle contractions (10 sets of 6 contractions) was induced in fasted male C57BL/6 mice 2 hours prior to alcohol intoxication. EtOH was injected intraperitoneally (3 g/kg), and the gastrocnemius/plantaris muscle complex was collected 2 hours later from the stimulated and contralateral unstimulated control leg.



Muscle contraction increased protein synthesis 28% in control mice, while EtOH abolished this stimulation-induced increase. Further, EtOH suppressed the rate of synthesis ~75% compared to control muscle irrespective of stimulation. This decrease was associated with impaired protein elongation as EtOH increased the phosphorylation of eEF2 Thr(56) . In contrast, stimulation-induced increases in mTOR protein complex-1 (mTORC1) (S6K1 Thr(421) /Ser(424) , S6K1 Thr(389) , rpS6 Ser(240/244) , and 4E-BP1 Thr(37/46) ) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (JNK Thr(183) /Tyr(185) , p38 Thr(180) /Tyr(182) , and rpS6S(235/236) ) signaling were not reversed by acute EtOH.



These data suggest that EtOH-induced decreases in protein synthesis in fasted mice may be independent of mTORC1 and MAPK signaling following muscle contraction and instead due to the antagonistic actions of EtOH on mRNA translation elongation. Therefore, EtOH suppresses the contraction-induced increase in protein synthesis, and over time has the potential to prevent skeletal muscle hypertrophy induced by repeated muscle contraction.

Field of study: Medicine
MEASUREMENT OF ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY OF INORGANIC PYROPHOSPHATASE FOR PYROPHOSPHATE BY FLOW INJECTION ANALYSIS

A flow injection system was designed for the spectrophotometric measurement of enzymatic hydrolysis of pyrophosphate by inorganic pyrophosphatase (EC 3.6.1.1). Rapid hydrolysis with a very short half-life (2 min) could be easily monitored by the selective detection of orthophosphate using a Mo(VI) reagent.

Field of study: Chemistry
River incision into bedrock: Mechanics and relative efficacy of plucking, abrasion and cavitation

Improved formulation of bedrock erosion laws requires knowledge of the actual processes operative at the bed. We present qualitative field evidence from a wide range of settings that the relative efficacy of the various processes of fluvial erosion (e.g., plucking, abrasion, cavitation, solution) is a strong function of substrate lithology, and that joint spacing, fractures, and bedding planes exert the most direct control. The relative importance of the various processes and the nature of the interplay between them are inferred from detailed observations of the morphology of erosional forms on channel bed and banks, and their spatial distributions. We find that plucking dominates wherever rocks are well jointed on a submeter scale. Hydraulic wedging of small clasts into cracks, bashing and abrasion by bedload, and chemical and physical weathering all contribute to the loosening and removal of joint blocks. In more massive rocks, abrasion by suspended sand appears to be rate limiting in the systems studied here. Concentration of erosion on downstream sides of obstacles and tight coupling between fluid-flow patterns and fine-scale morphology of erosion forms testify to the importance of abrasion by suspended-load, rather than bedload, particles. Mechanical analyses indicate that erosion by suspended-load abrasion is considerably more nonlinear in shear stress than erosion by plucking. In addition, a new analysis indicates that cavitation is more likely to occur in natural systems than previously argued. Cavitation must be considered a viable process in many actively incising bedrock channels and may contribute to the fluting and potholing of massive, unjointed rocks that is otherwise attributed to suspended-load abrasion. Direct field evidence of cavitation erosion is, however, lacking. In terms of the well-known shear-stress (or stream-power) erosion law, erosion by plucking is consistent with a slope exponent ( n ) of ∼2/3 to 1, whereas erosion by suspended-load abrasion is more consistent with a slope exponent of ∼5/3. Given that substrate lithology appears to dictate the dominant erosion process, this finding has important implications for long-term landscape evolution and the models used to study it.

Field of study: Geology
Low rates of treatment in postmenopausal women with a history of low trauma fractures: results of audit in a Fracture Liaison Service.

A past history of low trauma fracture is a strong risk factor for future fractures in postmenopausal women and national guidance recommends treatment in the majority of such women



To establish the prevalence of bone protective therapy use in postmenopausal women with a history of low trauma fracture Design and



Clinical audit of 1641 postmenopausal women presenting with a low trauma fracture to the Fracture Liaison Service at Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge between January 2006 and December 2007.



A total of 526 (31%) women presenting with a fracture had a past history of fracture, defined as a low trauma fracture after the age of 45 years. The wrist was the most common site of previous fracture, followed by hip, hand or foot, lower leg and humerus. Of these women, only 27.6% were receiving bone protective therapy with a bisphosphonate (89%) or other medication. Calcium and vitamin D supplements were received by 35.6%. The highest rates of treatment were seen for spine and hip fracture (61.9 and 49.3%, respectively). Only 45.1% of women aged 75 years and over with a previous history of fracture were receiving bone protective therapy.



The results of our audit demonstrate low rates of treatment in postmenopausal women with a history of low trauma fracture. Better education of healthcare professionals, more consistent recording of fractures in primary care and the use of clearly defined care pathways that involve patients and their carers provide rational approaches to reducing this care gap.

