nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Racial Differences in Political Orientations: Identification Vs. Alienation

Davies (1969) has used the Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, and Sears (1939) frustrationagression hypothesis to argue that the likelihood of revolution increases when there is a sudden increase in the gap between expectations and actual payoffs (particularly economic). Feierabend, Feierabend, and Nesvold (1969) obtained cross national data that supported this formulation since increasing education coupled with lack of increase in income was associated with higher internal instability. Gurr (1969, 1972) also found support for this formulation using cross national data, but Snyder and Tilly’s (1972) analyses of events occurring within France over a 130-year period did not support the Davies hypothesis. Levy (1970) utilized a national sample of adults in the U. S., instead of macro data, and found that systemic punishment (i.e., objective devremental payoffs within institutional settings, such as lower education, low income, etc.) was positively related to support for governmental authority rather than to increased hostility. Further, systemic punsihment was positively related to authoritarianism (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950; Rokeach, 1960) and both were cumulatively related to support for governmental authority (Levy-. 1971). However, although blacks were, on the average, more systemically punished than whites, they were more antogonistic to the government when it was described as acting unjustly. Within racial subgroups, however, the relationships among the variables were similar. It was hypothesized that when symbols for identification are lacking and the cost of identification with authority is too great (e.g., identification leads to continuing punishment), withdrawal occurs which precedes identification with militant leaders opposed to quthority. Data from residents of Detroit after the 1967 riot were consistent with the hypothesis (levy, 1971). This conceptualization is also consistent with arguments and supporting evidence offered by Crawford and Naditch (1970) and Paige (1970) based upon data collected within the riot period of the 1960’s. To test the possibility that there is a long-term difference in political orientation between blacks and whites and to test Levy’s finding of greater black political .alienation it was hypothesized that: 1. Blacks would indicate less legitimacy of the government, less attachment to national symbols and less support for the use of institutional force and police force. 2. Based upon the hypothesis that systemic punishment leads to cognitive rigidity and identification with leaders, blacks would show less tolerance for complexity and there would be a smaller racial difference in ideological commitment when that commitment was not associated with dominant societal institutions. 3. Finally, if the alienation of blacks is due to particular experiences-not shared by whites, the differences between the racial subgroups will not be completely accounted for by common factors such as education, income, and age.

Field of study: Psychology
The changes of structure and system of Chinese mass higher education

In the course of Chinese mass higher education,the structures and systems of higher education have been changing greatly.And the changes affect the way of Chinese mass higher education in reverse.Giving studies to the changes is helpful to construct relevant structures and systems of Chinese mass higher education.According to the logic relations,the paper probes the changes according to three items: the realities base and guiding thoughts of the changes of structure and system of Chinese mass higher education;the transformations of structures and systems in the course of Chinese mass higher education;some important issues of the changes of structure and system of Chinese mass higher education.

Field of study: Education
Echolocating bats perceive natural-size targets as a unitary class using micro-spectral ripples in echoes.

Echolocating big brown bats emit frequency-modulated (FM) sounds covering ultrasonic frequencies in two harmonic sweeps (FM1 from 50-60 kHz sweeping down to 20-25 kHz, FM2 from 100-110 kHz sweeping down to 45 kHz). Using a complex interplay of acoustic cues, the bats perceive object distance from echo delay and object shape from echo spectra. Typical natural targets-flying insects-return discrete reflections, called glints, from prominent body parts (e.g., head, wings). Insect sizes are mostly 0.5 cm to about 3.5 cm, corresponding to reflected time separations of 30 to 210 μs. When closely spaced reflections overlap, they interfere to create a characteristic echo spectrum containing repetitive peaks and nulls. Time spacing of these glints (Δt) is transposed into spectral ripples at frequency intervals (Δf = 1/Δt) from about 30 kHz down to 5 kHz. The bat's perception of rippled echoes as a distinct class was tested in two-alternative forced-choice discrimination experiments with a standard stimulus of 100 μs glint separation (10 kHz ripples), in the middle of natural ripple separations (30 kHz to 5 kHz). Stimuli were electronically generated virtual targets with simulated 2-glint sizes from smaller than 0.5 cm to larger than 3.5 cm. Bats perceived insect-sized virtual objects (glint delays of 36-300 μs) as similar to the 100-μs standard, while smaller or larger virtual objects were perceived as not similar. Insect-sized echoes contained a pattern of microscale spectral ripples that stood apart from the coarser, macroscale spectral features of smaller objects or the temporally separate reflections of larger objects.

