nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Planck_constant

The gyromagnetic ratio γ is the constant of proportionality between the frequency ν of nuclear magnetic resonance (or electron paramagnetic resonance for electrons) and the applied magnetic field B: ν = γB. It is difficult to measure gyromagnetic ratios precisely because of the difficulties in precisely measuring B, but the value for protons in water at 7002298150000000000♠25 °C is known to better than one part per million. The protons are said to be "shielded" from the applied magnetic field by the electrons in the water molecule, the same effect that gives rise to chemical shift in NMR spectroscopy, and this is indicated by a prime on the symbol for the gyromagnetic ratio, γ′p. The gyromagnetic ratio is related to the shielded proton magnetic moment μ′p, the spin number I (I = 1⁄2 for protons) and the reduced Planck constant.

Question: The gyromagnetic ratio is the constant proportion between the magentic field and what?
Answer: the frequency ν of nuclear magnetic resonance

Question: How does the water molecule impact the effect of magnetic fields on protons?
Answer: The protons are said to be "shielded" from the applied magnetic field by the electrons in the water molecule

Question: What three factors impact the gyromagnetic ratio?
Answer: related to the shielded proton magnetic moment μ′p, the spin number I (I = 1⁄2 for protons) and the reduced Planck constant.

Question: The gyromagnetic ratio is often difficult to determine due to difficulty accurately determining the value of what?
Answer: the applied magnetic field B
Planck_constant

The Faraday constant F is the charge of one mole of electrons, equal to the Avogadro constant NA multiplied by the elementary charge e. It can be determined by careful electrolysis experiments, measuring the amount of silver dissolved from an electrode in a given time and for a given electric current. In practice, it is measured in conventional electrical units, and so given the symbol F90. Substituting the definitions of NA and e, and converting from conventional electrical units to SI units, gives the relation to the Planck constant.

Question: What is the Faraday constant?
Answer: the charge of one mole of electrons

Question: How is the Faraday constant determined?
Answer: by careful electrolysis experiments, measuring the amount of silver dissolved from an electrode in a given time and for a given electric current.

Question: How does the Faraday constant relate to the Planck constant?
Answer: Substituting the definitions of NA and e, and converting from conventional electrical units to SI units, gives the relation to the Planck constant.

Question: How is the Farday constant value quickly calculated?
Answer: the Avogadro constant NA multiplied by the elementary charge e
Planck_constant

The X-ray crystal density method is primarily a method for determining the Avogadro constant NA but as the Avogadro constant is related to the Planck constant it also determines a value for h. The principle behind the method is to determine NA as the ratio between the volume of the unit cell of a crystal, measured by X-ray crystallography, and the molar volume of the substance. Crystals of silicon are used, as they are available in high quality and purity by the technology developed for the semiconductor industry. The unit cell volume is calculated from the spacing between two crystal planes referred to as d220. The molar volume Vm(Si) requires a knowledge of the density of the crystal and the atomic weight of the silicon used. The Planck constant is given by

Question: What is the primary method for determining the Avogadro constant?
Answer: The X-ray crystal density method

Question: The Avogadro constant is determined to be the ratio between what two factors in the X-ray crystal density method?
Answer: the volume of the unit cell of a crystal, measured by X-ray crystallography, and the molar volume of the substance

Question: What element is used typically to establish Avogadro's constant?
Answer: Crystals of silicon

Question: How is unit cell volume calculated?
Answer: from the spacing between two crystal planes referred to as d220

Question: Calculating molar volume requires knowledge of what two factors?
Answer: the density of the crystal and the atomic weight of the silicon used
Planck_constant

There are a number of proposals to redefine certain of the SI base units in terms of fundamental physical constants. This has already been done for the metre, which is defined in terms of a fixed value of the speed of light. The most urgent unit on the list for redefinition is the kilogram, whose value has been fixed for all science (since 1889) by the mass of a small cylinder of platinum–iridium alloy kept in a vault just outside Paris. While nobody knows if the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram has changed since 1889 – the value 1 kg of its mass expressed in kilograms is by definition unchanged and therein lies one of the problems – it is known that over such a timescale the many similar Pt–Ir alloy cylinders kept in national laboratories around the world, have changed their relative mass by several tens of parts per million, however carefully they are stored, and the more so the more they have been taken out and used as mass standards. A change of several tens of micrograms in one kilogram is equivalent to the current uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant in SI units.

