nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Computer_security

Today, computer security comprises mainly "preventive" measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet, and can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real time filtering and blocking. Another implementation is a so-called physical firewall which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet.

Question: Firewalls and exit procedures are considered what?
Answer: "preventive" measures

Question: What is defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or network and another network?
Answer: A firewall

Question: What does a physical firewall consist of?
Answer: a separate machine filtering network traffic

Question: What type of machines normall have a firewall?
Answer: permanently connected to the Internet

Question: What compromises mainly preventative measures?
Answer: computer security
Computer_security

Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal."

Question: What has caused serious financial damage?
Answer: security breaches

Question: Data made public who is available to estimate the cost of an incident?
Answer: the organizations involved

Question: What is the amount of losses estimated from worms and viruses in 2003?
Answer: $13 billion

Question: Who produces estimates of worldwide losses attributable to security breaches?
Answer: Several computer security consulting firms

Question: What is the underlying methodology of finding worldwide estimates for losses fur to security breaches?
Answer: basically anecdotal
Computer_security

While hardware may be a source of insecurity, such as with microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced during the manufacturing process, hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below.

Question: Microchips vulnerabilities are introduced when?
Answer: during the manufacturing process

Question: What offers an alternative to soft-ware only computer security?
Answer: hardware-based or assisted computer security

Question: What can hardware be a source of?
Answer: insecurity

Question: What is required in order for hardware to be compromised?
Answer: physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access)
Computer_security

Public Safety Canada’s Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada’s critical infrastructure and cyber systems. The CCIRC provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond and recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada’s critical infrastructure sectors. The CCIRC posts regular cyber security bulletins on the Public Safety Canada website. The CCIRC also operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident. Canada's Cyber Security Strategy is part of a larger, integrated approach to critical infrastructure protection, and functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure.

Question: What does CCIRC stand for?
Answer: Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre

Question: Who is resposible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure?
Answer: CCIRC

Question: Where does the CCIRC post regular cyber security bulletins?
Answer: on the Public Safety Canada website

Question: What functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure?
Answer: Canada's Cyber Security Strategy
Computer_security

This has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism. More and more critical infrastructure is being controlled via computer programs that, while increasing efficiency, exposes new vulnerabilities. The test will be to see if governments and corporations that control critical systems such as energy, communications and other information will be able to prevent attacks before they occur. As Jay Cross, the chief scientist of the Internet Time Group, remarked, "Connectedness begets vulnerability."

Question: Who said "Connectedness begets vulnerability?"
Answer: Jay Cross

Question: What organization does Jay Cross belong to?
Answer: the Internet Time Group

Question: What is the advantage of more critical infrastructure being controlled via computer programs?
Answer: increasing efficiency

Question: What is the disadvantage of more critical infrastructure being controlled via computer programs?
Answer: exposes new vulnerabilities
Computer_security

On September 27, 2010, Public Safety Canada partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations dedicated to informing the general public on how to protect themselves online. On February 4, 2014, the Government of Canada launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program. The program is a $1.5 million five-year initiative aimed at improving Canada’s cyber systems through grants and contributions to projects in support of this objective. Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's Cyber Security Strategy in early 2015. Public Safety Canada administers and routinely updates the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and carries out Cyber Security Awareness Month during October.

Question: When did Public Safety Canada partner with Stop.Think. Connect?
Answer: September 27, 2010

Question: When was the Cyber Security Cooperation Program launched by the Government of Canada?
Answer: February 4, 2014

Question: Who routinely updates the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens?
Answer: Public Safety Canada

Question: What month is Cyber Security Awareness Month?
Answer: October

Question: How much does the Cyber Security Cooperation Program cost?
Answer: $1.5 million
Computer_security

An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly download data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, or covert listening devices. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be able to be by passed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks.

Question: Installing keyloggers and making operating system modifications are examples of ways unauthorized users for what?
Answer: compromise security

Question: Booting a tool or another operating system from a CD Rom can bypass what?
Answer: standard security measures

Question: Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent what?
Answer: attacks

Question: An unauthorized user with physical access to a computer can likely do what?
Answer: directly download data from it
Computer_security

Clickjacking, also known as "UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack", is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks a user into clicking on a button or link on another webpage while the user intended to click on the top level page. This is done using multiple transparent or opaque layers. The attacker is basically "hijacking" the clicks meant for the top level page and routing them to some other irrelevant page, most likely owned by someone else. A similar technique can be used to hijack keystrokes. Carefully drafting a combination of stylesheets, iframes, buttons and text boxes, a user can be led into believing that they are typing the password or other information on some authentic webpage while it is being channeled into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker.

