nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Iranian_languages

Following the Islamic Conquest of Persia (Iran), there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists, and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the Dialects of Fars. They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan.

Question: The proliferation of which religion had a profound effect on the development of Iranian languages?
Answer: Islam

Question: What language displaced Middle Iranian as the court's official tongue?
Answer: Dari

Question: What was the first dynasty to use Dari?
Answer: Saffarid

Question: When did the Saffarid dynasty begin using Dari?
Answer: 875 CE

Question: What area was the name Dari connected to by medieval Iranian thinkers?
Answer: Khorasan
Iranian_languages

The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred some time during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government.

Question: What was the new form of writing introduced by the spread of Islam?
Answer: Arabic script

Question: When did usage of Middle Persian script fall off?
Answer: second half of the 8th century

Question: What script was converted to Latin in the 1920s?
Answer: Tajik script

Question: When was Tajik script converted to Cyrillic?
Answer: the 1930s

Question: Who catalyzed the conversion of Tajik script into Cyrillic?
Answer: the Soviet government
Iranian_languages

The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively been taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century AD. This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamirs survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.

Question: What is another term for Western Iran?
Answer: Khuzestan

Question: What are two languages that were forced out by the spread of Arabic?
Answer: Sogdian and Bactrian

Question: By what century had the area inhabited by Sarmatians been absorbed by pre-Slavic people?
Answer: 6th century AD

Question: Where can the remnants of Yaghnobi be found?
Answer: Zarafshan valley

Question: Ossetic is a version of which Scythian language?
Answer: Saka
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws where he urged for a constitutional government with three separate branches of government. Each of the three branches would have defined abilities to check the powers of the other branches. This idea was called separation of powers. This philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the United States Constitution, according to which the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches of the United States government are kept distinct in order to prevent abuse of power. This United States form of separation of powers is associated with a system of checks and balances.

Question: Which political practice did Montesquieu originate?
Answer: Separation of powers

Question: How many divisions of the government did Montesquieu call for?
Answer: three

Question: What document was greatly informed by the idea of separation of powers?
Answer: United States Constitution

Question: What kind of oversight does the separation of powers help to promote?
Answer: checks and balances

Question: What was the doctrine called that allowed the three branches of government to check the powers of each other?
Answer: separation of powers
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

During the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers such as John Locke advocated the principle in their writings, whereas others, such as Thomas Hobbes, strongly opposed it. Montesquieu was one of the foremost supporters of separating the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. His writings considerably influenced the opinions of the framers of the United States Constitution.

Question: Which Enlightenment thinker supported the idea of separation of powers?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Which Enlightenment thinker was against the separation of powers?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Who was a leading advocate of dividing government into different branches?
Answer: Montesquieu

Question: Whose thoughts were impacted by Montesquieu's philosophy?
Answer: the framers of the United States Constitution

Question: Who was an advocate of separation of powers?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Who was an opponent of separation of powers?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Who's writing were very influential on the design of the United States Constitution?  
Answer: Montesquieu
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Strict separation of powers did not operate in The United Kingdom, the political structure of which served in most instances[citation needed] as a model for the government created by the U.S. Constitution.[citation needed] Under the UK Westminster system, based on parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government, Parliament (consisting of the Sovereign (King-in-Parliament), House of Lords and House of Commons) was the supreme lawmaking authority. The executive branch acted in the name of the King ("His Majesty's Government"), as did the judiciary. The King's Ministers were in most cases members of one of the two Houses of Parliament, and the Government needed to sustain the support of a majority in the House of Commons. One minister, the Lord Chancellor, was at the same time the sole judge in the Court of Chancery and the presiding officer in the House of Lords. Therefore, it may be seen that the three branches of British government often violated the strict principle of separation of powers, even though there were many occasions when the different branches of the government disagreed with each other. Some U.S. states did not observe a strict separation of powers in the 18th century. In New Jersey, the Governor also functioned as a member of the state's highest court and as the presiding officer of one house of the New Jersey Legislature. The President of Delaware was a member of the Court of Appeals; the presiding officers of the two houses of the state legislature also served in the executive department as Vice Presidents. In both Delaware and Pennsylvania, members of the executive council served at the same time as judges. On the other hand, many southern states explicitly required separation of powers. Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia all kept the branches of government "separate and distinct."

Question: What country's government, on which the US government was modeled, did not formally implement separation of powers?
Answer: UK

Question: What were the two main principles informing the government of the UK?
Answer: parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government

Question: What term describes the status of the different branches of government in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia?
Answer: separate and distinct

Question: What country's government served as a model for the United States Government?
Answer: United Kingdom

Question: In the 18th century what function, besides President, did the Delaware President serve? 
Answer: a member of the Court of Appeals
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Congress has the sole power to legislate for the United States. Under the nondelegation doctrine, Congress may not delegate its lawmaking responsibilities to any other agency. In this vein, the Supreme Court held in the 1998 case Clinton v. City of New York that Congress could not delegate a "line-item veto" to the President, by powers vested in the government by the Constitution.

