nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Political_philosophy

John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work Two Treatises of Government. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the divine right of kings became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man.

Question: Who was responsible for the work Two Treatises of Government?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Locke refuted whose political theory?
Answer: Sir Robert Filmer

Question: According to Locke, an absolute ruler is proposed by Hobbes is what?
Answer: unnecessary
Political_philosophy

The Marxist critique of capitalism — developed with Friedrich Engels — was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Though Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again". Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.

Question: Who developed the Marxist critique of capitalism?
Answer: Friedrich Engels

Question: What was one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century?
Answer: The Marxist critique of capitalism

Question: What produced a parallel revolution in political thought?
Answer: The industrial revolution
Political_philosophy

From the end of World War II until 1971, when John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with Marxism dominating the field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968 led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment.

Question: Who published A Theory of Justice? 
Answer: John Rawls

Question: What did John Rawls publish?
Answer: A Theory of Justice

Question: What continent saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy?
Answer: Europe

Question: The events of May 1968 led to an increased interest in what?
Answer: revolutionary ideology
Political_philosophy

Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the social contract by philosophers Charles W. Mills in his book The Racial Contract and Carole Patemen in her book The Sexual Contract that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively.

Question: What remained an important focus during the 1950s and 1960s?
Answer: Communism

Question: There was a marked trend towards what type of approach to political issues?
Answer: pragmatic approach

Question: Who wrote The Racial Contract?
Answer: Charles W. Mills

Question: Who wrote The Sexual Contract?
Answer: Carole Patemen
Political_philosophy

In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints.

Question: What did John Rawsl publish?
Answer: A Theory of Justice

Question: Who Published A Theory of Justice?
Answer: John Rawls

Question: When was A Theory of Justice published?
Answer: 1971

Question: Who wrote Anarchy, State, and Utopia?
Answer: Robert Nozick
Political_philosophy

Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation.

Question: Herbert Marcuse was from what school?
Answer: Frankfurt School,

Question: Thinkers out of the Frankfurt School combined Marxian and what other perspective?
Answer: Freudian

Question: Who in particular moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption? 
Answer: Guy Debord
Political_philosophy

Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective.These and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.

Question: What is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems? 
Answer: The liberal-communitarian debate

Question: What type of control do communitarians tend to support?
Answer: greater local control

Question: What type of economic and social policies do Communitarians tend to support?
Answer: policies which encourage the growth of social capital
Political_philosophy

A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike liberals who understand liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of anyother person. To a liberal, a slave who is not interfered with may be free, yet to a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, jurist Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The capability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by legal scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it.

Question: When did republicanism and the capability approach arise?
Answer: the end of the 20th century

Question: What aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty?
Answer: The resurgent republican movement

Question: Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen pioneered what approach?
Answer: The capability approach
Norfolk_Island

Norfolk Island (i/ˈnɔːrfək ˈaɪlənd/; Norfuk: Norf'k Ailen) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia, 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) directly east of mainland Australia's Evans Head, and about 900 kilometres (560 mi) from Lord Howe Island. The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia. Together with two neighbouring islands, it forms one of Australia's external territories. It has 1,796 inhabitants living on a total area of about 35 km2 (14 sq mi). Its capital is Kingston.

Question: In what ocean is Norfolk Island found?
Answer: Pacific Ocean

Question: How far away is the nearest land mass to Norfolk Island?
Answer: about 900 kilometres (560 mi)

Question: What is the capital city of Norfolk Island?
Answer: Kingston

Question: How many people live on Norfolk Island?
Answer: 1,796

Question: How far away is Evans Head from Norfolk Island?
Answer: 1,412 kilometres (877 mi)
Norfolk_Island

Norfolk Island was colonised by East Polynesians but was long unpeopled when it was settled by Great Britain as part of its settlement of Australia from 1788. The island served as a convict penal settlement from 6 March 1788 until 5 May 1855, except for an 11-year hiatus between 15 February 1814 and 6 June 1825, when it lay abandoned. On 8 June 1856, permanent civilian residence on the island began when it was settled from Pitcairn Island. In 1913, the UK handed Norfolk over to Australia to administer as an external territory.