Field of study: Biology, Psychology
The Corporate Opportunity Doctrine and Impossibility Arguments

This article considers whether English law should allow a director to argue that if the company is unable to exploit a corporate opportunity, the director should be free to exploit it personally. The article supports the view of the Company Law Review Steering Group that the answer should remain no. In so doing it analyses US practice to show that, even where such arguments are recognised, they are difficult to prove and their potential application is curtailed through the development of satellite rules. Indeed, in practical terms there may be no significant difference between the Steering Group's recommendations and the position towards which US law appears to be moving.

Field of study: Law
Paleosols spanning the Cretaceous-Paleogene transition, eastern Montana and western North Dakota

Paleosols occur in exposures of the latest Cretaceous Hell Creek and Paleocene Tullock (= Ludlow) Formations in Montana and western North Dakota. These units are composed mainly of interbedded siltstones and sandstones of meandering fluvial origin. The paleosols indicate that changes in ancient soil development occurred concomitantly with the better-known faunal transition. In order of decreasing abundance, silty soils, sandy soils, organic soils, and volcanic soils are preserved. Pedogenic features present in these soils include roots, microscopic segregations of amorphous material, birefringence fabric, and soil structures. The features suggest that throughout the Cretaceous-Paleogene transition pedogenic processes in the region produced immature profiles, an observation consistent with the unstable, fluvial setting in which the ancient soils formed. Gleization was a dominant process in this setting, and podzolization modified some sandy soils. The association of the features enables recognition of O, A/E, Btg, Bhs, Bg, BC, Cg, and C horizons. During middle Hell Creek time, soils formed in a poorly drained setting that was only stable enough to permit incipient pedogenesis. The bulk of the pedogenesis occurred in levee and flood-plain deposits; soils also occurred on point-bar and crevasse-splay deposits. In topographically depressed regions, organic accumulations formed with minimal soil development. Matted plant debris is the product of this environment. Gley features and segregations of iron oxides around voids suggest fluctuation of the water table. By latest Hell Creek time, the mean level of the water table rose, and in the lowest Tullock (Ludlow) exposures, extensive ponded deposits are preserved. Vegetation accumulated at a rate sufficient for coal formation. The amount of fluctuation apparently was reduced, and pedogenesis was further inhibited, as indicated by the virtual absence of illuviated clays in the sediments.

Field of study: Geology
The Role of the medical profession and its support system in the promotion of peace and the prevention of nuclear war

In this article the author describes the present development of the war machine, and its actual and potential impact on medicine. The effects of nuclear explosion are briefly discussed and the possible roles of the medical profession is brought forth in facing the current global political situation. The ethical and moral foundation of medicine is emphasized in carrying out the professional social responsibility to preserve the comprehensive health of mankind.  prevention of nuclear war - peace studies - medical polemology - medical effects of nuclear explosion - war medicine

Field of study: Medicine
Habitat selection and population trends in terrestrial bird species of Robinson Crusoe Island: habitat generalists versus forest specialists

Habitat loss and degradation on oceanic islands are key processes leading to population decline of endemic birds and facilitating the establishment of invasive bird species. In this study, carried out in the Robinson Crusoe Island, we assessed density and habitat selection of terrestrial bird species, including juan fernandez firecrown and juan fernandez tit-tyrant, two endemics, as well as green-backed firecrown and austral thrush, which apparently originate from the mainland. Results show that perturbed habitats contained a low density of the endemic species whereas the mainland species were significantly more abundant in perturbed scrub habitats. Bird species show different habitat selection patterns, with endemics selecting for native forest and mainland species selecting for perturbed habitats, or using them at random. Bird species experienced temporal trends in their overall population sizes, with the endemic tit-tyrant suffering a significant decline in its population size of about 63% between 1994 and 2009. Only mainland species exhibited temporal changes in habitat use, significantly reducing their densities in the preferred scrub habitats, possibly as a response to decreased habitat quality. Thrushes apparently were able to compensate the population decrease in one non native habitat type by using native forests, a habitat giving them the opportunity of preying on nests of endemic species. We conclude that endemic bird species behave as specialists whereas the mainland species must be treated as invasive generalists on Robinson Crusoe Island.

Field of study: Environmental science
Enter the O zone : processing

Yeast, unwanted mould and microbial activity are problems for any dairy producer. Processing spaces within the factory environment are a primary link in the product security chain during which the product is exposed to air and surfaces, which can affect the product's marketability and shelf life. It is important to keep unwanted microbial activity in these spaces to a minimum. Activated oxygen or ozone is an effective alternative treatment to chemical sanitisers and is often the only legal method of controlling airborne growth.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
Some Paradoxes In the Support of Predominantly Black Colleges.

The support of higher education by private philanthropy has long been an important part of the American tradition. Many of our leading private colleges and universities are maintained in very large part by the gifts of individuals, corporations, foundations, and churches. Many public educational institutions also receive significant portions of their current and capital needs from sources other than government. These facts are common knowledge. However, at least one significant aspect of this private support of higher education has received less attention than it deserves. Predominantly black colleges, both public and private, depend to a much greater extent upon private philanthropy than their white counterparts. A predominantly black college is defined as one where more than So percent of the student body is black.

