nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Qing_dynasty

However, the 18th century saw the European empires gradually expand across the world, as European states developed economies built on maritime trade. The dynasty was confronted with newly developing concepts of the international system and state to state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in nearby India and on the islands that are now Indonesia. The Qing response, successful for a time, was in 1756 to establish the Canton System, which restricted maritime trade to that city and gave monopoly trading rights to private Chinese merchants. The British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments.

Question: Which empires grew during the 18th century?
Answer: European states

Question: What country near China did the Europeans first control?
Answer: India

Question: What was the only city the Chinese allowed the Europeans into to trade?
Answer: Canton

Question: What were the economies of the European empires built on?
Answer: maritime trade

Question: Which two European companies traded in Canton?
Answer: British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company
Qing_dynasty

The dynasty lost control of peripheral territories bit by bit. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the Russian Empire took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the Tientsin Massacre of 1870, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The Sino-French War began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on the French. A French invasion of Taiwan was halted and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the Battle of Bang Bo. However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the Treaty of Tientsin (1885) and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam.

Question: Who did the Chinese lose territory to in exchange for help?
Answer: Russian

Question: When was the Tientsin Massacre?
Answer: 1870

Question: When was the Cochinchina Campaign?
Answer: 1858

Question: Which territory did France control?
Answer: Indochina

Question: What triggered the Tientsin Massacre?
Answer: murder of French nuns
Qing_dynasty

Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China’s nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go......In the Arrow War (1856–60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia, and defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884–85). But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."

Question: What was the main problem the Qing had in preventing invasion from Europe?
Answer: naval weakness

Question: When was the Arrow War?
Answer: (1856–60)

Question: Where did the French and English land in 1860?
Answer: Gulf of Zhili

Question: Which historian blamed naval weakness for European imperialism in China?
Answer: Edward L. Dreyer
Qing_dynasty

Banner Armies were organized along ethnic lines, namely Manchu and Mongol, but included non-Manchu bondservants registered under the household of their Manchu masters. The years leading up to the conquest increased the number of Han Chinese under Manchu rule, leading Hong Taiji to create the Eight Han Banners (zh), and around the time of the Qing takeover of Beijing, their numbers rapidly swelled. Han Bannermen held high status and power in the early Qing period, especially immediately after the conquest during Shunzhi and Kangxi's reign where they dominated Governor-Generalships and Governorships across China at the expense of both Manchu Bannermen and Han civilians. Han also numerically dominated the Banners up until the mid 18th century. European visitors in Beijing called them "Tartarized Chinese" or "Tartarified Chinese". It was in Qianlong's reign that the Qianlong Emperor, concerned about maintaining Manchu identity, re-emphasized Manchu ethnicity, ancestry, language, and culture in the Eight Banners and started a mass discharge of Han Bannermen from the Eight Banners, either asking them to voluntarily resign from the Banner rolls or striking their names off. This led to a change from Han majority to a Manchu majority within the Banner system, and previous Han Bannermen garrisons in southern China such as at Fuzhou, Zhenjiang, Guangzhou, were replaced by Manchu Bannermen in the purge, which started in 1754. The turnover by Qianlong most heavily impacted Han banner garrisons stationed in the provinces while it less impacted Han Bannermen in Beijing, leaving a larger proportion of remaining Han Bannermen in Beijing than the provinces. Han Bannermen's status was decreased from that point on with Manchu Banners gaining higher status. Han Bannermen numbered 75% in 1648 Shunzhi's reign, 72% in 1723 Yongzheng's reign, but decreased to 43% in 1796 during the first year of Jiaqing's reign, which was after Qianlong's purge. The mass discharge was known as the Disbandment of the Han Banners (zh). Qianlong directed most of his ire at those Han Bannermen descended from defectors who joined the Qing after the Qing passed through the Great Wall at Shanhai Pass in 1644, deeming their ancestors as traitors to the Ming and therefore untrustworthy, while retaining Han Bannermen who were descended from defectors who joined the Qing before 1644 in Liaodong and marched through Shanhai pass, also known as those who "followed the Dragon through the pass" (從龍入關; cong long ru guan).

