nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Rule_of_law

Most legal theorists believe that the rule of law has purely formal characteristics, meaning that the law must be publicly declared, with prospective application, and possess the characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty, but there are no requirements with regard to the content of the law. Others, including a few legal theorists, believe that the rule of law necessarily entails protection of individual rights. Within legal theory, these two approaches to the rule of law are seen as the two basic alternatives, respectively labelled the formal and substantive approaches. Still, there are other views as well. Some believe that democracy is part of the rule of law.

Question: According to legal theorists, what characteristics must the rule of law have?
Answer: generality, equality, and certainty

Question: According to some, what is the rule of law is formed to protect?
Answer: individual rights

Question: What system of government is considered as a component of the rule of law?
Answer: democracy

Question: According to some legal theorists, for what are there no requirements for something to be considered a law?
Answer: content

Question: What are the two approaches to defining the concept of the rule of law?
Answer: formal and substantive
Rule_of_law

The functional interpretation of the term "rule of law", consistent with the traditional English meaning, contrasts the "rule of law" with the "rule of man." According to the functional view, a society in which government officers have a great deal of discretion has a low degree of "rule of law", whereas a society in which government officers have little discretion has a high degree of "rule of law". Upholding the rule of law can sometimes require the punishment of those who commit offenses that are justifiable under natural law but not statutory law. The rule of law is thus somewhat at odds with flexibility, even when flexibility may be preferable.

Question: According to the functional interpretation, what principle is opposite of the rule of man?
Answer: rule of law

Question: What level of discretion do governments with a high degree of the "rule of law" have?
Answer: little

Question: What level of discretion do governments with a low degree of the "rule of law" have?
Answer: a great deal

Question: What happens to those that do not follow to the rule of law?
Answer: punishment

Question: What fights against the rule of law?
Answer: flexibility
Rule_of_law

The rule of law has been considered as one of the key dimensions that determine the quality and good governance of a country. Research, like the Worldwide Governance Indicators, defines the rule of law as: "the extent to which agents have confidence and abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract enforcement, the police and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime or violence." Based on this definition the Worldwide Governance Indicators project has developed aggregate measurements for the rule of law in more than 200 countries, as seen in the map below. A government based on the rule of law can be called a "nomocracy", from the Greek nomos (law) and kratos (power or rule).

Question: For how many countries have rule of law aggregate measurements been developed?
Answer: more than 200 countries

Question: What is the term that described a government based on the rule of law?
Answer: nomocracy

Question: What is the Greek word for law?
Answer: nomos

Question: What is the Greek word for power?
Answer: kratos

Question: What is a key qualifier for determining good governance?
Answer: rule of law
Rule_of_law

All government officers of the United States, including the President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, state judges and legislators, and all members of Congress, pledge first and foremost to uphold the Constitution. These oaths affirm that the rule of law is superior to the rule of any human leader. At the same time, the federal government has considerable discretion: the legislative branch is free to decide what statutes it will write, as long as it stays within its enumerated powers and respects the constitutionally protected rights of individuals. Likewise, the judicial branch has a degree of judicial discretion, and the executive branch also has various discretionary powers including prosecutorial discretion.

Question: According to the Constitution, what is superior to the rules of man?
Answer: rule of law

Question: What does the President and Supreme Court Justices vow to stand by?
Answer: the Constitution

Question: What do the President and Supreme Court justices vow to uphold?
Answer: the Constitution

Question: According to the Constitution, to what is the rule of law superior?
Answer: the rule of any human leader

Question: What branch of the government has prosecutorial discretion?
Answer: executive branch

Question: What branch of government can determine what acts it writes?
Answer: legislative branch

Question: Which branch of government has judicial discretion?
Answer: judicial branch
Rule_of_law

Scholars continue to debate whether the U.S. Constitution adopted a particular interpretation of the "rule of law," and if so, which one. For example, John Harrison asserts that the word "law" in the Constitution is simply defined as that which is legally binding, rather than being "defined by formal or substantive criteria," and therefore judges do not have discretion to decide that laws fail to satisfy such unwritten and vague criteria. Law Professor Frederick Mark Gedicks disagrees, writing that Cicero, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and the framers of the U.S. Constitution believed that an unjust law was not really a law at all.