Question: Who was Norfolk Island colonised by?
Answer: East Polynesians

Question: What purpose did Norfolk Island serve for the majority of the time from 1788 until 1855?
Answer: a convict penal settlement

Question: What date did civilians begin to permanently reside in Norfolk Island?
Answer: 8 June 1856

Question: Where did the first permanent civilians of Norfolk Island settle from in 1856?
Answer: Pitcairn Island

Question: In what year did the UK hand Norfolk Island over to Australia to administrate?
Answer: 1913
Norfolk_Island

Sir John Call argued the advantages of Norfolk Island in that it was uninhabited and that New Zealand flax grew there. In 1786 the British government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonisation of New South Wales. The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken due to Empress Catherine II of Russia's decision to restrict sales of hemp. Practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from Russia.

Question: In what year did the British government include Norfolk Island as a auxiliary settlement?
Answer: 1786

Question: Who proposed the idea to include Norfolk Island as a British auxiliary settlement in 1786?
Answer: John Call

Question: In including Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, what Australian state did the British government plan to colonise?
Answer: New South Wales

Question: What woman influenced the decision by the British to settle Norfolk Island?
Answer: Empress Catherine II of Russia

Question: Where was the majority of the hemp and flax used by the Royal Navy imported from?
Answer: Russia
Norfolk_Island

As early as 1794, Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose suggested its closure as a penal settlement, as it was too remote and difficult for shipping and too costly to maintain. The first group of people left in February 1805, and by 1808 only about 200 remained, forming a small settlement until the remnants were removed in 1813. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings, so that there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from other European powers, to visit and lay claim to the place. From 15 February 1814 to 6 June 1825 the island was abandoned.

Question: When did Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose start suggesting Norfolk Island be closed as a penal settlement?
Answer: 1794

Question: Why did Francis Grose think that Norfolk Island should be closed as a penal settlement?
Answer: it was too remote and difficult for shipping and too costly to maintain

Question: When did the first group of people leave Norfolk Island?
Answer: February 1805

Question: By 1808, how many people remained on Norfolk Island?
Answer: 200

Question: Why did a small group of people remain on Norfolk Island, after others had already left?
Answer: to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings
Norfolk_Island

In 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send "the worst description of convicts". Its remoteness, previously seen as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of recalcitrant male prisoners. The convicts detained have long been assumed to be a hardcore of recidivists, or 'doubly-convicted capital respites' – that is, men transported to Australia who committed fresh colonial crimes for which they were sentenced to death, and were spared the gallows on condition of life at Norfolk Island. However, a recent study has demonstrated, utilising a database of 6,458 Norfolk Island convicts, that the reality was somewhat different: more than half were detained at Norfolk Island without ever receiving a colonial conviction, and only 15% had been reprieved from a death sentence. Furthermore, the overwhelming majority of convicts sent to Norfolk Island had committed non-violent property sentences, and the average length of detention was three years.

Question: Who instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to send the worst convicts to Norfolk Island?
Answer: the British government

Question: What previous disadvantage of Norfolk Island was seen as an advantage for holding male convicts?
Answer: Its remoteness

Question: What were the prisoners on Norfolk Island spared from on the the mainland?
Answer: the gallows

Question: How many convicts are listed in the database at Norfolk Island?
Answer: 6,458

Question: What was the average length of a prisoner's detention at Norfolk Island?
Answer: three years
Norfolk_Island

On 8 June 1856, the next settlement began on Norfolk Island. These were the descendants of Tahitians and the HMS Bounty mutineers, including those of Fletcher Christian. They resettled from the Pitcairn Islands, which had become too small for their growing population. On 3 May 1856, 193 persons left Pitcairn Islands aboard the "Morayshire". On 8 June 194 persons arrived, a baby having been born in transit. The Pitcairners occupied many of the buildings remaining from the penal settlements, and gradually established traditional farming and whaling industries on the island. Although some families decided to return to Pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island's population continued to grow. They accepted additional settlers, who often arrived with whaling fleets.

