nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Data_compression

The most powerful used method works by comparing each frame in the video with the previous one. If the frame contains areas where nothing has moved, the system simply issues a short command that copies that part of the previous frame, bit-for-bit, into the next one. If sections of the frame move in a simple manner, the compressor emits a (slightly longer) command that tells the decompressor to shift, rotate, lighten, or darken the copy. This longer command still remains much shorter than intraframe compression. Interframe compression works well for programs that will simply be played back by the viewer, but can cause problems if the video sequence needs to be edited.

Question: What still remains much shorter than intraframe compression?
Answer: longer command

Question: What happens when a frame contains areas where nothing has moved?
Answer: the system simply issues a short command

Question: What is a sequence that can be edited?
Answer: video
Data_compression

Because interframe compression copies data from one frame to another, if the original frame is simply cut out (or lost in transmission), the following frames cannot be reconstructed properly. Some video formats, such as DV, compress each frame independently using intraframe compression. Making 'cuts' in intraframe-compressed video is almost as easy as editing uncompressed video: one finds the beginning and ending of each frame, and simply copies bit-for-bit each frame that one wants to keep, and discards the frames one doesn't want. Another difference between intraframe and interframe compression is that, with intraframe systems, each frame uses a similar amount of data. In most interframe systems, certain frames (such as "I frames" in MPEG-2) aren't allowed to copy data from other frames, so they require much more data than other frames nearby.

Question: What copies data from one frame to another?
Answer: interframe compression

Question: What is a type of video format?
Answer: DV

Question: What is almost as easy as editing uncompressed video?
Answer: Making 'cuts'
Data_compression

Today, nearly all commonly used video compression methods (e.g., those in standards approved by the ITU-T or ISO) apply a discrete cosine transform (DCT) for spatial redundancy reduction. The DCT that is widely used in this regard was introduced by N. Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974. Other methods, such as fractal compression, matching pursuit and the use of a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) have been the subject of some research, but are typically not used in practical products (except for the use of wavelet coding as still-image coders without motion compensation). Interest in fractal compression seems to be waning, due to recent theoretical analysis showing a comparative lack of effectiveness of such methods.

Question: What do all commonly used video compression methods use?
Answer: discrete cosine transform

Question: What does a DCT do?
Answer: spatial redundancy reduction

Question: What is not used in practical products? 
Answer: fractal compression
Data_compression

Genetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype. In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and in much faster time than the leading general-purpose compression utilities. For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset. Other algorithms in 2009 and 2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes).

Question: What are the latest generation of lossless algorithms? 
Answer: Genetics

Question: What encoding reduces the heterogeneity of a dataset by sorting SNPs?
Answer: MAFE

Question: What two algorithms have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold?
Answer: DNAZip and GenomeZip
The_Sun_(United_Kingdom)

On 22 May 2015, Sun reporter Anthony France was found guilty of aiding and abetting misconduct in a public office between 2008 and 2011. France’s trial followed the London Metropolitan Police's Operation Elveden, an ongoing investigation into alleged payments to police and officials in exchange for information. He had paid a total of more than £22,000 to PC Timothy Edwards, an anti-terrorism police officer based at Heathrow Airport. The police officer had already pleaded guilty to misconduct in a public office and given a two-year gaol sentence in 2014, but the jury in France’s trial was not informed of this. Following the passing of the guilty verdict, the officer leading Operation Elveden, Detective Chief Superintendent Gordon Briggs said France and Edwards had been in a "long-term, corrupt relationship".

Question: Who was found guilty in 2015?
Answer: Anthony France

Question: Who was responsible for Operation Elveden?
Answer: the London Metropolitan Police

Question: Which Sun reporter was found guilty in 2015?
Answer: Anthony France

Question: Who was responsible for Operation Elveden?
Answer: London Metropolitan Police

Question: How much did Anthony France pay to a police officer?
Answer: more than £22,000

Question: Who was the policeman leading Operation Elveden?
Answer: Detective Chief Superintendent Gordon Briggs

Question: How did Briggs characterize the relationship between France and Edwards?
Answer: "long-term, corrupt relationship"
Yale_University

Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony as the Collegiate School, the University is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States. The school was renamed Yale College in 1718 in recognition of a gift from Elihu Yale, who was governor of the British East India Company. Established to train Congregationalist ministers in theology and sacred languages, by 1777 the school's curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences. In the 19th century the school incorporated graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph.D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887.

