nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the Cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another, which he rejected in favor of an event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another. He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential, indeed that everything is constituted by its experience. He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience. In this, he went against Descartes' separation of two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental. Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as "philosophy of organism", but it would become known more widely as "process philosophy."

Question: What Cartesian concept did Whitehead believe to be erroneous?
Answer: reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another

Question: What theory did Whitehead prefer to the Cartesian concept?
Answer: event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another

Question: How did whitehead define "experience"?
Answer: He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience

Question: How did Descartes' distinguish types of existence?
Answer: two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental

Question: How did Whitehead identify his system of metaphysics?
Answer: "philosophy of organism"

Question: What idea states that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter?
Answer: Cartesian idea

Question: Whitehead rejected the Cartesian idea in favor of what?
Answer: an event-based or "process" ontology

Question: Whitehead believed instead of matter existing independently of each other, it did what?
Answer: interrelated and dependent

Question: Whitehead believed that reality should be regarded as what?
Answer: experiential

Question: Whitehead's system as "philosophy of organism" became widely known as what term?
Answer: process philosophy
Alfred_North_Whitehead

In Whitehead's view, then, concepts such as "quality", "matter", and "form" are problematic. These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world. They are useful abstractions, but are not the world's basic building blocks. What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person, for instance, is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events. After all, people change all the time, if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience. These occasions of experience are logically distinct, but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a "society" of events. By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete (what Whitehead calls the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness").

Question: How did Whitehead define the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness"?
Answer: By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete

Question: What basic concepts did Whitehead believe were questionable?
Answer: "quality", "matter", and "form"

Question: Why did he believe those concepts were inaccurate?
Answer: These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world.

Question: How did Whitehead classify what is usually seen as an individual person?
Answer: a continuum of overlapping events

Question: How did Whitehead refer to the combination of a person's separate experiences?
Answer: a "society" of events

Question: What are the concepts quality, matter, and form considered?
Answer: "classical" concepts

Question: Concepts such as quality, matter, and form fail to account for what?
Answer: change

Question: What concepts overlook the experiential nature of basic elements?
Answer: quality", "matter", and "form"

Question: What does Whitehead call experiences that are progressively connected?
Answer: society

Question: Instead of being a single person, what does Whitehead view a person as?
Answer: continuum of overlapping events
Alfred_North_Whitehead

To put it another way, a thing or person is often seen as having a "defining essence" or a "core identity" that is unchanging, and describes what the thing or person really is. In this way of thinking, things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time, with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity (e.g. "Mark's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older, but he is still the same person"). But in Whitehead's cosmology, the only fundamentally existent things are discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing. On the other hand, what ordinary thinking often regards as "the essence of a thing" or "the identity/core of a person" is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing's most important or salient features across time. Identities do not define people, people define identities. Everything changes from moment to moment, and to think of anything as having an "enduring essence" misses the fact that "all things flow", though it is often a useful way of speaking.

Question: What did Whitehead believe were essentially the only things that truly exist?
Answer: discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing

Question: Regarding the idea that individuals or objects don't fundamentally change, what terms can be used to describe what an object or individual actually is?
Answer: "defining essence" or a "core identity"

Question: In that line of thinking, how are changes described?
Answer: qualitative and secondary to their core identity

Question: The idea that people are unchanging and stay the same even through changes is considered what?
Answer: defining essence

Question: In Whitehead's cosmology, what are the only things that fundamentally exist?
Answer: occasions of experience

Question: Where do occasions of experience overlap?
Answer: time and space

Question: Instead of having an enduring essence, what does Whitehead believe?
Answer: all things flow"

Question: In Whitehead's view, identities do not define people, but what?
Answer: people define identities
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking, and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech. After all, each moment of each person's life can hardly be given a different proper name, and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things, rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago. Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular, concrete processes. No one questions that a ten-year-old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old, and in many ways is not the same person at all; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next.

