Beyond Redundancy: Information-aware Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Structure Learning

Authors: zhixiang  shen
shuo  wang
zhao  kang
Venue: NeurIPS_cc_2024_Conference
Published: 2024-05-14 15:38:39

Abstract: Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Learning (UMGL) aims to learn node representations on various edge types without manual labeling. However, existing research overlooks a key factor: the reliability of the graph structure. Real-world data often exhibit a complex nature and contain abundant task-irrelevant noise, severely compromising UMGL's performance. Moreover, existing methods primarily rely on contrastive learning to maximize mutual information across different graphs, limiting them to multiplex graph redundant scenarios and failing to capture view-unique task-relevant information. In this paper, we focus on a more realistic and challenging task: to unsupervisedly learn a fused graph from multiple graphs that preserve sufficient task-relevant information while removing task-irrelevant noise. Specifically, our proposed Information-aware Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Fusion framework (InfoMGF) uses graph structure refinement to eliminate irrelevant noise and simultaneously maximizes view-shared and view-unique task-relevant information, thereby tackling the frontier of non-redundant multiplex graph. Theoretical analyses further guarantee the effectiveness of InfoMGF. Comprehensive experiments against various baselines on different downstream tasks demonstrate its superior performance and robustness. Surprisingly, our unsupervised method even beats the sophisticated supervised approaches. The source code and datasets are available at https://github.com/zxlearningdeep/InfoMGF.

Main paper: 
 introduction: 
 Multiplex graph (multiple graph layers span across a common set of nodes), as a special type of heterogeneous graph, provides richer information and better modeling capabilities, leading to challenges in learning graph representation [1] . Recently, unsupervised multiplex graph learning (UMGL) has attracted significant attention due to its exploitation of more detailed information from diverse sources [2, 3] , using graph neural networks (GNNs) [4] and self-supervised techniques [5] . UMGL has become a powerful tool in numerous real-world applications [6, 7] , e.g., social network mining and biological network analysis, where multiple relationship types exist or various interaction types occur.Despite the significant progress made by UMGL, a substantial gap in understanding how to take advantage of the richness of the multiplex view is still left. In particular, a fundamental issue is largely overlooked: the reliability of graph structure. Typically, the messaging-passing mechanism in GNNs assumes the reliability of the graph structure, implying that the connected nodes tend to have similar labels. All UMGL methods are graph-fixed, assuming that the original structure is sufficiently reliable for learning [3, [8] [9] [10] . Unfortunately, there has been evidence that practical The unique relevant edge ratio = (the number of unique relevant edges) / (the total number of relevant edges in this graph). Each graph contains a significant amount of unique task-relevant information.graph structures are not always reliable [11] . Multiplex graphs often contain substantial amounts of less informative edges characterized by irrelevant, misleading, and missing connections. For example, due to the heterophily in the graphs, GNNs generate poor performance [12] [13] [14] . Another representative example is adversarial attacks [15] , where attackers tend to add edges between nodes of different classes. Then, aggregating information from neighbors of different classes degrades UMGL performance. Diverging from existing approaches to node representation learning, we focus on structure learning of a new graph from multiplex graphs to better suit downstream tasks. Notably, existing Graph Structure Learning (GSL) overwhelmingly concentrated on a single homogeneous graph [16] , marking our endeavor as pioneering in the realm of multiplex graphs.Given the unsupervised nature, the majority of UMGL methods leverage contrastive learning mechanism [8] [9] [10] , a typical self-supervised technique, for effective training. However, recent research has demonstrated that standard contrastive learning, maximizing mutual information between different views, is limited to capturing view-shared task-relevant information [17] . This approach is effective only in multi-view redundant scenarios, thereby overlooking unique task-relevant information specific to each view. In practice, the multiplex graph is inherently non-redundant. As illustrated in Figure 1 , task-relevant information resides not only in shared areas across different graph views but also in specific view-unique regions. For instance, in the real citation network ACM [18] , certain papers on the same subject authored by different researchers may share categories and thematic relevance. This characteristic, compared to the co-author view, represents view-unique task-relevant information within the co-subject view. It exposes a critical limitation in existing UMGL methods, which potentially cannot capture sufficient task-relevant information.Motivated by the above observations, our research goal can be summarized as follows: how can we learn a fused graph from the original multiplex graph in an unsupervised manner, mitigating taskirrelevant noise while retaining sufficient task-relevant information? To handle this new task, we propose a novel Information-aware Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Fusion framework (InfoMGF). Graph structure refinement is first applied to each view to achieve a more suitable graph with less task-irrelevant noise. Confronting multiplex graph non-redundancy, InfoMGF simultaneously maximizes the view-shared and view-unique task-relevant information to realize sufficient graph learning. A learnable graph augmentation generator is also developed. Finally, InfoMGF maximizes the mutual information between the fused graph and each refined graph to encapsulate clean and holistic task-relevant information from a range of various interaction types. Theoretical analyses guarantee the effectiveness of our approach in capturing task-relevant information and graph fusion. The unsupervised learned graph and node representations can be applied to various downstream tasks. In summary, our main contributions are three-fold:• Problem. We pioneer the investigation of the multiplex graph reliability problem in a principled way, which is a more practical and challenging task. To our best knowledge, we are the first to attempt unsupervised graph structure learning in multiplex graphs.Figure 2 : The overall framework of the proposed InfoMGF. Specifically, InfoMGF first generates refined graphs and the fused graph through the graph learner. Subsequently, it maximizes shared and unique task-relevant information within the multiplex graph and facilitates graph fusion. The learned fused graph and node representations are used for various downstream tasks.• Algorithm. We propose InfoMGF, a versatile multiplex graph fusion framework that steers the fused graph learning by concurrently maximizing both view-shared and view-unique task-relevant information under the multiple graphs non-redundancy principle. Furthermore, we develop two random and generative graph augmentation strategies to capture view-unique task information. Theoretical analyses ensure the effectiveness of InfoMGF. • Evaluation. We perform extensive experiments against various types of state-of-the-art methods on different downstream tasks to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness and robustness of InfoMGF. Particularly, our developed unsupervised approach even outperforms supervised methods. 
