nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Late_Middle_Ages

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a 'commercial revolution'. Among the innovations of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury, and eliminated the dangers of carrying bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.

Question: What new form of accounting was created during the late 13th and early 14th centuries?
Answer: double-entry bookkeeping

Question: In which country did the so-called 'commercial revolution' primarily take place?
Answer: Italy

Question: What was the main benefit of the creation of new forms of partnerships during the commercial revolution?
Answer: reducing the risk of commercial ventures

Question: Laws against what lending practice were addressed by the creation of bills of exchange?
Answer: usury

Question: What were the benefits of the new system of double-entry bookkeeping?
Answer: better oversight and accuracy
Late_Middle_Ages

With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of guilds, while on a national level special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like the English wool Staple. The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England, and individuals like Jacques Coeur in France would help finance the wars of kings, and achieve great political influence in the process.

Question: What privilege was granted to companies on a national level?
Answer: monopolies

Question: Which families financed the wars of kings?
Answer: the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England

Question: Which economic associations gained power in the towns?
Answer: guilds

Question: Where was Jacques Couer from?
Answer: France
Late_Middle_Ages

Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population. While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called 'depression of the Renaissance'. In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.

Question: What caused the decrease in commerce and production in the 14th century?
Answer: demographic crisis

Question: What is the alternative to the theory that the Renaissance was a time of great opulence?
Answer: depression of the Renaissance

Question: What type of evidence is too incomplete for a decision to be made between the two theories of the Renaissance?
Answer: statistical

Question: What is posited as the cause of increased artistic output during the Renaissance?
Answer: greater opulence
Late_Middle_Ages

The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the Thomistic reconciliation of the teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology. The Condemnation of 1277, enacted at the University of Paris, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical; restrictions that had implication for Aristotelian thought. An alternative was presented by William of Ockham, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or Occam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one, and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.

Question: Which philosophy attempted to reconcile Aristotelian teachings and Christian theology in the 13th century?
Answer: Thomistic

Question: Where was the Condemnation of 1277 enacted?
Answer: University of Paris

Question: Which philosopher believed that reason and faith were to be kept separate?
Answer: William of Ockham

Question: What is the common name for William of Ockham's principle of parsimony?
Answer: Occam's razor

Question: On what types of ideas did the Condemnation of 1277 place restrictions?
Answer: heretical
Late_Middle_Ages

This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science, and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of motion great advances were made, when such scholars as Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme and the Oxford Calculators challenged the work of Aristotle. Buridan developed the theory of impetus as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of inertia. The works of these scholars anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Nicolaus Copernicus.

Question: What did Jean Buridan create to explain the motion of projectiles?
Answer: the theory of impetus

Question: What school of scientific thought was challenged by Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme?
Answer: Aristotelian

Question: What scientist is most associated with the heliocentric worldview?
Answer: Nicolaus Copernicus

Question: Which scholars made great advances in the theories of motion?
Answer: Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme and the Oxford Calculators

Question: Buridan's theory of impetus led to what modern concept?
Answer: inertia
Late_Middle_Ages

Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of Arab or Chinese origin, or unique European innovations – were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particular gunpowder, the printing press and the compass. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle affected not only military organisation, but helped advance the nation state. Gutenberg's movable type printing press made possible not only the Reformation, but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. The compass, along with other innovations such as the cross-staff, the mariner's astrolabe, and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans, and the early phases of colonialism. Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock.

Question: Who invented the movable printing press?
Answer: Gutenberg

Question: What religious movement was spurred by the invention of the printing press?
Answer: the Reformation

Question: Which inventions of the period had a great impact on everyday life?
Answer: eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock

Question: Which invention with military applications helped bring about the nation state?
Answer: gunpowder

Question: Advances in what construction trade helped to increase global navigation?
Answer: shipbuilding
Late_Middle_Ages

The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio, and later described by Brunelleschi. Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello. This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models. As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

Question: Who championed the scientific study of anatomy for the benefit of art?
Answer: Donatello

Question: Which artistic principle was innovated by Brunelleschi?
Answer: linear perspective

Question: Along with da Vinci, who were two other artists regarded as masters of the High Renaissance?
Answer: Michelangelo and Raphael

Question: What was achieved though the use of the scientific study of anatomy in the field of art?
Answer: Greater realism

Question: What did Donatello study that inspired sculptures?
Answer: classical models
Late_Middle_Ages

The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries. Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium, and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail. The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.

