nc33/MultiSpan_SQUAD huggingface dataset:
Multiracial_American

For African Americans, the one-drop rule was a significant factor in ethnic solidarity. African Americans generally shared a common cause in society regardless of their multiracial admixture, or social/economic stratification. Additionally, African Americans found it, near, impossible to learn about their Indigenous American heritage as many family elders withheld pertinent genealogical information. Tracing the genealogy of African Americans can be a very difficult process, especially for descendants of Indigenous Americans, because African Americans who were slaves were forbidden to learn to read and write, and a majority of Indigenous Americans neither spoke English, nor read or wrote it.

Question: What brought African Americans together?
Answer: the one-drop rule

Question: Who made it next to impossible to learn about their heritage for African Americans?
Answer: family elders

Question: Slaves were not allowed to do what?
Answer: to learn to read and write

Question: What did Indigenous Americans not do that makes it difficult to trace their heritage?
Answer: spoke English, nor read or wrote it

Question: What factors did not affect racial solidarity amoung African Americans?
Answer: their multiracial admixture, or social/economic stratification
Multiracial_American

The figure of the "tragic octoroon" was a stock character of abolitionist literature: a mixed-race woman raised as if a white woman in her white father's household, until his bankruptcy or death has her reduced to a menial position She may even be unaware of her status before being reduced to victimization. The first character of this type was the heroine of Lydia Maria Child's "The Quadroons" (1842), a short story. This character allowed abolitionists to draw attention to the sexual exploitation in slavery and, unlike portrayals of the suffering of the field hands, did not allow slaveholders to retort that the sufferings of Northern mill hands were no easier. The Northern mill owner would not sell his own children into slavery.

Question: What stock character lived with her white father until he left the picture?
Answer: "tragic octoroon"

Question: Who was the first to use the tragic octoroon?
Answer: Lydia Maria Child

Question: What story was written by Child in 1842?
Answer: "The Quadroons"

Question: What does the tragic octoroon point out?
Answer: sexual exploitation in slavery

Question: Who used the figure of the tragic octoroon?
Answer: abolitionists
Pharmaceutical_industry

By the 1890s the profound effect of adrenal extracts on many different tissue types had been discovered, setting off a search both for the mechanism of chemical signalling and efforts to exploit these observations for the development of new drugs. The blood pressure raising and vasoconstrictive effects of adrenal extracts were of particular interest to surgeons as hemostatic agents and as treatment for shock, and a number of companies developed products based on adrenal extracts containing varying purities of the active substance. In 1897 John Abel of Johns Hopkins University identified the active principle as epinephrine, which he isolated in an impure state as the sulfate salt. Industrial chemist Jokichi Takamine later developed a method for obtaining epinephrine in a pure state, and licensed the technology to Parke Davis. Parke Davis marketed epinephrine under the trade name Adrenalin. Injected epinephrine proved to be especially efficacious for the acute treatment of asthma attacks, and an inhaled version was sold in the United States until 2011 (Primatene Mist). By 1929 epinephrine had been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion.

Question: Who identified the active substance?
Answer: John Abel

Question: Who developed the method to obtain epinephrine in a pure state?
Answer: Jokichi Takamine

Question: Who marketed epinephrine?
Answer: Parke Davis

Question: What trade name was epinephrine marketed under?
Answer: Adrenalin

Question: As an inhaler, what was epinephrine used to treat?
Answer: nasal congestion

Question: Who developed the method to get epinephrine in it's pure form?
Answer: Jokichi Takamine

Question: What could epinephrine treat?
Answer: nasal congestion

Question: When did epinephrine stop being available in the United States?
Answer: 2011

Question: What trade name was epinephrine marketed under?
Answer: Adrenalin

Question: In what year was epinephrine discovered?
Answer: 1897

Question: What was the trade name of epinephrine?
Answer: Adrenalin

Question: Who first discovered epinephrine?
Answer: John Abel

Question: What is epinephrine used to treat?
Answer: asthma attacks

Question: In what year was Primatene Mist no longer sold in the United States?
Answer: 2011
Pharmaceutical_industry

While highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of norepinephrine[clarification needed] and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant and marketed by Eli Lilly as an oral treatment for asthma. Following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of exhilaration and palpitations. Amphetamine was developed by Smith, Kline and French as a nasal decongestant under the trade name Benzedrine Inhaler. Amphetamine was eventually developed for the treatment of narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications. It received approval as a New and Nonofficial Remedy from the American Medical Association for these uses in 1937 and remained in common use for depression until the development of tricyclic antidepressants in the 1960s.