Field of study: Medicine
LOAC: a small aerosol optical counter/sizer for ground-based and balloon measurements of the size distribution and nature of atmospheric particles – Part 2: First results from balloon and unmanned aerial vehicle flights

In the companion (Part I) paper, we have described and evaluated a new versatile optical particle counter/sizer named LOAC (Light Optical Aerosol Counter), based on scattering measurements at angles of 12 and 60 •. That allows for some typology identification of particles (droplets, carbonaceous, salts, and mineral dust) in addition to size-segregated counting in a large diameter range from 0.2 µm up to possibly more than 100 µm depending on sampling conditions (Renard et al., 2016). Its capabilities overpass those of preceding optical particle counters (OPCs) allowing the characterization of all kind of aerosols from submicronic-sized absorbing carbonaceous particles in polluted air to very coarse particles (> 10–20 µm in diameter) in desert dust plumes or fog and clouds. LOAC's light and compact design allows measurements under all kinds of balloons , on-board unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and at Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 3674 J.-B. Renard et al.: LOAC: a counter/sizer for ground-based and balloon measurements – Part 2 ground level. We illustrate here the first LOAC airborne results obtained from a UAV and a variety of scientific balloons. The UAV was deployed in a peri-urban environment near Bordeaux in France. Balloon operations include (i) tethered balloons deployed in urban environments in Vi-enna (Austria) and Paris (France), (ii) pressurized balloons drifting in the lower troposphere over the western Mediter-ranean (during the Chemistry-Aerosol Mediterranean Experiment – ChArMEx campaigns), (iii) meteorological sounding balloons launched in the western Mediterranean region (ChArMEx) and from Aire-sur-l'Adour in southwestern France (VOLTAIRE-LOAC campaign). More focus is put on measurements performed in the Mediterranean during (ChArMEx) and especially during African dust transport events to illustrate the original capability of balloon-borne LOAC to monitor in situ coarse mineral dust particles. In particular, LOAC has detected unexpected large particles in desert sand plumes.

Field of study: Environmental science
Optimization with First-Order Surrogate Functions

In this paper, we study optimization methods consisting of iteratively minimizing surrogates of an objective function. By proposing several algorithmic variants and simple convergence analyses, we make two main contributions. First, we provide a unified viewpoint for several first-order optimization techniques such as accelerated proximal gradient, block coordinate descent, or Frank-Wolfe algorithms. Second, we introduce a new incremental scheme that experimentally matches or outperforms state-of-the-art solvers for large-scale optimization problems typically arising in machine learning.

Field of study: Computer science
Causes for kinetic sudden death of college students and preventive countermeasures

By investigating and analyzing cases of kinetic sudden death of college students occurring in recent years,the authors concluded that major causes for kinetic sudden death of college students are cardiovascular dis-eases,organic abnormity,over fatigue,overload exercise,insufficient physical strength caused by the lack of exer-cising,and special kinetic psychology.According to current development of researches on kinetic sudden death prevention as well as preventive education and monitoring management carried out on groups of people who are highly risky in kinetic sudden death,the authors put forward such preventive countermeasures as early identify groups of students who are highly risky in kinetic sudden death,master special sports health knowledge,pay atten-tion to medical monitoring in the process of physical education teaching,and popularize on-site first aid knowledge.

Field of study: Education
Immunophenotypic analysis of the chronological events of tissue repair in aortic medial dissections.

Acute medial dissection of aorta can occur in the context of a sudden and unexpected death. For medico-legal reasons it is important to estimate as accurately the histological age of dissections. We evaluated the additional value of a systematic application of immunohistochemistry, compared with conventional histology only, in determining chronological steps of injury and repair. Thirty two paraffin embedded specimens of aortic dissection were retrospectively allocated to one of four defined stages: acute (I), subacute (II), early organizing (III) and scarring (IV) using Hematoxylin and Eosin and Elastica van Gieson stained sections. Subsequent immunohistochemically staining was performed with the following markers: (myeloperoxidase (neutrophils), citrullinated-Histone 3 (neutrophil extracellular traps), CD68 (macrophages), CD3 (T-cells), CD31 and CD34 (endothelial cells), and smooth muscle actin. Immune stained sections were scored semi-quantitatively. Histologically, five cases were identified as stage I, 16 as II, 7 as III and 4 as IV. Additional immunostaining for smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells altered the classification in 25% of cases (all in groups II and III). Immunostaining and semi-quantitative grading of involvement of neutrophils, macrophages and NETs also provided specific distribution patterns over the 4 age categories, including unexpected involvement of the peri adventitial fat tissue. In conclusion, it appears that semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry of resident vascular wall cells, inflammatory cells and NETS represents a useful adjunct in detailed histopathological grading of the chronological age of aortic dissections.

