nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Opportunities in Time-Domain Extragalactic Astrophysics with the NASA Near-Earth Object Camera (NEOCam)

This White Pape motivates the time domain extragalactic science case for the NASA Near-Earth Object Camera (NEOCam). NEOCam is a NASA Planetary mission whose goal is to discover and characterize asteroids and comets, to assess the hazard to Earth from near-Earth objects, and to study the origin, evolution, and fate of asteroids and comets. NEOCam will, however, cover 68% of the extragalactic sky and as the NEOWISE-R mission has recently proved, infrared information is now vital for identifying and characterizing the $\gtrsim$10 million IR bright Active Galactic Nuclei, as well as using the IR light curve to provide deep insights into accretion disk astrophysics. NEOWISE-R data has also been used to discover Super-luminous Supernovae, dust echos in Tidal Disruption Events and detects all of the known $z\geq7$ quasars (and over 80% of the known $z\geq6.70$ quasars). As such, for relatively little additional cost, adding the capacity for additional NEOCam data processing (and/or alerting) would have a massive scientific and legacy impact on extragalactic time domain science.

Field of study: Physics
Formation of nitrosyl chloride from salt particles in air

The reaction of sodium chloride particles with 0.1-1.5 reacts with sodium chloride to form nitrosyl chloride, a corrosive gas. The reaction is rapid, but surface area dependent. Free energy calculations indicate a favorable free energy change and a large equilibrium constant. This reaction is important in studying the chemical and physical interactions of halide aerosols in atmospheres containing no2. (3 graphs, 17 references)

Field of study: Environmental science
A content-addressable memory architecture for image coding using vector quantization

An architecture suitable for real-time image coding using adaptive vector quantization (VQ) is presented. This architecture is based on the concept of content-addressable memory (CAM), where the data is accessed simultaneously and in parallel on the basis of its content. VQ essentially involves, for each input vector, a search operation to obtain the best match codeword. A speedup results if a CAM-based implementation is used. This speedup, coupled with the gains in execution time for the basic distortion operation, implies that even codebook generation is possible in real time ( >

Field of study: Engineering
How do the x-ray structure and the NMR structure of FMN-binding protein differ?

The crystal structure of FMN-binding protein (FMN-bp) from Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F was solved by the multiple isomorphous replacement method and refined to an R factor of 15.1% at 1.3 A resolution. FMN-bp exists in a dimeric form in the crystal, in contrast to the monomeric structure determined by NMR. R.m.s. deviations between the crystal structure and the solution structure are more than 2 A, which implies significant differences. There are some hydrophobic residues in the interface between the two monomers. In particular, Leu122 in the C-terminus has a close contact with the o-xylene moiety of FMN, while solvent molecules may cover the o-xylene moiety in the solution structure.

Field of study: Chemistry
Noniterative implicit method for tracking particles in mixed Lagrangian-Eulerian formulations

The existing implicit methods for the current initial value problems (IVPs) concerning particle-laden flows are complicated and iterative in nature. This paper presents a noniterative implicit method which can be used with pressure-based as well as with density-based algorithms. The method is illustrated by analyzing a dilute dispersion of noninteracting solid particles in an isothermal flow in a passage bounded by one straight wall and one wavy wall, in which all particles are spherical and have a finite velociy relative to the continuum phase at the inflow boundary.

Field of study: Physics
MAkInG ThE ClIMATE A PArT Of ThE hUMAn WOrlD

Doubts about the scientific evidence for anthropogenic climate change persist among the general public, particularly in North America, despite overwhelming consensus in the scientific community about the human influence on the climate system. The public uncertainty may be rooted in the belief, held by many cultures across the planet, that the climate is not directly influenced by people. The belief in divine control of weather and climate can, in some cases, be traced back to the development of agriculture and the early city-states. Drawing upon evidence from anthropology, theology, and communication studies, this article suggests that in many regions this deeply ingrained belief may limit public acceptance of the evidence for anthropogenic climate change. Successful climate change education and outreach programs should be designed to help overcome perceived conflict between climate science and long-held cultural beliefs, drawing upon lessons from communication and education regarding other potentially di...