preliminaries: 
 Notation. The multiplex graph is represented byG = {G 1 , ..., G V }, where G v = {A v , X} is the v-th graph. A v ∈ {0, 1} N ×Nis the corresponding adjacency matrix and X ∈ R N ×d f is the shared feature matrix across all graphs. X i ∈ R d f is the i-th row of X, representing the feature vector of node i. N is the number of nodes and D v is a diagonal matrix denoting the degree matrix of A v . Y is label information. For convenience, we use "view" to refer to each graph in the multiplex graph.Multiplex graph non-redundancy. Task-relevant information exists not only in the shared information between graphs but also potentially within the unique information of certain graphs. Following the non-redundancy principle [17] , we provide the formal definition of Multiplex Graph Non-redundancy: Definition 1. G i is considered non-redundant with G j for Y if and only if there exists ϵ > 0 such that the conditional mutual informationI(G i ; Y | G j ) > ϵ or I(G j ; Y | G i ) > ϵ.Graph structure learning. Existing GSL methods primarily focus on a single graph. Their pipeline can be summarized as a two-stage framework [16] Question: Does the paper discuss the limitations of the work performed by the authors?Answer: [Yes] Justification: The limitations of our work are discussed in Section 5.Guidelines:• The answer NA means that the paper has no limitation while the answer No means that the paper has limitations, but those are not discussed in the paper. • The authors are encouraged to create a separate "Limitations" section in their paper.• The paper should point out any strong assumptions and how robust the results are to violations of these assumptions (e.g., independence assumptions, noiseless settings, model well-specification, asymptotic approximations only holding locally). The authors should reflect on how these assumptions might be violated in practice and what the implications would be. • The authors should reflect on the scope of the claims made, e.g., if the approach was only tested on a few datasets or with a few runs. In general, empirical results often depend on implicit assumptions, which should be articulated. • The authors should reflect on the factors that influence the performance of the approach. For example, a facial recognition algorithm may perform poorly when image resolution is low or images are taken in low lighting. Or a speech-to-text system might not be used reliably to provide closed captions for online lectures because it fails to handle technical jargon. • The authors should discuss the computational efficiency of the proposed algorithms and how they scale with dataset size. • If applicable, the authors should discuss possible limitations of their approach to address problems of privacy and fairness. • While the authors might fear that complete honesty about limitations might be used by reviewers as grounds for rejection, a worse outcome might be that reviewers discover limitations that aren't acknowledged in the paper. The authors should use their best judgment and recognize that individual actions in favor of transparency play an important role in developing norms that preserve the integrity of the community. Reviewers will be specifically instructed to not penalize honesty concerning limitations. 
methodology: 
 As illustrated in Figure 2 , our proposed InfoMGF consists of two modules: the Graph Structure Refinement module and the Task-Relevant Information Maximization module.We first use a graph learner to generate each view's refined graph G s v = {A s v , X}. To retain node features and structure information simultaneously, we apply the widely used Simple Graph Convolution (SGC) [19] to perform aggregation in each view, resulting in view-specific node features X v . A view-specific two-layer attentive network is employed to model the varying contributions of different features to structure learning:EQUATIONwhere Dv = D v + I and Ãv = A v + I. r represents the order of graph aggregation. σ(•) is the non-linear activation function and ⊙ denotes the Hadamard product. All rows of W v 1 are identical, representing a learnable attention vector shared by all nodes. This strategy enables us to acquire view-specific features before training, thereby circumventing the time-consuming graph convolution operations typically required by GNN-based graph learners during training, which significantly boosts our model's scalability.Like existing GSL methods [16, 20] , we apply post-processing techniques to ensure that the adjacency matrix A s v satisfies properties such as sparsity, non-negativity, symmetry, and normalization. Specifically, we use H v to construct the similarity matrix and then sparsify it using k-nearest neighbors (kNN). For large-scale graphs, we utilize locality-sensitive approximation during kNN sparsification to reduce time complexity [21] . Afterward, operations including Symmetrization, Activation, and Normalization are used sequentially to generate the final A s v . Following the refinement of each view, we employ a shared Graph Convolutional Network (GCN) [22] as the graph encoder to obtain the node representationsZ v ∈ R N ×d of each view, computed by Z v = GCN(A s v , X).G s v should contain not only view-shared but also view-unique task-relevant information. Following standard contrastive learning [23, 24] , for each pair of distinct views (e.g., i and j), our approach seeks to maximize the mutual information 0.5I(G s i ; G j ) + 0.5I(G s j ; G i ) to capture shared taskrelevant information between views.s i ; G s j ) is the lower bound of I(G s i ; G j ) + I(G s j ; G i ).Detailed proofs are provided in the Appendix D. According to Proposition 1, the maximization objective can be transformed to a tractable lower bound I(G s i ; G s j ). Considering the addition of mutual information for each pair, the loss term for minimization can be expressed as follows:EQUATIONMaximizing view-unique task-relevant information can be rigorously expressed as maximizingI(G s i ; Y | ∪ j̸ =i G j ).Then, we relax the optimization objective to the total task-relevant information within the view, I(G s i ; Y ). This decision is based on the following considerations: on the one hand, deliberately excluding shared task-relevant information is unnecessary and would complicate the optimization process. On the other hand, repeated emphasis on shared task-relevant information encourages the model to focus more on it in the early training stage.The unsupervised nature of our task dictates that we cannot directly optimize I(G s i ; Y ) using label information. Some typical graph learning methods often reconstruct the graph structure to preserve the maximum amount of information from the original data [25] [26] [27] . In the context of our task, this reconstruction-based optimization objective is equivalent to maximizing the mutual information with the original graph structure [28, 29] , i.e., I(G s i ; G i ). However, such methods have significant drawbacks: they retain task-irrelevant information from the original data, and the graph reconstruction also entails high complexity. In contrast, we leverage graph augmentation to reduce task-irrelevant information and retain task-relevant information without accessing Y . Following the optimal augmentation assumption [17, 30] , we define optimal graph augmentation as:Definition 2. G ′ i is an optimal augmented graph of G i if and only if I(G ′ i ; G i ) = I(Y ; G i ), implying that the only information shared between G i and G ′ i is task-relevant without task-irrelevant noise. Theorem 1. If G ′ i is the optimal augmented graph of G i , then I(G s i ; G ′ i ) = I(G s i ; Y ) holds. Theorem 2. The maximization of I(G s i ; G ′ i )yields a discernible reduction in the task-irrelevant information relative to the maximization of I(G s i ; G i ).Theorem 1 theoretically guarantees that maximizing I(G s i ; G ′ i ) would provide clean and sufficient task-relevant guidance for learning G s i . Theorem 2 demonstrates the superiority of our optimization objective over typical methods in removing task-irrelevant information. Therefore, given G ′ i = {A ′ i , X ′ } for each view, where A ′ i and X ′ denote the augmented adjacency matrix and node features, respectively, the loss term L u is defined as:EQUATIONThe key to the above