Question: What measurement is deemed most important to redefine in terms of physical constants?
Answer: the kilogram

Question: What is the shape of the object that establishes the base unit of the kilogram?
Answer: cylinder

Question: What alloy is the base unit of the kilogram made from?
Answer: platinum–iridium

Question: Where is the base unit for the kilogram kept?
Answer: in a vault just outside Paris
Planck_constant

The legal process to change the definition of the kilogram is already underway, but it had been decided that no final decision would be made before the next meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 2011. (For more detailed information, see kilogram definitions.) The Planck constant is a leading contender to form the basis of the new definition, although not the only one. Possible new definitions include "the mass of a body at rest whose equivalent energy equals the energy of photons whose frequencies sum to 7050135639273999999♠135639274×1042 Hz", or simply "the kilogram is defined so that the Planck constant equals 6966662606895999999♠6.62606896×10−34 J⋅s".

Question: Where would the decision to change the definition of the kilogram have occured at the earliest?
Answer: the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 2011

Question: Was the Planck constant the only option for redefining the kilogram?
Answer: The Planck constant is a leading contender to form the basis of the new definition, although not the only one

Question: The mass of a resting body with what energy would be equal to a kilogram?
Answer: 7050135639273999999♠135639274×1042 Hz

Question: A kilogram could be definined as having a Planck constant of what value?
Answer: 6966662606895999999♠6.62606896×10−34 J⋅s
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Affirmative action in the United States tends to focus on issues such as education and employment, specifically granting special consideration to racial minorities, Native Americans, and women who have been historically excluded groups in America. Reports have shown that minorities and women have faced discrimination in schools and businesses for many years and this discrimination produced unfair advantages for whites and males in education and employment. The impetus toward affirmative action is redressing the disadvantages associated with past and present discrimination. Further impetus is a desire to ensure public institutions, such as universities, hospitals, and police forces, are more representative of the populations they serve.

Question: Outside of employment, what is the other main issue that affirmative action focuses on?
Answer: education

Question: Affirmative action attempts to ask institutions to grant extra consideration to what group of people outside of Native Americans and women?
Answer: racial minorities

Question: Studies showed that discrimination in both business sectors and education resulted in advantages for what group of people?
Answer: whites and males

Question: Affirmative action does not only attempt to remove disadvantages, but also to ensure what about the number of people in a field?
Answer: are more representative of the populations they serve
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Affirmative action is a subject of controversy. Some policies adopted as affirmative action, such as racial quotas or gender quotas for collegiate admission, have been criticized as a form of reverse discrimination, and such implementation of affirmative action has been ruled unconstitutional by the majority opinion of Gratz v. Bollinger. Affirmative action as a practice was upheld by the Supreme Court's decision in Grutter v. Bollinger in 2003. Affirmative action policies were developed in order to correct decades of discrimination stemming from the Reconstruction Era by granting disadvantaged minorities opportunities. Many believe that the diversity of current American society suggests that affirmative action policies succeeded and are no longer required. Opponents of affirmative action argue that these policies are outdated and lead to reverse discrimination which entails favoring one group over another based upon racial preference rather than achievement.

Question: What is another example aside from racial quotes of affirmative action for collegiate admissions?
Answer: gender quotas

Question: Having quotas regarding admissions or employment has been criticized and said to be what kind of discrimination?
Answer: reverse

Question: What case determined that some implementation of affirmative action was unconstitutional?
Answer: Gratz v. Bollinger

Question: In which time period did discrimination policies originate from?
Answer: Reconstruction Era

Question: What do critics of affirmative action believe should be the main factor in hiring?
Answer: achievement
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Ideas for affirmative action came as early as the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877) in which a former slave population lacked the skills and resources for sustainable living. In 1865, General William Tecumseh Sherman proposed to divide the land and goods from Georgia and grant it to families of color which became the "Forty acres and a mule" policy. The proposal was never widely adopted due to strong political opposition. Nearly a century later (1950s-1960s), policies to assist classes of individuals reemerged during the Civil Rights Movement. The civil rights guarantees came through the interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The decisions came to be known as affirmative action in which mandatory, as well as voluntary programs, affirmed the civil rights of people of color. Furthermore, these affirmative action programs protected people of color from the present effects stemming from past discrimination. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy became the first to utilize the term "affirmative action" in Executive Order 10925 to ensure that government contractors "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." This executive order realized the government's intent to create equal opportunities for all qualified people. This executive order was eventually amended and superseded by Lyndon B. Johnson's Executive Order 11246 which prevented discrimination based on race, color, religion, and national origin by organizations which received federal contracts and subcontracts. In 1967, the order was amended to include sex as well. The Reagan administration was opposed to the affirmative action requirements of Executive Order 11246, but these contemplated changes[which?] faced bi-partisan opposition in Congress.

