nils-herrmann/clean_scirepeval huggingface dataset:
Ultrasonic nebulization for the elemental analysis of microgram-level samples with offline aerosol mass spectrometry

The elemental composition of organic material in
environmental samples – including atmospheric organic aerosol, dissolved
organic matter, and other complex mixtures – provides insights into their
sources and environmental processing. However, standard analytical
techniques for measuring elemental ratios typically require large sample
sizes (milligrams of material or more). Here we characterize a method for
measuring elemental ratios in environmental samples, requiring only
micrograms of material, using a small-volume nebulizer (SVN). The technique
uses ultrasonic nebulization of samples to generate aerosol particles
(100–300 nm diameter), which are then analyzed using an aerosol mass
spectrometer (AMS). We demonstrate that the technique generates aerosol from
complex organic mixtures with minimal changes to the elemental composition
of the organic material and that quantification is possible using internal
standards (e.g., NH 4 15 NO 3 ). Sample volumes of 2–4  µL 
with total solution concentrations of at least 0.2 g L −1 form sufficient
particle mass for elemental ratio measurement by the AMS, despite only a
small fraction ( ∼  0.1 %) of the sample forming fine
particles after nebulization (with the remainder ending up as larger
droplets). The method was applied to aerosol filter extracts from the field
and laboratory, as well as to the polysaccharide fraction of dissolved
organic matter (DOM) from the North Pacific Ocean. In the case of aerosol
particles, the mass spectra and elemental ratios from the SVN–AMS agree with
those from online AMS sampling. Similarly, for DOM, the elemental ratios
determined from the SVN–AMS agree with those determined using combustion
analysis. The SVN–AMS provides a platform for the rapid quantitative
analysis of the elemental composition of complex organic mixtures and
non-refractory inorganic salts from microgram samples with applications that
include analysis of aerosol extracts and terrestrial, aquatic, and
atmospheric dissolved organic matter.

Field of study: Environmental science
A family of code coverage-based heuristics for effective fault localization

Locating faults in a program can be very time-consuming and arduous, and therefore, there is an increased demand for automated techniques that can assist in the fault localization process. In this paper a code coverage-based method with a family of heuristics is proposed in order to prioritize suspicious code according to its likelihood of containing program bugs. Highly suspicious code (i.e., code that is more likely to contain a bug) should be examined before code that is relatively less suspicious; and in this manner programmers can identify and repair faulty code more efficiently and effectively. We also address two important issues: first, how can each additional failed test case aid in locating program faults; and second, how can each additional successful test case help in locating program faults. We propose that with respect to a piece of code, the contribution of the first failed test case that executes it in computing its likelihood of containing a bug is larger than or equal to that of the second failed test case that executes it, which in turn is larger than or equal to that of the third failed test case that executes it, and so on. This principle is also applied to the contribution provided by successful test cases that execute the piece of code. A tool, @gDebug, was implemented to automate the computation of the suspiciousness of the code and the subsequent prioritization of suspicious code for locating program faults. To validate our method case studies were performed on six sets of programs: Siemens suite, Unix suite, space, grep, gzip, and make. Data collected from the studies are supportive of the above claim and also suggest Heuristics III(a), (b) and (c) of our method can effectively reduce the effort spent on fault localization.

Field of study: Computer science, Engineering
One-parameter families of bivariate distributions with fixed marginals

For artibrary absolutely continuous univariate distributions F and G we discuss the problem of generating one-parameter families of bivarlate distributions With fixed marginals F and G. According to the statistical literature, for fixed F and G Caere are known co axist only two such families Which satisfy the conditions that they contain the Fee bounds and the distribution corresponding so independent random variables. This paper formalises the problem by suggesting twoadditional conditions these families should satisfy and shows that it is easy to generate many such one-parameter familie In particular, one new family is presented.