objective lies in ensuring that G ′ i satisfies the optimal graph augmentation. However, given the absence of label information, achieving truly optimal augmentation is not feasible; instead, we can only rely on heuristic techniques to simulate it. Consistent with most existing graph augmentations, we believe that task-relevant information in graph data exists in both structure and feature, necessitating augmentation in both aspects. We use random masking, a simple yet effective method, to perform feature augmentation. For graph structure, we propose two versions: random edge dropping and learnable augmentation through a graph generator.Random feature masking. For node features, we randomly select a fraction of feature dimensions and mask them with zeros. Formally, we sample a random vector ⃗ m ∈ {0, 1} d f where each dimension is drawn from a Bernoulli distribution independently, i.e., ⃗ m i ∼ Bern(1 -ρ). Then, the augmented node features X ′ is computed byX ′ = [X 1 ⊙ ⃗ m; X 2 ⊙ ⃗ m; ...; X N ⊙ ⃗ m] ⊤ .Random edge dropping (InfoMGF-RA). For a given A v , a masking matrix M ∈ {0, 1} N ×N is randomly generated, where each element M ij is sampled from a Bernoulli distribution. Afterward, the augmented adjacency matrix can be computed asA ′ v = A v ⊙ M .Learnable generative augmentation (InfoMGF-LA). Random edge dropping may lack reliability and interpretability. A low dropping probability might not suffice to eliminate task-irrelevant information, while excessive deletions could compromise task-relevant information. Therefore, we opt to use a learnable graph augmentation generator. To avoid interference from inappropriate structure information, we compute personalized sampling probabilities for existing edges in each view by employing a Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) in the node features. To ensure the differentiability of the sampling operation for end-to-end training, we introduce the Gumbel-Max reparametrization trick [31, 32] to transform the discrete binary (0-1) distribution of edge weights into a continuous distribution. Specifically, for each edge e i,j in view v, its edge weight ω v i,j in the corresponding augmented view is computed as follows:EQUATIONwhere [•; •] denotes the concatenation operation and δ ∼ Uniform(0, 1) is the sampled Gumbel random variate. We can control the temperature hyper-parameter τ approaching 0 to make ω v i,j tend towards a binary distribution. For an effective augmented graph generator, it should eliminate task-irrelevant noise while retaining task-relevant information. Therefore, we design a suitable loss function for augmented graph training:EQUATIONwhere λ is a positive hyper-parameter. The first term reconstructs view-specific features using the cosine error, guaranteeing that the augmented views preserve crucial task-relevant information while having lower complexity compared to reconstructing the entire graph structure. The reconstructed features Xi are obtained using an MLP-based Decoder on the node representations Z i ′ of the augmented view. The second term minimizes I(G s i ; G ′ i ) to regularize the augmented views simultaneously, ensuring that the augmented graphs would provide only task-relevant information as guidance with less task-irrelevant noise when optimizing the refined graph G s i through Eq.(3). Note that for InfoMGF-LA, we adopt an iterative optimization strategy to update G s i and G ′ i alternatively, as described in Section 3.4.Although previous work also employs similar generative graph augmentation [33] , we still possess irreplaceable advantages in comparison. Firstly, they merely minimize mutual information to generate the augmented graph, lacking the crucial information retention component, which may jeopardize task-relevant information. Furthermore, an upper bound should ideally be used for minimization, whereas they utilize a lower bound estimator for computation, which is incorrect in optimization practice. In contrast, we use a rigorous upper bound of mutual information for the second term of L gen , which is demonstrated later.The refined graph retains task-relevant information from each view while eliminating task-irrelevant noise. Afterward, we learn a fused graph that encapsulates sufficient task-relevant information from all views. Consistent with the approach in Section 3.1, we leverage a scalable attention mechanism as the fused graph learner:EQUATIONwhere the node features are concatenated with all view-specific features as input. The same postprocessing techniques are sequentially applied to generate the fused graph G s = {A s , X}. The node representations Z of the fused graph are also obtained through the same GCN. We maximize the mutual information between the fused graph and each refined graph to incorporate task-relevant information from all views, denoted as loss L f . The total loss L of our model can be expressed as the sum of three terms:L = L s + L u + L f .Theorem 3. The learned fused graph G s contains more task-relevant information than the refined graph G s i from any single view. Formally, we have:EQUATIONTheorem 3 theoretically proves that the fused graph G s can incorporate more task-relevant information than considering each view individually, thus ensuring the effectiveness of multiplex graph fusion.Optimization. Note that all the loss terms require calculating mutual information. However, directly computing mutual information between two graphs is impractical due to the complexity of graph-structured data. Since we focus on node-level tasks, we assume the optimized graph should guarantee that each node's neighborhood substructure contains sufficient task-relevant information. Therefore, this requirement can be transferred into mutual information between node representations [34] , which can be easily computed using a sample-based differentiable lower/upper bound. For any view i and j, the lower bound I lb and upper bound I ub of the mutual information I(Z i ; Z j ) are [17] :EQUATION)EQUATIONwhere f (•, •) is a score critic approximated by a neural network and f * (•, •) is the optimal critic from I lb plugged into the I ub objective. p(z i , z j ) denotes the joint distribution of node representations from views i and j, while p(z i ) denotes the marginal distribution. z i and z j+ are mutually positive samples, representing the representations of the same node in views i and j respectively.To avoid too many extra parameters, the function f (z i , z j ) is implemented using non-linear projection and cosine similarity. Each term in the total loss L maximizes mutual information, so we use the lower bound estimator for the calculation. In contrast, we use the upper bound estimator for the generator loss L gen in InfoMGF-LA, which minimizes mutual information. These two losses can be expressed as follows:EQUATIONEQUATIONFinally, we provide the InfoMGF-LA algorithm in Appendix C.1. In Step 1 of each epoch, we keep the augmented graph fixed and optimize both the refined graphs and the fused graph using the total loss L, updating the parameters of Graph Learners and GCN. In Step 2, we keep the refined graphs fixed and optimize each augmented graph using L gen , updating the parameters of the Augmented Graph Generator and Decoder. After training, G s and Z are used for downstream tasks.Question: For each theoretical result, does the paper provide the full set of assumptions and a complete (and correct) proof?Answer: [Yes] Justification: Our assumptions, theorems, and their proofs are provided in Appendix D. Besides, we properly reference the theorems which have been proven.Guidelines:• The answer NA means that the paper does not include theoretical results.• All the theorems, formulas, and proofs in the paper should be numbered and crossreferenced. • All assumptions should be clearly stated or referenced in the statement of any theorems. • The proofs can either appear in the main paper or the supplemental material, but if they appear in the supplemental material, the authors are encouraged to provide a short proof sketch to provide intuition. • Inversely, any informal proof provided in the core of the paper should be complemented by formal proofs provided in appendix or supplemental material. • Theorems and Lemmas that the proof relies upon should be properly referenced. 
