nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Age_of_Enlightenment

Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

Question: Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin

Question: Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?
Answer: both directions

Question: As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?
Answer: John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733)

Question: All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?
Answer: The Age of Reason

Question: Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?
Answer: science and religion
Age_of_Enlightenment

Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and, because of their size, might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs - rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.

Question: Which venue created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life could gather and share ideas?
Answer: Coffeehouses

Question: Coffehouses were criticized by which group of people, fearing the possiblity of an environmentin which class was disregarded?
Answer: nobles

Question: Which societal group believed they held a divine right to rule and resented the idea of their subjects convening to discuss political matters?
Answer: Monarchs

Question: What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?
Answer: Monarchs
Age_of_Enlightenment

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of "common concern," and argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.

Question: How was the public sphere defined?
Answer: realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture

Question: During what centuries was the rise of the public sphere?
Answer: late 17th century and 18th century

Question: What term did Habermas give to describe the areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously exlusive territory of the state and religious authorities?
Answer: common concern

Question: The argument of the public sphere was founded on what?
Answer: reason

Question: The values of the bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to the supreme, considering everything open to criticism, and the opposition of what?
Answer: secrecy of all sorts
Circadian_rhythm

Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to best capitalize on environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that cannot predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral, but not physiological, circadian rhythms in quail.

Question: For what do Circadian rhythms let an organism prepare?
Answer: environmental changes

Question: What can an organism that uses circadian rhythms use to its advantage that others can not?
Answer: resources

Question: By better using resources, how does that improve an organism's chances of surviving?
Answer: selective advantage

Question: By improving what processes does the use of circadian rhythms serve to benefit the individual?
Answer: internal metabolic

Question: What insect has been studied concerning the inheritability of rhythms?
Answer: fruit flies
Circadian_rhythm

Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.

Question: What type of animals have been shown to have circadian rhythms only at certain times?
Answer: Arctic animals

Question: What daily feature do animals that show limited circadian rhythms need?
Answer: sunrises and sunsets

Question: In a study, when did reindeer at 70 degrees north only show circadian rhythms?
Answer: autumn, winter and spring

Question: At what degree north did reindeer show rhythms only in autumn and summer?
Answer: 78 degrees

Question: What aninmals  do researchers think might also show a variance in circadian rhythms in different seasons?
Answer: other Arctic animals
Circadian_rhythm

The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock-Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis, as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions), plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. Gene expression of CCA1 and LHY oscillates and peaks in the early morning, whereas TOC1 gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of CCA1, LHY, and PRR7 and 9 in the morning loop but also of GI and ELF4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of TOC1 gene functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component repressilator model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals.

Question: What produces a self-sustaining rhythm?
Answer: central oscillator

Question: When do the CCA1  and LHY function?
Answer: morning

Question: Which loop that consists of GI and ELF4 functions?
Answer: evening

Question: What was the previous belief of feedback in the gene loop?
Answer: negative feedback loop

Question: What researcher showed that the gene  feedback loop serves as a repressor?
Answer: Andrew Millar
Circadian_rhythm

A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.[citation needed]

Question: What is the Drosophila gene the cause of?
Answer: sleep disorder FASPS

Question: What is the Drosophila gene also known as?
Answer: period

Question: What is Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome?
Answer: FASPS

Question: What kind of clock have genetic functions?
Answer: biological clock

Question: What does the body interpret from the gene feedback loop?
Answer: time of the day
Circadian_rhythm

Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often cross several timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to fatigue. The NTSB cites this as contributing to many accidents[unreliable medical source?]  and has conducted several research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.

Question: Whose work habits and environment prevents them from maintaining a regular sleep pattern?
Answer: airline pilots

Question: What can the lack of regular sleep patterns cause?
Answer: fatigue

Question: What organizations cites this disruption of sleep patterns as a cause of accidents?
Answer: NTSB

Question: What has the NTSB conducted to find the cause of pilot fatigue?
Answer: research studies

Question: Of what does the NTSB want to find a means of doing?
Answer: combating fatigue
Circadian_rhythm

The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B.C.E., when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree. The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the Noon and Midnight Manual and the Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year.

Question: What is the earliest recorded instance of circadian rhythm?
Answer: 4th century B.C.E

Question: What ship captain described daily leaf movements?
Answer: Androsthenes

Question: What tree leaves did Androsthenes describe?
Answer: tamarind

Question: What type of Chinese texts mention circadian process in humans?
Answer: medical

Question: When did the Chinese use diurnal rhythms to remember Acu-points?
Answer: 13th century
Circadian_rhythm

Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others. Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment. These rhythms are endogenously generated and self-sustaining and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Important features include two interacting transcription-translation feedback loops: proteins containing PAS domains, which facilitate protein-protein interactions; and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment allows appropriate changes in a plant's physiological state, conferring an adaptive advantage. A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather.

