nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

At various times, there have been cardinals who had only received first tonsure and minor orders but not yet been ordained as deacons or priests. Though clerics, they were inaccurately called "lay cardinals" and were permitted to marry. Teodolfo Mertel was among the last of the lay cardinals. When he died in 1899 he was the last surviving cardinal who was not at least ordained a priest. With the revision of the Code of Canon Law promulgated in 1917 by Pope Benedict XV, only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals. Since the time of Pope John XXIII a priest who is appointed a cardinal must be consecrated a bishop, unless he obtains a dispensation.

Question: What was a "lay cardinal" allowed to do that is not considered a normal status of a Cardinal?
Answer: marry

Question: In what year did Pope Benedict XV revise the Code of Canon Law?
Answer: 1917

Question: What did the Code of Canon Law state in regards to Cardinals?
Answer: only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

A cardinal who is not a bishop is still entitled to wear and use the episcopal vestments and other pontificalia (episcopal regalia: mitre, crozier, zucchetto, pectoral cross and ring). Even if not a bishop, any cardinal has both actual and honorary precedence over non-cardinal patriarchs, as well as the archbishops and bishops who are not cardinals, but he cannot perform the functions reserved solely to bishops, such as ordination. The prominent priests who since 1962 were not ordained bishops on their elevation to the cardinalate were over the age of 80 or near to it, and so no cardinal who was not a bishop has participated in recent papal conclaves.

Question: A cardinal who does not hold the title of "bishop" may not do what?
Answer: perform the functions reserved solely to bishops, such as ordination

Question: Cardinals who were not bishops have been promoted to Cardinal around the age of 80 since what year?
Answer: 1962
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

Until 1917, it was possible for someone who was not a priest, but only in minor orders, to become a cardinal (see "lay cardinals", below), but they were enrolled only in the order of cardinal deacons. For example, in the 16th century, Reginald Pole was a cardinal for 18 years before he was ordained a priest. In 1917 it was established that all cardinals, even cardinal deacons, had to be priests, and, in 1962, Pope John XXIII set the norm that all cardinals be ordained as bishops, even if they are only priests at the time of appointment. As a consequence of these two changes, canon 351 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law requires that a cardinal be at least in the order of priesthood at his appointment, and that those who are not already bishops must receive episcopal consecration. Several cardinals aged over 80 or close to it when appointed have obtained dispensation from the rule of having to be a bishop. These were all appointed cardinal-deacons, but one of them, Roberto Tucci, lived long enough to exercise the right of option and be promoted to the rank of cardinal-priest.

Question: In what year did the practice of allowing non priests to become Cardinals stop?
Answer: 1917

Question: In what year was it declared that Cardinals had to be bishops?
Answer: 1962
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

The cardinal protodeacon, the senior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the College of Cardinals, has the privilege of announcing a new pope's election and name (once he has been ordained to the Episcopate) from the central balcony at the Basilica of Saint Peter in Vatican City State. In the past, during papal coronations, the proto-deacon also had the honor of bestowing the pallium on the new pope and crowning him with the papal tiara. However, in 1978 Pope John Paul I chose not to be crowned and opted for a simpler papal inauguration ceremony, and his three successors followed that example. As a result, the Cardinal protodeacon's privilege of crowning a new pope has effectively ceased although it could be revived if a future Pope were to restore a coronation ceremony. However, the proto-deacon still has the privilege of bestowing the pallium on a new pope at his papal inauguration. “Acting in the place of the Roman Pontiff, he also confers the pallium upon metropolitan bishops or gives the pallium to their proxies.” The current cardinal proto-deacon is Renato Raffaele Martino.

Question: Who announces the election of a new pope?
Answer: The cardinal protodeacon

Question: Where does this person announce the election of the new pope?
Answer: from the central balcony at the Basilica of Saint Peter in Vatican City State

Question: Who was the first pope who chose not to be crowned?
Answer: Pope John Paul I
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

When not celebrating Mass but still serving a liturgical function, such as the semiannual Urbi et Orbi papal blessing, some Papal Masses and some events at Ecumenical Councils, cardinal deacons can be recognized by the dalmatics they would don with the simple white mitre (so called mitra simplex).

Question: What color is the hat?
Answer: white
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

As of 2005, there were over 50 churches recognized as cardinalatial deaconries, though there were only 30 cardinals of the order of deacons. Cardinal deacons have long enjoyed the right to "opt for the order of cardinal priests" (optazione) after they have been cardinal deacons for 10 years. They may on such elevation take a vacant "title" (a church allotted to a cardinal priest as the church in Rome with which he is associated) or their diaconal church may be temporarily elevated to a cardinal priest's "title" for that occasion. When elevated to cardinal priests, they take their precedence according to the day they were first made cardinal deacons (thus ranking above cardinal priests who were elevated to the college after them, regardless of order).