experiments: 
 In this section, our aim is to answer three research questions: RQ1: How effective is InfoMGF for different downstream tasks in unsupervised settings? RQ2: Does InfoMGF outperform baselines of various types under different adversarial attacks? RQ3: How do the main modules influence the performance of InfoMGF?4.1 Experimental Setups Downstream tasks. We evaluate the learned graph on node clustering and node classification tasks. For node clustering, following [8] , we apply the K-means algorithm on the node representations Z of G s and use the following four metrics: Accuracy (ACC), Normalized Mutual Information (NMI), F1 Score (F1), and Adjusted Rand Index (ARI). For node classification, following the graph structure learning settings in [16] , we train a new GCN on G s for evaluation and use the following two metrics: Macro-F1 and Micro-F1.Datasets. We conduct experiments on four real-world benchmark multiplex graph datasets, which consist of two citation networks (i.e., ACM [18] and DBLP [18] ), one review network Yelp [35] and a large-scale citation network MAG [36] . Details of datasets are shown in Appendix E.1.Baselines. For node clustering, we compare InfoMGF with two single-graph methods (i.e., VGAE [25] and DGI [37] ) and seven multiplex graph methods (i.e., O2MAC [26] , MvAGC [38] , MCGC [39] , HDMI [8] , MGDCR [9] , DMG [3] , and BTGF [10] ). All the baselines are unsupervised clustering methods. For a fair comparison, we conduct single-graph methods separately for each graph and present the best results.For node classification, we compare InfoMGF with baselines of various types: three supervised structure-fixed GNNs (i.e., GCN [22] , GAT [40] and HAN [41] ), six supervised GSL methods (i.e., LDS [42] , GRCN [43] , IDGL [44] , ProGNN [11] , GEN [45] and NodeFormer [46] ), three unsupervised GSL methods (i.e., SUBLIME [20] , STABLE [47] and GSR [48] ), and three structure-fixed UMGL methods (i.e., HDMI [8] , DMG [3] and BTGF [10] ). GCN, GAT, and all GSL methods are single-graph approaches. For unsupervised GSL methods, following [20] , we train a new GCN on the learned graph for node classification. For UMGL methods, following [8] , we train a linear classifier on the learned representations. Implementation details can be found in Appendix E.2.Table 1 presents the results of node clustering. Firstly, multiplex graph clustering methods outperform single graph methods overall, demonstrating the advantages of leveraging information from multiple sources. Secondly, compared to other multiplex graph methods, both versions of our approach surpass existing state-of-the-art methods. This underscores the efficacy of our proposed graph structure learning, which eliminates task-irrelevant noise and extracts task-relevant information from all graphs, to serve downstream tasks better. Finally, InfoMGF-LA achieves notably superior results, owing to the exceptional capability of the learnable generative graph augmentation in capturing view-unique task-relevant information. We select a subgraph from the ACM dataset with nodes in two classes (database (C1) and data mining (C2)) and visualize the edge weights in the original multiplex graphs and the fused graph learned by InfoMGF-LA. From Figure 3 , the learned graph mainly consists of intra-class edges. Compared to the nearly fully connected PSP view, InfoMGF significantly reduces inter-class edges, reflecting our effective removal of task-irrelevant noise. Compared to the PAP view, InfoMGF introduces more intra-class edges, benefiting from capturing shared and unique task-relevant information from all graphs. Furthermore, varying edge weights in G s represent different importance levels, better serving downstream tasks. In summary, the above experiment results across various downstream tasks demonstrate the effectiveness of InfoMGF. We use the InfoMGF-LA version in the subsequent sections to conduct more comprehensive analyses.To evaluate the robustness of InfoMGF against random noise, we perturb each graph on the ACM dataset by randomly adding edges, deleting edges, and masking features. We compare InfoMGF against various baselines: structure-fixed method (GCN), GSL method (SUBLIME), and UMGL method (HDMI). From Figure 4a and 4b, it is evident that with increasing rates of edge perturbing, the performance of each method deteriorates, while the GSL methods (i.e., InfoMGF and SUB-LIME) exhibit better robustness. Notably, InfoMGF consistently outperforms all other methods across both experimental settings, especially when the perturbation rate is extremely high.Figure 4c shows the performance of InfoMGF and various baselines when injecting random feature noise. It can be observed that InfoMGF exhibits excellent robustness against feature noise, while the performance of SUBLIME degrades rapidly. As a single graph structure learning method, SUB-LIME's performance heavily relies on the quality of node features. In contrast, our method can directly optimize task-relevant information in multi-view graph structures (e.g., edges shared across multiple graphs are likely to share task-relevant information, which can be directly learned through L s ), thus reducing dependence on node features. Consequently, InfoMGF demonstrates superior robustness against various types of noise. To verify the effectiveness of each part of InfoMGF, we design four variants and compare the classification performance against InfoMGF.Effectiveness of loss components. Recall InfoMGF maximizes view-shared and unique task-relevant information by L s and L u . Thus, we design two variants (w/o L s and w/o L u ). Table 3 shows the necessity of each component. Furthermore, we can observe that the removal of L u has a greater impact compared to L s , which can be explained by the fact that optimization of L u actually maximizes the overall task-relevant information of each view, rather than the unique aspects of the view. Effectiveness of augmentation module. The InfoMGF-LA framework incorporates learnable generative augmentation and maximizes the mutual information I(G s i ; G ′ i ) to mine the task-relevant information. We first compare InfoMGF with maximizing the mutual information I(G s i ; G i ) with the original graph structure without augmentation (w/o Aug.). Furthermore, we remove the reconstruction loss term (w/o Rec.) of L gen to analyze the necessity of preserving crucial information. The results show that maximizing I(G s i ; G i ) leads to poorer performance compared to I(G s i ; G ′ i ), consistent with Theorem 2. Meanwhile, deleting the reconstruction term from L gen also results in the augmented graph lacking task-relevant information, thus hurting model performance.We further visualize the node correlation in the learned representations Z of the fused graph, which is used in the clustering task. Figure 5 shows the node correlation heatmaps of the representations, where both rows and columns are reordered by the node labels. In the heatmap, warmer colors signify a higher correlation between nodes. It is evident that the correlation among nodes of the same class is significantly higher than that of nodes from different classes. This is due to G s mainly containing intra-class edges without irrelevant inter-class edges, which validates the effectiveness of InfoMGF in unsupervised graph structure learning.Question: Does the paper fully disclose all the information needed to reproduce the main experimental results of the paper to the extent that it affects the main claims and/or conclusions of the paper (regardless of whether the code and data are provided or not)?Answer: [Yes] Justification: All experimental setups and details of hyper-parameters are in Appendix E.2. 