Question: What was the focus of paintings in Italy?
Answer: idealized compositions

Question: Where was the focus of paintings on textures and surfaces?
Answer: the Netherlands

Question: What painter was an early champion of oil as a medium in painting?
Answer: Jan van Eyck

Question: Jan van Eyck's paintings are known for what characteristics?
Answer: great realism and minute detail
Late_Middle_Ages

Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval world view with classical ideals. Another promoter of the Italian language was Boccaccio with his Decameron. The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later (whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern lyric poems). Together the three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language.

Question: Who wrote the Divine Comedy?
Answer: Dante Alighieri

Question: In what languages did Dante and Boccaccio create their works?
Answer: Latin as well as Italian

Question: Which dialect became the norm for the modern Italian language?
Answer: Tuscan

Question: What is one of Boccaccio's works that helped promote the Italian language?
Answer: Decameron

Question: Whose work, Canzoniere, is considered to be the first example of modern lyric poetry?
Answer: Petrarch
Late_Middle_Ages

Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts. From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the motet; a composition with text in several parts. From the 1330s and onwards, emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices. Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the Provençal troubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.

Question: What style of sacred musical form emerged in the 1330s?
Answer: polyphonic

Question: Polyphony was common in the secular music of which French region?
Answer: Provençal

Question: What is the term for the four subjects that comprised the liberal arts in medieval universities?
Answer: the quadrivium

Question: What was the dominant sacred musical form in the early 13th century?
Answer: the motet
Late_Middle_Ages

The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as ars nova as opposed to the ars antiqua, were the composers Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of trecento, and the leading composers were Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini. Prominent reformer of Orthodox Church music from the first half of 14th century was John Kukuzelis; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the Balkans in the following centuries.

Question: Who introduced a system of musical notation used in the Balkans in the 14th century?
Answer: John Kukuzelis

Question: What was the name of the new musical style introduced in the Late Middle Ages?
Answer: ars nova

Question: Which musical style did ars nova replace in the 14th century?
Answer: ars antiqua

Question: Who were the leading composers of the trecento period?
Answer: Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini

Question: Kukuzelis reformed the music of which religion?
Answer: Orthodox Church
Late_Middle_Ages

Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most interesting morality play is The Castle of Perseverance which depicts mankind's progress from birth to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known medieval drama is Everyman. Everyman receives Death's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred, Goods, and Fellowship - only Good Deeds goes with him to the grave.

Question: What is the most famous morality play from the medieval period?
Answer: Everyman

Question: Which dramatic form was created around 1400?
Answer: Morality plays

Question: What goes to the grave with Everyman in the morality play?
Answer: Good Deeds

Question: Which morality play depicted mankind's progress from birth to death?
Answer: The Castle of Perseverance

Question: In the morality play, who summoned Everyman?
Answer: Death
Late_Middle_Ages

At the end of the Late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the Great Hall of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were Mummers' plays, performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a House of Revels built and an Office of Revels established in 1545.

Question: Which Late Middle Age English kings kept their own troupes of professional actors?
Answer: Richard III and Henry VII

Question: Who performed the seasonal Christmas plays?
Answer: Mummers

Question: In what year did Henry VIII establish an Office of Revels?
Answer: 1545

Question: What did Henry VIII build in 1545 for the benefit of the theatrical arts?
Answer: House of Revels

Question: In what part of a nobleman's house were plays performed?
Answer: the Great Hall
Late_Middle_Ages

After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the Renaissance would spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin an era of world discovery. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus’s travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

Question: Along with the invention of printing, and the associated dissemination of the printed word, what other factor is believed to have led to the Protestant Reformation?
Answer: democratized learning

Question: Which continents did Vasco da Gama circumnavigate in 1498?
Answer: Africa and India

Question: What effect did the discoveries of Columbus and da Gama have on European nations?
Answer: strengthened the economy and power

Question: What historical era is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern Era?
Answer: the Renaissance

Question: What was discovered as the result of both Columbus' and da Gama's voyages?
Answer: new trading routes
Late_Middle_Ages

At the end of the 15th century the Ottoman Empire advanced all over Southeastern Europe, eventually conquering the Byzantine Empire and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the tragic death of the young king Vladislaus I of Hungary during the Battle of Varna in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of count John Hunyadi, who became Hungary's regent-governor (1446–1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: Pope Pius II awarded him the title of Athleta Christi or Champion of Christ for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.

Question: Which empire completed its conquest of the Byzantines at the end of the 15th century?
Answer: Ottoman

Question: In what year did the Battle of Varna take place?
Answer: 1444

Question: Which Hungarian ruler was killed at the Battle of Varna?
Answer: Vladislaus I

Question: Who was appointed regent-governor of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1446?
Answer: count John Hunyadi

Question: Who gave the title of Champion of Christ to John Hyundai?
Answer: Pope Pius II
Late_Middle_Ages

Hunyadi succeeded during the Siege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real Crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan monk Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating Holy War. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian Lord left Pannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as King of Hungary by the nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.