Question: UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack is also known as what?
Answer: Clickjacking

Question: What is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks the user into clicking on a button or link?
Answer: Clickjacking

Question: Where are the clicks meant for the top level page routed?
Answer: some other irrelevant page

Question: Where would a password typed on a seemingly authetic webpage be directed?
Answer: into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker

Question: How istricking the user accomplished in clickjacking?
Answer: using multiple transparent or opaque layers
Computer_security

In 1988, only 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On November 2, 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet "computer worm". The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. who said 'he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet'.

Question: How many computers were connected to the internet in 1988?
Answer: 60,000

Question: When was the first computer worm released?
Answer: November 2, 1988

Question: Who was the first computer worm traced back to?
Answer: Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.

Question: What is a malicious code that demands processor time and spreads itself to other computers?
Answer: computer worm

Question: Why did Morris Jr make the computer worm?
Answer: he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet
Computer_security

In 2013 and 2014, a Russian/Ukrainian hacking ring known as "Rescator" broke into Target Corporation computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards, and then Home Depot computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers. Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using self checkout machines are believed to have played a large role. "The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting," says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee – meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing antivirus software had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing.

Question: Who are Rescator?
Answer: a Russian/Ukrainian hacking ring

Question: What was stolen from Target Corporation computers in 2013?
Answer: 40 million credit cards

Question: How many credit card numbers were stole from Home Depot in 2014?
Answer: between 53 and 56 million

Question: What machines were involved in the physical security breaches that played a large role in the incident?
Answer: self checkout machines

Question: Who is Jim Walter?
Answer: director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee
Computer_security

Berlin starts National Cyber Defense Initiative: On June 16, 2011, the German Minister for Home Affairs, officially opened the new German NCAZ (National Center for Cyber Defense) Nationales Cyber-Abwehrzentrum located in Bonn. The NCAZ closely cooperates with BSI (Federal Office for Information Security) Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik, BKA (Federal Police Organisation) Bundeskriminalamt (Deutschland), BND (Federal Intelligence Service) Bundesnachrichtendienst, MAD (Military Intelligence Service) Amt für den Militärischen Abschirmdienst and other national organisations in Germany taking care of national security aspects. According to the Minister the primary task of the new organisation founded on February 23, 2011, is to detect and prevent attacks against the national infrastructure and mentioned incidents like Stuxnet.

Question: What does NCAZ stand for?
Answer: Nationales Cyber-Abwehrzentrum

Question: What does NCAZ take care of?
Answer: national security aspects

Question: When was NCAZ opened?
Answer: June 16, 2011

Question: Whan was NCAZ founded?
Answer: February 23, 2011

Question: What is the purpose of NCAZ?
Answer: to detect and prevent attacks against the national infrastructure
Orthodox_Judaism

Orthodox Judaism is the approach to religious Judaism which subscribes to a tradition of mass revelation and adheres to the interpretation and application of the laws and ethics of the Torah as legislated in the Talmudic texts by the Tanaim and Amoraim. These texts were subsequently developed and applied by later authorities, known as the Gaonim, Rishonim, and Acharonim. Orthodox Judaism generally includes Modern Orthodox Judaism (אורתודוקסיה מודרנית) and Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism (יהדות חרדית), but complete within is a wide range of philosophies. Although Orthodox Judaism would probably be considered the mainstream expression of Judaism prior to the 19th century, for some Orthodox Judaism is a modern self-identification that distinguishes it from traditional pre-modern Judaism.