Question: What is the only branch of U.S. government imbued with lawmaking abilities?
Answer: Congress

Question: Which court case upheld the rule of nondelegation?
Answer: Clinton v. City of New York

Question: When was Clinton v. City of New York decided by the Supreme Court?
Answer: 1998

Question: In the US who has the sole power to pass legislation?
Answer: Congress

Question: What is the doctrine called that does not allow congress to pass on their power to pass laws to any other agency?
Answer: nondelegation doctrine

Question: What was the court case that struck down the line item veto?
Answer: Clinton v. City of New York

Question: What year was Clinton v. City of New York decided by the supreme court?
Answer: 1998
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Where Congress does not make great and sweeping delegations of its authority, the Supreme Court has been less stringent. One of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of non-delegation was Wayman v. Southard 23 U.S. (10 Wet.) 1, 42 (1825). Congress had delegated to the courts the power to prescribe judicial procedure; it was contended that Congress had thereby unconstitutionally clothed the judiciary with legislative powers. While Chief Justice John Marshall conceded that the determination of rules of procedure was a legislative function, he distinguished between "important" subjects and mere details. Marshall wrote that "a general provision may be made, and power given to those who are to act under such general provisions, to fill up the details."

Question: What was one of the first times the Supreme Court tried a case regarding nondelegation?
Answer: Wayman v. Southard

Question: In what year was Wayman v. Southard tried by the U.S. Supreme Court?
Answer: 1825

Question: Who was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court when Wayman v. Southard reached the Supreme Court?
Answer: John Marshall

Question: In Wayman v. Southard, what branch was accused of being given lawmaking abilities by Congress?
Answer: the judiciary

Question: What is the name of the 1825 case where the supreme court held that congress could delegate their responsibilities to the court?
Answer: Wayman v. Southard

Question: Who was chief justice of the supreme court under the Wayman v. Southard ruling?
Answer: John Marshall
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Marshall's words and future court decisions gave Congress much latitude in delegating powers. It was not until the 1930s that the Supreme Court held a delegation of authority unconstitutional. In a case involving the creation of the National Recovery Administration called A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), Congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of "fair competition." It was held that Congress must set some standards governing the actions of executive officers. The Court, however, has deemed that phrases such as "just and reasonable," "public interest" and "public convenience" suffice.

Question: When was the first time that a Congressional attempt at delegating lawmaking responsibility was found to be in violation of the Constitution?
Answer: the 1930s

Question: The establishment of what body was the subject of A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States?
Answer: National Recovery Administration

Question: In what year was A.L.A. Schechter v. United States tried before the Supreme Court?
Answer: 1935

Question: In what year did the supreme court determine that delegating powers by congress was unconstitutional?
Answer: 1935

Question: What was the supreme court case that was determined that congress could not allow the President to determine fair competition?
Answer: Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Executive power is vested, with exceptions and qualifications, in the President. By law (Section 2.) the president becomes the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, Militia of several states when called into service, has power to make treaties and appointments to office "with the Advice and Consent of the Senate," receive Ambassadors and Public Ministers, and "take care that the laws be faithfully executed" (Section 3.) By using these words, the Constitution does not require the president to personally enforce the law; rather, officers subordinate to the president may perform such duties. The Constitution empowers the president to ensure the faithful execution of the laws made by Congress and approved by the President. Congress may itself terminate such appointments, by impeachment, and restrict the president. Bodies such as the War Claims Commission, the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission—all quasi-judicial—often have direct Congressional oversight.

Question: Which branches of the national military does the U.S. president command?
Answer: Army and Navy

Question: Whose approval is required for the president's appointees to take office?
Answer: Senate

Question: What is a Congressional means of removing presidential appointees?
Answer: impeachment

Question: What term can characterize the status of bodies like the War Claims Commission and the Interstate Commerce Commission?
Answer: quasi-judicial

Question: Which of the three branches has the duty of Commander and Chief?
Answer: Executive

Question: Who has the authority to make treaties?
Answer: the President

Question: What is it called when congress terminates an appointment of the President?
Answer: impeachment

Question: Who has over-sight of the Federal Trade Commission?
Answer: Congress
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts established by Congress. The judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office. If a court's judges do not have such attributes, the court may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. Courts exercising the judicial power are called "constitutional courts."

