navinnseab/khmer-wikipedia-article huggingface dataset:
រាជវង្សហាន: Clothing

Clothing

The types of clothing worn and the materials used during the Han period depended upon social class. Wealthy folk could afford silk robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats made of badger or fox fur, duck plumes, and slippers with inlaid leather, pearls, and silk lining. Peasants commonly wore clothes made of hemp, wool, and ferret skins.Wang (1982), 53, 59–63, 206; Loewe (1968), 139; Ch'ü (1972), 128.
រាជវង្សហាន: Local government

Local government
thumb|upright|A pottery dog found in a Han tomb wearing a decorative dog collar, indicating their domestication as pets,Wang (1982), 57, 203. while it is known from written sources that the emperor's imperial parks had kennels for hunting dogs.Bielenstein (1980), 83.

In descending order of size, the Han Empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates, was divided into political units of provinces (zhou), commanderies (jun), and counties (xian).de Crespigny (2007), 1228. A county was divided into several districts, the latter composed of a group of hamlets, each containing about a hundred families.Bielenstein (1980), 103.Nishijima (1986), 551–552.

The heads of provinces, whose official title was changed from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations.Bielenstein (1980), 90–92; Wang (1949), 158–160. On the basis of their reports, the officials in these local administrations would be promoted, demoted, dismissed or prosecuted by the imperial court.Bielenstein (1980), 91.

A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.

A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an Administrator. He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defense, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system first established by Emperor Wu.de Crespigny (2007), 1230–1231; Bielenstein (1980), 96; Hsu (1965), 367–368. The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called Chiefs, and both could be referred to as Magistrates.de Crespigny (2007), 1230; Bielenstein (1980), 100. A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual corvée duties, repaired schools and supervised public works.Bielenstein (1980), 100.
រាជវង្សហាន: Kingdoms and marquessates

Kingdoms and marquessates

Kingdoms—roughly the size of commanderies—were ruled exclusively by the emperor's male relatives as semi-autonomous fiefdoms. Before 157 BC some kingdoms were ruled by non-relatives, granted to them in return for their services to Emperor Gaozu. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government.Hsu (1965), 360; Bielenstein (1980), 105–106; Loewe (1986), 126. Although the emperor appointed the Chancellor of each kingdom, kings appointed all the remaining civil officials in their fiefs.Hsu (1965), 360; Bielenstein (1980), 105–106.

However, in 145 BC, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials with salaries higher than 400-dan.Bielenstein (1980), 105–106. The Imperial Counselors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government.

With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal heads of their fiefs, gaining a personal income from only a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom.Chü (1972), 76. Similarly, the officials in the administrative staff of a full marquess's fief were appointed by the central government. A marquess's Chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county Prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income.Crespigny (2007), 1230; Bielenstein (1980), 108.

thumb|upright|An Eastern-Han pottery soldier, with a now-faded coating of paint, is missing a weapon.
រាជវង្សហាន: Military

Military
At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into the military. The minimum age for the military draft was reduced to twenty after Emperor Zhao's (r. 87–74 BC) reign.Chang (2007), 70–71 Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was served in one of three branches of the armed forces: infantry, cavalry or navy.Nishijima (1986), 599; Bielenstein (1980), 114. The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital. A small professional (paid) standing army was stationed near the capital.

During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a volunteer army.de Crespigny (2007), 564–565, 1234. The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun 南軍), while the standing army stationed in and near the capital was the Northern Army (Beijun 北軍).Bielenstein (1980), 114–115. Led by Colonels (Xiaowei 校尉), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers.de Crespigny (2007), 1234; Bielenstein (1980), 117–118. When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops (buqu 部曲).Ch'ü (1972), 132–133.