Field of study: Education
The neonatal injury-induced spinal learning deficit in adult rats: central mechanisms.

Previous research has shown that small injuries early in development can alter adult pain reactivity and processing of stimuli presented to the side of injury. However, the mechanisms involved and extent of altered adult spinal function following neonatal injury remain unclear. The present experiments were designed to 1) determine whether the effects of neonatal injury affect processing contralateral to the injury and 2) evaluate the role of cells expressing the NK1 receptor, shown to be involved in central sensitization in adults, in the negative effects of neonatal injury. The present findings indicate that the effects of neonatal injury are primarily isolated to the injured hind limb and do not result in a bilateral alteration in adult spinal function. In addition, the effects of neonatal injury appear to be partially dependent on cells expressing the NK1 receptor as ablating these cells at the time of injury or in adulthood results in attenuation of the neonatal injury-induced spinal learning deficit.

Field of study: Biology, Psychology
Robust authentication for automotive control networks through covert channels

Automotive control networks offer little resistance against security threats that come with the long-range connectivity in modern cars. Remote attacks that undermine the safety of vehicles have been shown to be practical. A range of security mechanisms have been proposed to harden resource-constrained embedded microcontrollers against malicious interference, including cryptographic protocols that establish the authenticity of in-vehicle message exchange. However, authenticated communication comes with repercussions on deployability and vehicle safety in terms of reliability, real-time compliance, backwards compatibility, and bandwidth and resource use. In this article we investigate benign, defencive uses of covert channels to implement and support vehicular message authentication mechanisms as a transparent, resource-conserving approach to automotive network security. We provide the first comprehensive evaluation of covert channels in Controller Area Networks (CAN) with respect to the attainable bandwidth and reliability of covert communication. Our analysis identifies timing-based covert channels as candidates to design a complementary nonce synchronisation channel that can enhance robustness against message loss in existing authentication schemes. We practically implement and evaluate this design on top of an open-source authenticated CAN communication library, showing that covert timing channels can improve communication robustness in benign circumstances, while not reducing the security guarantees of the underlying authentication primitives when under attack.

Field of study: Computer science
Late-glacial stratigraphy and history of the Gulf of St. Lawrence: Discussion

The cruise of the C.S.S. Hudson in 1990 was a memorable introduction to marine geoscience and North Atlantic storms. Land- and sea-based geologists were thrown together to link land and sea sedimentary records and get a better understanding of the complex glaciation of Atlantic Canada.

Atlantic Canada is an amalgam of distinctive tectonic terranes, where lithic markers can be used to reconstruct glacial flow patterns (e.g., Stea and Pe-Piper 1999). Provenance analysis can also help to establish correlations between terrestrial and marine stratigraphic records. Once offshore ice margins and onshore flow lines are linked up, former Pleistocene glaciers can be modelled. Stea et al. (1998) used these methods to develop an ice advance and retreat history of Maritime Canada. The Gulf of St. Lawrence region was a critical area for the reconstruction, and little data was available. Josenhans and Lehman (1999) have made a significant advance in the understanding of the marine record to complete the link with the terrestrial records in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

While on the cruise, I logged piston cores and examined the lithologies of large (1t) IKU grab samples from the till units in the Gulf of St. Lawrence that were mapped using high-resolution seismic data (Stea 1991). Much of that lithic data was not presented in the summary paper by Josenhans and Lehman (1999), which is unfortunate because of its important ramifications for ice reconstructions. The lithic data and terrestrial radiocarbon dates from the surrounding land areas imply a much greater thickness and extent of late-glacial ice than in the model presented by Josenhans and Lehman (1999). I will briefly review the pebble lithological results, addressing the questions of ice-flow paths and ice thickness, then discuss contradictions between the Josenhans–Lehman model of deglaciation of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Stea et …

Field of study: Environmental science
MO‐D‐BRB‐07: Retrospective RapidArc Dose Reconstruction Based On MLC Dynamic and Delivery Log Files Recorded During Treatment