conclusion and limitation: 
 This paper delves into the unsupervised graph structure learning within multiplex graphs for the first time. The proposed InfoMGF refines the graph structure to eliminate task-irrelevant noise, while simultaneously maximizing both the shared and unique task-relevant information across different graphs. The fused graph applied to downstream tasks is optimized to incorporate clean and comprehensive task-relevant information from all graphs. Theoretical analyses and extensive experiments ensure the effectiveness of InfoMGF. A limitation of our research lies in its focus solely on the pure unsupervised scenario. In some real-world scenarios where partial node labels are available, label information can be used to learn a better structure of multiplex graphs. Such supervised or semi-supervised problems are left for future exploration. Question: Does the paper provide open access to the data and code, with sufficient instructions to faithfully reproduce the main experimental results, as described in supplemental material? Answer: [Yes] Justification: The code and data of our research are released through a Github link, which can be found in our abstract. Guidelines:• The answer NA means that paper does not include experiments requiring code. Guidelines:• The answer NA means that the paper does not include experiments.• The experimental setting should be presented in the core of the paper to a level of detail that is necessary to appreciate the results and make sense of them. • The full details can be provided either with the code, in appendix, or as supplemental material. 
experiment statistical significance: 
 Question: Does the paper report error bars suitably and correctly defined or other appropriate information about the statistical significance of the experiments?Answer: [Yes]Justification: The experimental results with standard deviation for our method and baselines are presented in Table 2 .Guidelines:• The answer NA means that the paper does not include experiments. Guidelines:• The answer NA means that the authors have not reviewed the NeurIPS Code of Ethics.• If the authors answer No, they should explain the special circumstances that require a deviation from the Code of Ethics. • The authors should make sure to preserve anonymity (e.g., if there is a special consideration due to laws or regulations in their jurisdiction). 
broader impacts: 
 Question: Does the paper discuss both potential positive societal impacts and negative societal impacts of the work performed?Answer: [Yes]Justification: A new problem on the reliability of real-world multiplex graph structures is proposed in our paper. The broader impacts of our work lie in the contributions to promote the development of the graph learning community, summarized in the introduction part.Guidelines:• The answer NA means that there is no societal impact of the work performed.• If the authors answer NA or No, they should explain why their work has no societal impact or why the paper does not address societal impact. • Examples of negative societal impacts include potential malicious or unintended uses (e.g., disinformation, generating fake profiles, surveillance), fairness considerations (e.g., deployment of technologies that could make decisions that unfairly impact specific groups), privacy considerations, and security considerations. • The conference expects that many papers will be foundational research and not tied to particular applications, let alone deployments. However, if there is a direct path to any negative applications, the authors should point it out. For example, it is legitimate to point out that an improvement in the quality of generative models could be used to generate deepfakes for disinformation. On the other hand, it is not needed to point out that a generic algorithm for optimizing neural networks could enable people to train models that generate Deepfakes faster. • The authors should consider possible harms that could arise when the technology is being used as intended and functioning correctly, harms that could arise when the technology is being used as intended but gives incorrect results, and harms following from (intentional or unintentional) misuse of the technology. • If there are negative societal impacts, the authors could also discuss possible mitigation strategies (e.g., gated release of models, providing defenses in addition to attacks, mechanisms for monitoring misuse, mechanisms to monitor how a system learns from feedback over time, improving the efficiency and accessibility of ML). 