Question: What is the approach to Judiasm that subscribes to a tradition of mass revelation?
Answer: Orthodox

Question: What is the name of the book that has the laws and ethics for Orthodox Judaism?
Answer: Torah

Question: what texts were legislated by the Tanarim and Amoraim?
Answer: Talmudic

Question: What besides Modern Orthodox Judaism does Orthodox Judaism consist of?
Answer: Haredi Judaism

Question: Orthodox Judaism is a self-identification that distinguishes it from what?
Answer: pre-modern Judaism
Orthodox_Judaism

According to the New Jersey Press Association, several media entities refrain from using the term "ultra-Orthodox", including the Religion Newswriters Association; JTA, the global Jewish news service; and the Star-Ledger, New Jersey’s largest daily newspaper. The Star-Ledger was the first mainstream newspaper to drop the term. Several local Jewish papers, including New York's Jewish Week and Philadelphia's Jewish Exponent have also dropped use of the term. According to Rabbi Shammai Engelmayer, spiritual leader of Temple Israel Community Center in Cliffside Park and former executive editor of Jewish Week, this leaves "Orthodox" as "an umbrella term that designates a very widely disparate group of people very loosely tied together by some core beliefs."

Question: What is the global Jewish news service known as?
Answer: JTA

Question: What term do media entities refrain from using?
Answer: "ultra-Orthodox

Question: What is New Jersey's largest daily paper?
Answer: the Star-Ledger

Question: Who is the spiritual leader of Temple Israel Community Center?
Answer: Rabbi Shammai Engelmayer

Question: Where is the Temple Israel Community Center located?
Answer: Cliffside Park
Orthodox_Judaism

Modern Orthodoxy comprises a fairly broad spectrum of movements, each drawing on several distinct though related philosophies, which in some combination have provided the basis for all variations of the movement today. In general, Modern Orthodoxy holds that Jewish law is normative and binding, while simultaneously attaching a positive value to interaction with contemporary society. In this view, Orthodox Judaism can "be enriched" by its intersection with modernity; further, "modern society creates opportunities to be productive citizens engaged in the Divine work of transforming the world to benefit humanity". At the same time, in order to preserve the integrity of halakha, any area of "powerful inconsistency and conflict" between Torah and modern culture must be avoided. Modern Orthodoxy, additionally, assigns a central role to the "People of Israel".

Question: What is the name  of the movement that comporises a fairly broad spectrum of distinct but related philosophies? 
Answer: Modern Orthodoxy

Question: Who does Modern Orthodoxy assign a central role to?
Answer: People of Israel

Question: What integrity is orthodox judaism trying to preserve?
Answer: halakha

Question: What kind of work does orthodox Judiasm seek to transform the world with?
Answer: Divine work

Question: What is modern cutlture in conflict with?
Answer: Torah
Orthodox_Judaism

Externally, Orthodox Jews can be identified by their manner of dress and family lifestyle. Orthodox women dress modestly by keeping most of their skin covered. Additionally, married women cover their hair, most commonly in the form of a scarf, also in the form of hats, bandanas, berets, snoods or, sometimes, wigs. Orthodox men wear a skullcap known as a kipa and often fringes called "tzitzit". Haredi men often grow beards and always wear black hats and suits, indoors and outdoors. However, Modern Orthodox Jews are commonly indistinguishable in their dress from those around them.

Question: How do orthodox women dress mosly?
Answer: covered

Question: what part of their body do married women cover with a scarf?
Answer: hair

Question: What is the Skullcap that orthodox men wear known as?
Answer: kipa

Question: What are the fringes Orthodox men wear called?
Answer: tzitzit

Question: What type of orthox men often grow beards and always wear black?
Answer: Haredi
Orthodox_Judaism

Orthodox Judaism holds that the words of the Torah, including both the Written Law (Pentateuch) and those parts of the Oral Law which are "halacha leMoshe m'Sinai", were dictated by God to Moses essentially as they exist today. The laws contained in the Written Torah were given along with detailed explanations as how to apply and interpret them, the Oral Law. Although Orthodox Jews believe that many elements of current religious law were decreed or added as "fences" around the law by the rabbis, all Orthodox Jews believe that there is an underlying core of Sinaitic law and that this core of the religious laws Orthodox Jews know today is thus directly derived from Sinai and directly reflects the Divine will. As such, Orthodox Jews believe that one must be extremely careful in interpreting Jewish law. Orthodox Judaism holds that, given Jewish law's Divine origin, no underlying principle may be compromised in accounting for changing political, social or economic conditions; in this sense, "creativity" and development in Jewish law is limited.

