nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Czech_language

In addition to a spoken standard and a closely related written standard, Czech has several regional dialects primarily used in rural areas by speakers less proficient in other dialects or standard Czech. During the second half of the twentieth century, Czech dialect use began to weaken. By the early 1990s dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) standard Czech. Although Czech has received considerable scholarly interest for a Slavic language, this interest has focused primarily on modern standard Czech and ancient texts rather than dialects. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media.

Question: How many regional dialects does Czech have?
Answer: several

Question: Where are dialects of Czech commonly found?
Answer: rural areas

Question: What is dialect use associated with and thus stigmatized because of?
Answer: lower class

Question: What kind of scholarly interest has Czech received?
Answer: considerable

Question: What Czech dialect is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media?
Answer: Common
Czech_language

The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian (moravština). In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others). Of the Czech dialects, only Moravian is distinguished in nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office. As of 2011, 62,908 Czech citizens spoke Moravian as their first language and 45,561 were diglossal (speaking Moravian and standard Czech as first languages).

Question: What are the dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia known as?
Answer: Moravian

Question: Where could citizens register "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak' as being their spoken language?
Answer: the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Question: Which of the Czech dialects is the only one distinguished in the nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office?
Answer: Moravian

Question: How many Czechs spoke Moravian as their first language as of 2011?
Answer: 62,908

Question: How many Czechs spoke both Moravian and standard Czech as first languages in 2011?
Answer: 45,561
Czech_language

Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes, and three more found only in loanwords. They are /a/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /o/, and /u/, their long counterparts /aː/, /ɛː/, /iː/, /oː/ and /uː/, and three diphthongs, /ou̯/, /au̯/ and /ɛu̯/. The latter two diphthongs and the long /oː/ are exclusive to loanwords. Vowels are never reduced to schwa sounds when unstressed. Each word usually has primary stress on its first syllable, except for enclitics (minor, monosyllabic, unstressed syllables). In all words of more than two syllables, every odd-numbered syllable receives secondary stress. Stress is unrelated to vowel length, and the possibility of stressed short vowels and unstressed long vowels can be confusing to students whose native language combines the features (such as English).

Question: How many basic vowel phonemes does Czech contain?
Answer: ten

Question: Where are three additional vowel phonemes found in Czech?
Answer: loanwords

Question: What are vowel sounds never reduced to when unstressed?
Answer: schwa sounds

Question: What is stress unrelated to in Czech?
Answer: vowel length

Question: What a few exceptions where is the primary word stress in Czech?
Answer: first syllable
Czech_language

Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture. During the nineteenth century, words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots; "music" is muzyka in Polish and музыка (muzyka) in Russian, but in Czech it is hudba. Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into English and other languages—for example, robot (from robota, "labor") and polka (from polka, "Polish woman" or from "půlka" "half").

Question: In Czech, what are loanwords from other languages associated with?
Answer: high culture

Question: What word roots in the 19th century were rejected in favor of words with more common Slavic roots?
Answer: Greek and Latin

Question: How does one say the word "music" in Czech?
Answer: hudba

Question: What Czech word did the English "robot" derive from?
Answer: robota

Question: What is the meaning of the Czech word "robota"?
Answer: labor
Czech_language

Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence (instead of relying on word order, as English does), its word order is flexible. As a pro-drop language, in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only a verb; information about its subject is encoded in the verb. Enclitics (primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns) must appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence, after the first stressed unit. The first slot must contain a subject and object, a main form of a verb, an adverb or a conjunction (except for the light conjunctions a, "and", i, "and even" or ale, "but").

Question: Czech's word order is flexible because it uses what to convey word function in a sentence?
Answer: grammatical case

Question: In Czech an intransitive sentence may consist of only what?
Answer: a verb

Question: What is encoded about a subject in verbs in Czech?
Answer: information

Question: What is a hard to pronounce and remember term meaning primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns?
Answer: Enclitics

Question: Where must enclitics appear in a sentence?
Answer: second syntactic slot
Czech_language

Czech syntax has a subject–verb–object sentence structure. In practice, however, word order is flexible and used for topicalization and focus. Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction (like English), colloquial word-order changes frequently produce the passive voice. For example, to change "Peter killed Paul" to "Paul was killed by Peter" the order of subject and object is inverted: Petr zabil Pavla ("Peter killed Paul") becomes "Paul, Peter killed" (Pavla zabil Petr). Pavla is in the accusative case, the grammatical object (in this case, the victim) of the verb.