Field of study: Environmental science
Ending Corporate Welfare as We Know It: An Institutional Analysis of the Dual Structure of Welfare

In 1996, after years of debate and the accumulation of a vast literature on poverty, economic dependency, and family structure, the U.S. government voted to "end welfare as we know it." The federal government officially withdrew the entitlement to cash assistance and imposed strict time limits on Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), the replacement for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) [Burtless 1997]. Federal regulations require all recipients to work within two years and limit all forms of assistance to 60 months. States are free to impose shorter time limits and more stringent work requirements as they see fit. While government assistance for individuals at both the federal and state levels is clearly in retreat, government assistance for the business sector appears to enjoy broad public support. Under a wide array of programs, the federal government assists business in the form of direct services, cash grants, subsidized credit, as well as through various tax credits and deductions. Plainly, the call to "end welfare as we know it" did not apply to all recipients of government aid. Corporate welfare is estimated to cost the federal government between $170 and $200 billion each year [Collins 1996]. This figure far exceeds the amounts ever budgeted for individual welfare programs. The Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program cost the federal government $11 billion in 1989. Even Medicaid, which benefits primarily the elderly, was budgeted at $30 billion. This is about half the amount lost to the federal government through tax credits and deduc-

Field of study: Economics
Threat status in butterflies and its ecological correlates: how far can we generalize?

It would be very useful for conservation biologists to be able to predict threat status from ecological characteristics of species, and past studies have shown promising results. Regarding one important threat indicator taxon, the butterflies, results from a study on Finnish species by Kotiaho et al. ( 2005), suggested that threatened butterflies on average have narrower niches, more restricted distributions of the larval host plants, poorer dispersal abilities and shorter flight periods. However, this study did not control for phylogenetic relatedness of species. To examine the effects of phylogenetic control, and to see how far it is possible to generalize from specific investigations, we compared the ecological characteristics of threatened and non-threatened butterfly species at two different geographical scales: Sweden and Europe. Our results illustrate the difficulties of generalizing between sites, geographical scales, scoring methods, and phylogenetic versus non-phylogenetic analyses. Controlling for phylogeny is shown to be essential. The most robust result is that threatened species have narrower habitat ranges at the local scale.

Field of study: Environmental science
H∞ control for Poisson-driven stochastic systems

The paper aims to investigate the H ∞ control problem for systems perturbed by jump random noise, i.e., Poisson-driven stochastic systems (SSs). Firstly, this paper uses the Doob-Meyer decomposition and measure theory to give a model transformation method, and Poisson-driven SSs, which are SSs driven by semi-martingale, are transformed into SSs driven by compensated Poisson process. Since SSs driven by compensated Poisson process are SSs driven by martingale, we can use effective properties and tools in martingale theory to investigate the H ∞ control problem. Secondly, this paper utilizes martingale theory to deal with the jump item and the sum of stochastic integrals (SIs) with respect to (w.r.t.) the continuous part of states in Ito formula, and then gives an equivalent Ito formula for SDEs driven by compensated Poisson process. Thirdly, on the basis of these, this paper presents a simple H ∞ controller design method. Furthermore, the design criterion contains information about the average number of jump random events in a unit time, and one can utilize convex optimization algorithm to estimate the maximum average number of jump random events in a unit time, which the closed-loop system can tolerate to achieve the stability and H ∞ performance. Finally, the usefulness of the design result is verified by two numerical examples.

Field of study: Mathematics
A hybrid model for correlating alerts of known and unknown attack scenarios and updating attack graphs

Managing and analyzing a huge number of low-level alerts is very difficult and exhausting for network administrators. Alert correlation methods have been proposed to decrease the number of alerts and make them more intelligible. Proposed methods for alert correlation are different in terms of their performance, accuracy and adaptivity. We present a new hybrid model not only to correlate alerts as accurately and efficiently as possible but also to be able to boost the model in the course of time. The model presented in this paper consists of two parts: (1) an attack graph-based method to correlate alerts raised for known attacks and hypothesize missed alerts and (2) a similarity-based method to correlate alerts raised for unknown attacks which can not be correlated using the first part and also to update the attack graph. These two parts cooperate with each other such that if the first part could not correlate a new alert, the second part is applied. We propose two different methods for these two parts. In order to update the attack graph, we present a technique (using the similarity-based method in the second part of the model) which is actually the most salient feature of our model: capability of hypothesizing missed exploits and discovering defects in pre and post conditions of known exploits in attack graphs. We also propose an additional method named alerts bisimulation for compressing graphs of correlated alerts. The results of experiments on DARPA2000 clearly show the model can accurately correlate alerts. Also the ability of updating attack graphs is illustrated using an experiment.