Field of study: Mathematics
The Doppler paradigm and the APEX-EPOS-ORANGE quandary

The experimental detection of the sharp lines of the (e{sup +}e{sup -}) Puzzle is viewed as a struggle against Doppler broadening. Gedanken experiments which are realistic in zeroth order of detail are analyzed to show that the ORANGE and EPOS/I geometries select narrower slices of a Doppler broadened line than spherically inclusive (APEX and EPOS/II -like) apparati. Roughly speaking, the latter require event-by-event Doppler reconstruction simply to regain an even footing with the former. This suggests that APEX` or EPOS/II`s coincident pair distributions must be statistically superior to those of EPOS/I or ORANGE in order to support a comparable inference about sharp structure. Under such circumstances, independent alternative data is invaluable. Therefore, a corroboration of Sakai`s 330.1 keV (< 3 keV wide) electron line in few MeV e{sup +} or e{sup -} bombardments of U and Th targets could prove crucial.

Field of study: Physics
Is the Pearson r 2 Biased, and if So, What Is the Best Correction Formula?

In this study the authors investigated the use of 5 (i.e., Claudy, Ezekiel, Olkin-Pratt, Pratt, and Smith) R 2 correction formulas with the Pearson r 2. The authors estimated adjustment bias and precision under 6 X 3 X 6 conditions (i.e., population ρ values of .0, .1, .3, .5, .7, and .9; population shapes normal, skewness = kurtosis = 1, and skewness = -1.5 with kurtosis = 3.5; ns = 10, 20, 40, 60, 100, and 200 respectively). Results indicate that the sample Pearson r 2 is marginally biased at small sample sizes and small population effect sizes, and that the Ezekiel and the Smith R 2 corrections work well in controlling this bias.

Field of study: Education
Gene expression dynamics in randomly varying environments

A simple model of gene regulation in response to stochastically changing environmental conditions is developed and analyzed. The model consists of a differential equation driven by a continuous time 2-state Markov process. The density function of the resulting process converges to a beta distribution. We show that the moments converge to their stationary values exponentially in time. Simulations of a two-stage process where protein production depends on mRNA concentrations are also presented demonstrating that protein concentration tracks the environment whenever the rate of protein turnover is larger than the rate of environmental change. Single-celled organisms are therefore expected to have relatively high mRNA and protein turnover rates for genes that respond to environmental fluctuations.

Field of study: Biology, Mathematics
The Micro Individual Characteristics in Non-motorized Traffic Mixed of Bicycles and Mopeds

In order to understand the overtaking behavior of, overtaking physical separation events between bicycles and mopeds was taken out. According to the analytical model of road bicycle passing events vehicle spatial features, the bicycle passing events into free events overtaking, adjacent events and blocked events, and based on the bicycle traffic flow velocity distribution characteristics and bicycle space distribution probability, an analytic model of 3 kinds of passing events was taken out. According to the passing events’ survey results on the physically separated non-motorized lanes of Shanghai, the model is calibrated and verified and the passing events’ overtaking number calculation results was according with the real situation. The model stream the results show that the parameters for the bicycle traffic, road bicycle, bicycle traffic flow in the running speed, traffic flow speed standard deviation and lane number significantly influence of 3 kinds of overtaking event number. This paper aims to present the micro individual characteristics in non-motorized traffic mixed of bicycles and mopeds.

Field of study: Computer science
A fully portable, cryocooler-based HTS SQUID NDE instrument

We have recently introduced a novel cryocooler-based HTS SQUID NDE instrument. The system incorporates a closed-cycle cooler that is connected to the inner and outer copper thermal batteries which then allows simultaneous cooling of both masses. Once the inner has been cooled to a temperature of approximately 40 K and the outer to a slightly higher temperature of around 70 K, the connecting "coldfinger" is retracted through a gate valve and the thermal batteries are then maintained in a sealed, vacuum-tight chamber. At this point, the cryocooler can be switched off and fully disconnected from the cryobattery. A sapphire rod is attached to one end of the inner copper thermal mass and this holds the HTS SQUID gradiometer mount. Here we report on the cooldown times for the system and discuss SQUID electrical characteristics at these lower temperatures. Finally we propose a design for the next generation of instrument.