Question: How many cardinal deacons were there in 2005?
Answer: 30

Question: How many years before a cardinal deacon can choose the order of the cardinal priests?
Answer: 10 years
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are mainly officials of the Roman Curia holding various posts in the church administration. Their number and influence has varied through the years. While historically predominantly Italian the group has become much more internationally diverse in later years. While in 1939 about half were Italian by 1994 the number was reduced to one third. Their influence in the election of the Pope has been considered important, they are better informed and connected than the dislocated cardinals but their level of unity has been varied. Under the 1587 decree of Pope Sixtus V, which fixed the maximum size of the College of Cardinals, there were 14 cardinal deacons. Later the number increased. As late as 1939 almost half of the cardinals were members of the curia. Pius XII reduced this percentage to 24 percent. John XXIII brought it back up to 37 percent but Paul VI brought it down to 27 percent where John Paul II has maintained this ratio.

Question: In 1939, how many Cardinals were Italian?
Answer: about half

Question: In 1994, how many Cardinals were Italian?
Answer: third
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

Cardinal deacons derive originally from the seven deacons in the Papal Household and the seven deacons who supervised the Church's works in the districts of Rome during the early Middle Ages, when church administration was effectively the government of Rome and provided all social services. Cardinal deacons are given title to one of these deaconries.

Question: What is the name of one of the deaconries in which Cardinals come from?
Answer: seven deacons in the Papal Household
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

The cardinal deacons are the lowest-ranking cardinals. Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are either officials of the Roman Curia or priests elevated after their 80th birthday. Bishops with diocesan responsibilities, however, are created cardinal priests.

Question: Which cardinals are ranked lowest?
Answer: cardinal deacons
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests is titled cardinal protopriest. He had certain ceremonial duties in the conclave that have effectively ceased because he would generally have already reached age 80, at which cardinals are barred from the conclave. The current cardinal protopriest is Paulo Evaristo Arns of Brazil.

Question: Who can become the cardinal protopriest?
Answer: The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests

Question: Who is the cardinal protopriest at this time?
Answer: Paulo Evaristo Arns of Brazil
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

Cardinal priests are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church, ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops. Those who are named cardinal priests today are generally bishops of important dioceses throughout the world, though some hold Curial positions.

Question: Who are the lowest ranking cardinals in the Catholic church?
Answer: cardinal deacons

Question: Who are the highest ranking cardinals in the Catholic Church?
Answer: cardinal bishops

Question: Which rank has the most cardinals?
Answer: Cardinal priests
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

In modern times, the name "cardinal priest" is interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of priests. Originally, however, this referred to certain key priests of important churches of the Diocese of Rome, who were recognized as the cardinal priests, the important priests chosen by the pope to advise him in his duties as Bishop of Rome (the Latin cardo means "hinge"). Certain clerics in many dioceses at the time, not just that of Rome, were said to be the key personnel — the term gradually became exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the bishop of Rome, the pope.

Question: What was the original definition of a cardinal priest?
Answer: priests chosen by the pope
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

While the number of cardinals was small from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and frequently smaller than the number of recognized churches entitled to a cardinal priest, in the 16th century the College expanded markedly. In 1587, Pope Sixtus V sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the College at 70, including 50 cardinal priests, about twice the historical number. This limit was respected until 1958, and the list of titular churches modified only on rare occasions, generally when a building fell into disrepair. When Pope John XXIII abolished the limit, he began to add new churches to the list, which Popes Paul VI and John Paul II continued to do. Today there are close to 150 titular churches, out of over 300 churches in Rome.

Question: In what year did Pope Sixtus V put a cap on the number of cardinals in the College of Cardinals?
Answer: 1587

Question: What was the maximum number allowed per Pope Sixtus V?
Answer: 70

Question: Who removed the cap on cardinals in the College of the Cardinals?
Answer: Pope John XXIII
Iranian_languages

The Iranian languages or Iranic languages form a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, which in turn are a branch of the Indo-European language family. The speakers of Iranian languages are known as Iranian peoples. Historical Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE), and New Iranian (since 900 CE). Of the Old Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Old Persian (a language of Achaemenid Iran) and Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Middle Iranian languages included Middle Persian (a language of Sassanid Iran), Parthian, and Bactrian.