Question: Who were the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island descended from?
Answer: Tahitians and the HMS Bounty mutineers

Question: Where did the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island settle from?
Answer: the Pitcairn Islands

Question: On May 3, 1856, how many Pitcairners left for Norfolk Island?
Answer: 193

Question: What was the name of the ship the Pitcairners traveled on to Norfolk Island?
Answer: Morayshire

Question: What trades did the Pitcairners establish while on Norfolk Island?
Answer: farming and whaling industries
Norfolk_Island

After the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, Norfolk Island was placed under the authority of the new Commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory. During World War II, the island became a key airbase and refuelling depot between Australia and New Zealand, and New Zealand and the Solomon Islands. The airstrip was constructed by Australian, New Zealand and United States servicemen during 1942. Since Norfolk Island fell within New Zealand's area of responsibility it was garrisoned by a New Zealand Army unit known as N Force at a large Army camp which had the capacity to house a 1,500 strong force. N Force relieved a company of the Second Australian Imperial Force. The island proved too remote to come under attack during the war and N Force left the island in February 1944.

Question: When was the Commonwealth of Australia created?
Answer: 1901

Question: During what major event did Norfolk Island become an important airbase and refuelling station?
Answer: World War II

Question: Who contructed the airbase used on Norfolk Island during World War II?
Answer: Australian, New Zealand and United States servicemen

Question: Norfolk Island fell under whose responsibility during World War II?
Answer: New Zealand

Question: When did N Force leave Norfolk Island during the time of World War II?
Answer: February 1944
Norfolk_Island

Financial problems and a reduction in tourism led to Norfolk Island's administration appealing to the Australian federal government for assistance in 2010. In return, the islanders were to pay income tax for the first time but would be eligible for greater welfare benefits. However, by May 2013 agreement had not been reached and islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare. An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on 12 March 2015 to replace self-government with a local council but against the wishes of the Norfolk Island government. A majority of Norfolk Islanders have objected to the Australian plan to make changes to Norfolk Island without first consulting them and allowing their say with 68% of voters against forced changes.

Question:  What lead to Norfolk Island asking for assistance from Australia in 2010?
Answer: Financial problems and a reduction in tourism

Question: What benefit were residents of Norfolk Island told they would receive as a result of Australia's assistance?
Answer: greater welfare benefits

Question: What actually ended up happening after Norfolk Island asked Australia for help?
Answer: islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare

Question: An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on March 12, 2015, to do what for Norfolk Island?
Answer: replace self-government with a local council

Question: What percentage of Norfolk Island voters were against the changes brought by Australia?
Answer: 68%
Norfolk_Island

Norfolk Island is located in the South Pacific Ocean, east of the Australian mainland. Norfolk Island is the main island of the island group the territory encompasses and is located at 29°02′S 167°57′E﻿ / ﻿29.033°S 167.950°E﻿ / -29.033; 167.950. It has an area of 34.6 square kilometres (13.4 sq mi), with no large-scale internal bodies of water and 32 km (20 mi) of coastline. The island's highest point is Mount Bates (319 metres (1,047 feet) above sea level), located in the northwest quadrant of the island. The majority of the terrain is suitable for farming and other agricultural uses. Phillip Island, the second largest island of the territory, is located at 29°07′S 167°57′E﻿ / ﻿29.117°S 167.950°E﻿ / -29.117; 167.950, seven kilometres (4.3 miles) south of the main island.

Question: What part of the Pacific Ocean is Norfolk Island located?
Answer: South

Question: What direction is Norfolk Island in relation to Australia?
Answer: east

Question: What are the coordinates for Norfolk Island?
Answer: 29°02′S 167°57′E﻿ / ﻿29.033°S 167.950°E﻿ / -29.033; 167.950

Question: What is the name of the mountain at Norfolk Island's highest point?
Answer: Mount Bates

Question: What is the name of the second largest island of the territory of Norfolk Island?
Answer: Phillip Island
Norfolk_Island

The coastline of Norfolk Island consists, to varying degrees, of cliff faces. A downward slope exists towards Slaughter Bay and Emily Bay, the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston. There are no safe harbour facilities on Norfolk Island, with loading jetties existing at Kingston and Cascade Bay. All goods not domestically produced are brought in by ship, usually to Cascade Bay. Emily Bay, protected from the Pacific Ocean by a small coral reef, is the only safe area for recreational swimming, although surfing waves can be found at Anson and Ball Bays.

Question: What is the coastline of Norfolk made of?
Answer: cliff faces

Question: Where is the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston, Norfolk Islands, currently located?
Answer: Slaughter Bay and Emily Bay

Question: How are goods imported to Norfolk Island?
Answer: by ship

Question: Where are imported goods usually sent on Norfolk Island?
Answer: Cascade Bay

Question: Where can you go to surf on Norfolk Island?
Answer: Anson and Ball Bays