nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
The Relevance of Benefit: Competing Notions of What Justice Requires 1

One m ight have to think back as far as 1968 and the shootings of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy to find a death which so gained the attention and ire of the nation as that of a nameless male infant in Bloomington, I ndiana. The child died April 15, 1982 as a result of a decision by parents and phys ician not to remove an obstruction in his esophagus blocking food from entering his stomach. Although the blockage could have been corrected by relatively simple surgery, the procedure was not performed because the infant was believed afflicted with Down's syndrome. The child lived six days without food or Ouids, and died before an appeal could reach the United States Supreme Court. alleging that the refusal of treatment represented a denia P of the infant's constitutional right of due process. The evidence indicated that the infant almost certainly did have Down's syndrome. But chromosome studies , the only means of being absolutely certa in of the diagnosis, were not done. Apparently in response to the controversy surrounding this infant's death, the Office for Civil Rights of the Department of Health and Human Services (H H S) issued May 18, 1982 a "N otice to Health Care Providers." The "Notice" warned that it was a violation of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 to withhold food or medical treatment from a handicapped in fant if "( I) the withholding is based on the fact that the infant is handicapped; and (2) the handicap does not render the treatment or nutritional sustenance medically contraindicated." The relevant part of Section 504 states that "no otherwise qualified handicapped individual .... shall, solely by reason of his handicap, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be su bjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." The "Notice"

Field of study: Medicine, Philosophy
Palaeolimnological investigations in Poland based on Cladocera (Crustacea)

The results of subfossil Cladocera analysis obtained from deposits of 26 lakes throughout Poland have been presented. For years throughout Poland a broad range of palaeolimnological studies have been conducted. Their aim is to discover the historical development of water basins and climatic changes in the course of the last 13,000 years and also to investigate the gradual influence of man on the ecosystem with particular emphasis on the last few decades. The hitherto obtained results of palaeolimnological studies, including the results of Cladocera analysis, have yielded information about the development of lakes and provided the basis for plans of certain reservoirs and their basins. Over the past years, analysis of subfossil Cladocera has become one of the leading palaeolimnological methods. The results of detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis of Cladocera remains from sediments of 15 lakes allowed for a reconstruction of the lakes' development. The littoral and limnetic regions, changing trophy, from oligotrophy to advanced eutrophication, changes in pH and fluctuation of water levels, as well as changes resulting from settlement — from Mesolithic and Neolithic through Medieval times until the present — have been reconstructed. For individual lakes, phases of Cladocera development and periods of eutrophication were indicated which partially correlated with certain pollen zones as well as periods of human impact and geochemical effects.

Field of study: Environmental science, Geography
Direct solar radiation: spectrum and irradiance derived from sun-photometer measurements.

The continuous spectrum of the direct solar radiation from lambda= 330 to 2690 nm, penetrating a cloudless atmosphere and arriving on the earth surface, is determined by measuring the solar irradiance in ten selected discrete spectral ranges defined by interference filters. Heretofore knowledge of the extraterrestrial solar spectrum has been required as well as of the transmittance functions to describe the spectral optical properties of the atmosphere. A set of appropriate and simple functions is given and discussed, which allows calculation of the molecular, aerosol, oxygen, and ozone optical thicknesses. The influence of atmospheric water vapor is considered through line by line calculations. The dominant and most fluctuating extinction parameters are the aerosol optical thickness and the content of precipitable water vapor. These are obtained by measurements with two sun photometers, developed according to the WMO recommendation. To test the derived solar spectrum at ground level the photometers are also run with nine broadband filters. The values observed differ little from those obtained by integration of the deduced spectral irradiance. Furthermore, the integral value of the resulting entire spectrum agrees reasonably well with the total direct irradiance gained from actinometer measurements.

Field of study: Physics
The clinical characteristics of major depression as indices of the familial risk to illness.

From both a clinical and an aetiological perspective, major depression (MD) is probably a heterogeneous condition. We attempt to relate these two domains.



We examined which of an extensive series of clinical characteristics in 646 female twins from a population-based register with a lifetime diagnosis of MD predicts the risk for MD in co-twins. MD was defined by DSM-III-R criteria.



Four variables uniquely predicted an increased risk for MD in the co-twin: number of episodes, degree of impairment and co-morbidity with panic disorder or bulimia. One variable uniquely predicted decreased risk: co-morbidity with phobia. Variables that did not uniquely predict risk of MD in the co-twin included age at onset, number and kind of depressive symptoms, treatment seeking, duration of the longest episode and co-morbidity with generalised anxiety disorder and alcohol dependence.



Our results suggest that the clinical features of MD can be meaningfully related to the familial vulnerability to illness, particularly with respect to recurrence, impairment and patterns of co-morbidity.