During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a General (Jiangjun 將軍) led a division, which was divided into regiments led by Colonels and sometimes Majors (Sima 司馬). Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains. Platoons were the smallest units of soldiers.de Crespigny (2007), 1234; Bielenstein (1980), 116, 120–122.
រាជវង្សហាន: Variations in currency

Variations in currency
thumb|A wushu (五銖) coin issued during the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), 25.5 mm in diameter

The Han dynasty inherited the ban liang coin type from the Qin. In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu closed the government mint in favor of private minting of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BC by his widow Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC), who abolished private minting.Nishijima (1986), 586. In 182 BC, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread inflation that was not reduced until 175 BC when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely 2.6 g (0.09 oz) in weight.

In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.Nishijima (1986), 586–587. Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wushu (五銖) coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz).Nishijima (1986), 587. The wushu became China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu.Ebrey (1986), 609; Bielenstein (1986), 232–233; Nishijima (1986), 587–588.

Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113 BC. This Central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han.Nishijima (1986), 587–588; Bielenstein (1980), 47, 83.
រាជវង្សហាន: Taxation and property

Taxation and property
Aside from the landowner's land tax paid in a portion of their crop yield, the poll tax and property taxes were paid in coin cash.Nishijima (1986), 600–601. The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins.Nishijima (1986), 598. The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BC to 5 AD, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year.Nishijima (1986), 588.

ការចរាចរយ៉ាងទូលំទូលាយនៃសាច់ប្រាក់កាក់បានអនុញ្ញាតឱ្យឈ្មួញជោគជ័យវិនិយោគប្រាក់លើដី ផ្តល់សិទ្ធិអំណាចដល់វណ្ណៈសង្គមដែលរដ្ឋាភិបាលប៉ុនប៉ងបង្ក្រាបតាមរយៈពន្ធពាណិជ្ជកម្ម និងអចលនទ្រព្យដ៏ធ្ងន់ធ្ងរ។Nishijima (1986), 601. អធិរាជ វូ ថែមទាំងបានអនុម័តច្បាប់ដែលហាមឃាត់ឈ្មួញដែលបានចុះបញ្ជីមិនឲ្យកាន់កាប់ដី ប៉ុន្តែឈ្មួញដែលមានអំណាចអាចជៀសវាងការចុះបញ្ជី និងកាន់កាប់ដីធំៗបាន។Nishijima (1986), 577; Ch'ü (1972), 113–114.

The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords.Nishijima (1986), 558–601; Ebrey (1974), 173 174; Ebrey (1999), 74–75. The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover from their debts.Ebrey (1999), 75; Ebrey (1986), 619–621.

In 168 BC, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth,Loewe (1986), 149–150; Nishijima (1986), 596–598. and later to a one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.Nishijima (1986), 596–598.

The labor tax took the form of conscripted labor for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labor became more popular.Nishijima (1986), 599; de Crespigny (2007), 564–565.
រាជវង្សហាន: Private manufacture and government monopolies

Private manufacture and government monopolies
thumb|A Han-dynasty iron Ji (halberd) and iron dagger

In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue.Needham (1986c), 22; Nishijima (1986), 583–584. To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the monopolies.Nishijima (1986), 584; Wagner (2001), 1–2; Hinsch (2002), 21–22. By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.Nishijima (1986), 584; Wagner (2001), 15–17.

Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every 0.2 L (0.05 gallons) was levied for those who traded it privately.Nishijima (1986), 600; Wagner (2001), 13–14. By 110 BC Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government-stored grain at a lower price than demanded by merchants.Ebrey (1999), 75. Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.de Crespigny (2007), 605.
រាជវង្សហាន: Writing materials

Writing materials
Typical ancient Chinese writing materials were bronzewares and animal bones. By the beginning of the Han dynasty, the chief writing materials were clay tablets, silk cloth, and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.Loewe (1968), 89, 94–95; Tom (1989), 99; Cotterell (2004), 11–13.