Question: Why did Whitehead think people continued to subscribe to materialistic thinking?
Answer: it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things

Question: What did Whitehead believe regarding factors that limit people's understanding of his concepts?
Answer: should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum

Question: What did Whitehead believe was one of the biggest reasons materialistic thinking endured?
Answer: limitations of language

Question: What did Whitehead state about the belief that a person is exactly the same from moment to moment?
Answer: it is not philosophically or ontologically sound

Question: Why couldn't each moment of each person's life be given a different proper name?
Answer: limitations of language

Question: What did Whitehead believe was a culprit in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking?
Answer: limitations of language

Question: Whitehead's main philosophy on humans changing is what?
Answer: each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago
Alfred_North_Whitehead

A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations. It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects. Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things. The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything. But in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves. A student taking notes in one of Whitehead's fall 1924 classes wrote that:

Question: What is the general materialistic view of an object?
Answer: Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things

Question: How the fundamental concept of matter influence people to view objects?
Answer: The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything

Question: What is Whitehead's belief regarding the importance of relations?
Answer: in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves

Question: What is the materialistic view of matter in relation to other objects?
Answer: It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects.

Question: What is another issue that Whitehead had with materialism?
Answer: it obscures the importance of relations

Question: What obscures the importance of relations according to Whitehead?
Answer: materialism

Question: What does Materialism see each object as?
Answer: distinct and discrete

Question: How is each object related to other things?
Answer: externally
Alfred_North_Whitehead

In fact, Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it. A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it; that is to say, if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist. Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

Question: How does Whitehead characterize anything that exists?
Answer: in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it

Question: How does he describe what makes something real?
Answer: A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it

Question: In Whitehead's thinking, what could be said about something that has no effect on any other person or object?
Answer: if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist

Question: What did Whitehead believe about the concept of relations in the context of defining an entity?
Answer: Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

Question: Whitehead believes any entity is in some sense what?
Answer: nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities

Question: If an object made no difference to any other entity, what could be said about it?
Answer: not be said to really exist.

Question: If relations are not secondary to what a thing is, what is it?
Answer: they are what the thing is

Question: What makes up the sum of relations to an entity?
Answer: rld around it

Question: A real object forces the universe to do what?
Answer: in some way conform to it
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Isabelle Stengers wrote that "Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians, and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons, from ecology to feminism, practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education." Indeed, in recent decades attention to Whitehead's work has become more widespread, with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China, and coming from such diverse fields as ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology. One of the first theologians to attempt to interact with Whitehead's thought was the future Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple. In Temple's Gifford Lectures of 1932-1934 (subsequently published as "Nature, Man and God"), Whitehead is one of a number of philosophers of the emergent evolution approach Temple interacts with. However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of philosophers and theologians, primarily Americans, and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles.

Question: In what areas of the world has interest in Whitehead's work spread in recent decades?
Answer: Europe and China

Question: Who was one of the first theologians to try to interact with Whitehead's ideas?
Answer: William Temple

Question: What was the basis for "Nature, Man and God"?
Answer: Temple's Gifford Lectures of 1932-1934

Question: According to Isabelle Stengers, what are unifying factors in diverse practices (like ecology and feminism) that have become interested in Whitehead's work?
Answer: practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education

Question: What other fields have shown more recent interest in Whitehead's work?
Answer: ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology
Alfred_North_Whitehead

But while Claremont remains the most concentrated hub of Whiteheadian activity, the place where Whitehead's thought currently seems to be growing the most quickly is in China. In order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization, China has begun to blend traditions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism with Whitehead's "constructive post-modern" philosophy in order to create an "ecological civilization." To date, the Chinese government has encouraged the building of twenty-three university-based centers for the study of Whitehead's philosophy, and books by process philosophers John Cobb and David Ray Griffin are becoming required reading for Chinese graduate students. Cobb has attributed China's interest in process philosophy partly to Whitehead's stress on the mutual interdependence of humanity and nature, as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts.