Field of study: Physics
The Reeded Edge and the Phillips Curve: Money Neutrality, Common Knowledge, and Subjective Beliefs☆

I present a simple two-person auction model in which a seller and a buyer make bids in terms of money; however, the value of a unit of money is uncertain. I show: (1) a monetary revaluation has purely nominal effects if and only if it is common knowledge; (2) if seller and buyer have identical beliefs, making the value of money common knowledge maximizes total gains from trade; (3) if seller and buyer are equally well informed and have identical beliefs, then monetary revaluations have no net effect; (4) when the seller knows the value of money but the buyer does not, the expected utilities of both seller and buyer are proportional to 1/(1+ σ 2 ), where σ is the standard deviation of the value of money expressed as a fraction of the mean; and (5) when beliefs are subjective, monetary policy can improve total gains from trade, as in Friedman's explanation of the Phillips curve, and an optimal level of inflation can be determined. Journal of Economic Literature

Field of study: Economics
Time-averaging, taphonomy, and their impact on paleocommunity reconstruction: Death assemblages in Texas bays

The death assemblages in upper Copano Bay and upper Laguna Madre, Texas, were compared with the living communities as sampled over a two-year period in order to determine how taphonomy and time-averaging affect paleocommunity reconstruction. The living and death assemblages were compared using taxonomic composition, numerical abundance, diversity, biomass, and trophic and habitat proportions. Taxonomic composition, particularly adult taxonomic composition, and the biomass of the death assemblage more accurately reflect the characteristics of the living community than do numerical abundance and other community attributes based upon numerical abundance such as diversity. Taxonomic composition and biomass are less modified by taphonomy and time-averaging, because they are temporally more persistent characteristics of the community. Community and paleocommunity attributes are not equivalent, because the paleocommunity is described using time-averaged data. Ecological theory must be supplanted by paleoecological theory that takes into account this temporal component.

Field of study: Geology
Design of a ceramic radial insulation structure for a high current diode

For a high current diode composed of a small disk type ceramic insulator water/vacuum interface,the design of radial insulation structure is presented.According to the theory of vacuum flashover and the design rules for radial insulation,a "cone-column" anode outline and the cathode shielding rings were adopted.The electrostatic field along the insulator surface was obtained by FEA simulation.By adjusting the outline of the anode and the shielding rings,the electric fields were well distributed and the field around the triple junction was controlled.A high voltage test was carried out on a water isolated spiral pulse forming line(PFL) accelerator with 200 ns pulse width,and the results show the diode can work stably in 400 kV,200 ns conditions.

Field of study: Physics
Block-Structure Based Time-Series Models For Graph Sequences

Although the computational and statistical trade-off for modeling single graphs, for instance using block models, is relatively well understood, extending such results to sequences of graphs has proven to be difficult. In this work, we propose two models for graph sequences that capture: (a) link persistence between nodes across time, and (b) community persistence of each node across time. In the first model, we assume that the latent community of each node does not change over time, and in the second model we relax this assumption suitably. For both of these proposed models, we provide computationally efficient inference algorithms, whose unique feature is that they leverage community detection methods that work on single graphs. We also provide experimental results validating the suitability of the models and the performance of our algorithms on synthetic instances.

Field of study: Computer science
Electrothermal instability mitigation by using thick dielectric coatings on magnetically imploded conductors.

Recent experiments on Sandia's Z facility have confirmed simulation predictions of dramatically reduced instability growth in solid metallic rods when thick dielectric coatings are used to mitigate density perturbations arising from an electrothermal instability. These results provide further evidence that the inherent surface roughness as a result of target fabrication is not the dominant seed for the growth of magneto-Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities in liners with carefully machined smooth surfaces, but rather electrothermal instabilities that form early in the electrical current pulse as Joule heating melts and vaporizes the liner surface. These results suggest a new technique for substantially reducing the integral magneto-Rayleigh-Taylor instability growth in magnetically driven implosions, such as cylindrical dynamic material experiments and inertial confinement fusion concepts.

