nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Alfred_North_Whitehead

In higher organisms (like people), these two modes of perception combine into what Whitehead terms "symbolic reference", which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it. By way of illustration, Whitehead uses the example of a person's encounter with a chair. An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair. However, an artist, Whitehead supposes, "might not have jumped to the notion of a chair", but instead "might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape." This is not the normal human reaction; most people place objects in categories by habit and instinct, without even thinking about it. Moreover, animals do the same thing. Using the same example, Whitehead points out that a dog "would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such." In this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other, and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality (as the dog illustrates), while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality (as the artist illustrates).

Question: Which concept does Whitehead state is more dominant in a lower mentality?
Answer: causal relationships

Question: What is Whitehead's term for the two modes of perceptions combining?
Answer: symbolic reference

Question: What dominates more basic mentality in symbolic reference?
Answer: causal relationships

Question: What does symbolic reference link appearance with?
Answer: causation

Question: What does having sense perceptions conclude about a person?
Answer: higher grade mentality

Question: What is the purpose of symbolic reference?
Answer: links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it

Question: How does Whitehead describe the process of a typical person noticing a chair?
Answer: An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair

Question: How might an artist view a chair differently than a typical person?
Answer: "might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape."

Question: How does Whitehead say a dog may interpret the presence of a chair?
Answer: "would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such."
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead makes the startling observation that "life is comparatively deficient in survival value." If humans can only exist for about a hundred years, and rocks for eight hundred million, then one is forced to ask why complex organisms ever evolved in the first place; as Whitehead humorously notes, "they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them." He then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment, an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living, living well, and living better. In other words, Whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction. Without such a goal, he sees the rise of life as totally unintelligible.

Question: What observation did Whitehead make about life?
Answer: "life is comparatively deficient in survival value."

Question: What did Whitehead state was the biggest indicator of a higher form of life?
Answer: they are actively engaged in modifying their environment

Question: What did Whitehead believe are the goals f life?
Answer: living, living well, and living better

Question: What did Whitehead believe was the fundamental purpose of life?
Answer: increasing its own satisfaction

Question: Whitehead observes that life is deficient in what?
Answer: survival value

Question: What are higher life forms actively engaged in?
Answer: modifying their environment

Question: How many goals of living is there?
Answer: three

Question: Whitehead sees life as directed towards what purpose?
Answer: increasing its own satisfaction

Question: Without Whitehead's proposed purpose, life would be what?
Answer: unintelligible

Question: What was Whitehead's response to questions about why complex life evolved?
Answer: "they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them."
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead's idea of God differs from traditional monotheistic notions. Perhaps his most famous and pointed criticism of the Christian conception of God is that "the Church gave unto God the attributes which belonged exclusively to Caesar." Here Whitehead is criticizing Christianity for defining God as primarily a divine king who imposes his will on the world, and whose most important attribute is power. As opposed to the most widely accepted forms of Christianity, Whitehead emphasized an idea of God that he called "the brief Galilean vision of humility":

Question: What was Whitehead's description of God?
Answer: "the brief Galilean vision of humility"

Question: What is Whitehead's most well-known critical statement regarding the Christian notion of God?
Answer: "the Church gave unto God the attributes which belonged exclusively to Caesar."

Question: What qualities dis Whitehead state that Christians attributed to their version of God?
Answer: primarily a divine king who imposes his will on the world, and whose most important attribute is power
Alfred_North_Whitehead

It should be emphasized, however, that for Whitehead God is not necessarily tied to religion. Rather than springing primarily from religious faith, Whitehead saw God as necessary for his metaphysical system. His system required that an order exist among possibilities, an order that allowed for novelty in the world and provided an aim to all entities. Whitehead posited that these ordered potentials exist in what he called the primordial nature of God. However, Whitehead was also interested in religious experience. This led him to reflect more intensively on what he saw as the second nature of God, the consequent nature. Whitehead's conception of God as a "dipolar" entity has called for fresh theological thinking.