Field of study: Medicine, Psychology
The Effect of a Team s Knowledge Management Practices on Team Performance Evidence from Sri Lankan Software Development Companies and Business Process Outsourcing Companies

The present study examines the effect of a teams’ knowledge management practices and team performance. Drawing on the knowledge based view which says how knowledge management practices will enable the achievement of sustainable competitive advantage, this study attempted to investigate knowledge management practices at the team level and their effect on team performance in software development companies and Business Process Outsourcing companies. A hundred teams including their team leaders and team members from selected companies in Sri Lanka responded to two questionnaires. Using the Partial Least Square – Structural Equation Modeling approach, the results of the statistical analysis revealed that knowledge management practices within teams have a significant effect on team performance. Hence, this study contributes to the knowledge based view theory.

Field of study: Business
A feedback inheritance model

A key distinguishing feature of various object-oriented programming languages is their inheritance mechanism and the purpose(s) that it is designed to serve. The conventional hierarchical inheritance model was designed for the benefit of subclasses. Subclasses can use properties of their parent classes, but not the other way around. Real life is full of situations where both the parent and child classes need to use properties belonging to each other. Such situations are hard to represent using the hierarchical inheritance model. A feedback inheritance model is proposed as a natural way to represent such situations and remedy this shortcoming. The proposed model relaxes some of the constraints of the hierarchical inheritance model and provides control over dependency among related classes, while at the same time maintaining consistency with issues such as information hiding, access, visibility, and encapsulation. These relaxations prevent users from attempting tricky and costly approaches using the hierarchical model to control the dependency among classes. Such attempts may result in inefficient and expensive software. This article includes a survey of the current inheritance models and the languages that use them. The notions of synthesized attributes, synthesized interfaces, and clans are introduced as part of the definition of the feedback inheritance model.

Field of study: Computer science, Engineering
Stress during Acquisition and T-Maze Choice Behavior in Extinction

4 groups of 5 rats each were trained to turn left or right in a T-maze for food reinforcement, then reversed. 2 groups acquired the right turn with shock in the alley stem. During extinction (no food, no shock) shocked Ss either maintained or regressed to right turns. Frustration theory and elicitation theory interpretations were discussed.

Field of study: Psychology
Utilization of free fatty acids by starved and pregnant sheep.

1. The rate of entry into the plasma of stearic acid in fed and starved non-pregnant sheep and of palmitic acid in fed and starved pregnant sheep has been measured by a continuous-infusion isotope-dilution method. 2. In non-pregnant sheep the entry rate of stearic acid rose from 0.38mg./min./kg. when fed to 0.69mg./min./kg. after 72hr. starvation. In pregnant sheep, the entry rate of palmitic acid rose from 0.55mg./min./kg. when fed to 0.64mg./min./kg. on starvation. 3. The entry rates of palmitic acid and stearic acid are related to their respective plasma concentrations. 4. At a given plasma concentration the entry rate of palmitic acid in pregnant sheep was greater than that of stearic acid in non-pregnant sheep. 5. There was no detectable conversion of palmitate or stearate into other plasma long-chain fatty acids. There was negligible incorporation of fatty acids into other plasma lipids with the exception of the plasma triglycerides of fed pregnant sheep. 6. Up to 12% of expired carbon dioxide was derived from palmitic acid or stearic acid. The high rate of oxidation of plasma palmitic acid in fed pregnant sheep is noteworthy.

Field of study: Biology, Computer science
The 1981 – 1982 surge of Hazard Glacier, Yukon Territory

A surge of Hazard Glacier, believed to have started in 1981, displaced ice as much as 0.7 km. Before the surge, ice thickness was measured by radio echo sounding and temperatures were taken in three holes to the glacier bed. The glacier is subpolar with 10 m temperatures near −5.4 °C, and temperature versus depth profiles show many anomalous features. We attribute these anomalies to various effects of past surges and to ablation at the upper surface. The interpretations are supported by simple calculations derived from dimensional analysis. Part of the glacier is warm based: at two sites the basal temperature was at the melting point; at the third site, upstream from the others, it was −2.70 °C.

Field of study: Environmental science
The Welfare State: Ethical Foundations and Constitutional Remedies

In 1935, the United States Congress enacted and President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed into law the basic titles of the social security system, thus taking the revolutionary step into the welfare state. Yet, there was hardly a sense of revolution anywhere in the United States. Although there was some fear in that summer that violence might erupt if Congress remained inactive, there were no deep social class or sectional divisions over the welfare state despite the novelty or the scale of commitment. The political struggle in Congress was not over whether to have a welfare state but over what kind of program it would be. In 1965, Congress adopted Medicare and Medicaid. These were the two largest expansions since 1935, and they were going to continue expanding very fast because of the method of third-party financing whereby the doctor and the patient agreed on the service and the government underwrote the charges. In 1969, Congress expanded the food stamp program and made it a regular, rather than experimental, part of the system of comprehensive social support. This meant that three of the largest commitments the United States ever made to the welfare state were made as maturity was approaching (which for any pension or insurance system is thirty-forty years); were commitments to persons structurally outside the work force; and were made at the moment when the ratio of taxpayers to welfare beneficiaries had dropped from 18-1 to less than 4-1.

