nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Hindu_philosophy

Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Question: What early philosopher proposed Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: Nimbarka

Question: In what century did Nimbarka live?
Answer: 13th-century

Question: How many categories of existence are there in Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: three

Question: What are the categories of existence in Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: Brahman, soul, and matter

Question: Who is named as the highest entity worshiped in Dvaitadvaita?
Answer: Krishna
Hindu_philosophy

Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine. However, the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE) is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedābheda) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought— Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).

Question: In what text is Shaivism recounted?
Answer: Śvetāśvatara Upanishad

Question: When was the text on Shaivism written?
Answer: 400 – 200 BCE

Question: Who reported the major schools of Shaivism?
Answer: Vidyaranya

Question: How many major schools of Shaivism did Vidyaranya mention?
Answer: three

Question: What is the Kashmir Shaivism mentioned by Vidyaranya?
Answer: Pratyabhijña
Hindu_philosophy

Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, "of Paśupati") is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of souls to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, soul possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.

Question: What is the oldest school of Shaivism?
Answer: Pāśupata Shaivism

Question: Who organized the Pasupata philosophy?
Answer: Lakulish

Question: When did Lakulish systematize the Pasupata Shaivism? 
Answer: 2nd century CE

Question: What school of philosophy did the Pasupatas dislike?
Answer: Vaishnava theology

Question: What aspect of Vaishnava was unpalatable for the Pasupatas?
Answer: servitude of souls
Hindu_philosophy

Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the soul with God through the intellect.

Question: What group divided the world into two parts?
Answer: Pāśupatas

Question: Into what parts did the Pasupatas divide the world?
Answer: insentient and the sentient

Question: In what staet was the insentient considered to be?
Answer: unconscious

Question: How was the sentient seen as being?
Answer: conscious

Question: For the Pasupatas, how was the union of the soul with God achieved?
Answer: through the intellect
Hindu_philosophy

Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman), in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness. This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit). Whereas, Advaita holds that Brahman is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an illusion (māyā). The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.

Question: What type of philosophy does both Kasmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta share?
Answer: non-dual

Question: What aspect do non-dual philosophies give to the highest order of worship?
Answer: Universal Consciousness

Question: As what does Kashmir Shaivism view the conscious world?
Answer: real

Question: Which group sees the world as illusion?
Answer: Advaita

Question: According to Kashmir Shaivism, what is the goal in belief?
Answer: merge in Shiva
Political_party

While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are recognized, and in how they operate, there are often many differences, and some are significant. Many political parties have an ideological core, but some do not, and many represent very different ideologies than they did when first founded. In democracies, political parties are elected by the electorate to run a government. Many countries have numerous powerful political parties, such as Germany and India and some nations have one-party systems, such as China. The United States is a two-party system, with its two most powerful parties being the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.

Question: What are the two most powerful political parties in the United States?
Answer: Democratic Party and the Republican Party

Question: Name a nation that has a one-party political system.
Answer: China

Question: How are political parties elected in democracies? 
Answer: the electorate

Question: What are some countries that have multiple powerful political parties?
Answer: Germany and India
Political_party

The first political factions, cohering around a basic, if fluid, set of principles emerged from the Exclusion Crisis and Glorious Revolution in late-17th-century England. The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule and the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or "Cavalier") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Whigs, who were the dominant political faction for most of the first half of the 18th century; they supported the Hanoverian succession of 1715 against the Jacobite supporters of the deposed Roman Catholic Stuart dynasty and were able to purge Tory politicians from important government positions after the failed Jacobite rising of 1715. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721–1742; his protégé was Henry Pelham (1743–1754).

Question: Around what time did the first political factions start to emerge?
Answer: late-17th-century England

Question: Who was the dominate political party for the first half of the 18th century?
Answer: Whigs

Question: Who was the leader if the Whigs?
Answer: Robert Walpole

Question: In what year did the jacobite rising fail?
Answer: 1715
Political_party

As the century wore on, the factions slowly began to adopt more coherent political tendencies as the interests of their power bases began to diverge. The Whig party's initial base of support from the great aristocratic families, widened to include the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants. As well as championing constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the monarch's power, the Whigs adamantly opposed a Catholic king as a threat to liberty, and believed in extending toleration to nonconformist Protestants, or dissenters. A major influence on the Whigs were the liberal political ideas of John Locke, and the concepts of universal rights employed by Locke and Algernon Sidney.

