ភាសាសាស្ត្រ: Structures

Structures
Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form.  Any particular pairing of meaning and form is a Saussurean sign.  For instance, the meaning "cat" is represented worldwide with a wide variety of different sound patterns (in oral languages), movements of the hands and face (in sign languages), and written symbols (in written languages).

Linguists focusing on structure attempt to understand the rules regarding language use that native speakers know (not always consciously).  All linguistic structures can be broken down into component parts that are combined according to (sub)conscious rules, over multiple levels of analysis.  For instance, consider the structure of the word "tenth" on two different levels of analysis.  On the level of internal word structure (known as morphology), the word "tenth" is made up of one linguistic form indicating a number and another form indicating ordinality.  The rule governing the combination of these forms ensures that the ordinality marker "th" follows the number "ten."  On the level of sound structure (known as phonology), structural analysis shows that the "n" sound in "tenth" is made differently from the "n" sound in "ten" spoken alone.  Although most speakers of English are consciously aware of the rules governing internal structure of the word pieces of "tenth", they are less often aware of the rule governing its sound structure.  Linguists focused on structure find and analyse rules such as these, which govern how native speakers use language.

Linguistics has many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure. The theory that elucidates on these, as propounded by Noam Chomsky, is known as generative theory or universal grammar. These sub-fields range from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning. They also run the gamut of level of analysis of language, from individual sounds, to words, to phrases, up to cultural discourse.

Grammar

Sub-fields that focus on a grammatical study of language include the following.

 Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech sound production and perception
 Phonology, the study of sounds as abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning (phonemes)
 Morphology, the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words and how they can be modified
 Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical phrases and sentences
 Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
 Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning
 Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)
 Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a discourse in context
 Semiotics, the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication.

Style
Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts for aspects of their linguistic and tonal style. Stylistic analysis entails the analysis of description of particular dialects and registers used by speech communities. Stylistic features include rhetoric, diction, stress, satire, irony, dialogue, and other forms of phonetic variations. Stylistic analysis can also include the study of language in canonical works of literature, popular fiction, news, advertisements, and other forms of communication in popular culture as well. It is usually seen as a variation in communication that changes from speaker to speaker and community to community. In short, Stylistics is the interpretation of text.