The oldest known Chinese piece of hard, hempen wrapping paper dates to the 2nd century BC. The standard papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun (50–121 AD) in 105 AD.Buisseret (1998), 12; Needham and Tsien (1986), 1–2, 40–41, 122–123, 228; Day and McNeil (1996), 122. The oldest known surviving piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han watchtower that had been abandoned in 110 AD, in Inner Mongolia.Cotterell (2004), 11.
រាជវង្សហាន: Metallurgy and agriculture

Metallurgy and agriculture
Evidence suggests that blast furnaces, that convert raw iron ore into pig iron, which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron by means of a cold blast and hot blast, were operational in China by the late Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC).Wagner (2001), 7, 36–37, 64–68, 75–76; Pigott (1999), 183–184. The bloomery was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing decarburization.Pigott (1999), 177, 191. Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a fining process.Wang (1982), 125; Pigott (1999), 186.

thumb|upright|left|A pair of Eastern-Han iron scissors

The Han-era Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and domestic wares.Wagner (1993), 336; Wang (1982), 103–105, 122–124. A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron seed drill, invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of casting seeds out by hand.Greenberger (2006), 12; Cotterell (2004), 24; Wang (1982), 54–55. The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man to control it, two oxen to pull it. It had three plowshares, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m2 (11.3 acres) of land in a single day.Nishijima (1986), 563–564; Ebrey (1986), 616–617.

To protect crops from wind and drought, the Grain Intendant Zhao Guo (趙過) created the alternating fields system (daitianfa 代田法) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons.Nishijima (1986), 561–563. Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it. Han farmers also used the pit field system (aotian 凹田) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain.Hinsch (2002), 67–68; Nishijima (1986), 564–566. In southern and small parts of central Han-era China, paddy fields were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the Huai River used transplantation methods of rice production.Nishijima (1986), 568–572.
រាជវង្សហាន: Mathematics

Mathematics
Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are the Book on Numbers and Computation, the Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Han-era mathematical achievements include solving problems with right-angle triangles, square roots, cube roots, and matrix methods,Dauben (2007), 212; Liu, Feng, Jiang, and Zheng (2003), 9–10. finding more accurate approximations for pi,Needham (1986a), 99–100; Berggren, Borwein and Borwein (2004), 27. providing mathematical proof of the Pythagorean theorem,Dauben (2007), 219–222; Needham (1986a), 22. use of the decimal fraction,Temple (1986), 139, 142–143 Gaussian elimination to solve linear equations,Shen, Crossley, and Lun (1999), 388; Straffin (1998), 166; Needham (1986a), 24–25, 121. and continued fractions to find the roots of equations.Temple (1986), 142.

One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements was the world's first use of negative numbers. Negative numbers first appeared in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art as black counting rods, where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods.Temple (1986), 141; Liu, Feng, Jiang, and Zheng (2003), 9–10. Negative numbers are used in the Bakhshali manuscript of ancient India, but its exact date of compilation is unknown.Teresi (2002), 65–66. Negative numbers were also used by the Greek mathematician Diophantus in about 275 AD, but were not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century AD.Temple (1986), 141.

thumb|left|A Han-dynasty era mold for making bronze gear wheels (Shanghai Museum)

The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. In musical tuning, Jing Fang (78–37 BC) realized that 53 perfect fifths was approximate to 31 octaves while creating a musical scale of 60 tones, calculating the difference at 177147⁄176776 (the same value of 53 equal temperament discovered by the German mathematician Nicholas Mercator [1620–1687], i.e. 353/284).McClain and Ming (1979), 212; Needham (1986b), 218–219.
រាជវង្សហាន: Astronomy

Astronomy
Mathematics were essential in drafting the astronomical calendar, a lunisolar calendar that used the Sun and Moon as time-markers throughout the year.Cullen (2006), 7; Lloyd (1996), 168. Use of the ancient Sifen calendar (古四分历), which measured the tropical year at 3651⁄4 days, was replaced in 104 BC with the Taichu calendar (太初历) that measured the tropical year at 365385⁄1539 days and the lunar month at 2943⁄81 days.Deng (2005), 67. However, Emperor Zhang later reinstated the Sifen calendar.de Crespigny (2007), 498.

Han Chinese astronomers made star catalogues and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky, including recording the 12 BC appearance of the comet now known as Halley's comet.Loewe (1994), 61, 69; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 173–175; Sun and Kristemaker (1997), 5, 21–23; Balchin (2003), 27.