Question: How were Banner's organized?
Answer: along ethnic lines

Question: Which two ethnicities made up the majority of the Banner Armies?
Answer: Manchu and Mongol

Question: Which ethnicity dominated the army in the reigns of Shunzhi and Kangxi?
Answer: Han Bannermen

Question: When did Manchu ethnicity become important again in the Eight Banners?
Answer: Qianlong's reign

Question: What did the Europeans call Han Bannermen?
Answer: "Tartarized Chinese" or "Tartarified Chinese"
Qing_dynasty

Early during the Taiping Rebellion, Qing forces suffered a series of disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city of Nanjing in 1853. Shortly thereafter, a Taiping expeditionary force penetrated as far north as the suburbs of Tianjin, the imperial heartlands. In desperation the Qing court ordered a Chinese official, Zeng Guofan, to organize regional and village militias into an emergency army called tuanlian. Zeng Guofan's strategy was to rely on local gentry to raise a new type of military organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly threatened. This new force became known as the Xiang Army, named after the Hunan region where it was raised. The Xiang Army was a hybrid of local militia and a standing army. It was given professional training, but was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders — mostly members of the Chinese gentry — could muster. The Xiang Army and its successor, the Huai Army, created by Zeng Guofan's colleague and mentee Li Hongzhang, were collectively called the "Yong Ying" (Brave Camp).

Question: What caused the Qing armies to lose many battles?
Answer: Taiping Rebellion

Question: What city did the Qing lose in 1853?
Answer: Nanjing

Question: What was Zeng Guofan?
Answer: Xiang Army

Question: Who created a new type of army to thwart the Taiping rebels?
Answer: Zeng Guofan

Question: What was the Xiang Army named after?
Answer: Hunan region where it was raised
Qing_dynasty

By the late 19th century, the most conservative elements within the Qing court could no longer ignore China's military weakness. In 1860, during the Second Opium War, the capital Beijing was captured and the Summer Palace sacked by a relatively small Anglo-French coalition force numbering 25,000. The advent of modern weaponry resulting from the European Industrial Revolution had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete. The government attempts to modernize during the Self-Strengthening Movement were initially successful, but yielded few lasting results because of the central government's lack of funds, lack of political will, and unwillingness to depart from tradition.

Question: When was the Second Opium War?
Answer: 1860

Question: How big was the French-British army?
Answer: 25,000

Question: What was the Qing governments attempt to create a modern socity called?
Answer: Self-Strengthening Movement

Question: What happened to the Summer Palace?
Answer: sacked
Qing_dynasty

Literature grew to new heights in the Qing period. Poetry continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger and larger numbers and poets came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the poetry of the Ming dynasty) for its association with Chinese opera, developmental trends of Classical Chinese poetry, the transition to a greater role for vernacular language, and for poetry by women in Chinese culture. The Qing dynasty was a period of much literary collection and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the Quantangshi and the Three Hundred Tang Poems. Pu Songling brought the short story form to a new level in his Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, published in the mid-18th century, and Shen Fu demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as Wu Jingzi's The Scholars (1750) and Li Ruzhen's Flowers in the Mirror (1827).

Question: What was the sign of a gentleman?
Answer: Poetry

Question: Who started writing poety during the Qing dynasty?
Answer: women

Question: What was the name of Pu Songling's collection of short stories?
Answer: Strange Stories

Question: Who wrote the novel Dream of the Red Chamber?
Answer: Cao Xueqin

Question: What was the name of Shen Fu's memoir?
Answer: Six Chapters of a Floating Life
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the descendants of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas. Pueblos indígenas (indigenous peoples) is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries. Aborigen (aboriginal/native) is used in Argentina, whereas "Amerindian" is used in Quebec, The Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean. Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives.

Question: Who are the indigenous people of the Americas descended from?
Answer: pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas

Question: What is a common term in Spanish speaking countries for the indigenous peoples?
Answer: Pueblos indígenas

Question: In Quebec, The Guianas and places in the Caribbean where English is spoken, what is the preferred term for the indigenous people of the Americas?
Answer: Amerindian

Question: What term is used in Argentina to refer to the original peoples of a continent?
Answer: Aborigen

Question: How are the indigenous people most commonly referred to by citizens of the U.S.?
Answer: Native Americans
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

According to the prevailing theories of the settlement of the Americas, migrations of humans from Asia (in particular North Asia) to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The majority of experts agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration via Beringia took place at least 13,500 years ago, with disputed evidence that people had migrated into the Americas much earlier, up to 40,000 years ago. These early Paleo-Indians spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of creation myths.

Question: Where do most theories today attribute the settlement of the Americas as originating from?
Answer: Asia

Question: What was Beringia?
Answer: a land bridge which connected the two continents

Question: How did humans cross over to the Americas from Asia?
Answer: Beringia

Question: Most experts can at least agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration took place when?
Answer: 13,500 years ago

Question: How do the indigenous peoples explain how they came to live in the Americas?
Answer: a wide range of creation myths
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in Amazonia, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires.