Question: When was the Collegiate School of Saybrook Colony founded?
Answer: 1701

Question: When was the Collegiate School renamed to Yale College?
Answer: 1718

Question: Why was the school named Yale College?
Answer: recognition of a gift from Elihu Yale

Question: When did Yale first incorporate humanities and sciences?
Answer: by 1777

Question: When did Yale issue the first Ph.D in the United States?
Answer: 1861
Yale_University

Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools: the original undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, and twelve professional schools. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each school's faculty oversees its curriculum and degree programs. In addition to a central campus in downtown New Haven, the University owns athletic facilities in western New Haven, including the Yale Bowl, a campus in West Haven, Connecticut, and forest and nature preserves throughout New England. The university's assets include an endowment valued at $25.6 billion as of September 2015, the second largest of any educational institution.The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States.

Question: How many schools is Yale composed of?
Answer: fourteen

Question: How much is Yale's endowment worth?
Answer: $25.6 billion

Question: How many books are in the Yale University Library?
Answer: 15 million

Question: Who runs Yale College?
Answer: Yale Corporation

Question: Where is the main Yale campus?
Answer: downtown New Haven
Yale_University

Yale traces its beginnings to "An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School," passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9, 1701, while meeting in New Haven. The Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers: Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, Rev. James Noyes II (son of James Noyes), James Pierpont, Abraham Pierson, Noadiah Russell, Joseph Webb and Timothy Woodbridge, all alumni of Harvard, met in the study of Reverend Samuel Russell in Branford, Connecticut, to pool their books to form the school's library. The group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as "The Founders".[citation needed]

Question: When was "An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School" approved?
Answer: October 9, 1701

Question: Who voted on "An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School"?
Answer: General Court of the Colony of Connecticut

Question: What was the name of the group that started Yale's library?
Answer: The Founders

Question: Why was "An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School" proposed?
Answer: to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut

Question: Where did "The Founders" go to school?
Answer: Harvard
Yale_University

In 1718, at the behest of either Rector Samuel Andrew or the colony's Governor Gurdon Saltonstall, Cotton Mather contacted a successful businessman named Elihu Yale, who lived in Wales but had been born in Boston and whose father, David, had been one of the original settlers in New Haven, to ask him for financial help in constructing a new building for the college. Through the persuasion of Jeremiah Dummer, Yale, who had made a fortune through trade while living in Madras as a representative of the East India Company, donated nine bales of goods, which were sold for more than £560, a substantial sum at the time. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College. Meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and theology. It had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Locke's works and developed his original theology known as the "new divinity." In 1722 the Rector and six of his friends, who had a study group to discuss the new ideas, announced that they had given up Calvinism, become Arminians, and joined the Church of England. They were ordained in England and returned to the colonies as missionaries for the Anglican faith. Thomas Clapp became president in 1745, and struggled to return the college to Calvinist orthodoxy; but he did not close the library. Other students found Deist books in the library.

Question: Where did Elihu Yale grow up?
Answer: Wales

Question: Where was Elihu Yale born?
Answer: Boston

Question: What was Elihu Yale's father's name?
Answer: David

Question: Who suggested the new name of Yale?
Answer: Cotton Mather

Question: How many books were in the 1714 shipment to Yale?
Answer: 500
Yale_University

Serious American students of theology and divinity, particularly in New England, regarded Hebrew as a classical language, along with Greek and Latin, and essential for study of the Old Testament in the original words. The Reverend Ezra Stiles, president of the College from 1778 to 1795, brought with him his interest in the Hebrew language as a vehicle for studying ancient Biblical texts in their original language (as was common in other schools), requiring all freshmen to study Hebrew (in contrast to Harvard, where only upperclassmen were required to study the language) and is responsible for the Hebrew phrase אורים ותמים (Urim and Thummim) on the Yale seal. Stiles' greatest challenge occurred in July 1779 when hostile British forces occupied New Haven and threatened to raze the College. However, Yale graduate Edmund Fanning, Secretary to the British General in command of the occupation, interceded and the College was saved. Fanning later was granted an honorary degree LL.D., at 1803, for his efforts.