Field of study: Physics
Is Head and Neck Resection of the Femur (Girdlestone’s Procedure) Still Relevant? Indications and Results About 24 Cases

Head and neck resection of the femur was described by Girdlestone in 1928 in the treatment of coxalgia. Very invasive at the beginning, this intervention is much less so today, but the term of “Girdlestone’s operation” or “Girdlestone’s procedure” has remained in use. The reported results are controversial. In resource-limited countries, Girdlestone’s procedure is often indicated for lack of a better one. In this context, we report the results of a series of 24 patients operated in a regional hospital (Ouahigouya, Burkina Faso) with the aim of showing that this technique remains valid and can be benefit.  This was a retrospective descriptive study of 24 patients who had benefited from the procedure for cervical fracture sequelae, failure of arthroplasty or osteosynthesis, or osteonecrosis. All were operated by posterolateral approach, under spinal anesthesia and followed for 5 years with evaluation of the anatomical and functional results using the rating of Postel and Merle d'Aubigné (PMA).  All patients had Trendelenburg lameness with a mean shortening of 3.5 cm. They were all autonomous with walking aids and the PMA score ranged from 16 to 14.  although the results obtained are not excellent, they are relatively good and have allowed all our patients to recover an acceptable autonomy, compatible with certain independence in everyday life.  The Girdlestone’s procedure cannot be a first intention indication, but retains a place in the therapeutic arsenal of certain affections of the hip.

Field of study: Medicine
On Optimality of Meta-Learning in Fixed-Design Regression with Weighted Biased Regularization

We consider a fixed-design linear regression in the meta-learning model of Baxter (2000) and establish a problem-dependent finite-sample lower bound on the transfer risk (risk on a newly observed task) valid for all estimators. Moreover, we prove that a weighted form of a biased regularization - a popular technique in transfer and meta-learning - is optimal, i.e. it enjoys a problem-dependent upper bound on the risk matching our lower bound up to a constant. Thus, our bounds characterize meta-learning linear regression problems and reveal a fine-grained dependency on the task structure. Our characterization suggests that in the non-asymptotic regime, for a sufficiently large number of tasks, meta-learning can be considerably superior to a single-task learning. Finally, we propose a practical adaptation of the optimal estimator through Expectation-Maximization procedure and show its effectiveness in series of experiments.

Field of study: Computer science
CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR-ASSISTED AND DROP-NOZZLE SPRAYS IN COTTON

The effects of air-assisted, drop-nozzle, and over-the-top spray applications were characterized with a wide array of targets and chemicals in mature cotton foliage. Spray rates of 47 and 94 L/ha were applied at droplet volume median diameters (Dv.5) ranging from 114 to 192 µm. Increased spray rate predominantly increased deposition and chemical efficiency under most conditions. Sprays assisted with air (velocities up to 16 m/s) increased fluorescent tracer deposits on the canopy middle up to 92% of that from the canopy top, and resulted in a significant increase in bifenthrin on leaves and squares located within the canopy. Use of an upward-trajectory thiodicarb spray from drop-nozzle applications tended to control beet armyworm (Spodoptera exiqua [Hubner]) on the leaf underside more efficiently than the other application methods. Orienting the air-assisted sprayer air stream 30° back tended to increase deposits on the leaf underside. Use of air-assisted applications at 47 and 94 L/ha and an over-the-top application at 94 L/ha for a butifos and ethephon spray mixture provided the highest mean defoliation ratings that ranged from 68.1 to 78.4%.