Field of study: Political science
An analysis of development orientated evaluation in physical education teaching

Physical education curriculum evaluation system is an important content in current scholastic physical education reform.As affected by traditional teaching,the evaluation of student's performance in physical education classes is always measured by the conditions of physical constitution and the levels of sports skills,while the functions of development orientated evaluation in physical education learning are neglected.The purpose of this paper is to explore an evaluation standard suitable for student development by means of transformation from emphasizing screening and selecting to promoting development,from focusing on result to concerning process,from evaluation by unified standards to evaluation by differences,and from simplification to diversification.

Field of study: Education
A Study of Around-the-city Rural Tourism Development in Ankang City in the Perspective of Consumers

With questionnaire and on-the-spot interview as the main methods of collecting data,which is analyzed through EXCEL and SPSS15 software,this essay focuses on the around-the-city rural tourism in Ankang City,and analyzes the tourism development level of Ankang from consumers' angle of view,concluding that the overall development level is low,and tourism consumers' post-purchase perception and revisit intention evaluation is not high.Finally the study puts forward some measures for improving service quality and level,which can be used for reference for studying the development of rural tourism of underdeveloped areas and the undeveloped core tourism cities.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
BRIEF COMMUNICATIONS: High-efficiency low-divergence pulsed chemical photoinitiated D2-F2 laser with an active medium of 6-liter volume

A study was made of the divergence of the radiation obtained from a pulsed chemical photoinitiated D2-F2 laser with active medium of 6-liter volume and efficient utilization of the initiation energy. Selection of an unstable telescopic resonator ensured that the divergence of the laser radiation was close to the diffraction limit and the output energy was ~50–70J. The energy losses (compared with a similar laser with a plane-plane resonator) did not exceed ~30%. The influence of initiation inhomogeneity on the divergence of the output laser radiation was considerably less when an unstable resonator was employed.

Field of study: Engineering, Physics
Gold–copper–bismuth mineralization in hedenbergitic skarn, Tombstone Mountains, Yukon

Gold mineralization on the Marn property, Yukon, occurs in two pyroxene skarn bodies, which are adjacent to the Mount Brenner Stock in the Ogilvie Mountains. The skarns are separated by a 600 m wide monzonite intrusion and show contrasting mineralogical and geochemical characteristics in addition to quite different metal values. Significant but uneconomic Au, Ag, W, and Cu mineralization is found in skarn on the north side of the intrusion, while very low Au grades (0.052 g/t) occur at the southern contact. The mineral assemblages of both skarns are dominated by iron-rich pyroxenes. The iron content of the pyroxenes varies between Hd 40 and Hd 80 in the northern location and Hd 80 and Hd 100 in the southern skarn. A well-developed sequence of retrograde alteration affected only the northern skarn. This was probably the result of porosity and permeability differences in the early, high-temperature pyroxene skarn, which permitted greater fluid–rock interaction in the northern skarn during cooling. A small volume of diopsidic, aluminous, wollastonite-bearing skarn occurs in both the northern and southern localities. The relationship of this type of skarn to the hedenbergitic skarn is ambiguous, since there is no large-scale mineralogical zoning. The Marn is similar to hedenbergitic, auriferous skarns of Japan, where the oxidation state of the intrusive rocks is believed to be the controlling factor in the development of skarn mineralogy.

Field of study: Environmental science
Selective Intermolecular [2 + 2] Cycloaddition Reaction Using Platinum(II) Catalyst with Hollow-shaped Triethynylphosphine

Intermolecular [2 + 2] cycloaddition reaction of an allenyl silyl ether with vinyl ethers was realized on the basis of electrophilic activation of the allene by the platinum–phosphine catalyst, aff...

Field of study: Chemistry
A Minimax Surrogate Loss Approach to Conditional Difference Estimation

We present a new machine learning approach to estimate personalized treatment effects in the classical potential outcomes framework with binary outcomes. To overcome the problem that both treatment and control outcomes for the same unit are required for supervised learning, we propose surrogate loss functions that incorporate both treatment and control data. The new surrogates yield tighter bounds than the sum of losses for treatment and control groups. A specific choice of loss function, namely a type of hinge loss, yields a minimax support vector machine formulation. The resulting optimization problem requires the solution to only a single convex optimization problem, incorporating both treatment and control units, and it enables the kernel trick to be used to handle nonlinear (also non-parametric) estimation. Statistical learning bounds are also presented for the framework, and experimental results.