Question: In what branch is the ability to try legal cases placed?
Answer: Judicial

Question: Who nominates justices for the U.S. Supreme Court?
Answer: president

Question: Who must approve presidential appointees to the Supreme Court?
Answer: Senate

Question: What is the term for judicial institutions exercising their power?
Answer: constitutional courts

Question: What is the power given to the supreme court and lower courts called?
Answer: Judicial power

Question: Who appoints a judge?
Answer: the president

Question: Who gives the President advice and consent for a judge appointment?
Answer: the Senate
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Congress may establish "legislative courts," which do not take the form of judicial agencies or commissions, whose members do not have the same security of tenure or compensation as the constitutional court judges. Legislative courts may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. In Murray's Lessee v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co. (1856), the Supreme Court held that a legislative court may not decide "a suit at the common law, or in equity, or admiralty," as such a suit is inherently judicial. Legislative courts may only adjudicate "public rights" questions (cases between the government and an individual and political determinations).

Question: What kind of courts did congress establish?
Answer: legislative courts

Question: What power are legislative courts not allowed to exercise?
Answer: judicial power of the United States
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

The president exercises a check over Congress through his power to veto bills, but Congress may override any veto (excluding the so-called "pocket veto") by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the president may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the president. The Vice President serves as president of the Senate, but he may only vote to break a tie.

Question: Who can determine a date of adjournment if congress cannot agree?
Answer: President

Question: Who can call congress into emergency session?
Answer: The president

Question: Who serves as president of the Senate?
Answer: The Vice President
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

The president, as noted above, appoints judges with the Senate's advice and consent. He also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either the House of Representatives or the Senate, or even to acceptance by the recipient.

Question: Who has the power to issue a pardon?
Answer: The president

Question: Who has the power to issue a reprieve? 
Answer: The president
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

The president is the civilian Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has the authority to command them to take appropriate military action in the event of a sudden crisis. However, only the Congress is explicitly granted the power to declare war per se, as well as to raise, fund and maintain the armed forces. Congress also has the duty and authority to prescribe the laws and regulations under which the armed forces operate, such as the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and requires that all Generals and Admirals appointed by the president be confirmed by a majority vote of the Senate before they can assume their office.

Question: Who is the commander and chief of the Army?
Answer: The president

Question: Who has the power to declare ware?
Answer: Congress

Question: Who has the responsibility to confirm Generals and Admirals?
Answer: the Senate
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Courts check both the executive branch and the legislative branch through judicial review. This concept is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the Constitution's Framers (for example, The Federalist Papers mention it). The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. There were protests by some at this decision, born chiefly of political expediency, but political realities in the particular case paradoxically restrained opposing views from asserting themselves. For this reason, precedent alone established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional.

Question: Who is responsible for judicial review?
Answer: Courts

Question: What is the court case that established judicial review?
Answer: Marbury v. Madison
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

A common misperception is that the Supreme Court is the only court that may determine constitutionality; the power is exercised even by the inferior courts. But only Supreme Court decisions are binding across the nation. Decisions of a Court of Appeals, for instance, are binding only in the circuit over which the court has jurisdiction.

Question: Which courts decisions are binding across the entire United States?
Answer: the Supreme Court
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

The power to review the constitutionality of laws may be limited by Congress, which has the power to set the jurisdiction of the courts. The only constitutional limit on Congress' power to set the jurisdiction of the judiciary relates to the Supreme Court; the Supreme Court may exercise only appellate jurisdiction except in cases involving states and cases affecting foreign ambassadors, ministers or consuls.

Question: Who can limit judicial review of a law?
Answer: Congress

Question: Who's judicial power does congress have the right to limit?
Answer: the Supreme Court
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

The Chief Justice presides in the Senate during a president's impeachment trial. The rules of the Senate, however, generally do not grant much authority to the presiding officer. Thus, the Chief Justice's role in this regard is a limited one.

Question: Who presides over an impeachment trial?
Answer: The Chief Justice
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

The Constitution does not explicitly indicate the pre-eminence of any particular branch of government. However, James Madison wrote in Federalist 51, regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others, that "it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates."

Question: Who wrote that the legislative branch was the predominate branch of government?
Answer: James Madison

Question: In which Federalist paper did James Madison state that the legislative branch of government was predominate?
Answer: Federalist 51
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

The first six presidents of the United States did not make extensive use of the veto power: George Washington only vetoed two bills, James Monroe one, and John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and John Quincy Adams none. James Madison, a firm believer in a strong executive, vetoed seven bills. None of the first six Presidents, however, used the veto to direct national policy. It was Andrew Jackson, the seventh President, who was the first to use the veto as a political weapon. During his two terms in office, he vetoed twelve bills—more than all of his predecessors combined. Furthermore, he defied the Supreme Court in enforcing the policy of ethnically cleansing Native American tribes ("Indian Removal"); he stated (perhaps apocryphally), "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!"

Question: How many bills did George Washington veto?
Answer: two

Question: How many bills did James Monroe veto?
Answer: one

Question: How many bills did Andrew Jackson veto
Answer: twelve

Question: Who was the seventh President of the United States?
Answer: Andrew Jackson