Question: When did the Reconstruction Era end?
Answer: 1877

Question: Who proposed that land be divided and split up among families of color?
Answer: General William Tecumseh Sherman

Question: What was the policy of dividing land among families of color referred to as?
Answer: Forty acres and a mule

Question: Which part of the constitution was the basis for policies that were developed during the Civil Rights Movement?
Answer: Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment

Question: Who was the first person to utilize the term "affirmative action"?
Answer: President John F. Kennedy
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The first appearance of the term 'affirmative action' was in the National Labor Relations Act, better known as the Wagner Act, of 1935.:15 Proposed and championed by U.S. Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, the Wagner Act was in line with President Roosevelt's goal of providing economic security to workers and other low-income groups. During this time period it was not uncommon for employers to blacklist or fire employees associated with unions. The Wagner Act allowed workers to unionize without fear of being discriminated against, and empowered a National Labor Relations Board to review potential cases of worker discrimination. In the event of discrimination, employees were to be restored to an appropriate status in the company through 'affirmative action'. While the Wagner Act protected workers and unions it did not protect minorities, who, exempting the Congress of Industrial Organizations, were often barred from union ranks.:11 This original coining of the term therefore has little to do with affirmative action policy as it is seen today, but helped set the stage for all policy meant to compensate or address an individual's unjust treatment.[citation needed]

Question: In which document did the term "affirmative action" first appear?
Answer: National Labor Relations Act

Question: Who was the author of the National Labor Relations Act?
Answer: Senator Robert F. Wagner

Question: Who did employers routinely blacklist of fire?
Answer: employees associated with unions

Question: Who was able to review complaints about possible worker discrimination?
Answer: National Labor Relations Board

Question: Which group of people did the Wagner Act fail to protect?
Answer: minorities
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

FDR's New Deal programs often contained equal opportunity clauses stating "no discrimination shall be made on account of race, color or creed",:11 but the true forerunner to affirmative action was the Interior Secretary of the time, Harold L. Ickes. Ickes prohibited discrimination in hiring for Public Works Administration funded projects and oversaw not only the institution of a quota system, where contractors were required to employ a fixed percentage of Black workers, by Robert C. Weaver and Clark Foreman,:12 but also the equal pay of women proposed by Harry Hopkins.:14FDR's largest contribution to affirmative action, however, lay in his Executive Order 8802 which prohibited discrimination in the defense industry or government.:22 The executive order promoted the idea that if taxpayer funds were accepted through a government contract, then all taxpayers should have an equal opportunity to work through the contractor.:23–4 To enforce this idea, Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) with the power to investigate hiring practices by government contractors.:22

Question: Who was the true backer of the cause of affirmative action?
Answer: Harold L. Ickes

Question: What position of power did Harold L. Ickes hold?
Answer: Interior Secretary

Question: The first introduction of a quota system mandated that contractors had to do what?
Answer: employ a fixed percentage of Black workers

Question: Which piece of legislation prevented any discrimination in the defense industry and government?
Answer: Executive Order 8802

Question: What does the FEPC stand for?
Answer: Fair Employment Practices Committee
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Following the Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident, President Harry S. Truman, himself a combat veteran of World War I, issued Executive Order 9808 establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine the violence and recommend appropriate federal legislation. Hearing of the incident, Truman turned to NAACP leader Walter Francis White and declared, "My God! I had no idea it was as terrible as that. We've got to do something." In 1947 the committee published its findings, To Secure These Rights. The book was widely read, influential, and considered utopian for the times: "In our land men are equal, but they are free to be different. From these very differences among our people has come the great human and national strength of America." The report discussed and demonstrated racial discrimination in basic freedoms, education, public facilities, personal safety, and employment opportunities. The committee was disturbed by the state of race relations, and included the evacuation of Americans of Japanese descent during the war "made without a trial or any sort of hearing…Fundamental to our whole system of law is the belief that guilt is personal and not a matter of heredity or association." The recommendations were radical, calling for federal policies and laws to end racial discrimination and bring about equality: "We can tolerate no restrictions upon the individual which depend upon irrelevant factors such as his race, his color, his religion, or the social position to which he is born." To Secure These Rights set the liberal legislative agenda for the next generation that eventually would be signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson.:35–36