Field of study: Computer science
Linking Civil Society and the State: Urban Popular Movements, the Left, and Local Government in Peru, 1980-1992 (review)

ing reading. In many ways, the heart of Pallares' book is found in chapters four and five, where she examines two different ways that Indians in specific areas began to mobilize politically. In the Cotacachi area (Imbabura province), Indians began to contest municipal elections in the 1970s. They did so through electoral alliances with existing political parties and the adoption of a peasantist rhetoric that emphasized the problems of the rural poor rather than of Indians as such. Indians themselves have been directly represented in the municipal council continuously since 1979, and it was here that Ecuador's first Indian mayor was elected. In contrast, in Cacha (Chimborazo province), a rather different political goal was pursued: full administrative autonomy from the local mestizo town. This process involved a prior struggle to free Indians from exploitation by local mestizo merchants and moneylenders, exercised through the fiesta system. Political autonomy was achieved in 1980 when Cacha was declared an independent parroquia and an indigenous teniente politico was named, who took on local policing and civil registry duties, as well as promoting community forms of justice.

Field of study: History
Graphene Oxide Topical Administration: Skin Permeability Studies

Nanostructured carriers have been widely used in pharmaceutical formulations for dermatological treatment. They offer targeted drug delivery, sustained release, improved biostability, and low toxicity, usually presenting advantages over conventional formulations. Due to its large surface area, small size and photothermal properties, graphene oxide (GO) has the potential to be used for such applications. Nanographene oxide (GOn) presented average sizes of 197.6 ± 11.8 nm, and a surface charge of -39.4 ± 1.8 mV, being stable in water for over 6 months. 55.5 % of the mass of GOn dispersion (at a concentration of 1 mg mL-1) permeated the skin after 6 h of exposure. GOn dispersions have been shown to absorb near-infrared radiation, reaching temperatures up to 45.7 °C, within mild photothermal therapy temperature range. Furthermore, GOn in amounts superior to those which could permeate the skin were shown not to affect human skin fibroblasts (HFF-1) morphology or viability, after 24 h of incubation. Due to its large size, no skin permeation was observed for graphite particles in aqueous dispersions stabilized with Pluronic P-123 (Gt-P-123). Altogether, for the first time, GOn potential as a topic administration agent and for delivery of photothermal therapy has been demonstrated.

Field of study: Materials science
Opaque Oxides and Sulphides in Common Igneous Rocks

The distribution, and occurrence, of sulphides and opaque oxides as normal accessory minerals or minor constituents in the common igneous rocks has received little detailed attention, although the subject has an important bearing on both petrogenesis and ore genesis. Variations in the species of sulphide and oxide minerals, in their contained metals, and in their different positions in the crystallization sequence of the rock silicates are present and should have a significant bearing on the time and manner of possible metal departure from a magmatic source. The correlation of these variations with different rock types and rock occurrence has given some interesting and unexpected results. Normal igneous rocks, with a considerable range in composition and texture and from many widely scattered localities, were studied in polished sections, supplemented, in a few cases, by thin-section study. The study was intended to outline and generally survey the field rather than to . . .

Field of study: Geology
$\tau$-tilting theory in abelian categories

Let $\mathcal A$ be a Hom-finite abelian category with enough projectives. In this note, we show that any covariantly finite $\tau$-rigid subcategory is contained in a support $\tau$-tilting subcategory. We also show that support $\tau$-tilting subcategories are in bijection with certain finitely generated torsion classes. Some applications of our main results are also given.

Field of study: Mathematics
Untersuchungen über Polyfructosane, LXVII. Über die durch Azotobacter chroococcum aus Saccharose gebildeten Oligo‐ und Polysaccharide

Nach Schlubach und Berndt2) sind die durch Einwirkung von Bacillus mesentericus auf Saccharose gebildeten Oligo- und Polysaccharide von denjenigen der Graser verschieden. Es wurde gefunden, das dies auch bei den durch Einwirkung von Azotobacter chroococcum auf Saccharose gebildeten Kohlenhydraten der Fall ist.

Field of study: Chemistry
A "carbonizing dragon": China's fast growing CO2 emissions revisited.

China's annual CO(2) emissions grew by around 4 billion tonnes between 1992 and 2007. More than 70% of this increase occurred between 2002 and 2007. While growing export demand contributed more than 50% to the CO(2) emission growth between 2002 and 2005, capital investments have been responsible for 61% of emission growth in China between 2005 and 2007. We use structural decomposition analysis to identify the drivers for China's emission growth between 1992 and 2007, with special focus on the period 2002 to 2007 when growth was most rapid. In contrast to previous analysis, we find that efficiency improvements have largely offset additional CO(2) emissions from increased final consumption between 2002 and 2007. The strong increases in emissions growth between 2002 and 2007 are instead explained by structural change in China's economy, which has newly emerged as the third major emission driver. This structural change is mainly the result of capital investments, in particular, the growing prominence of construction services and their carbon intensive supply chain. By closing the model for capital investment, we can now show that the majority of emissions embodied in capital investment are utilized for domestic household and government consumption (35-49% and 19-36%, respectively) with smaller amounts for the production of exports (21-31%). Urbanization and the associated changes in lifestyle are shown to be more important than other socio-demographic drivers like the decreasing household size or growing population. We argue that mitigation efforts will depend on the future development of these key drivers, particularly capital investments which dictate future mitigation costs.