Question: What is the plant expression of circadian rhythm?
Answer: when to flower

Question: What do plants need to attract to their flowering?
Answer: pollinators

Question:  With what feature of environment do plants need to be in sync?
Answer: light cycle

Question: What does adaptive advantage allow for plants?
Answer: Anticipation of changes

Question: Where can an understanding of circadian rhythms of plants be an advantage?
Answer: agriculture
Circadian_rhythm

The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC) of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of ATP. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.[citation needed]

Question: What has the simplest known circadian clock?
Answer: prokaryotic cyanobacteria

Question: With how many proteins can the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus are needed to reproduce its effect?
Answer: three proteins

Question: What type of feedback mechanism was previously thought to be needed to sustain the clock?
Answer: DNA

Question: How long a rhythm were researchers able to sustain in the in vitro experiment?
Answer: 22-hour

Question: What were the only proteins necessary to the circadian timekeeper experiment?
Answer: KaiA, KaiB, KaiC
Circadian_rhythm

The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a free-running rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each "day", depending on whether their "day", their endogenous period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called zeitgebers (from the German, "time-givers"). Totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.[page needed]

Question: To what is the circadian rhythm tied?
Answer: light–dark cycle

Question: What conditions will produce a free-running rhythm in humans?
Answer: total darkness

Question: What are the environmental factors that can change the rhythm?
Answer: zeitgebers

Question: What do blind mole rats have in place of vision?
Answer: photoreceptors
Circadian_rhythm

For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. Though variation is great among normal chronotypes, the average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time. Baehr et al. found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 04:00 (4 a.m.) for morning types but at about 06:00 (6 a.m.) for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types.

Question: What physical factor must be continuously monitored during temperature studies> 
Answer: temperatures

Question: At what time does the average adult human reach his lowest temperature?
Answer: 05:00

Question: How long before wake time is the lowest temperature reached?
Answer: two hours

Question: When does the temperature of morning type young adults reach its lowest?
Answer: 04:00

Question: What is the time of lowest temperature for evening type young adults?
Answer: 06:00
Circadian_rhythm

In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours. In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature. In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by Auguste Forel, Ingeborg Beling, and Oskar Wahl to see whether this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.[citation needed] Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the "period" gene, the first discovered genetic determinant of behavioral rhythmicity. Joseph Takahashi discovered the first mammalian circadian clock mutation (clockΔ19) using mice in 1994. However, recent studies show that deletion of clock does not lead to a behavioral phenotype (the animals still have normal circadian rhythms), which questions its importance in rhythm generation.

Question: Who noticed that sleepiness increases and decreases in a 24 hour period?
Answer: Patrick and Gilbert

Question: Who showed the animals could maintain activity in the absence of light and temperature changes?
Answer: J.S. Szymanski

Question: What animals rhythmic feeding times were studied in the early 20th century ?
Answer: bees

Question: What gene did Konopka and Benzer map in the early 1970 s?
Answer: "period"

Question: What mutation did Takahashi discover in 1994?
Answer: circadian clock
Circadian_rhythm

It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. This was shown by Gene Block in isolated mollusk BRNs.[clarification needed] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.[citation needed]

Question: Inside of what can the molecular circadian clock operate?
Answer: single cell

Question: By functioning within a single, what is the system?
Answer: cell-autonomous

Question: What section of the brain periodically releases hormones?
Answer: endocrine glands

Question: How are sleep and wake cycles as well as body functions coordinated?
Answer: biological clock

Question: What do body hormone receptors do with the body's organs?
Answer: synchronise
Circadian_rhythm

Light is the signal by which plants synchronize their internal clocks to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the dark but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB, the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.

Question: What signals plants to synchronize their internal clocks?
Answer: Light

Question: What do plants use to sense light?
Answer: photoreceptors

Question: What receptors absorb red and blue light in plants?
Answer: phytochromes and cryptochromes

Question: Which phytochrome found in seedlings deteriorates with light and growth?
Answer: phyA

Question: What is the main phytochrome found in seedling grown in light?
Answer: phyB
Circadian_rhythm

Studies by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 and by Derk-Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all,[citation needed] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions.[page needed]

Question: What time cycle did studies in 1938 and 1990s use on humans?
Answer: 28-hour

Question: What conditions were suppressed in the 28 hour wake-sleep cycle studies ?
Answer: time cues

Question: How long did the suppression of time clues study last?
Answer: month

Question: What is this forced type of study called?
Answer: forced desynchrony

Question: When in the cycle do wake-sleep cycles break off from the circadian period?
Answer: 24.18 hours
Circadian_rhythm

Shift-work or chronic jet-lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.[medical citation needed] In humans, shift-work that favors irregular eating times is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift-work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation.

Question: What effect does jet-lag and shift-work have on the human body?
Answer: profound consequences

Question: Animals that eat during resting periods show what body increase?
Answer: body mass

Question: How does irregular eating during shift-work effect insulin?
Answer: insulin sensitivity

Question: Besides insulin sensitivity, what other effect does shift-work have on the body?
Answer: higher body mass

Question: What type of work can lead to heart, hypertension and inflammation?
Answer: Shift-work