Question: What is the sentence structure of Czech syntax?
Answer: subject–verb–object

Question: Because word order is flexible in Czech, what does it tend to actually be used for?
Answer: topicalization and focus

Question: What kind of passive construction does Czech have?
Answer: periphrastic

Question: What happens to the subject and object to produce a passive voice in Czech?
Answer: inverted

Question: What case is the grammatical object of a verb?
Answer: accusative
Czech_language

In Czech, nouns and adjectives are declined into one of seven grammatical cases. Nouns are inflected to indicate their use in a sentence. A nominative–accusative language, Czech marks subject nouns with nominative case and object nouns with accusative case. The genitive case marks possessive nouns and some types of movement. The remaining cases (instrumental, locative, vocative and dative) indicate semantic relationships, such as secondary objects, movement or position (dative case) and accompaniment (instrumental case). An adjective's case agrees with that of the noun it describes. When Czech children learn their language's declension patterns, the cases are referred to by number:

Question: How many grammatical cases can nouns and adjectives be declined into in Czech?
Answer: seven

Question: When are nouns in Czech inflected?
Answer: to indicate their use in a sentence

Question: How does Czech mark subject nouns?
Answer: with nominative case

Question: What nouns does Czech use the accusative case to mark?
Answer: object

Question: What must an adjective's case agree with in Czech?
Answer: the noun it describes
Czech_language

Czech distinguishes three genders—masculine, feminine, and neuter—and the masculine gender is subdivided into animate and inanimate. With few exceptions, feminine nouns in the nominative case end in -a, -e, or -ost; neuter nouns in -o, -e, or -í, and masculine nouns in a consonant. Adjectives agree in gender and animacy (for masculine nouns in the accusative or genitive singular and the nominative plural) with the nouns they modify. The main effect of gender in Czech is the difference in noun and adjective declension, but other effects include past-tense verb endings: for example, dělal (he did, or made); dělala (she did, or made) and dělalo (it did, or made).

Question: How many genders does Czech distinguish?
Answer: three

Question: What categories is the masculine gender in Czech divided into?
Answer: animate and inanimate

Question: What do Czech adjectives agree with in the nouns they modify?
Answer: gender and animacy

Question: What does gender also affect in Czech?
Answer: past-tense verb endings

Question: What is the main effect of gender in Czech?
Answer: difference in noun and adjective declension
Czech_language

Nouns are also inflected for number, distinguishing between singular and plural. Typical of a Slavic language, Czech cardinal numbers one through four allow the nouns and adjectives they modify to take any case, but numbers over five place these nouns and adjectives in the genitive case when the entire expression is in nominative or accusative case. The Czech koruna is an example of this feature; it is shown here as the subject of a hypothetical sentence, and declined as genitive for numbers five and up.

Question: What are inflected for number in Czech?
Answer: Nouns

Question: What are the cardinal numbers one through four in Czech allowed to take?
Answer: any case

Question: What case are numbers over five in?
Answer: genitive

Question: When is the genitive case used?
Answer: when the entire expression is in nominative or accusative case

Question: What is Czech's handling of cardinal numbers typical of?
Answer: a Slavic language
Czech_language

Typical of Slavic languages, Czech marks its verbs for one of two grammatical aspects: perfective and imperfective. Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs—for example, koupit (perfective) and kupovat (imperfective). Although the verbs' meaning is similar, in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing. This is distinct from past and present tense, and any Czech verb of either aspect can be conjugated into any of its three tenses. Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense.

