nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Geological_history_of_Earth

The Jurassic Period extends from about 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma. During the early Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land near either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. The Jurassic geological record is good in western Europe, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of the continent was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site and the renowned late Jurassic lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface. Though the epicontinental Sundance Sea left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the United States and Canada during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the alluvial deposits of the Morrison Formation. The first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern Cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia and the United Kingdom.

Question: During what years was the Jurassic period?
Answer: 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma.

Question: Which supercontinent came apart in the Jurassic period?
Answer: Pangaea

Question: The Gulf of Mexico formed in the rift between North America and what other land mass?
Answer: Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula

Question: At what point did the South Atlantic ocean begin to open?
Answer: Cretaceous Period

Question: Which late Jurassic cultural sites are famous in Europe?
Answer: lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen
Geological_history_of_Earth

During the Cretaceous, the late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent-margin orogenies that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies. Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous, Gondwana itself broke up as South America, Antarctica and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide.

Question: The current continents were formerly known as what continent?
Answer: Pangaea

Question: Which oregenies followed the Nevadan in the Cretaceous?
Answer: Sevier and Laramide

Question: South America was formerly which continent?
Answer: Gondwana

Question: The rifting in the Cretaceous had what result on the oceans?
Answer: raising eustatic sea levels

Question: Antarctica was a part of what supercontinent?
Answer: Gondwana
Geological_history_of_Earth

To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central North America (the Western Interior Seaway) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged. The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Mid-ocean ridge activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton. These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe and China. In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.

Question: During the height of the Cretaceous transgression how much of the earths land mass was under water?
Answer: one-third

Question: What type of rock was the Cretaceous notable for forming the most amount of?
Answer: Phanerozoic

Question: The Cretaceous is a part of which geologic era?
Answer: Phanerozoic

Question: Where can one find the Smoky Hill Chalk Member?
Answer: North America

Question: Where are the Deccan Traps?
Answer: India
Geological_history_of_Earth

The Cenozoic Era covers the 66 million years since the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event up to and including the present day. By the end of the Mesozoic era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present form. Laurasia became North America and Eurasia, while Gondwana split into South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent, which collided with the Asian plate. This impact gave rise to the Himalayas. The Tethys Sea, which had separated the northern continents from Africa and India, began to close up, forming the Mediterranean sea.

Question: How many years long was the Cenozoic Era?
Answer: 66 million years

Question: Which extinction marked the beginning of the Cenozoic Era?
Answer: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

Question: What geologic period are we in currently?
Answer: Cenozoic Era

Question: At the end of which era had the continents taken roughly their current shape?
Answer: Mesozoic

Question: The collision of the Indian sub continent and the Asian plate created which mountain range?
Answer: the Himalayas
Geological_history_of_Earth

In many ways, the Paleocene continued processes that had begun during the late Cretaceous Period. During the Paleocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Supercontinent Laurasia had not yet separated into three continents. Europe and Greenland were still connected. North America and Asia were still intermittently joined by a land bridge, while Greenland and North America were beginning to separate. The Laramide orogeny of the late Cretaceous continued to uplift the Rocky Mountains in the American west, which ended in the succeeding epoch. South and North America remained separated by equatorial seas (they joined during the Neogene); the components of the former southern supercontinent Gondwana continued to split apart, with Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia pulling away from each other. Africa was heading north toward Europe, slowly closing the Tethys Ocean, and India began its migration to Asia that would lead to a tectonic collision and the formation of the Himalayas.

Question: How many continents did Laurasia break into?
Answer: three

Question: In the Paleocene period Greenland was joined to which continent?
Answer: North America

Question: What mountain chain in the Cretaceous was lifted as a result of the Laramide oregeny?
Answer: the Rocky Mountains

Question: In which period did North and South america join?
Answer: Neogene

Question: Which ocean was closed when Africa moved northward during the Paleocene?
Answer: Tethys
Geological_history_of_Earth

During the Eocene (56 million years ago - 33.9 million years ago), the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago.[citation needed]

Question: During what years did the Eocene period take place?
Answer: 56 million years ago - 33.9 million years ago

Question: Australia was connected to which other continent at the start of the Eocene?
Answer: Antarctica

Question: How long ago did Antarctica and Australia split?
Answer: around 45 Ma

Question: Around how many years ago is the current ice age pattern believed to have begun?
Answer: 40 million years

Question: The mixing of equatorial currents with Antarctic waters in the Eocene resulted in what?
Answer: keeping global temperatures high
Geological_history_of_Earth

The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, creating the Himalayan orogeny.

