nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Karl_Popper

Popper played a vital role in establishing the philosophy of science as a vigorous, autonomous discipline within philosophy, through his own prolific and influential works, and also through his influence on his own contemporaries and students. Popper founded in 1946 the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics and there lectured and influenced both Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, two of the foremost philosophers of science in the next generation of philosophy of science. (Lakatos significantly modified Popper's position,:1 and Feyerabend repudiated it entirely, but the work of both is deeply influenced by Popper and engaged with many of the problems that Popper set.)

Question: What branch of philosophy did Popper advance the most?
Answer: philosophy of science

Question: Which department did Popper found at the London School of Economics?
Answer: Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method

Question: Which two major philosophers of science learned a great deal from Popper at the London School Economics?
Answer: Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend

Question: What did Paul Feyerabend ultimate do to Popper's philosophy of science?
Answer: repudiated it entirely

Question: Where did Popper establish a university department for the philosophy of science in 1946?
Answer: London School of Economics
Karl_Popper

While there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Popper had a long-standing and close friendship with economist Friedrich Hayek, who was also brought to the London School of Economics from Vienna. Each found support and similarities in the other's work, citing each other often, though not without qualification. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper, and in 1982 said, "...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology."

Question: Which other Austrian scholar and friend of Popper also worked near him at the London School of Economics?
Answer: Friedrich Hayek

Question: What was Hayek's academic field?
Answer: Economics

Question: In which year did Popper write Hayek a letter expressing his intellectual debt to him?
Answer: 1944

Question: Who did Popper say was the only thinker who might have had a greater influence on him than Hayek?
Answer: Alfred Tarski

Question: Which of Hayek's publications was dedicated to Popper?
Answer: Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics
Karl_Popper

He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual methods of any particular scientist.[citation needed] Rather, it is recommended as an essential principle of methodology that, if enacted by a system or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method). It has been suggested that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism, the followers of which mistook his aims for their own.

Question: What other contemporaneous school of thought is often confused with Popper's own contributions?
Answer: logical positivism

Question: Popper has stressed that his description of scientific methodology should not be mistaken to apply to whom?
Answer: any particular scientist

Question: At what level does Popper indicate his view of scientific methodology applies?
Answer: system or community

Question: What kind of progress does science make given the methodology Popper describes?
Answer: slow but steady
Karl_Popper

The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it's impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only say that the whole package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which element of the package must be replaced. An example of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune: when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's laws, the theory "There are seven planets in the solar system" was rejected, and not Newton's laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of The Logic of Scientific Discovery. For Popper, theories are accepted or rejected via a sort of selection process. Theories that say more about the way things appear are to be preferred over those that do not; the more generally applicable a theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton's laws, with their wide general application, are to be preferred over the much more specific "the solar system has seven planets".[dubious – discuss]

Question: What thesis says a scientific hypothesis is not testable in isolation from its system of theories?
Answer: Quine-Duhem

Question: Which of Popper's works responds to critiques of naive falsificationism?
Answer: The Logic of Scientific Discovery

Question: The planet Uranus' apparent failure to follow Newton's laws led to the discovery of which planet?
Answer: Neptune

Question: According to Popper, the scientific selection process favors which type of theory?
Answer: more generally applicable
Karl_Popper

Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 version of his Logic of Discovery a fact later stressed by Kuhn, "that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical framework", and to that extent to have anticipated Kuhn's central point about "normal science". (But Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism.) Also, in his collection Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, "Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them."

Question: Popper believed he had already discussed similar ideas to Kuhn's about scientific communities in what work?
Answer: Logic of Discovery

Question: What aspect of Kuhn's thinking did Popper criticize?
Answer: relativism

Question: What did Popper say must be the beginning phase of science?
Answer: the critical discussion of myths

Question: According to Popper, what second layer does scientific inquiry have that pre-scientific inquiry does not?
Answer: a critical attitude
Karl_Popper

Another objection is that it is not always possible to demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is using statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis. More generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis rather than of flaws in the evidence. However, this is a misunderstanding of what Popper's philosophy of science sets out to do. Rather than offering a set of instructions that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve science, Popper makes it clear in The Logic of Scientific Discovery that his belief is that the resolution of conflicts between hypotheses and observations can only be a matter of the collective judgment of scientists, in each individual case.

Question: What kind of criteria frequently used in science complicates the definitiveness of some hypotheses' falsification?
Answer: statistical

Question: What other flaws complicate the problem of identifying faulty scientific hypotheses?
Answer: flaws in the evidence

Question: According to Popper, what resolves conflicting hypotheses and observations in the long run?
Answer: the collective judgment of scientists
Karl_Popper

In 2004, philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark (Groningen, The Netherlands) published a book, called Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology, in which he claimed that Popper took some of his ideas from his tutor, the German psychologist Otto Selz. Selz never published his ideas, partly because of the rise of Nazism, which forced him to quit his work in 1933, and the prohibition of referring to Selz' work. Popper, the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is criticised in some academic quarters for his rejection of Plato, Hegel and Marx.