Question: What was Whitehead's belief about God in relation to religion?
Answer: God is not necessarily tied to religion

Question: In what did Whitehead believe that those concepts existed?
Answer: primordial nature of God

Question: What did Whitehead view as the second nature of God?
Answer: the consequent nature

Question: What type of God did Whitehead believe existed?
Answer: dipolar

Question: Why did Whitehead view the existence of God as a necessity for his metaphysical system?
Answer: His system required that an order exist among possibilities, an order that allowed for novelty in the world and provided an aim to all entities.
Alfred_North_Whitehead

God's consequent nature, on the other hand, is anything but unchanging – it is God's reception of the world's activity. As Whitehead puts it, "[God] saves the world as it passes into the immediacy of his own life. It is the judgment of a tenderness which loses nothing that can be saved." In other words, God saves and cherishes all experiences forever, and those experiences go on to change the way God interacts with the world. In this way, God is really changed by what happens in the world and the wider universe, lending the actions of finite creatures an eternal significance.

Question: How does Whitehead define he consequent nature of God?
Answer: God's reception of the world's activity

Question: What does Whitehead say that God does with all experiences?
Answer: God saves and cherishes all experiences forever

Question: How does Whitehead describe the judgment of God?
Answer: It is the judgment of a tenderness which loses nothing that can be saved.

Question: What effect does Whitehead claim that experiences have on God?
Answer: those experiences go on to change the way God interacts with the world

Question: What conclusion does Whitehead draw about God's treatment of humans' experiences?
Answer: God is really changed by what happens in the world and the wider universe, lending the actions of finite creatures an eternal significance.
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead thus sees God and the world as fulfilling one another. He sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only God can provide by taking them into God's self, thereafter changing God and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time. On the other hand, he sees God as permanent but as deficient in actuality and change: alone, God is merely eternally unrealized possibilities, and requires the world to actualize them. God gives creatures permanence, while the creatures give God actuality and change. Here it is worthwhile to quote Whitehead at length:

Question: In what way did Whitehead view God as deficient?
Answer: deficient in actuality and change

Question: What did Whitehead claim God would be without the world?
Answer: merely eternally unrealized possibilities

Question: How does Whitehead view the relationship between God an the world?
Answer: Whitehead thus sees God and the world as fulfilling one another

Question: How does he define entities' need for God?
Answer: He sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only God can provide

Question: How dis Whitehead believe God provided permanence to entities?
Answer: by taking them into God's self, thereafter changing God and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time
Alfred_North_Whitehead

For Whitehead the core of religion was individual. While he acknowledged that individuals cannot ever be fully separated from their society, he argued that life is an internal fact for its own sake before it is an external fact relating to others. His most famous remark on religion is that "religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary, you are never religious." Whitehead saw religion as a system of general truths that transformed a person's character. He took special care to note that while religion is often a good influence, it is not necessarily good – an idea which he called a "dangerous delusion" (e.g., a religion might encourage the violent extermination of a rival religion's adherents).

Question: What did Whitehead believe was the basis of religion?
Answer: individual

Question: What is Whitehead's most famous statement on religion?
Answer: "religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary, you are never religious."

Question: How did Whitehead define religion?
Answer: a system of general truths that transformed a person's character

Question: How did Whitehead define "dangerous delusion" as it relates to religion?
Answer: while religion is often a good influence, it is not necessarily good
Alfred_North_Whitehead

However, while Whitehead saw religion as beginning in solitariness, he also saw religion as necessarily expanding beyond the individual. In keeping with his process metaphysics in which relations are primary, he wrote that religion necessitates the realization of "the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals." In other words, the universe is a community which makes itself whole through the relatedness of each individual entity to all the others – meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone, but only in the context of the universal community. Whitehead writes further that each entity "can find no such value till it has merged its individual claim with that of the objective universe. Religion is world-loyalty. The spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself." In this way the individual and universal/social aspects of religion are mutually dependent.