Question: Who developed Amphetamine?
Answer: Smith, Kline and French

Question: Who synthesized Amphetamine for asthma?
Answer: Gordon Alles

Question: What are common side effects of Amphetamine?
Answer: sensations of exhilaration and palpitations

Question: When were tricyclic antidepressants developed?
Answer: 1960s

Question: What were some uses for Amphetamine?
Answer: narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications

Question: Ephedrine was used as an oral medicine for what illness?
Answer: asthma

Question: In what year was amphetamine first tested on asthma patients?
Answer: 1929

Question: What was the trade name of amphetamine as a nasal decongestant?
Answer: Benzedrine Inhaler

Question: In what year did the American Medical Association approve amphetamine for medical use?
Answer: 1937

Question: In what decade were tricyclic antidepressants created?
Answer: 1960s
Pharmaceutical_industry

A series of experiments performed from the late 1800s to the early 1900s revealed that diabetes is caused by the absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas. In 1869, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering found that diabetes could be induced in dogs by surgical removal of the pancreas. In 1921, Canadian professor Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best repeated this study, and found that injections of pancreatic extract reversed the symptoms produced by pancreas removal. Soon, the extract was demonstrated to work in people, but development of insulin therapy as a routine medical procedure was delayed by difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity. The researchers sought assistance from industrial collaborators at Eli Lilly and Co. based on the company's experience with large scale purification of biological materials. Chemist George Walden of Eli Lilly and Company found that careful adjustment of the pH of the extract allowed a relatively pure grade of insulin to be produced. Under pressure from Toronto University and a potential patent challenge by academic scientists who had independently developed a similar purification method, an agreement was reached for non-exclusive production of insulin by multiple companies. Prior to the discovery and widespread availability of insulin therapy the life expectancy of diabetics was only a few months.

Question: What is diabetes caused from?
Answer: absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas

Question: Why was insulin therapy delayed?
Answer: difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity

Question: How can diabetes be induced in dogs?
Answer: surgical removal of the pancreas

Question: Before insulin, what was the life expectancy of diabetics?
Answer: only a few months

Question: Who discovered that pancreatic extract reversed symptoms of pancreas removal?
Answer: Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best

Question: Diabetes is caused by the removal of what organ?
Answer: pancreas

Question: Left untreated, how long were diabetic patients were expected to live?
Answer: a few months

Question: What could be adjusted in a sample of pancreatic extract to produce purer insulin?
Answer: pH

Question: To purify insulin, Banting and Best sought the assistance of what company?
Answer: Eli Lilly and Co.

Question: Minkowski and von Mering did surgical tests on what animal?
Answer: dogs
Pharmaceutical_industry

In 1903 Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering disclosed their discovery that diethylbarbituric acid, formed from the reaction of diethylmalonic acid, phosphorus oxychloride and urea, induces sleep in dogs. The discovery was patented and licensed to Bayer pharmaceuticals, which marketed the compound under the trade name Veronal as a sleep aid beginning in 1904. Systematic investigations of the effect of structural changes on potency and duration of action led to the discovery of phenobarbital at Bayer in 1911 and the discovery of its potent anti-epileptic activity in 1912. Phenobarbital was among the most widely used drugs for the treatment of epilepsy through the 1970s, and as of 2014, remains on the World Health Organizations list of essential medications. The 1950s and 1960s saw increased awareness of the addictive properties and abuse potential of barbiturates and amphetamines and led to increasing restrictions on their use and growing government oversight of prescribers. Today, amphetamine is largely restricted to use in the treatment of attention deficit disorder and phenobarbital in the treatment of epilepsy.

Question: What is phenobarbital used for?
Answer: epilepsy

Question: Who discovered a reaction that induced sleep in dogs?
Answer: Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering

Question: What sleep aid was marketed in 1904?
Answer: Veronal

Question: What is amphetamine used for today?
Answer: attention deficit disorder

Question: Why was barbiturates and amphetamines restricted?
Answer: addictive properties and abuse potential

Question: What compound was discovered to induce sleep?
Answer: diethylbarbituric acid

Question: What was the first trade name of diethylbarbituric acid?
Answer: Veronal

Question: What is phenobarbital mainly used to treat today?
Answer: epilepsy

Question: In what year was phenobarbital discovered?
Answer: 1911

Question: What was Veronal used for when Bayer put it on the market?
Answer: sleep aid
Pharmaceutical_industry