Question: Who disagrees with the ideas proposed by John Harrison?
Answer: Law Professor Frederick Mark Gedicks

Question: For what body of principles is it debated whether or not it was constructed according to the rule of law?
Answer: U.S. Constitution

Question: According to John Harrison, through the Constitution, what is law?
Answer: that which is legally binding

Question: According to Frederick Mark Gedicks, who believed that unjust laws were not really laws?
Answer: the framers of the U.S. Constitution
Rule_of_law

Others argue that the rule of law has survived but was transformed to allow for the exercise of discretion by administrators. For much of American history, the dominant notion of the rule of law, in this setting, has been some version of A. V. Dicey's: “no man is punishable or can be lawfully made to suffer in body or goods except for a distinct breach of law established in the ordinary legal manner before the ordinary Courts of the land.” That is, individuals should be able to challenge an administrative order by bringing suit in a court of general jurisdiction. As the dockets of worker compensation commissions, public utility commissions and other agencies burgeoned, it soon became apparent that letting judges decide for themselves all the facts in a dispute (such as the extent of an injury in a worker's compensation case) would overwhelm the courts and destroy the advantages of specialization that led to the creation of administrative agencies in the first place. Even Charles Evans Hughes, a Chief Justice of the United States, believed “you must have administration, and you must have administration by administrative officers.” By 1941, a compromise had emerged. If administrators adopted procedures that more-or-less tracked "the ordinary legal manner" of the courts, further review of the facts by "the ordinary Courts of the land" was unnecessary. That is, if you had your "day in commission," the rule of law did not require a further "day in court." Thus Dicey's rule of law was recast into a purely procedural form.

Question: When was a compromise reached over administrative procedures for law determination?
Answer: 1941

Question: Who can determine if a law should be approached differently?
Answer: administrators

Question: Who should be able to challenge administrative orders in court?
Answer: individuals

Question: Who was Charles Evans Hughes?
Answer: a Chief Justice of the United States
Rule_of_law

James Wilson said during the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 that, "Laws may be unjust, may be unwise, may be dangerous, may be destructive; and yet not be so unconstitutional as to justify the Judges in refusing to give them effect." George Mason agreed that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as judges to give it a free course." Chief Justice John Marshall (joined by Justice Joseph Story) took a similar position in 1827: "When its existence as law is denied, that existence cannot be proved by showing what are the qualities of a law."

Question: When was the Philadelphia Convention?
Answer: 1787

Question: Who spoke at the Philadelphia Convention about the potential chaos from not having judges be able to enforce laws?
Answer: James Wilson

Question: What was John Marshall's title?
Answer: Chief Justice

Question: What did George Mason state that judges could do to a law?
Answer: declare an unconstitutional law void
Rule_of_law

East Asian cultures are influenced by two schools of thought, Confucianism, which advocated good governance as rule by leaders who are benevolent and virtuous, and Legalism, which advocated strict adherence to law. The influence of one school of thought over the other has varied throughout the centuries. One study indicates that throughout East Asia, only South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong have societies that are robustly committed to a law-bound state. According to Awzar Thi, a member of the Asian Human Rights Commission, the rule of law in Thailand, Cambodia, and most of Asia is weak or nonexistent:

Question: What East Asian philosophy emphasized virtuous leadership? 
Answer: Confucianism

Question: What East Asian philosophy emphasized unwavering rule following?
Answer: Legalism

Question: How strong is the rule of law in most Asian countries?
Answer: weak or nonexistent

Question: Which Asian countries strictly follow laws?
Answer: South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong
Rule_of_law

In countries such as China and Vietnam, the transition to a market economy has been a major factor in a move toward the rule of law, because a rule of law is important to foreign investors and to economic development. It remains unclear whether the rule of law in countries like China and Vietnam will be limited to commercial matters or will spill into other areas as well, and if so whether that spillover will enhance prospects for related values such as democracy and human rights. The rule of law in China has been widely discussed and debated by both legal scholars and politicians in China.

Question: Which two Asian countries have started to adopt the rule of law?
Answer: China and Vietnam

Question: What has influenced China and Vietnam to conform to the rule of law?
Answer: the transition to a market economy

Question: Who is debating the reliance on the rule of law in China?
Answer: legal scholars and politicians

Question: To whom is the rule of law important to in China's trade deals?
Answer: foreign investors

Question: What values might adherence to the rule of law subsequently influence in China?
Answer: democracy and human rights
Rule_of_law