Question: When was Ezra Stiles president of Yale?
Answer: 1778 to 1795

Question: What course did Ezra Stiles require freshmen to take?
Answer: Hebrew

Question: When did the British threaten to take over the college?
Answer: July 1779

Question: Who saved Yale from the British raid?
Answer: Edmund Fanning

Question: What degree was Edmund Fanning given for his services?
Answer: an honorary degree LL.D
Yale_University

The Yale Report of 1828 was a dogmatic defense of the Latin and Greek curriculum against critics who wanted more courses in modern languages, mathematics, and science. Unlike higher education in Europe, there was no national curriculum for colleges and universities in the United States. In the competition for students and financial support, college leaders strove to keep current with demands for innovation. At the same time, they realized that a significant portion of their students and prospective students demanded a classical background. The Yale report meant the classics would not be abandoned. All institutions experimented with changes in the curriculum, often resulting in a dual track. In the decentralized environment of higher education in the United States, balancing change with tradition was a common challenge because no one could afford to be completely modern or completely classical. A group of professors at Yale and New Haven Congregationalist ministers articulated a conservative response to the changes brought about by the Victorian culture. They concentrated on developing a whole man possessed of religious values sufficiently strong to resist temptations from within, yet flexible enough to adjust to the 'isms' (professionalism, materialism, individualism, and consumerism) tempting him from without. William Graham Sumner, professor from 1872 to 1909, taught in the emerging disciplines of economics and sociology to overflowing classrooms. He bested President Noah Porter, who disliked social science and wanted Yale to lock into its traditions of classical education. Porter objected to Sumner's use of a textbook by Herbert Spencer that espoused agnostic materialism because it might harm students.

Question: When did William Graham Sumner teach?
Answer: 1872 to 1909

Question: What did William Graham Sumner teach?
Answer: economics and sociology

Question: Why was The Yale Report established?
Answer: the classics would not be abandoned

Question: What were the group of Yale professors and ministers attempting to achieve?
Answer: developing a whole man possessed of religious values sufficiently strong to resist temptations

Question: What changes were the professors and ministers responding to?
Answer: Victorian culture
Yale_University

The Revolutionary War soldier Nathan Hale (Yale 1773) was the prototype of the Yale ideal in the early 19th century: a manly yet aristocratic scholar, equally well-versed in knowledge and sports, and a patriot who "regretted" that he "had but one life to lose" for his country. Western painter Frederic Remington (Yale 1900) was an artist whose heroes gloried in combat and tests of strength in the Wild West. The fictional, turn-of-the-20th-century Yale man Frank Merriwell embodied the heroic ideal without racial prejudice, and his fictional successor Frank Stover in the novel Stover at Yale (1911) questioned the business mentality that had become prevalent at the school. Increasingly the students turned to athletic stars as their heroes, especially since winning the big game became the goal of the student body, and the alumni, as well as the team itself.

Question: What was Nathan Hale famous for?
Answer: Revolutionary War soldier

Question: What profession did Frederic Remington hold?
Answer: artist

Question: What was the name of the protagonist of "Stover at Yale"?
Answer: Frank Stover

Question: What turned into the goal of the student body?
Answer: winning the big game

Question: What were the subjects of Frederic Remington's paintings?
Answer: heroes gloried in combat and tests of strength in the Wild West
Yale_University

Between 1892, when Harvard and Yale met in one of the first intercollegiate debates, and 1909, the year of the first Triangular Debate of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, the rhetoric, symbolism, and metaphors used in athletics were used to frame these early debates. Debates were covered on front pages of college newspapers and emphasized in yearbooks, and team members even received the equivalent of athletic letters for their jackets. There even were rallies sending off the debating teams to matches. Yet, the debates never attained the broad appeal that athletics enjoyed. One reason may be that debates do not have a clear winner, as is the case in sports, and that scoring is subjective. In addition, with late 19th-century concerns about the impact of modern life on the human body, athletics offered hope that neither the individual nor the society was coming apart.

Question: In what year was the first debate between Harvard, Yale, and Princeton?
Answer: 1909

Question: When was the first debate between Harvard and Yale?
Answer: 1892

Question: How were debates shown to the college students?
Answer: front pages of college newspapers

Question: What did members of the debate team get for their service?
Answer: the equivalent of athletic letters for their jackets

Question: Why do debates not have a distinct winner?
Answer: scoring is subjective
Yale_University

In 1909–10, football faced a crisis resulting from the failure of the previous reforms of 1905–06 to solve the problem of serious injuries. There was a mood of alarm and mistrust, and, while the crisis was developing, the presidents of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton developed a project to reform the sport and forestall possible radical changes forced by government upon the sport. President Arthur Hadley of Yale, A. Lawrence Lowell of Harvard, and Woodrow Wilson of Princeton worked to develop moderate changes to reduce injuries. Their attempts, however, were reduced by rebellion against the rules committee and formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association. The big three had tried to operate independently of the majority, but changes did reduce injuries.