Question: during which period did mountains form in the western part of North America?
Answer: Eocene

Question: In the Eocene, in Europe, which sea ceased to be?
Answer: Tethys Sea

Question: The Mediterranean sea is a remaining part of which sea from the Eocene?
Answer: Tethys Sea

Question: What began to form in the flat basins in North America during the Eocene?
Answer: huge lakes

Question: Which oregeny was created when India collided with Asia?
Answer: the Himalayan orogeny
Geological_history_of_Earth

Antarctica continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent ice cap. Mountain building in western North America continued, and the Alps started to rise in Europe as the African plate continued to push north into the Eurasian plate, isolating the remnants of Tethys Sea. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and drifted north toward North America. It also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the continent.

Question: What permanent structure formed on Antarctica?
Answer: ice cap

Question: The lift of which mountain range in Europe was the result of the African plate moving north into the Eurasian?
Answer: the Alps

Question: During what period was there a land bridge joining Europe and North America?
Answer: Oligocene

Question: In the Oligocene period South America broke free from what other continent?
Answer: Antarctica

Question: Which current resulted in the cooling of Antarctica?
Answer: the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Geological_history_of_Earth

During the Miocene continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, the subduction zone along the Pacific Ocean margin of South America caused the rise of the Andes and the southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula. India continued to collide with Asia. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish-Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma (ICS 2004). Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea resulting in the Messinian salinity crisis near the end of the Miocene.

Question: The formation of which mountain range was the result of of what zone along the Pacific Ocean side of South America?
Answer: the Andes

Question: Which continent was India colliding with in the Miocene?
Answer: Asia

Question: When Africa was colliding with Eurasia which seaway ceased to be during the Miocene?
Answer: The Tethys Seaway

Question: Between what period of time did the Tethys disappear?
Answer: 19 and 12 Ma

Question: Which crisis occured towards the end of the Miocene period?
Answer: Messinian salinity crisis
Geological_history_of_Earth

South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive marsupial faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about 2.58 million years ago (the start of the Quaternary Period), the current ice age began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years.

Question: What is the link between North and South America called?
Answer: the Isthmus of Panama

Question: In which period did North and South America become linked?
Answer: Pliocene

Question: The Mediterranean was created by the collision of Europe and what?
Answer: Africa

Question: What period came after the Pliocene?
Answer: the Quaternary Period

Question: The Pliocene saw the end of what fauna in South America?
Answer: marsupial faunas
Geological_history_of_Earth

The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. Ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from Vermont, Quebec, Ontario and Michigan. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in Scandinavia resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the Baltic Sea, including much of Finland. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries.

Question: How long ago did the last glacial period end?
Answer: about 10,000 years ago

Question: During what period did sea levels rice 115 feet?
Answer: Holocene

Question: By what height did sea levels rise at the end of the last glacial period?
Answer: 35 metres (115 ft)

Question: Glaciars from what period depressed the height of northern lands by 591 feet?
Answer: Pleistocene

Question: What sea did the Hudson Bay used to be a part of?
Answer: Tyrrell Sea
Punjab,_Pakistan

Punjab is Pakistan's second largest province in terms of land area at 205,344 km2 (79,284 sq mi), after Balochistan, and is located at the north western edge of the geologic Indian plate in South Asia. The province is bordered by Kashmir (Azad Kashmir, Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, India) to the northeast, the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan to the east, the Pakistani province of Sindh to the south, the province of Balochistan to the southwest, the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and the Islamabad Capital Territory to the north.

Question: How large is Punjab compared to the other three provinces?
Answer: second largest

Question: What is Pakistan's largest province?
Answer: Balochistan

Question: How many square miles is Punjab?
Answer: 79,284

Question: What Indian states are on the east side of Punjab, Pakistan?
Answer: Punjab and Rajasthan

Question: What Pakistani province is south of Punjab?
Answer: Sindh
Punjab,_Pakistan

The capital and largest city is Lahore which was the historical capital of the wider Punjab region. Other important cities include Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Sargodha, Multan, Sialkot, Bahawalpur, Gujrat, Sheikhupura, Jhelum and Sahiwal. Undivided Punjab is home to six rivers, of which five flow through Pakistani Punjab. From west to east, these are: the Indus, Jhelum, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Nearly 60% of Pakistan's population lives in the Punjab. It is the nation's only province that touches every other province; it also surrounds the federal enclave of the national capital city at Islamabad. In the acronym P-A-K-I-S-T-A-N, the P is for Punjab.