Question: In what state did Whitehead believe religion began?
Answer: solitariness

Question: What realization did Whitehead believe religion made necessary?
Answer: "the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals."

Question: What did Whitehead believe was necessary for an entity to have meaning and value?
Answer: meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone, but only in the context of the universal community

Question: How does Whitehead describe religion as world-loyalty?
Answer: The spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself

Question: What did Whitehead believe was the relationship between the individual and social aspects of religion?
Answer: the individual and universal/social aspects of religion are mutually dependent
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Overall, however, Whitehead's influence is very difficult to characterize. In English-speaking countries, his primary works are little-studied outside of Claremont and a select number of liberal graduate-level theology and philosophy programs. Outside of these circles his influence is relatively small and diffuse, and has tended to come chiefly through the work of his students and admirers rather than Whitehead himself. For instance, Whitehead was a teacher and long-time friend and collaborator of Bertrand Russell, and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of Willard Van Orman Quine, both of whom are important figures in analytic philosophy – the dominant strain of philosophy in English-speaking countries in the 20th century. Whitehead has also had high-profile admirers in the continental tradition, such as French post-structuralist philosopher Gilles Deleuze, who once dryly remarked of Whitehead that "he stands provisionally as the last great Anglo-American philosopher before Wittgenstein's disciples spread their misty confusion, sufficiency, and terror." French sociologist and anthropologist Bruno Latour even went so far as to call Whitehead "the greatest philosopher of the 20th century."

Question: Where has interest outside of those areas mainly come from?
Answer: through the work of his students and admirers rather

Question: What French sociologist and anthropologist stated that Whitehead was "the greatest philosopher of the 20th century"?
Answer: Bruno Latour

Question: Where are Whitehead's works primarily studied in English-speaking countries?
Answer: Claremont and a select number of liberal graduate-level theology and philosophy programs

Question: Who are two of Whitehead's students that have gone on to become renowned in the field of analytic philosophy?
Answer: Bertrand Russell, and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of Willard Van Orman Quine

Question: What did Gilles Deleuze say about Whitehead?
Answer: "he stands provisionally as the last great Anglo-American philosopher before Wittgenstein's disciples spread their misty confusion, sufficiency, and terror."
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Historically Whitehead's work has been most influential in the field of American progressive theology. The most important early proponent of Whitehead's thought in a theological context was Charles Hartshorne, who spent a semester at Harvard as Whitehead's teaching assistant in 1925, and is widely credited with developing Whitehead's process philosophy into a full-blown process theology. Other notable process theologians include John B. Cobb, Jr., David Ray Griffin, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, C. Robert Mesle, Roland Faber, and Catherine Keller.

Question: In what field of study has Whitehead's work been most influential in the United States?
Answer: American progressive theology

Question: Who was the most important early supporter of Whitehead's work in the context of theology?
Answer: Charles Hartshorne

Question: What advancement of Whitehead's process philosophy is attributed to Charles Hartshorne?
Answer: developing Whitehead's process philosophy into a full-blown process theology

Question: Who are some other distinguished process theologians?
Answer: John B. Cobb, Jr., David Ray Griffin, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, C. Robert Mesle, Roland Faber, and Catherine Keller
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Process theology typically stresses God's relational nature. Rather than seeing God as impassive or emotionless, process theologians view God as "the fellow sufferer who understands", and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events. Hartshorne points out that people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers – so why would this be a praise-worthy quality in God? Instead, as the being who is most affected by the world, God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world. However, process theology has been formulated in a wide variety of ways. C. Robert Mesle, for instance, advocates a "process naturalism", i.e. a process theology without God.

Question: What aspect of God is usually emphasized in process theology?
Answer: God's relational nature

Question: How is God usually perceived by process theologians?
Answer: "the fellow sufferer who understands", and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events

Question: Why did Hartshorne feel that God must be affected by people?
Answer: people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers – so why would this be a praise-worthy quality in God?

