nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Low Lipid Content Microalgae into Bio-Crude Oil

Microalgae have attracted significant attention in biofuel research over recent years because of their rapid photosynthetic growth rates and the high lipid content achieved with certain species and culturing conditions. Most past research has focused on high-lipid algal species and increasing the lipid content in order to extract these lipids for conventional transesterification to biodiesel. High-lipid algae and the associated culturing conditions have often resulted in lower biomass productivities, thus limiting the potential yield of algae-based biofuel. An alternative approach is to culture fast-growing low-lipid algae and then convert the resulting biomass into bio-crude oil through a hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) process. This article presents results for producing bio-crude oil via HTL conversion of Chlorella pyrenoidosa, a common fast-growing green microalgae species with low lipid content. The products of the HTL conversion generally self-separate into three phases: a gaseous product, an aqueous phase product, and bio-crude oil product. For the purpose of this study, a toluene-soluble fraction of the raw oil product was defined as refined oil. The natural phase-separation of HTL products is highly advantageous for algal biofuel production because it minimizes energy input for dewatering. To help optimize the HTL process, the effects of key operating parameters (initial pressure, reaction temperature, and reaction time) on the oil product yields were investigated. The experimental results indicate that reaction temperature and reaction time can greatly affect the refined oil yield. The initial pressure provided by nitrogen had little effect on oil yield. The highest refined oil yield was 39.4% ±1.2% of the total dry mass of algal feedstock, which was achieved at 280°C reaction temperature with 120 min reaction time.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
Patterns for Getting By: Polish Women's Employment in Delaware County, 1900-1930

Polish Women's Employment in Delaware County, 1900-1930 AS IN MUCH OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES, the industrial working class of Pennsylvania since the mid-nineteenth century has largely been an immigrant workforce. Understanding the work experience and household strategies of the peoples who inhabited the mill towns and industrial neighborhoods of the state necessarily involves an awareness of both the background experience in the natal country as well as the process of Americanization. By analyzing household patterns in three industrial neighborhoods of suburban Philadelphia, I have found an intersection between immigrant status and working-class needs in the work strategies of Polishborn women in the first three decades of this century. Since the early 1970s social scientists have explored the ethnic differences among immigrant peoples in the United States. Part of this effort has been tied to an ongoing debate within the social sciences about the nature of ethnicity. Early writers often defined ethnic identity as the continuation of cultural traits from the immigrant's country of origin in America. Their studies set up a dichotomy between the "traditions" of the home culture and pressures for assimilation in the United States. Life in the country of origin was frequently characterized as having unchanging values regarding family roles. By describing

Field of study: History
Effects of renal denervation and reinnervation on ganglionic gene expression of neurotransmitter proteins and c-fos in rat.

To investigate the molecular basis for reno-renal interactions, Northern blot analyses of sympathetic ganglia were used to study the changes in levels of mRNA encoding tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and c-fos at 4, 14, 21, and 56 days after denervation of the left kidney, and of c-fos mRNA at 1 and 4 h after denervation. Ganglia included in the study were right and left paravertebral chain ganglia (PVG, T11 to L2), celiac-mesenteric plexus (CMP), and right and left superior cervical ganglia (SCG). Levels of TH mRNA in the left PVG and CMP were decreased at 4 and 14 days compared to controls. Levels were elevated at 21 days and similar to control levels at 56 days. In the right PVG, TH mRNA levels were elevated at 4 and 14 days, diminished from this elevated level at 21 days, and similar to control levels at 56 days. No differences were found in TH mRNA levels of left or right SCG compared to controls. In long-term experiments (days), no differences in NPY or c-fos mRNA levels were found in any of the ganglia from experimental rats compared to controls. Levels of c-fos mRNA in the left PVG and CMP were decreased at 1 hour compared to control levels. By 4 h, differences in mRNA levels were no longer apparent. In the right PVG, c-fos mRNA levels were elevated at 1 hour and no longer different from control levels at 4 h. No differences were found in c-fos mRNA levels of left or right SCG compared to controls.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Field of study: Biology
Pushing the bounds of dropout

We show that dropout training is best understood as performing MAP estimation concurrently for a family of conditional models whose objectives are themselves lower bounded by the original dropout objective. This discovery allows us to pick any model from this family after training, which leads to a substantial improvement on regularisation-heavy language modelling. The family includes models that compute a power mean over the sampled dropout masks, and their less stochastic subvariants with tighter and higher lower bounds than the fully stochastic dropout objective. We argue that since the deterministic subvariant's bound is equal to its objective, and the highest amongst these models, the predominant view of it as a good approximation to MC averaging is misleading. Rather, deterministic dropout is the best available approximation to the true objective.