Question: Who's liberal political ideas influenced the Whigs?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Name the two people who's concepts of universal rights influenced the Whigs.
Answer: Locke and Algernon Sidney

Question: Did the Whigs want to limit the monarch's power?
Answer: championing constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the monarch's power

Question: Did the Whigs support or oppose the Catholic king?
Answer: the Whigs adamantly opposed a Catholic king as a threat to liberty
Political_party

Although the Tories were dismissed from office for half a century, for most of this period (at first under the leadership of Sir William Wyndham), the Tories retained party cohesion, with occasional hopes of regaining office, particularly at the accession of George II (1727) and the downfall of the ministry of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742. They acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the "Opposition Whigs", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government; however, the ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party. They finally regained power with the accession of George III in 1760 under Lord Bute.

Question: Who did the Tories oppose?
Answer: Whigs

Question: Who did the Tories occasionally cooperate with?
Answer: the "Opposition Whigs"

Question: When did the Tories regain power?
Answer: 1760

Question: For how long were the Tories dismissed from office?
Answer: half a century

Question: Why could the Tories and the Opposition Whigs never form a single party?
Answer: ideological gap
Political_party

When they lost power, the old Whig leadership dissolved into a decade of factional chaos with distinct "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite", and "Chathamite" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as "Whigs". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the party was centred around a set of core principles and remained out of power as a united opposition to government.

Question: Who was the first distinctive Whig party that emerged from the chaos?
Answer: the Rockingham Whigs

Question: Who was the leader of the Rockingham Whigs?
Answer: Charles Watson-Wentworth

Question: What was the description for the basic framework of the Rockingham Whigs party?
Answer: "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed"

Question: Did the Rockingham Whigs ever regain power as a opposition to the government?
Answer: remained out of power as a united opposition to government.
Political_party

The modern Conservative Party was created out of the 'Pittite' Tories of the early 19th century. In the late 1820s disputes over political reform broke up this grouping. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed amidst dire election results. Following this disaster Robert Peel set about assembling a new coalition of forces. Peel issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism; – the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to "a perpetual vortex of agitation". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone.

Question: What was the modern Conservative party created from?
Answer: the 'Pittite' Tories

Question: Who Issued the Tamworth manifesto?
Answer: Robert Peel

Question: Which party did the Whigs, along with others form?
Answer: the Liberal Party

Question: In what year was the Tamworth manifesto introduced?
Answer: 1834
Political_party

Although the Founding Fathers of the United States did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan, early political controversies in the 1790s over the extent of federal government powers saw the emergence of two proto-political parties- the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, which were championed by Framers Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively. However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.

Question: What were the two proto-political parties?
Answer: the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party

Question: In which year did the period known as the "Era of Good Feelings" begin?
Answer: 1816

Question: What did the founding fathers not intend American politics to become?
Answer: partisan

Question: Who were the leaders of the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties?
Answer: Framers Alexander Hamilton and James Madison
Political_party

At the same time, the political party reached its modern form, with a membership disciplined through the use of a party whip and the implementation of efficient structures of control. The Home Rule League Party, campaigning for Home Rule for Ireland in the British Parliament was fundamentally changed by the great Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s. In 1882, he changed his party's name to the Irish Parliamentary Party and created a well-organized grass roots structure, introducing membership to replace "ad hoc" informal groupings. He created a new selection procedure to ensure the professional selection of party candidates committed to taking their seats, and in 1884 he imposed a firm 'party pledge' which obliged MPs to vote as a bloc in parliament on all occasions. The creation of a strict party whip and a formal party structure was unique at the time. His party's efficient structure and control contrasted with the loose rules and flexible informality found in the main British parties; – they soon came to model themselves on the Parnellite model.

Question: Who was the leader of the Irish political party in the 1880s?
Answer: Charles Stewart Parnell

Question: What did Charles Stewart Parnell change his parties name to in 1882?
Answer: Irish Parliamentary Party

Question: Did the Irish Parliamentary Party ever adopt the Parnellite model?
Answer: they soon came to model themselves on the Parnellite model.
Political_party

A political party is typically led by a party leader (the most powerful member and spokesperson representing the party), a party secretary (who maintains the daily work and records of party meetings), party treasurer (who is responsible for membership dues) and party chair (who forms strategies for recruiting and retaining party members, and also chairs party meetings). Most of the above positions are also members of the party executive, the leading organization which sets policy for the entire party at the national level. The structure is far more decentralized in the United States because of the separation of powers, federalism and the multiplicity of economic interests and religious sects. Even state parties are decentralized as county and other local committees are largely independent of state central committees. The national party leader in the U.S. will be the president, if the party holds that office, or a prominent member of Congress in opposition (although a big-state governor may aspire to that role). Officially, each party has a chairman for its national committee who is a prominent spokesman, organizer and fund-raiser, but without the status of prominent elected office holders.