Question: What is the written law of the Torah known as?
Answer: Pentateuch

Question: Who dictated the oral law to Moses?
Answer: God

Question: What are the detailed explanations of how to apply and interpret the laws of the written Torah called?
Answer: Oral Law

Question: What is the law that is considered the core of religious laws Orthodox Jews know today?
Answer: Sinaitic law

Question: What is the origin of Jewish Law?
Answer: Divine
Orthodox_Judaism

In reaction to the emergence of Reform Judaism, a group of traditionalist German Jews emerged in support of some of the values of the Haskalah, but also wanted to defend the classic, traditional interpretation of Jewish law and tradition. This group was led by those who opposed the establishment of a new temple in Hamburg , as reflected in the booklet "Ele Divrei HaBerit". As a group of Reform Rabbis convened in Braunschweig, Rabbi Jacob Ettlinger of Altona published a manifesto entitled "Shlomei Emunei Yisrael" in German and Hebrew, having 177 Rabbis sign on. At this time the first Orthodox Jewish periodical, "Der Treue Zions Waechter", was launched with the Hebrew supplement "Shomer Zion HaNe'eman" [1845 - 1855]. In later years it was Rav Ettlinger's students Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch and Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer of Berlin who deepened the awareness and strength of Orthodox Jewry. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch commented in 1854:

Question: Where was Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer from?
Answer: Berlin

Question: what was the name of the Rabbi of Altona?
Answer: Jacob Ettlinger

Question: What was the name of the manifesto that Rabbi Jacob Ettlinger produced?
Answer: Shlomei Emunei Yisrael

Question: How many rabbi's signed on with the manifesto Jacob Ettlinger published?
Answer: 177

Question: Where was Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch from?
Answer: Berlin
Orthodox_Judaism

Jewish historians also note that certain customs of today's Orthodox are not continuations of past practice, but instead represent innovations that would have been unknown to prior generations. For example, the now-widespread haredi tradition of cutting a boy's hair for the first time on his third birthday (upshirin or upsheerin, Yiddish for "haircut") "originated as an Arab custom that parents cut a newborn boy's hair and burned it in a fire as a sacrifice," and "Jews in Palestine learned this custom from Arabs and adapted it to a special Jewish context." The Ashkenazi prohibition against eating kitniyot (grains and legumes such as rice, corn, beans, and peanuts) during Passover was explicitly rejected in the Talmud, has no known precedent before the 12th century and represented a minority position for hundreds of years thereafter, but nonetheless has remained a mandatory prohibition among Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews due to their historic adherence to the ReMA's rulings in the Shulchan Aruch.

Question: When is a newborn boy's hair first cut?
Answer: third birthday

Question: What is done with the newborn boy's hair once it is cut?
Answer: burned

Question: What are grains and legumes known as?
Answer: kitniyot

Question: What is the name of the prohibition against eating grains and legumes during Passover?
Answer: Ashkenazi

Question: What text rejects the Ashkenazi prohibition against kitniyot?
Answer: Talmud
Orthodox_Judaism

Haredi Judaism advocates segregation from non-Jewish culture, although not from non-Jewish society entirely. It is characterised by its focus on community-wide Torah study. Haredi Orthodoxy's differences with Modern Orthodoxy usually lie in interpretation of the nature of traditional halakhic concepts and in acceptable application of these concepts. Thus, engaging in the commercial world is a legitimate means to achieving a livelihood, but individuals should participate in modern society as little as possible. The same outlook is applied with regard to obtaining degrees necessary to enter one's intended profession: where tolerated in the Haredi society, attending secular institutions of higher education is viewed as a necessary but inferior activity. Academic interest is instead to be directed toward the religious education found in the yeshiva. Both boys and girls attend school and may proceed to higher Torah study, starting anywhere between the ages of 13 and 18. A significant proportion of students, especially boys, remain in yeshiva until marriage (which is often arranged through facilitated dating – see shiduch), and many study in a kollel (Torah study institute for married men) for many years after marriage. Most Orthodox men (including many Modern Orthodox), even those not in Kollel, will study Torah daily.

Question: What type of Judaism advocated segregation from non-Jewish culture?
Answer: Haredi Judaism

Question: What should individuals participate as little as possible in?
Answer: modern society

Question: Attending secular institution of higher education is viewed as necessary but inferior in what society?
Answer: Haredi

Question: What do a significant portion of boys remain in until marriage?
Answer: yeshiva

Question: What is a Torah study institute for married men called?
Answer: kollel