Field of study: Computer science
A Note on Nonlinear Median Estimators

Two types of very simple nonlinear median estimators are proposed for even-numbered samples. They are slight modifications of the ordinary sample median. In a Monte Carlo investigation, their efficiency is compared to that of the traditional median. The results indicate that a higher efficiency is achieved by the two types of estimates studied as applied to, respectively, the Cauchy distribution and the family of the normal, triangular and rectangular distributions.

Field of study: Mathematics
Requirements Description for Probabilistic Service Compositions Systems

In an open service-oriented computing environment,due to the dynamic changes of the runtime context and the open computing environment,web service systems have to face all kinds of uncertainty. To configure computational resources efficiently so as to realize the maximize system business value,uncertainty system requirements need to be described. Based on LSC,this paper proposes a p LSC language which can describe stochastic scenarios. Starting from the characteristics of the Markovain stochastic process,a concept,three-stage probabilistic message,is introduced,which combines the random variables with a message to describe random scenarios. The p LSC language describes the stochastic scenarios by the objectification random variables symbolic message interactive sequences. In this paper,the graphical presentation of the p LSC is given and a p LSC Editor is developed to help edit the stochastic scenarios.

Field of study: Computer science
Lysimeter studies of the experimental insecticide BAS 263 I.

For investigating the leaching behaviour, distribution, and metabolism of the experimental insecticide BAS 263 I within one year following application a lysimeter study with undisturbed soil monolith using the radiolabelled compounds was performed. This was achieved by monitoring the leaching water, and by analyzing radiolabelled residues distribution in the 1 m soil profile and in plants. The soil monoliths were characterized chemically and microbiologically. Concentrations exceeding 0.1 μg/1 of the insecticide itself or of known metabolites were not found at any time in the leachate. One year after application, more than 96 % of the persisting radioactive material were detected in the 0 ‐ 40 cm soil layers as polar non‐extractable residues. The insecticide itself was not detected in soil at a limit of 1.8 μg/kg. The total residues in the cultivated crop, especially in the edible parts of the plants, were below 1.3 x 10‐4 μg/kg, calculated for the molecular weight of the a.i. and corresponding t...

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
The Shift from Sterling to the Dollar, 1965–76: Evidence from Australia and New Zealand

The management of foreign exchange reserves has recently attracted attention from both policy-makers and historians. Historical research has focussed on the nineteenth century and the interwar period, with less attention to the strategies of smaller countries in the final transition from sterling to the dollar in the post-1945 period. This article examines the evolution of reserve currency policy from the perspective of Australia and New Zealand in the 1960s and early 1970s. As in the 1930s, economic uncertainty and a shift in global economic power prompted changes in reserves strategy. Patterns of trade and debt and falling confidence in British economic policy prompted a move away from sterling, but the timing and extent of this transition were affected by the fragility of the sterling exchange rate, lack of alternative assets, and continued dependence on the London capital market. The choices for Australia and New Zealand were thus constrained, but they were able to leverage their position as holders of sterling to engage in agreements that provided an exchange rate guarantee for their sterling holdings and continued access to the London capital market. This mitigated the effect of the final global transition from sterling to the dollar while protecting their interests.

Field of study: Economics, History
Mössbauer study of matrix effects in formation of high oxidation states of iron and cobalt

To fix unstable states of pentavalent iron and cobalt, a matrix containing (according to the preparation conditions) potassium manganates (V) was simultaneously doped with iron and radioactive cobalt. The absorption and emission spectra of this matrix, with allowance for the reversal of the source and absorber functions, are similar, which is indicative of the identity of the oxidation states (IV, V, and VI) of iron and cobalt in it. Stabilization of 57Fe and 57Co in the β-MnO2 matrix is also investigated by Mössbauer absorption and emission spectroscopy.

Field of study: Physics
Relationship of Burnout and Engagement to Pharmacy Students’ Perception of Their Academic Ability

To assess burnout and engagement in first- and second-year Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) students and to investigate their relationships to students’ perception of their academic ability.  An online survey that included three validated scales was administered in May 2017 to first- and second-year pharmacy students enrolled in didactic coursework at Touro University California College of Pharmacy. The Maslach Burnout Inventory was used to assess burnout and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale was used to measure student engagement. To characterize academic ability, Academic Self-Perception, a subscale of the School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised, was used. Regression analysis was performed using statistical software.  One hundred sixty-two students (81.4% response rate) completed the survey. Emotional exhaustion and professional inefficacy were negatively correlated with students’ academic self-perception. Dedication was positively correlated with academic self-perception.  In pharmacy students completing the didactic portion of the PharmD curriculum, various engagement and burnout parameters correlated with academic self-perception.

Field of study: Education, Medicine