Question: Who attempted to enact measures of football reform?
Answer: the presidents of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton

Question: What did the rebellion to the new football measures start?
Answer: Intercollegiate Athletic Association

Question: Who was president of Yale during the rebellion?
Answer: Arthur Hadley

Question: Who represented Harvard during the rule changing debates?
Answer: A. Lawrence Lowell

Question: Who represented Princeton during the rule changing discussions?
Answer: Woodrow Wilson
Yale_University

Yale expanded gradually, establishing the Yale School of Medicine (1810), Yale Divinity School (1822), Yale Law School (1843), Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (1847), the Sheffield Scientific School (1847), and the Yale School of Fine Arts (1869). In 1887, as the college continued to grow under the presidency of Timothy Dwight V, Yale College was renamed Yale University. The university would later add the Yale School of Music (1894), the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies (founded by Gifford Pinchot in 1900), the Yale School of Public Health (1915), the Yale School of Nursing (1923), the Yale School of Drama (1955), the Yale Physician Associate Program (1973), and the Yale School of Management (1976). It would also reorganize its relationship with the Sheffield Scientific School.

Question: When was the Yale School of Medicine established?
Answer: 1810

Question: When was Yale Divinity School established?
Answer: 1822

Question: When was Yale Law School created?
Answer: 1843

Question: When was Yale Graduate Schools and Arts and Sciences established?
Answer: (1847

Question: When was the Sheffield Scientific School created?
Answer: 1847
Yale_University

Expansion caused controversy about Yale's new roles. Noah Porter, moral philosopher, was president from 1871 to 1886. During an age of tremendous expansion in higher education, Porter resisted the rise of the new research university, claiming that an eager embrace of its ideals would corrupt undergraduate education. Many of Porter's contemporaries criticized his administration, and historians since have disparaged his leadership. Levesque argues Porter was not a simple-minded reactionary, uncritically committed to tradition, but a principled and selective conservative. He did not endorse everything old or reject everything new; rather, he sought to apply long-established ethical and pedagogical principles to a rapidly changing culture. He may have misunderstood some of the challenges of his time, but he correctly anticipated the enduring tensions that have accompanied the emergence and growth of the modern university.

Question: When was Noah Porter president of Yale?
Answer: 1871 to 1886

Question: What idea did Noah Porter strike down?
Answer: new research university

Question: What did many historians think of Noah Porter?
Answer: simple-minded reactionary, uncritically committed to tradition

Question: What was Porter's reason for striking down the research university?
Answer: an eager embrace of its ideals would corrupt undergraduate education

Question: What caused disagreement about Yale's new position?
Answer: Expansion
Yale_University

Between 1925 and 1940, philanthropic foundations, especially ones connected with the Rockefellers, contributed about $7 million to support the Yale Institute of Human Relations and the affiliated Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology. The money went toward behavioral science research, which was supported by foundation officers who aimed to "improve mankind" under an informal, loosely defined human engineering effort. The behavioral scientists at Yale, led by President James R. Angell and psychobiologist Robert M. Yerkes, tapped into foundation largesse by crafting research programs aimed to investigate, then suggest, ways to control, sexual and social behavior. For example, Yerkes analyzed chimpanzee sexual behavior in hopes of illuminating the evolutionary underpinnings of human development and providing information that could ameliorate dysfunction. Ultimately, the behavioral-science results disappointed foundation officers, who shifted their human-engineering funds toward biological sciences.

Question: How much did  philanthropic foundations donate between 1925 and 1940?
Answer: about $7 million

Question: What was the $7 million used for?
Answer: behavioral science research

Question: What animals sexual behavior did Yerkes study?
Answer: chimpanzee

Question: Who were the behavioral scientists in charge of the research?
Answer: President James R. Angell and psychobiologist Robert M. Yerkes

Question: What was the goal of the behavioral research?
Answer: improve mankind