Field of study: Agricultural and Food sciences
Sampling and reconstruction of signals with finite rate of innovation in the presence of noise

Recently, it was shown that it is possible to develop exact sampling schemes for a large class of parametric nonbandlimited signals, namely certain signals of finite rate of innovation. A common feature of such signals is that they have a finite number of degrees of freedom per unit of time and can be reconstructed from a finite number of uniform samples. In order to prove sampling theorems, Vetterli et al. considered the case of deterministic, noiseless signals and developed algebraic methods that lead to perfect reconstruction. However, when noise is present, many of those schemes can become ill-conditioned. In this paper, we revisit the problem of sampling and reconstruction of signals with finite rate of innovation and propose improved, more robust methods that have better numerical conditioning in the presence of noise and yield more accurate reconstruction. We analyze, in detail, a signal made up of a stream of Diracs and develop algorithmic tools that will be used as a basis in all constructions. While some of the techniques have been already encountered in the spectral estimation framework, we further explore preconditioning methods that lead to improved resolution performance in the case when the signal contains closely spaced components. For classes of periodic signals, such as piecewise polynomials and nonuniform splines, we propose novel algebraic approaches that solve the sampling problem in the Laplace domain, after appropriate windowing. Building on the results for periodic signals, we extend our analysis to finite-length signals and develop schemes based on a Gaussian kernel, which avoid the problem of ill-conditioning by proper weighting of the data matrix. Our methods use structured linear systems and robust algorithmic solutions, which we show through simulation results.

Field of study: Engineering
Synthesis and characterization of layer structured solid solutions in the system of LiCoO2–Li2MnO3

Lithium-manganese-cobalt oxide, Li(Co 1− x Li x /3 Mn 2 x /3 )O 2 (0≤ x ≤1) was prepared as a solid solution between the two kinds of layer structured end members, LiCoO 2 and Li 2 MnO 3 . Simple calcination of the stoichiometric mixture of the oxide constituents gave a mixture of two end members. Excess lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide should be added to the mixture on calcination at 900–1000°C to obtain the solid solutions. The excess lithium compounds were removed by washing with water. The results of the X-ray diffraction studies, chemical analysis and XANES measurements suggested that the Co in LiCoO 2 was substituted for (Li 1/3 Mn 2/3 ). The solid solutions were electrochemically active as cathode materials for a lithium battery, though the discharge capacity decreased with the increase of x in Li(Co 1− x Li x /3 Mn 2 x /3 )O 2 .

Field of study: Materials science
Changes in heavy metal contents in an acidic forest soil affected by depletion of soil organic matter within the time span 1969–93

Measurements of heavy metal content (Pb, Cd, Zn) were made in the period 1969–93 in a forested ecosystem near Mohlin (north-western part of Switzerland). Some distinct changes were found in the soil, especially in the subsoil (30–35 cm). The main and most likely driving force of the induced changes in the subsoil can be traced back to the observed decomposition of organic matter which strongly influenced the behaviour of major and minor chemical constituents of the soil. These changes are presumably mostly due to incidents that occurred in the past caused by the nearby aluminium industry. Generally, the observed changes in soil chemistry increase with decreasing distance to the aluminium plant in the time span 1969–93. The influence, if any, of the vegetation type and the forest management on the changes in the subsoil could not be figured out. Changes in the Pb content primarily correlate with soil organic matter (with a significant decrease in the subsoil). Good correlations are also found with Fe and partially with Al and Mn. Cd correlates well with pH, (earth)alkali ions, and generally to a lower degree with Mn, Fe and Al, but almost no correlation was found with the organic matter of the soil. Zn holds an intermediate position: significant correlations with organic C, (earth)alkali ions, Fe, Al and Mn were found but pH correlated only very weakly. The main transportation mechanism of Pb in the subsoil is believed to be primarily in colloidal form. Colloid release mechanisms are hypothesised to be due to the humus disintegration and the consequent reaction chain. In contrast to Pb, the elements Cd and Zn have, presumably, been translocated to a great extent as aqueous species.

Field of study: Environmental science
Types of opiate addiction and notification to the home office.

Hospitalised drug addicts were categorised according to the time lapse between onset of their opiate abuse and their first notification to the Home Office. Late notification correlated with a lower level of dependence, a more intermittent pattern of misuse, and a greater likelihood of alcohol abuse. It is postulated that there may be two types of addiction which lie along a continuum.

Field of study: Medicine, Psychology