In Thailand, a kingdom that has had a constitution since the initial attempt to overthrow the absolute monarchy system in 1932, the rule of law has been more of a principle than actual practice.[citation needed] Ancient prejudices and political bias have been present in the three branches of government with each of their foundings, and justice has been processed formally according to the law but in fact more closely aligned with royalist principles that are still advocated in the 21st century.[citation needed] In November 2013, Thailand faced still further threats to the rule of law when the executive branch rejected a supreme court decision over how to select senators.[citation needed]

Question: Where has the rule of law been more of a theory than a way of life? 
Answer: Thailand

Question: In Thailand, what branch of government rejected a proposal for senator selection?
Answer: executive branch

Question: According to what principles are most laws in Thailand decided?
Answer: royalist

Question: When did Thailand first try to overthrow its government run by a king?
Answer: 1932

Question: What harms the adherence to the Constitution in Thailand?
Answer: Ancient prejudices and political bias
Rule_of_law

In India, the longest constitutional text in the history of the world has governed that country since 1950. Although the Constitution of India may have been intended to provide details that would limit the opportunity for judicial discretion, the more text there is in a constitution the greater opportunity the judiciary may have to exercise judicial review. According to Indian journalist Harish Khare, "The rule of law or rather the Constitution [is] in danger of being supplanted by the rule of judges."

Question: What country has the longest version of a constitution?
Answer: India

Question: In what year was India's constitution drafted?
Answer: 1950

Question: What country has the longest Constitution?
Answer: India

Question: In Thailand, the length of the constitution impacts the judges chances to exercise what?
Answer: judicial review

Question: What is in position to gain control over the rule of law in Thailand?
Answer: rule of judges
Rule_of_law

The General Assembly has considered rule of law as an agenda item since 1992, with renewed interest since 2006 and has adopted resolutions at its last three sessions. The Security Council has held a number of thematic debates on the rule of law, and adopted resolutions emphasizing the importance of these issues in the context of women, peace and security, children in armed conflict, and the protection of civilians in armed conflict. The Peacebuilding Commission has also regularly addressed rule of law issues with respect to countries on its agenda. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action also requires the rule of law be included in human rights education.

Question: When the rule of law become an agenda item for the General Assembly?
Answer: 1992

Question: What organization debates the rule of law?
Answer: The Security Council

Question: What organization meets to discuss and determine the countries that are considered by the rule of law?
Answer: The Peacebuilding Commission

Question: What do the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action require the rule of law to be used in?
Answer: human rights education

Question: In what year was interest renewed in the rule of law within the General Assembly?
Answer: 2006
Rule_of_law

The International Development Law Organization (IDLO) is an intergovernmental organization with a joint focus on the promotion of rule of law and development. It works to empower people and communities to claim their rights, and provides governments with the know-how to realize them. It supports emerging economies and middle-income countries to strengthen their legal capacity and rule of law framework for sustainable development and economic opportunity. It is the only intergovernmental organization with an exclusive mandate to promote the rule of law and has experience working in more than 170 countries around the world.

Question: What organization works to further the understanding and adherence to the rule of law?
Answer: The International Development Law Organization

Question: What types of economies does the IDLO focus on helping?
Answer: emerging economies and middle-income

Question: With how many countries does the IDLO work?
Answer: more than 170
Rule_of_law

One important aspect of the rule-of-law initiatives is the study and analysis of the rule of law’s impact on economic development. The rule-of-law movement cannot be fully successful in transitional and developing countries without an answer to the question: does the rule of law matter for economic development or not? Constitutional economics is the study of the compatibility of economic and financial decisions within existing constitutional law frameworks, and such a framework includes government spending on the judiciary, which, in many transitional and developing countries, is completely controlled by the executive. It is useful to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary: corruption by the executive branch, in contrast to corruption by private actors.

Question: The impact of the rule of law on what is closely studied?
Answer: economic development

Question: What doctrine seeks to study rules and their relationship with the economy?
Answer: Constitutional economics

Question: In what branch of government is corruption examined?
Answer: executive branch

Question: In developing countries, who makes most of the spending decisions?
Answer: the executive

Question: What is the term for corruption by individuals?
Answer: corruption by private actors
Rule_of_law

The Rule of Law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. To date, the term “rule of law” has been used primarily in the English-speaking countries, and it is not yet fully clarified even with regard to such well-established democracies as, for instance, Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan. A common language between lawyers of common law and civil law countries as well as between legal communities of developed and developing countries is critically important for research of links between the rule of law and real economy.