Field of study: Biology, Medicine
Nitrogen and phosphorous limitation reduces the effects of land use change on land carbon uptake or emission

We used an Earth System Model that includes both nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) cycling to simulate the impacts of land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) for two representative concentration pathways (RCPs): a reforestation scenario (RCP4.5) and a deforestation scenario (RCP8.5). For each RCP, we performed simulations with and without LULCC using the carbon (C only) mode or including the full C, N and P cycles (CNP). We show, for the first time, that inclusion of N and P cycling reduces both the carbon uptake from reforestation in RCP4.5 and the carbon emission from deforestation in RCP8.5. Specifically, carbon-nutrient interaction reduces carbon uptake in RCP4.5 from 55 Pg C (C only) to 21 Pg C (CNP), or the emissions in RCP8.5 from 72 Pg C (C only) to 56 Pg C (CNP). Most of those reductions result from much weaker responses of net primary production to CO2 fertilization and climate change when carbon-nutrient interaction is taken into account, as compared to C only simulations. Our results highlight the importance of including nutrient-carbon interaction in estimating the carbon benefit from reforestation and carbon loss from deforestation in a future world with higher CO2 and a warmer climate. Because of the stronger nutrient limitation, carbon gain from reforestation in the temperate and boreal regions is much less than the carbon loss from deforestation in the subtropical and tropical regions from 2006 to 2100 for the two RCPs. Therefore protecting the existing subtropical and tropical forests is about twice as effective as planting new forests in the temperate and boreal regions for climate mitigation.

Field of study: Environmental science
An insight into molecular mechanism of endocytosis.

Endocytosis involving pinocytosis, phagocytosis and receptor-mediated pathway is a central process involved in numerous cellular events: receptor recycling, nutrient uptake, transcytosis, antigen processing and presentation, pathogen uptake etc. Traditionally, the process has been studied using uptake kinetics and immunocytochemistry. In last few decades, additional tools, like mutant analysis, density shift, semi-intact and cell-free systems and electromagnetic separation have helped us to obtain molecular insight into many of the steps involved in endocytosis. New chemical entities, like clathrin and coatomer proteins involved in internalization have been fully characterized. Biomolecules involved in vesicle budding and fusion reactions, like ARF (ADP ribosylation factors), COPs (coat proteins), and SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) have been identified and characterized. Compartment specific molecules, like Rab have also added to our understanding of complex process of endocytosis. Collectively these have led us to an era of molecular endocytosis. The present review gives an overview of the process and describes some of the molecular events of the endocytic process. It also describes methods and approaches used in deciphering the events at cellular and molecular levels.

Field of study: Biology, Chemistry, Physics
Advances on the Studies of Physiological and Biochemical Characteristics of Invertase in Higher Plants

In higher plants,invertases play a pivotal role in carbon partitioning among different sink organs,and act as one of the major regulators in the formation of crop yield and fruit quality.This paper summarized the research progress in invertases of higher plants from the aspects of isoforms,primary structures,physio-biochemical characteristics and functions.Focus is devoted to the differential physio-biochemical characteristics and functions between varied invertase isoforms.Also,the latest study of invertases in rubber tree was briefly described.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
Flood extent mapping for Namibia using change detection and thresholding with SAR

A new method for flood detection change detection and thresholding (CDAT) was used with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery to delineate the extent of flooding for the Chobe floodplain in the Caprivi region of Namibia. This region experiences annual seasonal flooding and has seen a recent renewal of severe flooding after a long dry period in the 1990s. Flooding in this area has caused loss of life and livelihoods for the surrounding communities and has caught the attention of disaster relief agencies. There is a need for flood extent mapping techniques that can be used to process images quickly, providing near real-time flooding information to relief agencies. ENVISAT/ASAR and Radarsat-2 images were acquired for several flooding seasons from February 2008 to March 2013. The CDAT method was used to determine flooding from these images and includes the use of image subtraction, decision-based classification with threshold values, and segmentation of SAR images. The total extent of flooding determined for 2009, 2011 and 2012 was about 542 km 2 , 720 km 2 , and 673 km 2 respectively. Pixels determined to be flooded in vegetation were typically <0:5% of the entire scene, with the exception of 2009 where the detection of flooding in vegetation was much greater (almost one third of the total flooded area). The time to maximum flooding for the 2013 flood season was determined to be about 27 days. Landsat water classification was used to compare the results from the new CDAT with SAR method; the results show good spatial agreement with Landsat scenes.

Field of study: Environmental science
In-situ cleaning and passivation of oxidized Cu surfaces by alkanethiols and its application to wire bonding

The treatment of oxidized Cu surfaces using an alkanethiol as a reducing agent has been investigated. Exposure to a dilute solution of 1-decanethiol resulted in the complete removal and/or conversion of CuO and subsequent formation of a passivating thiolate film, a so-called self-assembled monolayer (SAM), on the underlying Cu/Cu2O surface as evidenced by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. Morphological changes, monitored by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), revealed transformation of the rough, porous CuO layer into a comparatively smooth Cu/Cu2O surface. Experiments performed on integrated circuit back-end-of-line (BEOL) die structures, comprising Cu/SiO2 bond pads used as substrates for Cu wire bonding, demonstrate the potential application of a thiol-based in-situ cleaning-passivation procedure in microelectronics.

Field of study: Materials science