Question: Do political parties have a Party leader?
Answer: A political party is typically led by a party leader

Question: Who maintains the daily work and records of party meetings?
Answer: party secretary

Question: Who is responsible for the membership fees and expenses? 
Answer: party treasurer

Question: Who is responsible for recruiting and maintaining party members?
Answer: party chair
Political_party

When the party is represented by members in the lower house of parliament, the party leader simultaneously serves as the leader of the parliamentary group of that full party representation; depending on a minimum number of seats held, Westminster-based parties typically allow for leaders to form frontbench teams of senior fellow members of the parliamentary group to serve as critics of aspects of government policy. When a party becomes the largest party not part of the Government, the party's parliamentary group forms the Official Opposition, with Official Opposition frontbench team members often forming the Official Opposition Shadow cabinet. When a party achieves enough seats in an election to form a majority, the party's frontbench becomes the Cabinet of government ministers.

Question: When does a party form an official opposition?
Answer: When a party becomes the largest party not part of the Government

Question: What type of parties allow leaders to form frontbench teams?
Answer: Westminster-based parties

Question: When does a party's frontbench become the Cabinet of government ministers?
Answer: When a party achieves enough seats in an election to form a majority

Question: If a party is represented by members from the lower house of parliament, what other position can the party leader serve?
Answer: leader of the parliamentary group of that full party representation
Political_party

The freedom to form, declare membership in, or campaign for candidates from a political party is considered a measurement of a state's adherence to liberal democracy as a political value. Regulation of parties may run from a crackdown on or repression of all opposition parties, a norm for authoritarian governments, to the repression of certain parties which hold or promote ideals which run counter to the general ideology of the state's incumbents (or possess membership by-laws which are legally unenforceable).

Question: What is considered a measurement of a state's support to liberal democracy?
Answer: The freedom to form, declare membership in, or campaign for

Question: How are parties regulated?
Answer: a crackdown on or repression of all opposition parties

Question: Will parties that hold a counter belief to the general beliefs of the state's incumbents be repressed?
Answer: to the repression of certain parties which hold or promote ideals which run counter to the general ideology of the state's incumbents
Political_party

Furthermore, in the case of far-right, far-left and regionalism parties in the national parliaments of much of the European Union, mainstream political parties may form an informal cordon sanitarian which applies a policy of non-cooperation towards those "Outsider Parties" present in the legislature which are viewed as 'anti-system' or otherwise unacceptable for government. Cordon Sanitarian, however, have been increasingly abandoned over the past two decades in multi-party democracies as the pressure to construct broad coalitions in order to win elections – along with the increased willingness of outsider parties themselves to participate in government – has led to many such parties entering electoral and government coalitions.

Question: Will mainstream political parties not cooperate towards outsider parties if they are too extream?
Answer: mainstream political parties may form an informal cordon sanitarian which applies a policy of non-cooperation towards those "Outsider Parties"

Question: which  outsider parties considered unacceptable to work with?
Answer: far-right, far-left and regionalism

Question: What has been increasingly abandoned in the past two decades?
Answer: Cordon Sanitarian
Political_party

In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist, sometimes reflecting legal restrictions on political parties. In nonpartisan elections, each candidate is eligible for office on his or her own merits. In nonpartisan legislatures, there are no typically formal party alignments within the legislature. The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan. Washington also warned against political parties during his Farewell Address. In the United States, the unicameral legislature of Nebraska is nonpartisan but is elected and votes on informal party lines. In Canada, the territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are nonpartisan. In New Zealand, Tokelau has a nonpartisan parliament. Many city and county governments[vague] are nonpartisan. Nonpartisan elections and modes of governance are common outside of state institutions. Unless there are legal prohibitions against political parties, factions within nonpartisan systems often evolve into political parties.

Question: Do official political parties exist in a nonpartisan system?
Answer: In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist

Question: Was the administration of George Washington nonpartisan?
Answer: The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan.

Question: What did Washington warn against during his farewell address?
Answer: political parties

Question: What do factions within nonpartisan systems evolve into?
Answer: political parties
Political_party

In one-party systems, one political party is legally allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties may sometimes be allowed, they are legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party. This party may not always be identical to the government, although sometimes positions within the party may in fact be more important than positions within the government. North Korea and China are examples; others can be found in Fascist states, such as Nazi Germany between 1934 and 1945. The one-party system is thus usually equated with dictatorships and tyranny.

Question: In what systems is the political party allowed to legally hold effective power?
Answer: one-party systems

Question: What are North Korea and China examples of?
Answer: positions within the party may in fact be more important than positions within the government

Question: When was Nazi Germany in a one-party system?
Answer: 1934 and 1945

Question: What is the one-party system often compared with?
Answer: dictatorships and tyranny