Question: What were many of the indigenous people of the Americas traditionally?
Answer: hunter-gatherers

Question: What remains as a testament to the time and work the indigenous people spent cultivating the flora of the Americas?
Answer: agricultural endowment

Question: What did many of the societies practice a mix of?
Answer: farming, hunting, and gathering

Question: Large cities, chiefdoms, monuments and empires were just some of the things created by which peoples?
Answer: indigenous

Question: What did many segments of the indigenous population also practice?
Answer: aquaculture and agriculture
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples; some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, but also cater to modern needs. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples.

Question: Belize, Chile and Greenland are just some countries with sizable populations of what peoples?
Answer: indigenous

Question: Where are there still populations of indigenous peoples?
Answer: Many parts of the Americas

Question: How many different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas?
Answer: At least a thousand

Question: What do many indigenous cultures still practice to different extends to this day?
Answer: religion, social organization, and subsistence practices

Question: What have some indigenous peoples managed to remain in relative isolation from?
Answer: Western culture
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from the cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison. Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries. Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace.

Question: What behaviors did the Taínos begin to adopt after years of mistreatment?
Answer: suicidal

Question: What did Taínos women start doing to their infants?
Answer: aborting or killing

Question: Why would ingesting untreated cassava be a bad idea?
Answer: violent poison

Question: Who was sent to negotiate a peace treaty with the rebels?
Answer: Francisco Barrionuevo

Question: How many years was a Taínos Cacique able to hold ou in the Baoruco Mountain Range?
Answer: thirteen
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

The Spanish Empire and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The re-introduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America and of Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison.

Question: What Empire brought horses to the Americas?
Answer: Spanish

Question: What kind of impact did the re-emergence of horses have on some Native American cultures?
Answer: profound

Question: How long had horses been extinct in the Americas prior to their re-introduction?
Answer: 7500 years

Question: What did some tribes achieve by domesticating horses?
Answer: great success

Question: What enabled some tribes to expand territory, increase trade and capture more game?
Answer: horses
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

The development of writing is counted among the many achievements and innovations of pre-Columbian American cultures. Independent from the development of writing in other areas of the world, the Mesoamerican region produced several indigenous writing systems beginning in the 1st millennium BCE. What may be the earliest-known example in the Americas of an extensive text thought to be writing is by the Cascajal Block. The Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated from ceramic shards found in the same context to approximately 900 BCE, around the time that Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán began to wane.

Question: What was one of the many achievements of the American cultures?
Answer: development of writing

Question: What region produced several writing systems independent of other areas of the world?
Answer: the Mesoamerican region

Question: What is presumed to be written upon the Cascajal Block?
Answer: extensive text

Question: When were writing systems being created in the Americas?
Answer: beginning in the 1st millennium BCE

Question: When has the Olmec tablet been dated to?
Answer: 900 BCE
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

The Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficial resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) was a combination of phonetic symbols and logograms. It is most often classified as a logographic or (more properly) a logosyllabic writing system, in which syllabic signs play a significant role. It is the only pre-Columbian writing system known to represent completely the spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than one thousand different glyphs although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning and many appear only rarely or are confined to particular localities. At any one time, no more than about five hundred glyphs were in use, some two hundred of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.

Question: What is the Mayan writing system the only known pre-Columbian one to completely represent this?
Answer: spoken language of its community

Question: What writing system combined phonetic symbols and logograms?
Answer: Maya

Question: What signs play a significant role in the Mayan's writing system?
Answer: syllabic

Question: How many different glyphs in total does the Mayan writing system have?
Answer: more than one thousand

Question: How many of the Mayan glyphs had phonetic or syllabic interpretations?
Answer: some two hundred
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught indigenous scribes in their communities to write their languages in Latin letters and there is a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal matters. Although Spaniards initially taught indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-perpetuating at the local level. The Spanish crown gathered such documentation and contemporary Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in what is called the New Philology to write histories of indigenous peoples from indigenous viewpoints.

Question: When were indigenous scribes taught to use Latin letters?
Answer: the sixteenth century

Question: Who taught indigenous scribes to write their languages?
Answer: Spanish

Question: What were a large number of the local documents in regards to?
Answer: lawsuits and other legal matters

Question: What were Spanish translations at the time made for?
Answer: legal cases

Question: What viewpoint have scholars translated and analyzed documents to writes histories from?
Answer: indigenous