Question: Which Franciscan monk motivated the peasants to fight against Muslims at the Siege of Belgrade?
Answer: Saint John of Capistrano

Question: In what year was the Siege of Belgrade fought?
Answer: 1456

Question: Who did the Hungarian nobility elect as King of Hungary?
Answer: Matthias

Question: Which country did Saint Francis of Capistrano come from?
Answer: Italy

Question: When John Hunyadi died, which province was left in chaos?
Answer: Pannonia
Late_Middle_Ages

King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the Pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the Black Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of Medieval times.

Question: How did Louis II of Hungary die?
Answer: drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape

Question: Who was the leader of the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács?
Answer: Pál Tomori

Question: In what years did Matthias Corvinus reign as King of Hungary?
Answer: 1458–1490

Question: Who did Matthias defeat to conquer Bohemia?
Answer: Hussite Protestants

Question: Who opposed the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács?
Answer: the forces of the Ottoman Empire
Late_Middle_Ages

The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of modern history and early modern Europe. However, the division is somewhat artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. As a result there was developmental continuity between the ancient age (via classical antiquity) and the modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the late Middle Ages at all, but rather see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era.

Question: Historians from what country in particular do not refer to the Late Middle Ages?
Answer: Italy

Question: What provided developmental continuity between the ancient and modern ages?
Answer: classical antiquity

Question: What period do Italian historians believe came immediately after the High Period of the Middle Ages?
Answer: the Renaissance

Question: What do many scholars regard the Late Middle Ages as the beginning of?
Answer: modern history and early modern Europe
Ann_Arbor,_Michigan

Ann Arbor was founded in 1824, named for wives of the village's founders and the stands of Bur Oak trees. The University of Michigan moved from Detroit to Ann Arbor in 1837, and the city grew at a rapid rate in the early to mid-20th century. During the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as a center for left-wing politics. Ann Arbor became a focal point for political activism and served as a hub for the civil-rights movement and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as various student movements.

Question: When was Ann Arbor founded?
Answer: 1824

Question: Which University moved from Detroit to Ann Arbor in 1837?
Answer: University of Michigan

Question: During  the 1960's & 70's, Ann Arbor gained a reputation for what?
Answer: center for left-wing politics

Question: Which type of tree is associated with the city Ann Arbor's name?
Answer: Bur Oak
Ann_Arbor,_Michigan

Ann Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey. On 25 May 1824, the town plat was registered with Wayne County as "Annarbour;" this represents the earliest known use of the town's name. Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their wives, both named Ann, and for the stands of Bur Oak in the 640 acres (260 ha) of land they purchased for $800 from the federal government at $1.25 per acre. The local Ojibwa named the settlement kaw-goosh-kaw-nick, after the sound of Allen's sawmill.

Question: Who founded Ann Arbor?
Answer: John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey

Question: What was the profession of the founders of Ann arbor?
Answer: land speculators

Question: Which tribe named the settlement as kaw-goosh-kaw-nick?
Answer: Ojibwa

Question: For how much money did the founders purchase the land from the federal government?
Answer: $800

Question: What were the names of the founders wives?
Answer: Ann
Ann_Arbor,_Michigan

Since the university's establishment in the city in 1837, the histories of the University of Michigan and Ann Arbor have been closely linked. The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the Michigan Central Railroad, and a north—south railway connecting Ann Arbor to Toledo and other markets to the south was established in 1878. Throughout the 1840s and the 1850s settlers continued to come to Ann Arbor. While the earlier settlers were primarily of British ancestry, the newer settlers also consisted of Germans, Irish, and African-Americans. In 1851, Ann Arbor was chartered as a city, though the city showed a drop in population during the Depression of 1873. It was not until the early 1880s that Ann Arbor again saw robust growth, with new immigrants coming from Greece, Italy, Russia, and Poland. Ann Arbor saw increased growth in manufacturing, particularly in milling. Ann Arbor's Jewish community also grew after the turn of the 20th century, and its first and oldest synagogue, Beth Israel Congregation, was established in 1916.

Question: Ann Arbor has been linked with which university?
Answer: University of Michigan

Question: Which town became the regional transport hub in 1878?
Answer: Ann Arbor

Question: Who were the early settlers of Ann Arbor?
Answer: British

Question: In which year was Ann Arbor chartered as a city?
Answer: 1851

Question: In 1916, what was the name of the Synagogue that was establish?
Answer: Beth Israel Congregation