Question: Which province in Pakistan borders the other 3 provinces?
Answer: Punjab

Question: What is Pakistan's capital?
Answer: Islamabad

Question: How many rivers are in Punjab, Pakistan?
Answer: five

Question: What is the easternmost river in Punjab?
Answer: Sutlej

Question: How much of Pakistan's population lives in Punjab?
Answer: Nearly 60%
Punjab,_Pakistan

Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada. Punjab was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 4000 years ago. The main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilisation. The Vedic civilisation flourished along the length of the Indus River. This civilisation shaped subsequent cultures in South Asia and Afghanistan. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the Gandhara Mahajanapadas, Achaemenids, Macedonians, Mauryas, Kushans, Guptas, and Hindu Shahi. It also comprised the Gujar empire for a period of time, otherwise known as the Gurjara-Pratihara empire. Agriculture flourished and trading cities (such as Multan and Lahore) grew in wealth.

Question: What was Punjab formerly known as?
Answer: Panchanada

Question: What ancient civilization lived in Punjab?
Answer: the Indus Valley Civilization

Question: When was Punjab part of the Indus Valley Civilization?
Answer: more than 4000 years ago

Question: What was the major Indus city in Punjab?
Answer: Harrapa

Question: What were bricks taken from Harrapa for the construction of?
Answer: the Lahore-Multan railroad
Punjab,_Pakistan

Due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attacks and influence from the west and witnessed centuries of foreign invasions by the Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans. The city of Taxila, founded by son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram. It was reputed to house the oldest university in the world,[citation needed] Takshashila University. One of the teachers was the great Vedic thinker and politician Chanakya. Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the Maurya Empire. It is a UN World Heritage site, valued for its archaeological and religious history.

Question: Who has invaded Punjab?
Answer: Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans

Question: Who founded Taxila?
Answer: son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram

Question: What is said to be the world's oldest university?
Answer: Takshashila University

Question: Who was Chanakya?
Answer: great Vedic thinker and politician

Question: What empire was Taxila a center of learning of?
Answer: the Maurya Empire
Punjab,_Pakistan

The northwestern part of the South Asia, including Punjab, was repeatedly invaded or conquered by various foreign empires, such as those of Tamerlane, Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan. Having conquered Drangiana, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Seistan in ten days, Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush and was thus fully informed of the magnificence of the country and its riches in gold, gems and pearls. However, Alexander had to encounter and reduce the tribes on the border of Punjab before entering the luxuriant plains. Having taken a northeasterly direction, he marched against the Aspii (mountaineers), who offered vigorous resistance, but were subdued.[citation needed] Alexander then marched through Ghazni, blockaded Magassa, and then marched to Ora and Bazira. Turning to the northeast, Alexander marched to Pucela, the capital of the district now known as Pakhli. He entered Western Punjab, where the ancient city of Nysa (at the site of modern-day Mong) was situated. A coalition was formed against Alexander by the Cathians, the people of Multan, who were very skilful in war. Alexander invested many troops, eventually killing seventeen thousand Cathians in this battle, and the city of Sagala (present-day Sialkot) was razed to the ground. Alexander left Punjab in 326 B.C. and took his army to the heartlands of his empire.[citation needed]

Question: Where did Alexander the Great conquer in 10 days?
Answer: Drangiana, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Seistan

Question: From which direction did Alexander enter Punjab?
Answer: northeasterly

Question: What wealth did Alexander hope to find?
Answer: riches in gold, gems and pearls

Question: Who were the Aspii?
Answer: mountaineers

Question: Who were the Cathians?
Answer: the people of Multan
Punjab,_Pakistan

In 1758, the general of the Hindu Maratha Empire, Raghunath Rao conquered Lahore and Attock. Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali, was driven out of Punjab. Lahore, Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Kashmir and other subahs on the south and eastern side of Peshawar were under the Maratha rule for the most part. In Punjab and Kashmir, the Marathas were now major players. The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded the Maratha territory of Punjab and captured remnants of the Maratha Empire in Punjab and Kashmir regions and re-consolidated control over them.

Question: Who was Raghunath Rao?
Answer: the general of the Hindu Maratha Empire

Question: Who did Rao conquer in 1758?
Answer: Lahore and Attock

Question: When was the Third Battle of Panipat?
Answer: 1761

Question: Who ruled most of the eastern part of Peshawar?
Answer: Maratha

Question: Who captured part of the Maratha Empire in 1761?
Answer: Ahmad Shah Abdali