Field of study: Computer science
Buyer search and price dispersion:a laboratory study

Posted offer markets with costly buyer search are investigated in 18 laboratory sessions. Each period sellers simultaneously post prices. Then each buyer costlessly observes one or (with probability 1-q) two of the posted prices, and either accepts an observed price, drops out, or pays a cost to search again that period. The sessions vary q, the search cost, and the number and kind of buyers. Equilibrium theory predicts a unified very low (very high) price for q=0 (q=1) and predicts specific distributions of dispersed prices for q=1/3 and 2/3. Actual transaction prices conform rather closely to the predictions, especially in treatments with many robot buyers. Individual buyer and seller behavior, however, differs systematically from the equilibrium predictions: buyers' reservation prices are biased away from the extremes and sellers' posted prices have positive autocorrelation and cross sectional correlation. Learning models can account for a portion of these deviations from equilibrium behavior.

Field of study: Economics
Chromophore: apoprotein interactions in phytochrome A

Phytochromes are molecular light switches by virtue of their photochromic red/far-red reversibility. The His-324 residue next to the chromophore-linked Cys-323 plays a critical role in conferring photochromism to the tetrapyrrole chromophore in native phytochrome A. The chromophore appears to be enclosed between the amphiphilic α-helical chains in a hydrophobic pocket. The absorbance maxima of both the Pr and the Pfr forms of pea phytochrome A are blue-shifted by 10 and 20 nm, respectively, upon C-terminal truncation. We speculate that the quaternary structure of the phytochrome A molecule involves some interactions of the C-terminal half with the chromophore domain. The Pfr conformation of phytochrome includes an amphiphilic α-helix of the amino terminal chain, which occurs in 113 ms after picosecond photoisomerization of the Pr form. Compared to α-helical folding, unfolding of the α-helix occurs faster in about 310 μs upon phototransformation of the Pfr form of phytochrome A. The photochromic transformation of phytochrome A modulates protein kinase-catalysed phosphorylation sites in vivo and in vitro, but only a subtle local change in conformation is detectable in the phosphorylated phytochromes. This suggests that the post-translational modification serves as a surface label, rather than a transducer-activating trigger, for the recognition of a putative phytochrome receptor.

Field of study: Environmental science
Nuclear Particle Detection by New Heavy Scintillators: ThBr4 and ThCl4 Single Crystals

ThBr4 and ThCl4 are new inorganic scintillators, We review their responses to gamma rays, protons, deutons, alpha particles and heavy ions. All calibrations are referred to an ¿ line provided by the self-induced ¿ spectrum. Some features like resolution are similar to those of other ionic scintillators but some differences such as relative scintillation efficiency, scintillation decay time and resistance to radiation damages are pointed out in comparison with NaI(Tl).

Field of study: Physics
Space-charge-limited current in CuxS/CdS solar cells

A space-charge-limited current model has been used to consistently and quantitatively model the gross electrical properties of Cu in xS/CdS heterojunctions not explained by standard p-n junction theory. Quantitative fits were ob tained for the dark and light crossover of the I–V curves, the evolution of I–V from near Ohmic to rectifying during heat treatment, the high forward voltage drop in the dark, the non-exponential dependence of I on V, and the temperature independent slope of the I–V curves. These were found for CdS trap densities in the 1013} to 1015} cm−3 range, polycrystalline CdS mobilities in the 1 to 10 cm2} /V-seC8} range, and conduction electron concentrations in the 10 to 1010} cm−3 10 cm range in the thin Cu compensated region of CdS produced during cell fabrication heat treatments as monitored by zero bias capacitance. These results imply that entirely different physical mechanisms than those used to describe standard p-n junctions control the dark and light I–V characteristics and the conversion efficiency of these solar cells.

Field of study: Materials science
Book Review: A Primer for Health Care Ethics: Essays for a Pluralistic Society

This book is a clearly written, smoothly edited volume that is practical in the best sense of the term. The reader of this book will find its authors using critical reasoning at the service of answering or at least articulating the most common and urgent medical moral questions. This collection of essays, some new to the second edition and some repeated from the first, is eminently useful in generating class discussions and in giving direction to thought aimed at resolving ethical dilemmas in health care. Drawing upon his years of expertise in teaching at a medical school, Kevin O'Rourke has collected essays of nearly perfect length for the typical medical student to discuss and learn from. In my own experience of teaching medical students, this kind of book works best for their busy schedules and "naturally" pragmatic dispositions. Such a text can get the student right to the heart of the matter so as to leave the skilled teacher plenty of time to unfold the nuances of "real life" in the ensuing discussion. The book is arranged in ten sections with eighty-one individual chapters of two or three pages in length. Typically, the authors of the essays layout the question to be analyzed and then move to a discussion. Moral principles are usually presented first, and then a look at the current status of the question is objectively reviewed. The authors do not, however, simply play the role of observer. In the conclusion of each essay there is usually a judgment made by the author regarding the moral question at hand. In the case of cloning, for example, the author notes, "Cloning of human persons should be banned not just because it is currently unsafe or because it is an extreme form of artificial reproduction, however, but because it denies the dignity of the human person as well as the dignity of human procreation" (160). I have found that such forthright judgments spark better classroom conversation than the more neutral social science "description only" method, which is utilized in some medical ethics textbooks. Characteristic of the O 'Rourke method, he mutes that which is explicitly theological in his