Question: What do Slavic languages tend to do to their verbs?
Answer: marks

Question: What describes the state of the action of the verb at the time specified by its tense?
Answer: Aspect

Question: What two grammatical aspects can verbs in Czech have?
Answer: perfective and imperfective

Question: In perfective verbs, what state is the action the verb describes in?
Answer: completed

Question: In which verbs in Czech is the action the verb describes still ongoing?
Answer: imperfective
Czech_language

The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways: by prefix or by suffix. In prefix pairs, the perfective verb has an added prefix—for example, the imperfective psát (to write, to be writing) compared with the perfective napsat (to write down, to finish writing). The most common prefixes are na-, o-, po-, s-, u-, vy-, z- and za-. In suffix pairs, a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem; for example, the perfective verbs koupit (to buy) and prodat (to sell) have the imperfective forms kupovat and prodávat. Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs (iterative and frequentative forms), denoting repeated or regular action. The verb jít (to go) has the iterative form chodit (to go repeatedly) and the frequentative form chodívat (to go regularly).

Question: How many ways can a verb in an aspect pair differ?
Answer: two ways

Question: What does a perfective verb have added in prefix pairs?
Answer: an added prefix

Question: What is added to the ending in suffix pairs?
Answer: different infinitive ending

Question: What can imperfective verb undergo to make other imperfective verbs?
Answer: further morphology

Question: What type of action can second level morphed imperfective verbs denote?
Answer: repeated or regular action
Czech_language

The infinitive form ends in t (archaically, ti). It is the form found in dictionaries and the form that follows auxiliary verbs (for example, můžu tě slyšet—"I can hear you"). Czech verbs have three grammatical moods: indicative, imperative and conditional. The imperative mood adds specific endings for each of three person (or number) categories: -Ø/-i/-ej for second-person singular, -te/-ete/-ejte for second-person plural and -me/-eme/-ejme for first-person plural. The conditional mood is formed with a particle after the past-tense verb. This mood indicates possible events, expressed in English as "I would" or "I wish".

Question: What verb form is found in Czech dictionaries?
Answer: infinitive

Question: How many grammatical moods do Czech verbs have?
Answer: three

Question: What are the grammatical moods of Czech verbs?
Answer: indicative, imperative and conditional

Question: What mood adds specific endings for each of three person or number categories?
Answer: imperative

Question: Which Czech verb mood indicates possible events?
Answer: conditional
Czech_language

Czech has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages. Its thirty-one graphemes represent thirty sounds (in most dialects, i and y have the same sound), and it contains only one digraph: ch, which follows h in the alphabet. As a result, some of its characters have been used by phonologists to denote corresponding sounds in other languages. The characters q, w and x appear only in foreign words. The háček (ˇ) is used with certain letters to form new characters: š, ž, and č, as well as ň, ě, ř, ť, and ď (the latter five uncommon outside Czech). The last two letters are sometimes written with a comma above (ʼ, an abbreviated háček) because of their height. The character ó exists only in loanwords and onomatopoeia.

Question: What language has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages?
Answer: Czech

Question: How many graphemes does Czech have?
Answer: thirty-one

Question: What have some of Czech's characters been used for by phonologists to denote?
Answer: corresponding sounds in other languages

Question: What character in Czech only exists in loanwords?
Answer: ó

Question: In Czech, what type of words do the characters "q", "w" and "x" exclusively appear in?
Answer: foreign
Czech_language

Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics generally resemble those of most Latin European languages, including English. Proper nouns, honorifics, and the first letters of quotations are capitalized, and punctuation is typical of other Latin European languages. Writing of ordinal numerals is similar to most European languages. The Czech language uses a decimal comma instead of a decimal point. When writing a long number, spaces between every three numbers (e.g. between hundreds and thousands) may be used for better orientation in handwritten texts, but not in decimal places, like in English. The number 1,234,567.8910 may be written as 1234567,8910 or 1 234 567,8910. Ordinal numbers (1st) use a point as in German (1.). In proper noun phrases (except personal names), only the first word is capitalized (Pražský hrad, Prague Castle).

Question: What do Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics tend to resemble?
Answer: those of most Latin European languages

Question: In Czech, what is done to proper nouns, honorifics, and the first letters of quotations?
Answer: capitalized

Question: What is typical in Czech as other Latin European languages?
Answer: punctuation

Question: What language does Czech share its handling of ordinal format with?
Answer: German

Question: What word is capitalized in proper noun phrases in Czech?
Answer: only the first
Planck_constant

First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator, was theoretically associated by Einstein with a "quantum" or minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself. The light quantum behaved in some respects as an electrically neutral particle, as opposed to an electromagnetic wave. It was eventually called the photon.