Question: Why would God being substantially affected by the world be beneficial?
Answer: as the being who is most affected by the world, God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world

Question: What type of process theology does C. Robert Mesle promote?
Answer: "process naturalism", i.e. a process theology without God.
Alfred_North_Whitehead

In fact, process theology is difficult to define because process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests. John B. Cobb, Jr. is a process theologian who has also written books on biology and economics. Roland Faber and Catherine Keller integrate Whitehead with poststructuralist, postcolonialist, and feminist theory. Charles Birch was both a theologian and a geneticist. Franklin I. Gamwell writes on theology and political theory. In Syntheism - Creating God in The Internet Age, futurologists Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist repeatedly credit Whitehead for the process theology they see rising out of the participatory culture expected to dominate the digital era.

Question: What subjects has John B. Cobb, Jr. written books on other than process theology?
Answer: biology and economics

Question: What theories do Roland Faber and Catherine Keller combine with Whitehead's ideas?
Answer: poststructuralist, postcolonialist, and feminist theory

Question: What was Charles Birch's profession besides theologian?
Answer: geneticist

Question: Who authored "Syntheism - Creating God in the Internet Age"?
Answer: Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist

Question: Why is there difficulty in defining process theology ?
Answer: process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Whitehead also described religion more technically as "an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non-temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone." In other words, religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world, helping people to identify their wider meaning and significance. For Whitehead, religion served as a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society. It is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people.

Question: What was Whitehead's technical definition of religion?
Answer: "an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non-temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone."

Question: What did Whitehead believe religion did with strong emotions?
Answer: religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world

Question: What purpose did Whitehead believe religion served?
Answer: a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society

Question: What did Whitehead believe was the job of religion regarding philosophy?
Answer: It is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people.
Alfred_North_Whitehead

Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton have also written recently on the mutual influence of Whitehead and Mary Parker Follett, a pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior. Stout and Staton see both Whitehead and Follett as sharing an ontology that "understands becoming as a relational process; difference as being related, yet unique; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference." This connection is further analyzed by Stout and Jeannine M. Love in Integrative Process: Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration

Question: What is Mary Parker Follett known for?
Answer: pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior

Question: What do Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton view as commonalities between Whitehead and Follett?
Answer: ontology that "understands becoming as a relational process; difference as being related, yet unique; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference."

Question: What book did Stout and Jeanine M. Love author that further examines the on between Whitehead and Follett?
Answer: Integrative Process: Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration
Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%9308

Moreover, a conflict of interest between professional investment managers and their institutional clients, combined with a global glut in investment capital, led to bad investments by asset managers in over-priced credit assets. Professional investment managers generally are compensated based on the volume of client assets under management. There is, therefore, an incentive for asset managers to expand their assets under management in order to maximize their compensation. As the glut in global investment capital caused the yields on credit assets to decline, asset managers were faced with the choice of either investing in assets where returns did not reflect true credit risk or returning funds to clients. Many asset managers chose to continue to invest client funds in over-priced (under-yielding) investments, to the detriment of their clients, in order to maintain their assets under management. This choice was supported by a "plausible deniability" of the risks associated with subprime-based credit assets because the loss experience with early "vintages" of subprime loans was so low.

Question: What did many asset managers decide to do to the detriment of their clients?
Answer: continue to invest client funds in over-priced (under-yielding) investments

Question: What led to bad investments by asset managers in over-priced credit assets?
Answer: a conflict of interest

Question: Who is compensated based on the volume of client assets they have under management?
Answer: Professional investment managers

Question: What is the incentive for asset managers to expand their assets under management?
Answer: to maximize their compensation

Question: What rationale did asset managers who continued to invest in over-priced investments to the detriment of their clients use?
Answer: plausible deniability