safeguards: 
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 Appendix: G v = {A v , X} The v-th original graph. YThe label information.The number of graphs/nodes/features.A v ∈ {0, 1} N ×N The adjacency matrix of v-th original graph. X ∈ R N ×dfThe shared feature matrix across all graphs.G ′ v = {A ′ v , X ′ } The v-th augmented graph. G s v = {A s v , X} The v-th refined graph. G s = {A s , X}The learned fused graph.H v ∈ R N ×dfThe node embeddings of the original graph from the graph learner.Z v ∈ R N ×dThe node representations of the refined graph of the GCN encoder.Z ∈ R N ×dThe node representations of the fused graph from the GCN encoder.⃗ m ∈ {0, 1} dfThe random masking vector for feature masking.M ∈ {0, 1} N ×NThe random masking matrix for edge dropping. rThe order of graph aggregation in SGC.The number of layers in GCN. kThe number of neighbors in kNN. λThe positive hyper-parameter in L gen .I(G s i ; G s j )The mutual information between the i-th and j-th refined graphs.The total loss of InfoMGF-RA and InfoMGF-LA.The loss of augmented graph generator in InfoMGF-LA.The Hadamard product.The non-linear activation function.The Bernoulli distribution.The concatenation operation.Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Learning (UMGL). Unlike supervised methods such as HAN [41] and SSAMN [49] which rely on label information, UMGL tackles unsupervised tasks in multiplex graphs by using node features and graph structures [50] . Early UMGL methods such as MvAGC [38] and MCGC [39] combine graph filtering with unsupervised techniques such as spectral and subspace clustering to uncover underlying patterns in complex networks. With the rise of deep representation learning [51] , UMGL has embraced a new paradigm: Unsupervised learning of low-dimensional node representations using graph neural networks (GNN) [4] and self-supervised techniques [5] for downstream tasks such as node classification, node clustering, and similarity search. O2MAC [26] pioneered the use of GNNs in UMGL, selecting the most informative graph and reconstructing all graph structures to capture shared information. DMGI [2] and HDMI [8] maximize mutual information between local and global contexts, then fuse representations from different relations. MGCCN [52] , MGDCR [9] , and BTGF [10] employ various contrastive losses to align representations of diverse relations and prevent dimension collapse. CoCoMG [53] and DMG [3] capture complete information by learning consistency and complementarity between graphs. Despite these advances, a critical factor that limits the performance of UMGL is overlooked: the reliability of graph structures, which is the focus of our research.Graph Structure Learning (GSL). With the advancement of graph neural networks, instead of designing complex neural architectures as model-centric approaches, some data-centric research has focused on the graph data itself [54] , with graph structure learning (GSL) gaining widespread attention for studying the reliability of graph structures. GSL, based on empirical analysis of graph data, recognizes that real-world graph structures are often unreliable, thus opting to learn new structures. GSLB [16] summarizes the general framework of graph structure learning: a Graph Learner takes in the original graph G = {A, X} and generates a refined graph G s = {A s , X}; then, a Graph Encoder uses the refined graph to obtain node representations or perform class prediction. Consequently, GSL can be broadly categorized into supervised and unsupervised methods based on whether label information is utilized to learn the new structure. For supervised GSL, probabilistic models like LDS [42] and GEN [45] are employed to generate graph structures; GRCN [43] , IDGL [44] , and NodeFormer [46] calculate node similarities through metric learning or scalable attention mechanisms; while ProGNN [11] directly treats all elements in the adjacency matrix as learnable parameters. Meanwhile, methods like SUBLIME [20] , STABLE [47] , and GSR [48] introduce self-supervised signals through contrastive learning to learn graph structures without requiring label information. Almost all existing GSL studies concentrate on a single homogeneous graph, with only a handful of works such as GTN [18] and HGSL [55] attempting supervised structure learning on heterogeneous graphs containing multiple types of nodes. There is still a lack of research concerning more practically significant unsupervised graph structure learning within multiplex graphs.Contrastive Learning and Information Theory. Contrastive learning, as an effective paradigm of self-supervised learning, enables representation learning without labeled information [56] . It has found widespread applications across various modalities [57] [58] [59] , particularly effective in multiview or multi-modal tasks [60] [61] [62] . Its theoretical foundation is rooted in multi-view information theory [63, 30, 64] . Standard contrastive learning is based on the assumption of multi-view redundancy: shared information between views is almost exactly what is relevant for downstream tasks [17, 23, 24, 65] . They capture shared task-relevant information between views through contrastive pre-training, thus achieving data compression and sufficient representation learning. To successfully apply contrastive learning to multi-modal data with task-relevant unique information, some studies have improved the framework of contrastive learning and extended it to multi-view non-redundancy [17, 28] . Recent efforts also attempt to apply contrastive learning to graph learning tasks [66] . They generate contrastive views through graph data augmentation [67] or directly utilize different relations within graph data [39] . However, existing multi-view graph contrastive learning still suffers from the limitation of multi-view redundancy, failing to extract view-unique task-relevant information effectively.C. Generate fused graph G s = {A s , X} with graph learner by Eq.( 6) and post-processors; Generate fused graph G s = {A s , X} with graph learner by Eq.( 6) and post-processors;9 Obtain node representations {Z 1 , • • • , Z V , Z 1 ′ , • • • , Z V ′ ,8 Obtain node representations {Z 1 , • • • , Z V , Z 1 ′ , • • • , Z V ′ , Z} through graph encoder GCN; 9Calculate the total loss L by Eq.( 10) and update parameters in GCN and graph learners; // Step 2: Fix refined graphs and fused graph {G s 1 , • • • , G s V , G s } 10 for each view v in {1, • • • , V } do 11 Generate augmented graph G ′ v = {A ′ v , X ′ }, • • • , Z V , Z 1 ′ , • • • , Z V ′ }First, we analyze the time complexity of each component in InfoMGF. In this paragraph, let V , N , and m represent the numbers of graphs, nodes, and edges, while b 1 and b 2 denote the batch sizes of the locality-sensitive k NN and contrastive loss computation. The layer numbers of graph learner, graph encoder GCN, and non-linear projector are denoted as L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 , respectively. The feature, hidden layer, and representation dimensions are denoted as d f , d h , and d, respectively. We analyze the complexity of kNN and GCN in scalable versions. Before training, scalable SGC is applied with a complexity of O(V mrd f ) related to the aggregation order r. During training, we first perform a graph learner with scalable k NN that requiresO(V N L 1 d f + V N b 1 d f ).For the GCN encoder and non-linear projector, the total complexity isO ( V mL 2 d h + V md + V N L 2 d 2 h + V N d h (d + d f ) + V N L 3 d 2 ). Within the graph augmentation module, the complexity of feature masking is O(N d f ). The learnable generative graph augmentation in InfoMGF-LA has a complexity ofO(V N d f d h + V md h + V N d f d),where the first two terms are contributed by the augmented graph generator and the last one is for the decoder. For InfoMGF-RA, the random edge drop requires O(V m) time complexity. For the loss computation, the complexity