In 1911 arsphenamine, the first synthetic anti-infective drug, was developed by Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim of the Institute of Experimental Therapy in Berlin. The drug was given the commercial name Salvarsan. Ehrlich, noting both the general toxicity of arsenic and the selective absorption of certain dyes by bacteria, hypothesized that an arsenic-containing dye with similar selective absorption properties could be used to treat bacterial infections. Arsphenamine was prepared as part of a campaign to synthesize a series of such compounds, and found to exhibit partially selective toxicity. Arsphenamine proved to be the first effective treatment for syphilis, a disease which prior to that time was incurable and led inexorably to severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death.[citation needed]

Question: Who developed Arsphenamine?
Answer: Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim

Question: What was the first effective treatment for Syphilis?
Answer: Arsphenamine

Question: What complications are associated with Syphilis?
Answer: severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death

Question: What is Amphetamine's market name?
Answer: Institute of Experimental Therapy

Question: Where is the Institute of Experimental Therapy located?
Answer: Berlin

Question: Bacterial infections could be treated with medicines containing what kind of dye?
Answer: arsenic

Question: What was the name of the first synthetic bacterial drug?
Answer: arsphenamine

Question: Arsphenamine became the first treatment for what previously incurable disease?
Answer: syphilis

Question: In what year was arsphenamine discovered?
Answer: 1911

Question: What was the commercial name of arsphenamine?
Answer: Salvarsan
Pharmaceutical_industry

The modern pharmaceutical industry traces its roots to two sources. The first of these were local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid 1800s. Rational drug discovery from plants started particularly with the isolation of morphine, analgesic and sleep-inducing agent from opium, by the German apothecary assistant Friedrich Sertürner, who named the compound after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus. Multinational corporations including Merck, Hoffman-La Roche, Burroughs-Wellcome (now part of Glaxo Smith Kline), Abbott Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Upjohn (now part of Pfizer) began as local apothecary shops in the mid-1800s. By the late 1880s, German dye manufacturers had perfected the purification of individual organic compounds from coal tar and other mineral sources and had also established rudimentary methods in organic chemical synthesis. The development of synthetic chemical methods allowed scientists to systematically vary the structure of chemical substances, and growth in the emerging science of pharmacology expanded their ability to evaluate the biological effects of these structural changes.

Question: When was Morphine and Quinine first available?
Answer: mid 1800s

Question: Who was the compound named after?
Answer: Morpheus

Question: Who came up with the name Morphine?
Answer: Friedrich Sertürner

Question: Where were was Morphine extracted from?
Answer: opium

Question: Who is responsible for purification of compounds found in mineral sources?
Answer: German dye manufacturers

Question: Morphine was named after what Greek god?
Answer: Morpheus

Question: Burroughs-Wellcome is now part of what medical company?
Answer: Glaxo Smith Kline

Question: Who discovered morphine?
Answer: Friedrich Sertürner

Question: What is the name of the plant that produces morphine?
Answer: opium
Pharmaceutical_industry

Ehrlich’s approach of systematically varying the chemical structure of synthetic compounds and measuring the effects of these changes on biological activity was pursued broadly by industrial scientists, including Bayer scientists Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk. This work, also based in the testing of compounds available from the German dye industry, led to the development of Prontosil, the first representative of the sulfonamide class of antibiotics. Compared to arsphenamine, the sulfonamides had a broader spectrum of activity and were far less toxic, rendering them useful for infections caused by pathogens such as streptococci. In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery. Nonetheless, the dramatic decrease in deaths from infectious diseases that occurred prior to World War II was primarily the result of improved public health measures such as clean water and less crowded housing, and the impact of anti-infective drugs and vaccines was significant mainly after World War II.

Question: Who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1939?
Answer: Gerhard Domagk

Question: Prontosil is in what drug class?
Answer: antibiotics

Question: Who is responsible for creating Prontosil?
Answer: Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk

Question: What causes Streptococci?
Answer: pathogens

Question: Many deaths occurred before World War II due to what?
Answer: infectious diseases

Question: What was the name of the first sulfonamine antibiotic?
Answer: Prontosil

Question: What award did Domagk receive in 1939?
Answer: Nobel Prize in Medicine

Question: Anti-infective drugs became more prominent after what war?
Answer: World War II

Question: Were sulfonamides more or less toxic than arsphenamine?
Answer: less

Question: Streptococci and other pathogens could be treated by what type of antibiotics?
Answer: sulfonamides
Pharmaceutical_industry