Question: What is considered the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator?
Answer: value E

Question: In what year was the value E associated by Einstein with quantum theories of energy?
Answer: 1905

Question: Who discovered an association between the value E and quantum energy?
Answer: Einstein

Question: What did the light quantum behave the same as in laboratory experiments?
Answer: neutral particle

Question: What type of charge did a particle have that behaved similarly to light quantum energy?
Answer: neutral

Question: What is energy abbreviated to in science?
Answer: E

Question: What is frequency also known as in science?
Answer: f

Question: What term describes a small amount of element?
Answer: quantum

Question: What did the light quantum, in some ways, behave as?
Answer: an electrically neutral particle

Question: What was later termed the photon?
Answer: The light quantum

Question: When did Max Planck first recognize the value of the Planck constant?
Answer: 1900

Question: Which scientist associated the Planck constant with a quantum five years after Planck's recognition?
Answer: Einstein

Question: Instead of an electromagnetic wave, what did the light quantum behave as in some regards?
Answer: an electrically neutral particle

Question: What is the simple name given to the light quantum today?
Answer: the photon
Planck_constant

Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck constant. Classical physics cannot explain this fact. In many cases, such as for monochromatic light or for atoms, this quantum of action also implies that only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.

Question: What does classical statistics mechanics not define the value of?
Answer: h

Question: What is required to exist in classical statistics mechanics?
Answer: h

Question: After Planck's findings, what was determined could not take on an arbitrary value?
Answer: physical action

Question: What is the "quantum of action" called?
Answer: the Planck constant

Question: What does the Planck Constant refer to?
Answer: quantum of action

Question: Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of what?
Answer: h

Question: What was realized after Planck's discovery?
Answer: that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value

Question: What is the Planck constant formerly known as?
Answer: quantum of action

Question: Regarding atoms, what does the Planck constant imply?
Answer: that only certain energy levels are allowed

Question: Regarding atoms, what are values in between certain energy levels considered by the Planck constant?
Answer: forbidden

Question: Following Planck's discovery, what was realized about values of physical action?
Answer: physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value

Question: The Planck constant initially was given what name?
Answer: the "quantum of action"

Question: How is the proportional nature of the Planck constant explained?
Answer: Classical physics cannot explain this fact

Question: For certain cases of light or atoms, what does the quantum of action yield?
Answer: only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.
Planck_constant

Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz (7014540000000000000♠540×1012 Hz). Each photon has an energy E = hf = 6981358000000000000♠3.58×10−19 J. That is a very small amount of energy in terms of everyday experience, but everyday experience is not concerned with individual photons any more than with individual atoms or molecules. An amount of light compatible with everyday experience is the energy of one mole of photons; its energy can be computed by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant, NA ≈ 7023602200000000000♠6.022×1023 mol−1. The result is that green light of wavelength 555 nm has an energy of 7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol, a typical energy of everyday life.

Question: What are common things like furniture and stationary objects actually made of?
Answer: particles

Question: Which light wavelength is the human eye most sensitive to?
Answer: 555 nanometres

Question: What color of light is the human eye most sensitive to?
Answer: green

Question: What does the smallness of the Planck constant show?
Answer: the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles

Question: At about what wavelength of light are human eyes most sensitive?
Answer: 555 nanometres

Question: What frequency does green light with a wavelength of 555 nanmetres have?
Answer: 7014540000000000000♠540 THz

Question: How is the energy from one mole of photos computed?
Answer: by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant

Question: How much energy does a green light of wavelength 555 nm contain?
Answer: 7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol

Question: What is the wavelength of light to which human eyes are most sensitive?
Answer: 555 nanometres

Question: What is the frequency of the light to which the human eye is most sensitive?
Answer: 7014540000000000000♠540 THz

Question: What is the energy of a photon?
Answer: 6981358000000000000♠3.58×10−19 J

Question: How much energy is contained in the light to which human eyes are most sensitive?
Answer: 7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol