nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Gothic_architecture

The distinctive characteristic of Italian Gothic is the use of polychrome decoration, both externally as marble veneer on the brick façade and also internally where the arches are often made of alternating black and white segments, and where the columns may be painted red, the walls decorated with frescoes and the apse with mosaic. The plan is usually regular and symmetrical, Italian cathedrals have few and widely spaced columns. The proportions are generally mathematically equilibrated, based on the square and the concept of "armonìa", and except in Venice where they loved flamboyant arches, the arches are almost always equilateral. Colours and moldings define the architectural units rather than blending them. Italian cathedral façades are often polychrome and may include mosaics in the lunettes over the doors. The façades have projecting open porches and occular or wheel windows rather than roses, and do not usually have a tower. The crossing is usually surmounted by a dome. There is often a free-standing tower and baptistry. The eastern end usually has an apse of comparatively low projection. The windows are not as large as in northern Europe and, although stained glass windows are often found, the favourite narrative medium for the interior is the fresco.

Question: What is the unique characteristic of Italian Gothic design?
Answer: the use of polychrome decoration

Question: What color are the columns of Italian Gothic cathedrals often painted?
Answer: the columns may be painted red

Question: What type of arches do they love to use in Venice?
Answer: they loved flamboyant arches

Question: Instead of rose windows, what type of windows do Italian cathedral facades usually feature?
Answer: occular or wheel windows

Question: What is the preferred narrative medium for the interior of Italian cathedrals?
Answer: the fresco
Gothic_architecture

The Palais des Papes in Avignon is the best complete large royal palace, alongside the Royal palace of Olite, built during the 13th and 14th centuries for the kings of Navarre. The Malbork Castle built for the master of the Teutonic order is an example of Brick Gothic architecture. Partial survivals of former royal residences include the Doge's Palace of Venice, the Palau de la Generalitat in Barcelona, built in the 15th century for the kings of Aragon, or the famous Conciergerie, former palace of the kings of France, in Paris.

Question: Who was the Royal palace of Olite built for?
Answer: the kings of Navarre

Question: Who was the Malbork Castle built for?
Answer: the master of the Teutonic order

Question: What type of Gothic architecture is the Malbork Castle an example of?
Answer: Brick Gothic architecture

Question: What is the name of the royal residence built for the kings of France in Paris?
Answer: the famous Conciergerie

Question: When was the Palau de la Generalitat in Barcelona constructed?
Answer: built in the 15th century
Gothic_architecture

Secular Gothic architecture can also be found in a number of public buildings such as town halls, universities, markets or hospitals. The Gdańsk, Wrocław and Stralsund town halls are remarkable examples of northern Brick Gothic built in the late 14th centuries. The Belfry of Bruges or Brussels Town Hall, built during the 15th century, are associated to the increasing wealth and power of the bourgeoisie in the late Middle Ages; by the 15th century, the traders of the trade cities of Burgundy had acquired such wealth and influence that they could afford to express their power by funding lavishly decorated buildings of vast proportions. This kind of expressions of secular and economic power are also found in other late mediaeval commercial cities, including the Llotja de la Seda of Valencia, Spain, a purpose built silk exchange dating from the 15th century, in the partial remains of Westminster Hall in the Houses of Parliament in London, or the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, Italy, a 13th-century town hall built to host the offices of the then prosperous republic of Siena. Other Italian cities such as Florence (Palazzo Vecchio), Mantua or Venice also host remarkable examples of secular public architecture.

Question: What is an example of secular Northern Brick Gothic architecture from the 14th century?
Answer: Stralsund town halls

Question: When was Brussels Town Hall built?
Answer: built during the 15th century

Question: What is the name of the secular building in Spain which was constructed for the purpose of silk exchange?
Answer: the Llotja de la Seda of Valencia

Question: What is the name of the 13th-century town hall constructed to host the offices of the republic of Siena?
Answer: the Palazzo Pubblico

Question: Impressive public secular architecture can also be found in what other Italian city?
Answer: Florence
Gothic_architecture

By the late Middle Ages university towns had grown in wealth and importance as well, and this was reflected in the buildings of some of Europe's ancient universities. Particularly remarkable examples still standing nowadays include the Collegio di Spagna in the University of Bologna, built during the 14th and 15th centuries; the Collegium Carolinum of the University of Prague in Bohemia; the Escuelas mayores of the University of Salamanca in Spain; the chapel of King's College, Cambridge; or the Collegium Maius of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland.

Question: In what era had university towns grown in wealth and importance?
Answer: the late Middle Ages

Question: What is the name of the university building in Bologna, built in the 14th and 15th centuries?
Answer: the Collegio di Spagna

Question: What is the name of the building at University of Prague in Bohemia?
Answer: the Collegium Carolinum

Question: What is the name of the secular building at the University of Salamanca in Spain? 
Answer: the Escuelas mayores

Question: What is the name of the secular building at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland?
Answer: the Collegium Maius
Gothic_architecture

Other cities with a concentration of secular Gothic include Bruges and Siena. Most surviving small secular buildings are relatively plain and straightforward; most windows are flat-topped with mullions, with pointed arches and vaulted ceilings often only found at a few focal points. The country-houses of the nobility were slow to abandon the appearance of being a castle, even in parts of Europe, like England, where defence had ceased to be a real concern. The living and working parts of many monastic buildings survive, for example at Mont Saint-Michel.

Question: What is one city with an accumulation of secular Gothic structures? 
Answer: Bruges

Question: What is another city with an accumulation of secular Gothic structures? 
Answer: Siena

Question: What style are most windows on secular Gothic structures?
Answer: flat-topped with mullions

Question: Where are pointed arches and vaulted ceilings found on most secular Gothic structures?
Answer: a few focal points

Question: What is the name of the surviving monastic building in England? 
Answer: Mont Saint-Michel
Gothic_architecture

In England, partly in response to a philosophy propounded by the Oxford Movement and others associated with the emerging revival of 'high church' or Anglo-Catholic ideas during the second quarter of the 19th century, neo-Gothic began to become promoted by influential establishment figures as the preferred style for ecclesiastical, civic and institutional architecture. The appeal of this Gothic revival (which after 1837, in Britain, is sometimes termed Victorian Gothic), gradually widened to encompass "low church" as well as "high church" clients. This period of more universal appeal, spanning 1855–1885, is known in Britain as High Victorian Gothic.

Question: When was neo-Gothic popularized by influential figures?
Answer: during the second quarter of the 19th century

Question: In Britain after 1837, what was the Gothic revival known as?
Answer: Victorian Gothic

Question: During what years was the High Victorian Gothic period in Britain?
Answer: 1855–1885

Question: What movement was responsible for the philosophy which led to the revival of Anglo Catholic ideas? 
Answer: the Oxford Movement

Question: Besides ecclesiastical and civic architecture, what other style of architecture did influential figures of the 19th century prefer to use Victorian Gothic for?
Answer: institutional architecture
Gothic_architecture

The Houses of Parliament in London by Sir Charles Barry with interiors by a major exponent of the early Gothic Revival, Augustus Welby Pugin, is an example of the Gothic revival style from its earlier period in the second quarter of the 19th century. Examples from the High Victorian Gothic period include George Gilbert Scott's design for the Albert Memorial in London, and William Butterfield's chapel at Keble College, Oxford. From the second half of the 19th century onwards it became more common in Britain for neo-Gothic to be used in the design of non-ecclesiastical and non-governmental buildings types. Gothic details even began to appear in working-class housing schemes subsidised by philanthropy, though given the expense, less frequently than in the design of upper and middle-class housing.

Question: Who was the exterior architect of the Houses of Parliament?
Answer: Sir Charles Barry

Question: Who was the interior architect of the Houses of Parliament?
Answer: Augustus Welby Pugin

Question: What style of architecture does the Houses of Parliament exemplify?
Answer: the Gothic revival style

Question: Who designed the Albert Memorial in London?
Answer: George Gilbert Scott

Question: Who designed the chapel at Keble College, Oxford?
Answer: William Butterfield
Gothic_architecture

In France, simultaneously, the towering figure of the Gothic Revival was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, who outdid historical Gothic constructions to create a Gothic as it ought to have been, notably at the fortified city of Carcassonne in the south of France and in some richly fortified keeps for industrial magnates. Viollet-le-Duc compiled and coordinated an Encyclopédie médiévale that was a rich repertory his contemporaries mined for architectural details. He effected vigorous restoration of crumbling detail of French cathedrals, including the Abbey of Saint-Denis and famously at Notre Dame de Paris, where many of whose most "Gothic" gargoyles are Viollet-le-Duc's. He taught a generation of reform-Gothic designers and showed how to apply Gothic style to modern structural materials, especially cast iron.

Question: Who was the main figure of the Gothic Revival in France?
Answer: Eugène Viollet-le-Duc

Question: What famous French cathedral was restored and reconstructed by Viollet-le-Duc?
Answer: the Abbey of Saint-Denis

Question: What modern building material did Viollet-le-Duc teach reform Gothic designers to work with?
Answer: cast iron

Question: In what fortified city in Southern France did Viollet-le-Duc recreate historical Gothic constructions?
Answer: Carcassonne

Question: What other famous French cathedral did Viollet-le-Duc work on?
Answer: Notre Dame de Paris
Political_philosophy

Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn Period, specifically with Confucius in the 6th century BC. Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools. Philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism. The Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Taoism advocated a proto-anarchism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Prior to China's adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century.

Question: What specifically dates back with Confucius in the 6th century BC?
Answer: Chinese political philosophy

Question: Chinese political philosophy dates back to what century?
Answer: 6th century BC

Question: Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to what?
Answer: the social and political breakdown of the country

Question: What advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism?
Answer: Mohism
Political_philosophy

Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's Republic, which was followed by Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and Politics. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, including the Roman statesman Cicero.

Question: Western political philosophy originates in what philosophy?
Answer: ancient Greece

Question: What philosophy has dates back to at least Plato?
Answer: philosophy of ancient Greece

Question: Ancient Greece was dominated by what?
Answer: city-states
Political_philosophy

Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).

Question: What demarcates a clear distinction between nation and state, as well as religion and state?
Answer: Indian political philosophy

Question: What was divided into governance, administration, defense, law and  order?
Answer: The institutions of state

Question: What was the governing body of the Hindu states?
Answer: Mantranga
Political_philosophy

Chanakya, 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher. The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state. Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor. Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.

Question: Who was the 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher?
Answer: Chanakya

Question: What provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler?
Answer: The Arthashastra

Question: What is an example of a code of law in ancient India?
Answer: the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu
Political_philosophy

The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderatation of the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth.

Question: Who heavily influenced the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo?
Answer: Plato

Question: What was a key change brought about by Christian thought?
Answer: the moderatation of the Stoicism

Question: Who also preached that one was not a member of his or her city?
Answer: Augustine

Question: What does Civitas terrena mean?
Answer: City of Man

Question: What does Civitas Dei mean?
Answer: City of God
Political_philosophy

The rise of Islam, based on both the Qur'an and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth—in effect all philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Hellenic view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the Caliphate. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna.

Question: What strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region?
Answer: The rise of Islam

Question: What emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion?
Answer: Early Islamic philosophy

Question: Who challenged the early Islamic philosophy's views?
Answer: the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers

Question: What type of views did the "rationalist" Mutaziite philosophers hold?
Answer: Hellenic view
Political_philosophy

Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazalite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics though subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance.

Question: What was heavily influenced by Christian thinking?
Answer: Medieval political philosophy in Europe

Question: Medieval political philosophy had much in common with what type of thinking?
Answer: Mutazalite Islamic thinking

Question: Who was the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe? 
Answer: St. Thomas Aquinas
Political_philosophy

One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of the classical period, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the di Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the secure and powerful state. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.

Question: What was one of the most influential works during the period? 
Answer: Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince

Question: When was Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince published? 
Answer: 1532

Question: Who wrote The  Prince?
Answer: Niccolò Machiavelli

Question: Who was well known for his theory of the social contract?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes
Political_philosophy

These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of natural order was not introduced, the social sciences could not evolve independently of theistic thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.

Question: What would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified? 
Answer: state

Question: What refers to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state?
Answer: government

Question: Society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to what?
Answer: the physical world
Political_philosophy

Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment. After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.

Question: The concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of what?
Answer: free trade

Question: The enlightenment was an outright attack on what?
Answer: religion

Question: What increasingly challenged the Roman Catholic dominance of theology?
Answer: Protestant churches

Question: Who was the most outspoken critic of the church in France?
Answer: François Marie Arouet de Voltaire