Field of study: Medicine, Philosophy
Early Tertiary basalts from the Labrador Sea floor and Davis Strait region

Fine- to medium-grained, phyric and aphyric basalt samples from ODP Leg 105, site 647A, in the Labrador Sea show little evidence of alteration. Chemically, these rocks are low-potassium (0.01–0.09 wt.% K 2 O), olivine- to quartz-normative tholeiites that compare closely with the very depleted terrestrial Paleocene volcanic rocks in the Davis Strait region of Baffin Island and West Greenland. However, differences exist in the Sr–Nd isotope systematics of the two suites; the Labrador Sea samples have e Nd values (+9.3) indicative of a more depleted source, and are higher in 87 Sr/ 86 Sr (0.7040), relative to the Davis Strait basalts (e Nd +2.54 to +8.97; mean 87 Sr/ 86 Sr 0.7034). The higher 87 Sr/ 86 Sr in the Labrador Sea samples may reflect seawater exchange despite no petrographic evidence for significant alteration. The Labrador Sea and early Davis Strait basalts may have been derived from a similar depleted mantle source composition; however, the later Davis Strait magmas were generated from a different mantle. None of the Baffin Island, West Greenland, or Labrador Sea samples show unequivocal geochemical evidence for contamination with continental crust.

Field of study: Environmental science
Modular analysis and modelling of risk scenarios with dependencies

The risk analysis of critical infrastructures such as the electric power supply or telecommunications is complicated by the fact that such infrastructures are mutually dependent. We propose a modular approach to the modelling and analysis of risk scenarios with dependencies. Our approach may be used to deduce the risk level of an overall system from previous risk analyses of its constituent systems. A custom made assumption-guarantee style is put forward as a means to describe risk scenarios with external dependencies. We also define a set of deduction rules facilitating various kinds of reasoning, including the analysis of mutual dependencies between risk scenarios expressed in the assumption-guarantee style.

Field of study: Computer science, Engineering
Does hypokalaemia cause nephropathy? An observational study of renal function in patients with Bartter or Gitelman syndrome.

Hypokalaemic nephropathy has been described in patients with chronic potassium depletion; it is a condition in which proximal tubular vacuolization and interstitial fibrosis occur, resulting in a decline in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and, in some cases, renal failure. It has been described in patients with chronic diarrhoea, eating disorders, laxative abuse and primary hyperaldosteronism; also occasionally in Bartter syndrome (BS), in which severe hypokalaemia accompanies significant renal sodium and water losses, though rarely in Gitelman syndrome (GS), in which there is equally severe hypokalaemia, but only modest sodium losses.



We hypothesized that hypokalaemic nephropathy may not be due to potassium depletion per se, but persistently elevated circulating levels of aldosterone, possibly with superimposed episodes of renal hypoperfusion.



We searched UK and European data sets to retrospectively compare serum and urinary parameters in patients with GS and BS.



The patients with GS often had lower serum potassium concentrations than patients with BS, but the BS patients had significantly higher serum creatinine concentrations and lower estimated GFRs (eGFR). BS patients had significantly higher fractional excretions of sodium compared with GS patients, as well as higher plasma renin activities and serum aldosterone levels.



These findings show that in genetically confirmed cases of BS and GS, the degree of hypokalaemia (as an index of chronic potassium depletion) does not correlate with GFR, and that on-going sodium and water losses, and consequent secondary hyperaldosteronism, may play a more important role in the aetiology of hypokalaemic nephropathy.