To develop a methodology for retrospectively reconstructing the dose delivered to head‐and‐neck (HN) patients in RapidArc treatment based on dynamic log‐files which record the actual leaf positions, gantry angles, and delivered monitor units (MUs) during the RapidArc delivery.  After a RapidArc treatment was finished, two dynamic log‐files were retrieved from the linear accelerator: (1) MLC log‐file which recorded the actual leaf positions and respective gantry angles every 50 ms and (2) delivery log‐file which recorded the actual delivered MUs and gantry angles at the control points defined in the RapidArc plan. Through the common parameter of gantry angle recorded for both dynamic log files, the actual delivery status such as leaf positions, delivered dose indices, and gantry angles for every control points were re‐constituted. This data was compiled and converted into a DICOM radiotherapy plan (RP) file using in‐house developed software written in MatLab code (Mathworks, Natick, MA). The DICOM RP file was then imported into Eclipse treatment planning system (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, CA) and the actual delivered dose was reconstructed on the on‐treatment CBCT acquired for the patient.  A retrospective dose reconstruction procedure has been established for RapidArc and applied to a phantom and two dummy HN cases. For the case in which the tumor shrinkage is minimal, the reconstructed and planned doses were consistent to within 3–5% in high dose region. The DVHs of the target and other organs do not have significant differences. However, large dosimetric changes (10–15%) were observed for the case with tumor shrinkage, indicating the need for re‐planning or adaptive measure to be taken.  RapidArc dose reconstruction provides a pragmatic way to probe the actual dose delivery at a particular fraction and represents an indispensable step toward adaptive radiotherapy for this highly conformal treatment.

Field of study: Medicine, Physics
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FAILURE BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURES BY DISCRETE ELEMENT METHOD

Discrete element method has been an effective approach for simulating damage process of structures. A rectangular discrete element model is extended by applying nodal element and considering the non-linearity of concrete material in this paper. The failure criterion, formula and determination of analytical parameters such as spring modulus of the extended model are presented. The computational efficiency of the extended model is improved by applying double listing technique in the program. The collapse process of reinforced concrete frame due to explosion is simulated. Results show that the extended discrete element method achieves good simulation of collapse process of reinforced concrete frame structures.

Field of study: Engineering
Unexpected Tethering in the Synthesis of Methyl‐Substituted Acetyl‐1‐oxaspiro[4.5]­decanes: Novel Woody–Ambery Odorants with Improved Bioavailability (Eur. J. Org. Chem. 2/2008)

The cover picture shows the X-ray crystal structure of a spirocyclic analog of the woody-ambery odorant Iso Gamma, in which the polarity of the γ-double bond is mimicked by the oxygen atom of the spiroannulated 3,3-dimethyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl moiety. The log Pow value thereby improves from 5.7 to 3.2, so that this pleasant woody-ambery odorant, which is reminiscent of Iso E Super with additional agrestic, conifer-type facets of Cashmeran, can indeed be considered the first water-soluble perfumery raw material of the woody-ambery family. According to the European REACH regulations, it is thus classified as being bioavailable and regarded to be nonpersistent in the environment. To emphasize on the paradox of wood being water-soluble, the wooden ORTEP model seems to dissolve into incense smoke that floats like streaks in water above a wood grain that warps like the ground of the ocean. But besides the interesting physical and olfactory properties of the target structure, P. Kraft and K. Popaj also report on an unprecedented tethering effect that was discovered in the course of synthetic attempts towards this and related structures by Diels–Alder reactions, on p. 261 ff.

Field of study: Chemistry
Micro-Structural Properties Of Te+4-Doped Mg1-XTexB2 Superconductor Regime

The pure and tellurium-doped samples having formula Mg1-xTexB2 (where, x =0.0, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 mole) were prepared via high temperature solid state reaction route .The synthesis was depending upon diffusion mechanism of both Mg- and Te-vapours through boron-matrix. The solubility limits of tellurium were found to be too tide to substitute higher than 0.2mole on Mg-sites. X-ray diffraction analysis for investigated samples proved that all samples were found mainly belong to single hexagonal phase with P6/mmm symmetry with very small traces from MgO and TeO2 as secondary phases in minor. From SE-microscopy and EDX analyses only MgO was detected in between grains and no existence for any aggregations of expected TeO2 secondary phase. Magnetic susceptibility measurements indicated that only the sample with maximum thrium doping ratio x = 0.2 mole exhibited slight depression on its value of Tcoffset which found to be 35.1 K. iÂÂ 2006 Trade Science Inc. - INDIA

Field of study: Materials science
Mothers' long-run career patterns after first birth

Using Bayesian Markov chain clustering analysis we investigate career paths of Austrian women after their first birth. This data-driven method allows characterizing long-term career paths of mothers over up to 19 years by transitions between parental leave, non-employment and different forms of employment. We classify women into five cluster groups with very different long-run career trajectories after childbearing. We further model group membership with a multinomial specification within the finite mixture model. This approach gives insights into the determinants of long-run outcomes. In particular, giving birth at an older age appears to be associated with very diverse outcomes: it is related to higher odds of dropping out of the labour force, on the one hand, but also to higher odds of reaching a high wage career track, on the other hand.

Field of study: Mathematics