is O(V 2 N b 2 d).To simplify the overall complexity, we denote the larger terms within L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 as L, the larger terms between d h and d as d, the larger terms between b 1 and b 2 as B. Since the scalable SGC operation only needs to be performed once before training, its impact on training time is negligible. Therefore, we only consider total complexity during the training process. The overall complexity of both InfoMGF-RA and InfoMGF-LA isO(V mL d + V N L d2 + V N d f ( d + L) + V N B(d f + V d)),which is comparable to the mainstream unsupervised GSL models, including our baselines. For example, SUBLIME [20] needs to be trained on each graph in a multiplex graph dataset, and its time complexity isO(V mL d + V N L d2 + V N d f ( d + L) + V N B(d f + d)), which only has a slight difference in the last term compared to the time complexity of our method.After constructing the cosine similarity matrix of H v , we employ the postprocessor to ensure that A s v is sparse, nonnegative, symmetric and normalized. For convenience, we omit the subscript v in the discussion below. kNN for sparsity. The fully connected adjacency matrix usually makes little sense for most applications and results in expensive computation cost. Hence, we conduct the k-nearest neighbors (kNN) operation to sparsify the learned graph. We keep the edges with top-k values and otherwise to 0 for each node and get the sparse adjacency matrix A sp . Symmetrization and Activation. As real-world connections are often bidirectional, we make the adjacency matrix symmetric. Additionally, the weight of each edge should be non-negative. With the input A sp , they can be expressed as follows:EQUATION)where σ(•) is a non-linear activation implemented by the ReLU function.Normalization. The normalized adjacency matrix with self-loop can be obtained as follows:EQUATION)where Dsym is the degree matrix of Ãsym with self-loop. Afterward, we can obtain the adjacency matrix A s v for each view, which possesses the desirable properties of sparsity, non-negativity, symmetry, and normalization.For each view i and j, the lower and upper bound of I(Z i ; Z j ) in Eq.( 8) and Eq.( 9) can be calculated for the node m:EQUATION)EQUATION)where Zi m is the non-linear projection of Z i m through MLP, sim(•) refers to the cosine similarity and τ c is the temperature parameter in contrastive loss. The loss L s is computed as follows:EQUATIONLikewise, we can compute L f and L u in the total loss L with the same approach. Upon optimizing L, our objective also entails the minimization of L gen , which incorporates λ * L u (here we compute L u using the upper bound) and the loss term of the reconstruction. L gen can be represented by:EQUATIONIn this section, we enumerate some basic properties of mutual information used to prove the theorems. For any random variables x, y and z, we have: We also introduce the property of representation: Lemma 1. [63, 68] If z is a representation of v, then:(P 1 )EQUATION)for any variable (or groups of variables) a and b in the system. Whenever a random variable z is defined as a representation of v, we state that z is conditionally independent of any other variable in the system given v. This does not imply that z must be a deterministic function of v, but rather that the source of z's stochasticity is independent of the other random variables.Proof of Proposition 1: Due to each G s i is obtained from G i through a deterministic function, which is independent of other variables. Thus, here G s i can be regarded as a representation of G i . For any two different views G i and G j , we have:EQUATIONwhere * follows from Lemma 1. The bound reported in this equation is tight when I(G s i ; G j |G s j ) = 0, this happens whenever G s j contains all the information regarding G s i (and therefore G i ). Symmetrically, we can also prove I(G s j ; G i ) ≥ I(G s i ; G s j ), then we haveEQUATIONProposition 1 holds.Proof of Theorem 1. From the definition of optimal augmentation graph, we haveEQUATIONSimilar to the proof of Proposition 1, as G s i is regarded as a representation of G i , therefore:EQUATION)EQUATION) Based on Eq.( 24) and the above two equations, thenI(G s i ; G ′ i ) = I(G i ; G s i ; G ′ i ) + I(G s i ; G ′ i |G i ) Eq.(26) = I(G i ; G ′ i ) -I(G i ; G ′ i |G s i ) Eq.(24) = I(G i ; Y ) -I(G i ; Y |G s i ) (P3) = I(G i ; Y ; G s i )Eq.( 25)EQUATIONIt shows that maximizing I(G s i ; G ′ i ) and maximizing I(G s i ; Y ) are equivalent. Theorem 1 holds.Proof of Theorem 2. Here we theoretically compareEQUATIONIn the process of maximizing I(G s i ; G i ), not only is task-relevant information (the first term) maximized, but task-irrelevant information (the second term) is also maximized.i ; G ′ i ), based on Theorem 1, we have:EQUATIONObviously, no task-irrelevant information is maximized. Theorem 2 holds.Proof of Theorem 3. To prove the theorem, we need to use the following three properties of entropy:(H 1 ) Relationship between the mutual information and entropy:EQUATION(H 2 ) Relationship between the conditional entropy and entropy:EQUATION(H 3 ) Relationship between the conditional mutual information and entropy:EQUATIONBy maximizing the mutual information with each refined graph, the optimized fused graph G s would contain all information from every G s i . For any G s i , we denote G s c as the fused graph of all views except view i. Thus we have:EQUATIONwhereH(G s i |G s c ) and H(G s c |G s i )indicate the specific information of G s c and G s i respectively, and I(G s i ; G s c ) indicates the consistent information between G s c and G s i . Then we have:EQUATIONTherefore, for any downstream task Y , we further have:EQUATIONBased on the properties of mutual information and entropy, we can prove:I(G s ; Y ) = H(G s ) -H(G s |Y ) = H(G s ) -H(G s , Y ) + H(Y )Eq.( 34)EQUATIONBased on the properties of entropy, we have the proofs as follows:EQUATIONEQUATIONWith the equations above, we can obtainEQUATIONAccording to Eq.( 36) and Eq.( 39), we have:EQUATIONAsEQUATIONSimilarly, we can also obtainEQUATIONAs Eq.( 41) holds for any i, thusEQUATIONTheorem 3 holds.We consider 4 benchmark datasets in total. The statistics of the datasets are provided in Table 5 .Through the value of "Unique relevant edge ratio", we can observe a significant amount of viewunique task-relevant information present in each real-world multiplex graph dataset. It should be noted that MAG is a subset of OGBN-MAG [36] , consisting of the four largest classes. This dataset was first organized into its current subset version in the following paper [1] . We implement all experiments on the platform with PyTorch 1.10.1 and DGL 0.9.1 using an Intel(R) Xeon(R) Platinum 8457C 20 vCPU and an L20 48GB GPU. We perform 5 runs of all experiments and report the average results. In the large MAG data set, InfoMGF-RA takes 80 minutes to complete 5 runs, whereas, on other datasets, both versions of InfoMGF require less than 5 minutes.Our model is trained with the Adam optimizer, and the common layer count of GNN models [69] . The probability ρ of random feature masking is set to 0.5 or 0, and the temperature parameter τ c in contrastive loss is fixed at 0.2. For InfoMGF-RA using random graph augmentation, the probability ρ s of random edge dropping is fixed at 0.5. For InfoMGF-LA with learnable generative graph augmentation, the generator's learning rate lr gen is fixed at 0.001, the temperature parameter τ in Gumbel-Max is set to 1, and the hyper-parameter λ controlling the minimization of mutual information is fine-tuned from {0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10}.For the large dataset MAG, we compute the contrastive loss for estimating mutual information in batches, with a batch size ofWe analyze the impact of two important hyper-parameters: the number of neighbors k in kNN and hyper-parameter λ controlling the influence of mutual information minimization to generate augmented graphs. The performance change of InfoMGF-LA with respect to k is illustrated in Figure 6a . Overall, InfoMGF shows low sensitivity to changes in k. The model achieves optimal performance when k is set to 10 or 15. However, when k is very small (k = 5), detrimental effects may arise, possibly due to the limited number of beneficial neighbors. As k increases, the performance can still be maintained high. Figure 6b shows the results to λ from {0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10}. Our proposed model shows low sensitivity to changes in λ in general, while the λ corresponding to achieving the best performance varies across different datasets. Guidelines:• The answer NA means that the abstract and introduction do not include the claims made in the paper. • The abstract and/or introduction should clearly state the claims made, including the contributions made in the paper and important assumptions and limitations. 