Field of study: Medicine
Letteratura e Città: Metafore di traslazione e Parnaso urbano fra Quattro e Seicento (review)

Pontano’s subject here is the richly-nuanced desire of an elderly man to summon up a love that is at once novel and a reincarnation of his first love — et sis cura recens amorque primus (line 8). There is an echo here as well of Dido’s response to the sight of Aeneas with his son, rewakening the ashes of an old flame, veteris vestigia flammae (Aen. 4.23): Pontano too wants “to fan those ancient flames” — antiquas volo suscitare flammas (l. 10). The baths of Baiae are invoked as a place where Pontano and his elderly friends can try to find the delights that are still available to them. The hendecasyllable (as distinct, say, from the distich with its summary structure) seems well suited to the extended foreplay, the toying with diminutives that fit so easily into the form (and which Pontano had charmingly employed in his earlier naeniae to his little son [De amore coniugali 2.8–19]), and the parallel display of options to be considered impartially. Those young girls will love you for your gold if not for your white hairs; or you may decide that wine will warm you more effectively. The earthly paradise that Baiae offers to refugees from Rome or Naples has been around for a long time, and it promises no miraculous return to a primeval condition. But it is filled with warmth and laughter, and old Pontano can share in its delights as spectator and as paying participant. The very real pleasures of Baiae derive from this sense of an old-age mode of pastoral where memory and fantasy join in a marriage of convenience. Perhaps the only escape from the jungle of the city is to the zoo of a play-world where, for a price, animals can be petted one hendecasyllabic line at a time. DONALD CHENEY University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Field of study: History
Solving the Gross-Neveu model with relativistic many-body methods

The Gross-Neveu model provides a unique opportunity to apply relativistic many-body techniques (Dirac-Hartree approximation, RPA) in a context where all calculations can be done analytically and — in the largeN limit — yield the exact results. The physical fermion as well as multifermion (“baryon”) and fermion-antifermion (“meson”) bound states are discussed in this spirit, with special emphasis on the role of the Dirac sea.

Field of study: Physics
Reduction kinetics of CuO-ZnO

Copper-containing catalysts are activated, before use, by a reduction process where the presence of ZnO has a promoting effect. The present paper deals with the kinetic behaviour of the reduction of the copper species in well defined specimens of CuO-ZnO. The effects of the temperature, hydrogen pressure and ZnO content on the consumption rate of hydrogen are analysed. A kinetic model is proposed which is consistent with the chemistry of the reduction reactions which involve the formation of the intermediate Cu+. The model appears to be able to describe the consumption rate of hydrogen and to account for the distribution of copper species in the course of the reduction.

Field of study: Materials science
Analyzing mechanisms regulating diversity in rangelands through comparative studies: a case in the southwestern Pyrennees

The preservation of the floristic diversity of natural ecosystems and the maintenance of extensive livestock grazing are two of the major priorities of European Union agricultural and environmental policies. Temperate natural and seminatural grasslands are among the most threatened ecosystems in Europe. In order to establish the most appropriate management practices that prevent degradation and maintain the richness of these ecosystems, detailed analyses of the mechanisms that regulate biodiversity of the communities are particularly necessary. In this study we make a comparative analysis of the species richness and the diversity of the main rangeland communities in a widespread, heterogeneous area located in the Western Spanish Pyrennees. The nature and the contribution of perennials and annuals to the diversity patterns encountered are studied and related to the mechanisms suggested to regulate diversity in each case. Higher diversity values were reported in more environmentally stressed, xeric and moist communities. High spatial and temporal heterogeneity and low rates of competitive displacement related to the scarcity of basic resources are among the factors suggested to regulate the diversity of these communities. In areas where environmental factors are more favorable, such as perennial-dominated mesic rangelands, the enhancement of the diversity seemed more dependent on biotic disturbances, such as herbivory, that decreased the cover of perennials and favored the recruitment of short-lived species. Dispersal processes related to traditional nomadic grazing allow a flow of species from one rangeland to another but also enhance the establishment of species coming from lowland habitats. Most of the annuals enhancing the diversity of the mesic community were ruderals. The consideration of ruderals as exotics or as species belonging to this grazing ecosystem poses an interesting, controversial topic related to the ecological quality of the diversity estimated for these communities.

Field of study: Environmental science
Asymptotics of the scattering phase for the Dirac operator: High energy, semi-classical and non-relativistic limits

In this paper we prove several results for the scattering phase (spectral shift function) related with perturbations of the electromagnetic field for the Dirac operator in the Euclidean space.Many accurate results are now available for perturbations of the Schrödinger operator, in the high energy regime or in the semi-classical regime. Here we extend these results to the Dirac operator. There are several technical problems to overcome because the Dirac operator is a system, its symbol is a 4×4 matrix, and its continuous spectrum has positive and negative values. We show that we can separate positive and negative energies to prove high energy asymptotic expansion and we construct a semi-classical Foldy-Wouthuysen transformation in the semi-classical case. We also prove an asymptotic expansion for the scattering phase when the speed of light tends to infinity (non-relativistic limit).

Field of study: Mathematics