Question: Where is interest in Whitehead's work growing the fastest today?
Answer: China

Question: What challenges are China using Whitehead's ideas to help manage?
Answer: modernization and industrialization

Question: What types of traditions are China blending with Whitehead's "constructive post-modern" philosophy?
Answer: traditions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism

Question: What philosphers' writings are becoming required reading for graduate students in China?
Answer: John Cobb and David Ray Griffin

Question: Why does John Cobb believe China has become interested in process philosophy?
Answer: interdependence of humanity and nature, as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Deleuze's and Latour's opinions, however, are minority ones, as Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools. It is impossible to say exactly why Whitehead's influence has not been more widespread, but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter-intuitive (such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction), or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy, or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé, or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose.

Question: what is an example of Whitehead's ideas being counter-intuitive?
Answer: his assertion that matter is an abstraction

Question: Why do some people believe Whitehead's writings may have restricted his influence?
Answer: the sheer difficulty and density of his prose

Question: What is a common opinion of metaphysics?
Answer: perception of metaphysics itself as passé

Question: What is the general opinion of Whitehead in most philosophical schools?
Answer: Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools
Alfred_North_Whitehead

One philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is American pragmatism. Whitehead himself thought highly of William James and John Dewey, and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to Process and Reality. Charles Hartshorne (along with Paul Weiss) edited the collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, one of the founders of pragmatism. Noted neopragmatist Richard Rorty was in turn a student of Hartshorne. Today, Nicholas Rescher is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism.

Question: What philosophy is closely related to process philosophy?
Answer: American pragmatism

Question: What pragmatists did Whitehead acknowledge in the preface to "Process and Reality"?
Answer: William James and John Dewey

Question: Who is a philosopher that promotes process philosophy and pragmatism currently?
Answer: Nicholas Rescher

Question: What founder of pragmatism's collected papers did Charles Hartshorne ans Paul Weiss edit?
Answer: Charles Sanders Peirce

Question: What important neopragmatist was Harthorne's student?
Answer: Richard Rorty
Alfred_North_Whitehead

In physics, Whitehead's thought has had some influence. He articulated a view that might perhaps be regarded as dual to Einstein's general relativity, see Whitehead's theory of gravitation. It has been severely criticized. Yutaka Tanaka, who suggests that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings, proposes that Einstein's work does not actually refute Whitehead's formulation. Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of gravitational waves. They are phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes. Consequently, Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation, and his assumption of a uniform spatio-temporal geometry, Minkowskian in particular, as an often-locally-adequate approximation. An exact replacement of Whitehead's cosmology would need to admit a Riemannian geometry. Also, although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory, his metaphysics of processes has proved attractive to some physicists in that field. Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead.

Question: How was Whitehead's theory of gravitation received?
Answer: It has been severely criticized

Question: What physicists in the field of quantum theory have been influenced by Whitehead?
Answer: Henry Stapp and David Bohm

Question: What affect  did the discovery of gravitational waves have on Whitehead's theory?
Answer: Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of gravitational waves

Question: What are gravitational waves?
Answer: phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes

Question: How must Whiteheads cosmology now be considered?
Answer: Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation
Alfred_North_Whitehead

This work has been pioneered by John B. Cobb, Jr., whose book Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology (1971) was the first single-authored book in environmental ethics. Cobb also co-authored a book with economist Herman Daly entitled For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (1989), which applied Whitehead's thought to economics, and received the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order. Cobb followed this with a second book, Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy (1994), which aimed to challenge "economists' zealous faith in the great god of growth."

Question: What award did Cobb and Daly receive for the book?
Answer: Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order

Question: What was the first book on environmental ethics by an individual author?
Answer: Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology

Question: On which economics book did Cobb collaborate with Herman Daly?
Answer: For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future

Question: What other economics book did Cobb go on to author?
Answer: Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy

Question: What was the goal of Cobb's second book on economics?
Answer: to challenge "economists' zealous faith in the great god of growth."
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China. "FEELS" stands for five things in curriculum and education: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher. It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to "help a person become whole." This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China.

Question: Who established the FEELS model in China?
Answer: Xie Bangxiu

Question: What does "FEELS" stand for?
Answer: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher

Question: What is the purpose of the FEELS model?
Answer: It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to "help a person become whole."

Question: What entities are working together to promote the FEELS model?
Answer: Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China