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For example, if the contribution is a novel architecture, describing the architecture fully might suffice, or if the contribution is a specific model and empirical evaluation, it may be necessary to either make it possible for others to replicate the model with the same dataset, or provide access to the model. In general. releasing code and data is often one good way to accomplish this, but reproducibility can also be provided via detailed instructions for how to replicate the results, access to a hosted model (e.g., in the case of a large language model), releasing of a model checkpoint, or other means that are appropriate to the research performed. • While NeurIPS does not require releasing code, the conference does require all submissions to provide some reasonable avenue for reproducibility, which may depend on the nature of the contribution. , with an open-source dataset or instructions for how to construct the dataset). 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Decision: This paper introduces InfoMGF, a framework for unsupervised multiplex graph learning that refines graph structures to remove noise and maximize task-relevant information through mutual information maximization across different graph views. The method effectively addresses the issue of graph structure reliability and shows superior performance in clustering and classification tasks, even outperforming some supervised approaches. While initial concerns were raised about scalability and the clarity of differences between InfoMGF variants and other methods, the authors' rebuttal provided detailed explanations and additional experiments that addressed these concerns.

Reviews: review: paper_summary: paper_summary: The authors develop a novel approach to improve Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Learning by refining graph structures to eliminate noise and maximize relevant information. The method utilizes mutual information maximization to integrate multiple graph views effectively. Theoretical validation and comprehensive experiments show that the proposed method outperforms existing methods.
strength_weakness: strength_weakness: 1.	According to Table 1 and 2, it seems that the proposed method improves more on clustering than classification.
2.	Overall, this paper is well-organized. However, the writing could be improved in terms of tone and words.
3.	There are too many notations, which are confusing.
questions: questions: 1.	Is there any explanation about why the method performs better on clustering than classification?
2.	How to solve the above issue?
3.	The font of k in the caption of fig.5a is not correct. 
4.	In the Appendix, the authors proof Proposition 1, however, there is no corresponding one in the main paper.
limitations: limitations: NA
paper_summary: paper_summary: The paper introduces InfoMGF, an innovative framework for Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Learning (UMGL) that addresses the often-overlooked issue of graph structure reliability. InfoMGF refines graph structures by removing task-irrelevant noise and maximizing task-relevant information through mutual information maximization. Extensive experiments demonstrate its superior performance over various baselines and even some supervised methods, validating its effectiveness in enhancing node representation learning.
strength_weakness: strength_weakness: - Robustness: Fig.4 shows that the proposed method is very robust to structure noise. However, more analysis is needed. Both InfoMGF and SUBLIME are structure learning methods. Compared to InfoMGF，Why does the performance of SUBLIME degrade rapidly in the case of edge deletions?
- Clarity: The paper develops two algorithms in this paper: InfoMGF-RA and InfoMGF-LA. However, it is a little confusion that what is the difference in their objective functions.
questions: questions: 1.	There are some small errors in Algorithm 1. In particular, the title of it is InfoMGF-LA, however, line 11 also includes the operation for InfoMGF-RA.
2.	The proposed method depends on the assumption of optimal augmentation. How to guarantee that the used feature and structure augmentations are optimal? It is still unclear to me.
3.	The authors discuss the robustness against structure noise. How about feature noise? Could you share your intuition on this matter?
limitations: limitations: The paper discusses the limitations.
paper_summary: paper_summary: The paper introduces InfoMGF (Information-aware Unsupervised Multiplex Graph Fusion), a novel framework aimed at addressing the issue of graph structure reliability in Multiplex Graphs. The primary goal is to refine graph structures to eliminate noise and maximize task-relevant information. Theoretical analysis and comprehensive experimental results validate its effectiveness.
strength_weakness: strength_weakness: 1.	Scalability: The framework involves several steps. Though the paper provides the complexity analysis in Appendix for each step, it is still unclear what is the overall complexity.
2.	Reproducibility: The authors share the code for reproducibility. However, I didn’t see the datasets.
3.	Accuracy: The authors should check for the few grammatical and spelling errors that occur in the text.
questions: questions: As above.
limitations: limitations: Yes.
paper_summary: paper_summary: - This paper presents an information theory approach to obtain a single graph fused from a multiplex graph, which preserves 
   - sufficient task-relevant information 
   - while removing task-irrelevant noise. 
- A learnable graph augmentation strategy is also developed. 
   - The learned graph and representation can be applied to different types of tasks. 
- The effectiveness is supported by extensive experimental results.
strength_weakness: strength_weakness: - The difference between the existing non-redundancy principle and multiplex graph non-redundancy is unclear. Please clarify it.
- The proposed InfoMGF-LA runs out-of-memory on MAG data. The reason should be given.
- It is possible that the proposed method cannot handle real-world large-scale graph. It should be addressed in the future and discussed in the conclusion part.
- The difference between the proposed method and DGM is unclear.
questions: questions: I list them in **Weaknesses**.
limitations: limitations: Some imitations are addressed in $\S5$.

Comments: title: Thanks for the raising
Thanks for the raising
Reminder to Check Authors' Reply
comment: We are grateful to Reviewer gjsJ for suggesting this improvement! If you have any additional questions or concerns, please feel free to discuss them with us.
We are grateful to Reviewer ei6T for suggesting this improvement! If you have any additional questions or concerns, please feel free to discuss them with us.
Thanks to the author for the reply, I have no doubts anymore and I will improve my score.
Dear Reviewers,

Would you mind checking the authors' responses?

- AC