Field of study: Environmental science
The Curious Case of Ethiopic Chaldean: Fraud, Philology, and Cultural (Mis)Understanding in European Conceptions of Ethiopia

An intriguing mystery in early modern intellectual history is how and why European scholars came to designate Ethiopic, the sacred language of Ethiopia, as Chaldean. This article locates the designation’s origins in a deduction made by Vatican library personnel, partially inspired by a hoax perpetrated a quarter-century earlier. It then traces the influence of this designation on the progress of historical linguistics, where theories defending the appellation of Ethiopic as Chaldean, although often erroneous, nevertheless contributed to the accurate categorization of Ethiopic as a Semitic language, and on attitudes to Ethiopian Christianity that played a role in Catholic-Protestant polemic.

Field of study: History
The extended net fractional depth dose: Correction for inhomogeneities, including effects of electron transport in photon beam dose calculation

The extended net fractional depth dose (ENFD) is developed from the net fractional depth dose (NFD) previously described for unit‐density media, basically by scaling the two geometric parameters, the side of the equivalent square field, and the depth along the ray by the relative electron density. Specifically, in the analytical description for the NFD, the geometric depth is replaced by the radiologic depth and, along the ray path, the geometric field side is scaled by the relative electron density. Interface effects on the electron and scattered‐photon fluences are accounted for. In addition, a simple function is developed to correct for the effect of lateral as well as longitudinal electron transport at the central ray. In the present work the inhomogeneities are assumed to be of planar parallel shape and to extend across the entire beam. The treatment of smaller inhomogeneities is outlined but will be treated in detail separately. Calculated results are compared to measured and calculated data from the literature for 6 0Co and 10‐MV x rays, and to 15‐MV data measured at the NCI.

Field of study: Medicine, Physics
“Leakage from the Pipeline” or “Challenges of Doctoral Education”——Rethinking Chinese Doctoral Education in the Perspective of Doctoral Graduates Career Paths

As the number of doctoral graduates has outpaced the availability of academic positions,an increasing number of doctoral graduates have pursued paths outside of academia.Doctoral graduates' pathways of career have become more and more diversity.The transformation of knowledge production mode is the deep reason of the phenomenon.The traditional doctoral cultivation mode could not met the demand of doctoral graduates' diversity career.As the supply side and demand side on the labor market,university and employer have contradiction on quality standard of PhD.The reform of doctoral cultivation should balance the demand between supply side and demand side.Doctoral education should link doctoral training and their careers,cooperation with enterprises and though interdisciplinary.

Field of study: Education
Spin-driven electrical power generation at room temperature

On-going research is exploring novel energy concepts ranging from classical to quantum thermodynamics. Ferromagnets carry substantial built-in energy due to ordered electron spins. Here, we propose to generate electrical power at room temperature by utilizing this magnetic energy to harvest thermal fluctuations on paramagnetic centers using spintronics. Our spin engine rectifies current fluctuations across the paramagnetic centers’ spin states by utilizing so-called ‘spinterfaces’ with high spin polarization. Analytical and ab-initio theories suggest that experimental data at room temperature from a single MgO magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) be linked to this spin engine. Device downscaling, other spintronic solutions to select a transport spin channel, and dual oxide/organic materials tracks to introduce paramagnetic centers into the tunnel barrier, widen opportunities for routine device reproduction. At present MgO MTJ densities in next-generation memories, this spin engine could lead to ‘always-on’ areal power densities that are highly competitive relative to other energy harvesting strategies.Finding novel ways of harvesting energy is of fundamental importance in an energy-hungry world. The authors propose a “spin engine” with the potential experimental ability to generate electrical power at room temperature by harvesting the thermal energy of paramagnetic centers using spintronics.

Field of study: Physics
On Countervailing Incentives

This paper extends and unifies previous work on optimal contracts under countervailing incentives, shedding light in particular on the relation between countervailing incentives and pooling ("inflexible rules"). Our main result is that the nature of the optimal contract depends crucially on whether the agent′s utility is quasiconcave or quasiconvex in the private parameter: the optimal contract is separated in the former case and it may entail pooling in the latter case. Journal of Economic Literature Classification Number: D82.

Field of study: Economics