Question: Which German psychologist and tutor of Popper may have originated some of Popper's ideas?
Answer: Otto Selz

Question: Who claimed Otto Selz deserved credit for ideas published by Popper?
Answer: Michel ter Hark

Question: What contributed to Otto Selz's cessation of work in 1933?
Answer: the rise of Nazism

Question: What is the name of the 2004 paper that links Popper's work to that of his tutor Otto Selz?
Answer: Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology

Question: Popper is criticized for dismissing which major philosophers in his work?
Answer: Plato, Hegel and Marx
Karl_Popper

Gray does not, however, give any indication of what available evidence these theories were at odds with, and his appeal to "crucial support" illustrates the very inductivist approach to science that Popper sought to show was logically illegitimate. For, according to Popper, Einstein's theory was at least equally as well corroborated as Newton's upon its initial conception; they both equally well accounted for all the hitherto available evidence. Moreover, since Einstein also explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory, general relativity was immediately deemed suitable for tentative acceptance on the Popperian account. Indeed, Popper wrote, several decades before Gray's criticism, in reply to a critical essay by Imre Lakatos:

Question: Gray's approach aligns with which approach that Popper himself considered untenable?
Answer: inductivist

Question: A possible rebuttal to Gray's argument appears in Popper's reply to which philosopher?
Answer: Imre Lakatos

Question: What did general relativity do that made it tentatively acceptable when it was proposed?
Answer: explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory

Question: In contrast to Gray, which theory did Popper argue was at least equally consistent with Newton's on the available evidence?
Answer: Einstein's theory
Karl_Popper

Such a theory would be true with higher probability, because it cannot be attacked so easily: to falsify the first one, it is sufficient to find that the sun has stopped rising; to falsify the second one, one additionally needs the assumption that the given day has not yet been reached. Popper held that it is the least likely, or most easily falsifiable, or simplest theory (attributes which he identified as all the same thing) that explains known facts that one should rationally prefer. His opposition to positivism, which held that it is the theory most likely to be true that one should prefer, here becomes very apparent. It is impossible, Popper argues, to ensure a theory to be true; it is more important that its falsity can be detected as easily as possible.

Question: Which type of theory is most falsifiable?
Answer: simplest

Question: What school of philosophy does Popper's thinking on induction oppose?
Answer: positivism

Question: For Popper, knowing that a theory is true is what?
Answer: impossible

Question: What quality of a useful theory must be easily detectable?
Answer: its falsity
Karl_Popper

In his early years Popper was impressed by Marxism, whether of Communists or socialists. An event that happened in 1919 had a profound effect on him: During a riot, caused by the Communists, the police shot several unarmed people, including some of Popper's friends, when they tried to free party comrades from prison. The riot had, in fact, been part of a plan by which leaders of the Communist party with connections to Béla Kun tried to take power by a coup; Popper did not know about this at that time. However, he knew that the riot instigators were swayed by the Marxist doctrine that class struggle would produce vastly more dead men than the inevitable revolution brought about as quickly as possible, and so had no scruples to put the life of the rioters at risk to achieve their selfish goal of becoming the future leaders of the working class. This was the start of his later criticism of historicism. Popper began to reject Marxist historicism, which he associated with questionable means, and later socialism, which he associated with placing equality before freedom (to the possible disadvantage of equality).

Question: Who instigated the 1919 riot that reshaped Popper's political views?
Answer: Communists

Question: The 1919 riot involving Popper's comrades was part of what larger political move?
Answer: a coup

Question: Popper's critique of which doctrine has its origins in first-hand observation of communist agitation?
Answer: historicism

Question: Which historically significant communist activist was associated with the 1919 riots in which some of Popper's friends were killed?
Answer: Béla Kun

Question: What did the Marxist rioters believe would cause more death and suffering than their own agitation?
Answer: class struggle
Race_(human_categorization)

Groups of humans have always identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups, but such differences have not always been understood to be natural, immutable and global. These features are the distinguishing features of how the concept of race is used today. In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.

Question: What have human groups always considered themselves as compared to other nearby groups?
Answer: distinct

Question: During which process did our current idea of race come about?
Answer: exploration and conquest

Question: Where did Europeans come into contact with other groups?
Answer: different continents

Question: What have differences among groups not typically been perceived as being?
Answer: natural, immutable and global

Question: What ideaology is found in the natural sciences?
Answer: classification and typology
Race_(human_categorization)

For the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that "the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories in their initial grouping of samples". For example, the large and highly diverse macroethnic groups of East Indians, North Africans, and Europeans are presumptively grouped as Caucasians prior to the analysis of their DNA variation. This is claimed to limit and skew interpretations, obscure other lineage relationships, deemphasize the impact of more immediate clinal environmental factors on genomic diversity, and can cloud our understanding of the true patterns of affinity. They argue that however significant the empirical research, these studies use the term race in conceptually imprecise and careless ways. They suggest that the authors of these studies find support for racial distinctions only because they began by assuming the validity of race. "For empirical reasons we prefer to place emphasis on clinal variation, which recognizes the existence of adaptive human hereditary variation and simultaneously stresses that such variation is not found in packages that can be labeled races."