Question: What language is spoken in most rule of law countries?
Answer: English

Question: In non English speaking countries, what is the rule of law referred to as?
Answer: not yet fully clarified

Question: In what types of countries is the rule of law important to the economy?
Answer: developing and transitional

Question: What other countries have successful democracies?
Answer: Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan

Question: What is critically important for discussion of rules, laws, and the economy?
Answer: common language
Rule_of_law

The economist F. A. Hayek analyzed how the Rule of Law might be beneficial to the free market. Hayek proposed that under the Rule of Law individuals would be able to make wise investments and future plans with some confidence in a successful return on investment when he stated: "under the Rule of Law the government is prevented from stultifying individual efforts by ad hoc action. Within the known rules of the game the individual is free to pursue his personal ends and desires, certain that the powers of government will not be used deliberately to frustrate his efforts."

Question: What is F.A. Hayek's profession?
Answer: economist

Question: According to Hayek, with the rule of law in place what will help people make more wise investments?
Answer: confidence in a successful return on investment

Question: According to Hayek, limited governemnt power through the rule of law does not do what to people?
Answer: frustrate his efforts

Question: According to Hayek, people are free to do what within the rule of law?
Answer: pursue his personal ends and desires
Exhibition_game

An exhibition game (also known as a friendly, a scrimmage, a demonstration, a preseason game, a warmup match, or a preparation match, depending at least in part on the sport) is a sporting event whose prize money and impact on the player's or the team's rankings is either zero or otherwise greatly reduced. In team sports, matches of this type are often used to help coaches and managers select players for the competitive matches of a league season or tournament. If the players usually play in different teams in other leagues, exhibition games offer an opportunity for the players to learn to work with each other. The games can be held between separate teams or between parts of the same team.

Question: What is 'a friendly' another term for?
Answer: exhibition game

Question: What is 'a scrimmage' another term for?
Answer: exhibition game

Question: What is 'a demonstration' another term for?
Answer: exhibition game

Question: What is 'a preseason game' another term for?
Answer: exhibition game

Question: What is 'a warmup match' another term for?
Answer: exhibition game
Exhibition_game

An exhibition game may also be used to settle a challenge, to provide professional entertainment, to promote the sport, or to raise money for charities. Several sports leagues hold all-star games to showcase their best players against each other, while other exhibitions games may pit participants from two different leagues or countries to unofficially determine who would be the best in the world. International competitions like the Olympic Games may also hold exhibition games as part of a demonstration sport.

Question: What type of exhibition game showcases the best players?
Answer: all-star games

Question: What are exhibition games in the Olympics?
Answer: a demonstration sport

Question: What can an exhibition game raise money for?
Answer: charities

Question: What can an exhibition game settle?
Answer: a challenge
Exhibition_game

Since the introduction of league football, most club sides play a number of friendlies before the start of each season (called pre-season friendlies). Friendly football matches are considered to be non-competitive and are only used to "warm up" players for a new season/competitive match. There is generally nothing competitive at stake and some rules may be changed or experimented with (such as unlimited substitutions, which allow teams to play younger, less experienced, players, and no cards). Although most friendlies are simply one-off matches arranged by the clubs themselves, in which a certain amount is paid by the challenger club to the incumbent club, some teams do compete in short tournaments, such as the Emirates Cup, Teresa Herrera Trophy and the Amsterdam Tournament. Although these events may involve sponsorship deals and the awarding of a trophy and may even be broadcast on television, there is little prestige attached to them.

Question: When do football clubs still play friendlies?
Answer: before the start of each season

Question: What type of football matches are non-competitive?
Answer: friendlies

Question: What do some friendlies change the rules to make unlimited?
Answer: substitutions

Question: What are some examples of friendly short football tournaments?
Answer: the Emirates Cup, Teresa Herrera Trophy and the Amsterdam Tournament

Question: What do friendly short football tournaments have little of?
Answer: prestige
Exhibition_game

International teams also play friendlies, generally in preparation for the qualifying or final stages of major tournaments. This is essential, since national squads generally have much less time together in which to prepare. The biggest difference between friendlies at the club and international levels is that international friendlies mostly take place during club league seasons, not between them. This has on occasion led to disagreement between national associations and clubs as to the availability of players, who could become injured or fatigued in a friendly.

Question: What do friendlies help international teams prepare for?
Answer: the qualifying or final stages of major tournaments

Question: Which type of team lacks time to prepare for tournaments?
Answer: national squads

Question: What do international leagues' friendlies happen in the middle of?
Answer: club league seasons

Question: What concern has caused national associations and clubs to disagree about friendlies?
Answer: availability of players, who could become injured or fatigued