Question: What is another term meaning Iranian languages?
Answer: Iranic languages

Question: What are the Iranic languages a subgroup of?
Answer: Indo-Iranian languages

Question: What are Indo-Iranian languages a subset of?
Answer: Indo-European language family

Question: When did the change from Old Iranian to Middle Iranian occur?
Answer: 400 BCE

Question: What is an example of a Sassanid language?
Answer: Middle Persian
Iranian_languages

The term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language. Iranian derives from the Persian and Sanskrit origin word Arya.

Question: Iranian languages are all said to be derived from which predecessor?
Answer: Proto-Iranian

Question: From what languages does the word Aryao come?
Answer: Persian and Sanskrit
Iranian_languages

The use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen. Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.

Question: When was the phrase Iranian language family first used?
Answer: 1836

Question: Who first used the term Iranian language?
Answer: Christian Lassen

Question: Who first used the term Irano-Aryan?
Answer: Robert Needham Cust

Question: When was the phrase Irano-Aryan first used?
Answer: 1878
Iranian_languages

All Iranian languages are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Iranian. In turn, and together with Proto-Indo-Aryan and the Nuristani languages, Proto-Iranian descends from a common ancestor Proto-Indo-Iranian. The Indo-Iranian languages are thought to have originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is the suggested candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BC.

Question: From where did Iranian languages originate?
Answer: Proto-Iranian

Question: What part of the world is it theorized that Indo-Iranian languages came from?
Answer: Central Asia

Question: What society is a strong contender for the common culture speaking Indo-Iranian?
Answer: Andronovo

Question: When did the Andronovo culture exist?
Answer: 2000 BC
Iranian_languages

The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two have survived. These are:

Question: What characteristic of Middle Iranian civilization is shown by the number of different languages and their speakers?
Answer: linguistic diversity

Question: How many of the Middlie Iranian tongues have remained in existence since ancient time?
Answer: two
Iranian_languages

Old Persian is the Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in south-western Iran by the inhabitants of Parsa, who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed circa 520 BC, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BC the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

Question: In which historical record does Old Persian appear in exemplary form?
Answer: the Behistun inscription

Question: When was the Behistun inscription written?
Answer: 520 BC

Question: During what century was the change from Old to Middle Persian well underway?
Answer: 4th century BC
Iranian_languages

The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

Question: What ancient religious document exists in two versions and includes Old Iranian language?
Answer: Avestan

Question: What is the contemporary name of the religion which Avesta was part of?
Answer: Zoroastrianism

Question: What language shows a level of maturity corresponding to Old Avestan?
Answer: Rigvedic Sanskrit

Question: What language shows the same level of development as Younger Avestan?
Answer: Old Persian
Iranian_languages

In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Carduchi (the hypothetical predecessor to Kurdish) and Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary. Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian".

Question: What language is Carduchi thought to have become?
Answer: Kurdish

Question: What language did Herodotus invent a name for?
Answer: Scythian
Iranian_languages

Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped in "western" and "eastern" branches. These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it isn't known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Question: What are the two main divisions of Iranian tongues?
Answer: western and eastern

Question: Which language is associated with the western branch of Iranian?
Answer: Old Persian

Question: Which language is associated with the eastern branch of Iranian?
Answer: Avestan
Iranian_languages

Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:

Question: What elements of Proto-Indo-Iranian did not diverge according to the ensuing split between eastern and western variants?
Answer: *ć and *dź

Question: What type of letters are *ć and *dź?
Answer: first-series palatal consonants
Iranian_languages

As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

Question: What languages share a similar situation?
Answer: Nuristani languages

Question: What other elements of early Iranian languages problematize the east-west division?
Answer: *ćw and *dźw

Question: What is the linguistic categorization of *ćw and *dźw?
Answer: consonant clusters
Iranian_languages

It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothethical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

Question: What may have also been in use at the time?
Answer: other distinct dialect groups

Question: Precursors of what subset of Scythian are theorized to have existed?
Answer: Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian

Question: What possible predecessor of Pathian is thought to have existed?
Answer: Old Parthian
Iranian_languages

The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.

Question: Bactrian, Sogdian, and Saka are examples of what type of Iranian language?
Answer: Eastern

Question: Which language bears a resemblance to the diversity of eastern Iranian languages?
Answer: Avestan

Question: Where did the the alphabets used by eastern languages come from?
Answer: Aramaic

Question: What did the Bactrian language use for writing?
Answer: Greek script
Iranian_languages

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.

Question: What is another term for Middle Persian?
Answer: Pahlavi

Question: When did Middle Persian start being u sed?
Answer: 3rd century CE

Question: What are three languages employed by the Manichaeans?
Answer: Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian

Question: What was the writing of Manichaean documents similar to?
Answer: Syriac script