Early progress toward the development of vaccines occurred throughout this period, primarily in the form of academic and government-funded basic research directed toward the identification of the pathogens responsible for common communicable diseases. In 1885 Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux created the first rabies vaccine. The first diphtheria vaccines were produced in 1914 from a mixture of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin (produced from the serum of an inoculated animal), but the safety of the inoculation was marginal and it was not widely used. The United States recorded 206,000 cases of diphtheria in 1921 resulting in 15,520 deaths. In 1923 parallel efforts by Gaston Ramon at the Pasteur Institute and Alexander Glenny at the Wellcome Research Laboratories (later part of GlaxoSmithKline) led to the discovery that a safer vaccine could be produced by treating diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde. In 1944, Maurice Hilleman of Squibb Pharmaceuticals developed the first vaccine against Japanese encephelitis. Hilleman would later move to Merck where he would play a key role in the development of vaccines against measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and meningitis.

Question: Who created the first rabies vaccine?
Answer: Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux

Question: How many cases of Diphtheria were there in 1921?
Answer: 206,000

Question: In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat Diphtheria Toxin?
Answer: formaldehyde

Question: Who created a vaccine to treat Japanese Encephalitis?
Answer: Maurice Hilleman

Question: How many deaths occurred due to Diphtheria?
Answer: 15,520

Question: The rabies vaccine was created in what year?
Answer: 1885

Question: In what year was the diphtheria vaccine made?
Answer: 1914

Question: What compound made the diphtheria vaccine safer to use?
Answer: formaldehyde

Question: Who developed the first encephalitis vaccine? 
Answer: Maurice Hilleman

Question: What company did Hilleman later work for?
Answer: Merck
Pharmaceutical_industry

In 1937 over 100 people died after ingesting "Elixir Sulfanilamide" manufactured by S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee. The product was formulated in diethylene glycol, a highly toxic solvent that is now widely used as antifreeze. Under the laws extant at that time, prosecution of the manufacturer was possible only under the technicality that the product had been called an "elixir", which literally implied a solution in ethanol. In response to this episode, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which for the first time required pre-market demonstration of safety before a drug could be sold, and explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims.

Question: Who manufactured "Elixir Sulfanilamide"?
Answer: S.E. Massengill Company

Question: What was one of the things the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act do?
Answer: explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims

Question: What year did Congress pass the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act?
Answer: 1938

Question: What drug killed 100 people in 1937?
Answer: Elixir Sulfanilamide

Question: What is Diethylene Glycol commonly used for now?
Answer: antifreeze

Question: What company manufactured Elixir Sulfanilamide? 
Answer: S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee

Question: What drug killed over 100 people in 1937?
Answer: Elixir Sulfanilamide

Question: Diethylene glycol is mainly used today as what liquid?
Answer: antifreeze

Question: What law did Congress pass following the Elixir Sulfanilamide incident?
Answer: Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938

Question: The name "elixir" implied a solution in what liquid?
Answer: ethanol
Pharmaceutical_industry

The aftermath of World War II saw an explosion in the discovery of new classes of antibacterial drugs including the cephalosporins (developed by Eli Lilly based on the seminal work of Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham), streptomycin (discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory), the tetracyclines (discovered at Lederle Laboratories, now a part of Pfizer), erythromycin (discovered at Eli Lilly and Co.) and their extension to an increasingly wide range of bacterial pathogens. Streptomycin, discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory at Rutgers in 1943, became the first effective treatment for tuberculosis. At the time of its discovery, sanitoriums for the isolation of tuberculosis-infected people were an ubiquitous feature of cities in developed countries, with 50% dying within 5 years of admission.

Question: When was the first effective treatment for Tuberculosis discovered?
Answer: 1943

Question: 50% of tuberculosis-infected people died within 5 years where?
Answer: cities in developed countries

Question: What drug effectively treated Tuberculosis?
Answer: Streptomycin

Question: Who was Eli Lilly's work based off of?
Answer: Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham

Question: Where was Tetracyclines discovered?
Answer: Lederle Laboratories

Question: What was the first treatment for tuberculosis?
Answer: Streptomycin

Question: What percentage of patients infected with tuberculosis died within 5 years?
Answer: 50%

Question: In what year was streptomycin discovered?
Answer: 1943

Question: Many more antibiotics were made following the end of what war?
Answer: World War II

Question: What company funded the research that led to the discovery of streptomycin?
Answer: Merck