Question: What group was established in response to Executive Order 9808?
Answer: President's Committee on Civil Rights

Question: What was the Executive Order 9808 issued in response to?
Answer: Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident

Question: In which year were the "To Secure These Rights" findings published?
Answer: 1947

Question: What was the committee especially disturbed by as indicated in their report?
Answer: the state of race relations

Question: Who in the generation following the "To Secure These Rights" findings sign legislation for affirmative action into law?
Answer: Lyndon B. Johnson
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

To Secure These Rights also called for desegregation of the Armed Forces. "Prejudice in any area is an ugly, undemocratic phenomenon, but in the armed services, where all men run the risk of death, it is especially repugnant." The rationale was fairness: "When an individual enters the service of the country, he necessarily surrenders some of the rights and privileges which are inherent in American citizenship." In return, the government "undertakes to protect his integrity as an individual." Yet that was not possible in the segregated Army, since "any discrimination which…prevents members of the minority groups from rendering full military service in defense of their country is for them a humiliating badge of inferiority." The report called for an end to "all discrimination and segregation based on race, color, creed, or national origins in…all branches of the Armed Services.":38–39

Question: The "To Secure These Rights" findings wanted desegregation of which institution?
Answer: Armed Forces

Question: Which risk associated with serving was specifically highlighted by the findings?
Answer: death

Question: What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he enters the armed services?
Answer: surrenders some of the rights and privileges

Question: Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities was seen as what?
Answer: a humiliating badge of inferiority
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

In June, Truman became the first president to address the NAACP. His speech was a significant departure from traditional race relations in the United States. In front of 10,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, the president left no doubt where he stood on civil rights. According to his speech, America had "reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens…Each man must be guaranteed equality of opportunity." He proposed what black citizens had been calling for - an enhanced role of federal authority through the states. "We must make the Federal government a friendly, vigilant defender of the rights and equalities of all Americans. And again I mean all Americans.":40

Question: Who was the first President to address the NAACP?
Answer: Truman

Question: How many people were present at the speech that Truman made?
Answer: 10,000

Question: Where did Truman's historic speech take place?
Answer: Lincoln Memorial

Question: During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man should be guaranteed what?
Answer: equality of opportunity

Question: Who's authority did Truman want to increase throughout the states?
Answer: federal
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

On July 26, Truman mandated the end of hiring and employment discrimination in the federal government, reaffirming FDR's order of 1941.:40 He issued two executive orders on July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981. Executive Order 9980, named Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment, instituted fair employment practices in the civilian agencies of the federal government. The order created the position of Fair Employment Officer. The order "established in the Civil Service Commission a Fair Employment Board of not less than seven persons." Executive Order 9981, named Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, called for the integration of the Armed Forces and the creation of the National Military Establishment to carry out the executive order.

Question: What day did Truman mandate the end of discrimination in the federal government?
Answer: July 26

Question: How many executive orders were issued to help prevent discrimination?
Answer: two

Question: What was the name given to Executive Order 9980?
Answer: Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment

Question: Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9980?
Answer: Fair Employment Officer

Question: What name was given to Executive Order 9981?
Answer: Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

When Eisenhower was elected President in 1952, he believed hiring practices and anti-discrimination laws should be decided by the states, although the administration gradually continued to desegregate the Armed Forces and the federal government.:50 The President also established the Government Contract Committee in 1953, which "conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors".:50–51 The committee, chaired by Vice President Richard Nixon, had minimal outcomes in that they imposed the contractors with the primary responsibility of desegregation within their own companies and corporations.:51

Question: Which year was Eisenhower elected President?
Answer: 1952

Question: Who did Eisenhower believe should be allowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?
Answer: the states

Question: What was established in 1953?
Answer: Government Contract Committee

Question: What was the main purpose of the Government Contract Committee?
Answer: conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors

Question: Who was the chairman of the newly established committee?
Answer: Vice President Richard Nixon