Question: What did Lieberman and Jackon find profound problems using cladistics to support concepts of?
Answer: race

Question: What would the diverse group of East Indians, North Africans and Europeans be grouped as prior to DNA analysis?
Answer: Caucasians

Question: Cladistics can limit and skew what?
Answer: interpretations

Question: What is variation found in that can be labeled as races?
Answer: packages

Question: Lieberman and Jackson suggest authors of some studies use the term race in what ways?
Answer: conceptually imprecise and careless
Race_(human_categorization)

Patterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists discovered a skin-lighting mutation that partially accounts for the appearance of Light skin in humans (people who migrated out of Africa northward into what is now Europe) which they estimate occurred 20,000 to 50,000 years ago. The East Asians owe their relatively light skin to different mutations. On the other hand, the greater the number of traits (or alleles) considered, the more subdivisions of humanity are detected, since traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to the same geographical location. Or as Ossorio & Duster (2005) put it:

Question: What is the consequence of the number and geographic location ascribed to a race highly dependent on?
Answer: the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered.

Question: What partially accounts for the appearance of light skin in humans?
Answer: mutation

Question: What mutation did scientists discover?
Answer: skin-lighting

Question: What do East Asians have to thank for their relatively light skin?
Answer: different mutations

Question: Traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to what type of location?
Answer: geographical
Race_(human_categorization)

Coop et al. (2009) found "a selected allele that strongly differentiates the French from both the Yoruba and Han could be strongly clinal across Europe, or at high frequency in Europe and absent elsewhere, or follow any other distribution according to the geographic nature of the selective pressure. However, we see that the global geographic distributions of these putatively selected alleles are largely determined simply by their frequencies in Yoruba, French and Han (Figure 3). The global distributions fall into three major geographic patterns that we interpret as non-African sweeps, west Eurasian sweeps and East Asian sweeps, respectively."

Question: What thing that strongly differentiates the French from some other populations be clinal across Europe?
Answer: a selected allele

Question: When did Coop and others find out something about a selected allele?
Answer: 2009

Question: How many major geographic patterns do the global distributions fall into?
Answer: three

Question: What are sweeps?
Answer: major geographic patterns

Question: Something that is found at high frequency in Europe could be what elsewhere?
Answer: absent
Race_(human_categorization)

If a more consistent report with the genetic groups in the gradation of miscegenation is to be considered (e.g. that would not cluster people with a balanced degree of African and non-African ancestry in the black group instead of the multiracial one, unlike elsewhere in Latin America where people of high quantity of African descent tend to classify themselves as mixed), more people would report themselves as white and pardo in Brazil (47.7% and 42.4% of the population as of 2010, respectively), because by research its population is believed to have between 65 and 80% of autosomal European ancestry, in average (also >35% of European mt-DNA and >95% of European Y-DNA).

Question: What would more people report themselves as if a more consistent report were considered?
Answer: white

Question: What do people with a high quality of African descent classify themselves as?
Answer: mixed

Question: Brazil's population is believed to have between what percentages of autosomal European ancestry?
Answer: 65 and 80%

Question: How much of the population of Brazil reported themselves as pardo in 2010?
Answer: 42.4%

Question: Brazil's population is thought to have greater than what percentage of European Y-DNA?
Answer: 95%
United_States_presidential_election,_2004

Bush's margin of victory in the popular vote was the smallest ever for a reelected incumbent president, but marked the first time since his father's victory 16 years prior that a candidate won a majority of the popular vote. The electoral map closely resembled that of 2000, with only three states changing sides: New Mexico and Iowa voted Republican in 2004 after having voted Democratic in 2000, while New Hampshire voted Democratic in 2004 after previously voting Republican. In the Electoral College, Bush received 286 votes to Kerry's 252.

Question: How many States renounced their preferred political party?
Answer: three

Question: Which state switched sides and embraced the Democratic party after previously choosing the Republican party?
Answer: New Hampshire

Question: How many votes did Kerry receive, in the Electoral College?
Answer: 252

Question: How large of a gap was there between Bush's and Kerry's votes? 
Answer: the smallest ever

Question: Which candidate, in the 2004 election, had the majority of the popular vote?
Answer: Bush
United_States_presidential_election,_2004

Just eight months into his presidency, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 suddenly transformed Bush into a wartime president. Bush's approval ratings surged to near 90%. Within a month, the forces of a coalition led by the United States entered Afghanistan, which had been sheltering Osama bin Laden, suspected mastermind of the September 11 attacks. By December, the Taliban had been removed as rulers of Kabul, although a long and ongoing reconstruction would follow, severely hampered by ongoing turmoil and violence within the country.

Question: What even occured during Bush's presidency that made him become a wartime president?
Answer: terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001

Question: How long into Bush's presidency did tragedy occur on American soil?
Answer: eight months

Question: Did Bush become disfavorable during the time of the 9/11 attacks?
Answer: surged to near 90%

Question: How long did it take for the US military to respond by infiltrating Afghanistan?
Answer: Within a month

Question: By which month, were the Taliban no longer controlling Kabul?
Answer: December