Han-era astronomers adopted a geocentric model of the universe, theorizing that it was shaped like a sphere surrounding the earth in the center.Dauben (2007), 214; Sun and Kistemaker (1997), 62; Huang (1988), 64. They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that lunar eclipses occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth.Needham (1986a), 227, 414. Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the water cycle of the evaporation of water into clouds.Needham (1986a), 468.
រាជវង្សហាន: Cartography, ships, and vehicles

Cartography, ships, and vehicles
thumb|An early Western-Han silk map found in tomb 3 of Mawangdui, depicting the Kingdom of Changsha and Kingdom of Nanyue in southern China (note: the south direction is oriented at the top).
thumb|right|An Eastern-Han pottery ship model with a steering rudder at the stern and anchor at the bow

Evidence found in Chinese literature, and archaeological evidence, show that cartography existed in China before the Han.Hsu (1993), 90–93; Needham (1986a), 534–535. Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the Mawangdui Silk Texts in a 2nd-century-BC tomb.Hsu (1993), 90–93; Hansen (2000), 125. The general Ma Yuan created the world's first known raised-relief map from rice in the 1st century AD. This date could be revised if the tomb of Qin Shi Huang is excavated and the account in the Records of the Grand Historian concerning a model map of the empire is proven to be true.Temple (1986), 179.

Although the use of the graduated scale and grid reference for maps was not thoroughly described until the published work of Pei Xiu (224–271 AD), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century AD, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps.de Crespigny (2007), 1050; Hsu (1993), 90–93; Needham (1986a), 538–540; Nelson (1974), 359; Temple (1986), 30.

The Han-era Chinese sailed in a variety of ships differing from those of previous eras, such as the tower ship. The junk design was developed and realized during Han.  Junks featured a square-ended bow and stern, a flat-bottomed hull or carvel-shaped hull with no keel or sternpost, and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of structural ribs found in Western vessels.Turnbull (2002), 14; Needham (1986d), 390–391. Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a rudder at the stern, in contrast to the simpler steering oar used for riverine transport,  allowing them to sail on the high seas.Needham (1986d), 627–628; Chung (2005), 152; Tom (1989), 103–104; Adshead (2000), 156; Fairbank and Goldman (1998), 93; Block (2003), 93, 123.

Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in China, the wheelbarrow was first used in Han China in the 1st century BC.Needham (1986c), 263–267; Greenberger (2006), 13. Han artwork of horse-drawn chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the softer breast strap. Later, during the Northern Wei (386–534 AD), the fully developed horse collar was invented.Needham (1986c), 308–312, 319–323.
រាជវង្សហាន: Medicine

Medicine
Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. Each organ of the body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that qi or "vital energy" channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance.Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 181–182; Sun & Kistemaker (1997), 3–4; Hsu (2001), 75. For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase.Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 181–182. To this end, the physician Zhang Zhongjing (c. 150–c. 219 AD) prescribed regulated diets rich in certain foods that were thought to curb specific illnesses. These are now known to be nutrition disorders caused by the lack of certain vitamins consumed in one's diet.Temple (1986), 131. Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed moxibustion, acupuncture, and calisthenics as methods of maintaining one's health.de Crespigny (2007) 332; Omura (2003), 15, 19–22; Loewe (1994), 65; Lo (2001), 23. When surgery was performed by the physician Hua Tuo (d. 208 AD), he used anesthesia to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped the process of healing surgical wounds.Crespigny (2007), 332.
រាជវង្សហុងបាង

រាជវង្សហុងបាង (; យួន: Hồng Bàng) ក៏ត្រូវបានគេស្គាល់ថាជារាជវង្សឡាក់ដែរ គឺជារាជវង្សទីមួយដែលបានប៉ាន់ស្មានថាគ្រប់គ្រងប្រទេសវៀតណាម (ក្រោយមកទៀតបានស្គាល់ថាជាវ៉ាន់ឡាង) អស់រយៈពេលជាង២០០០ឆ្នាំ រហូតដល់សតវត្សទីបី ម.គ. ។ ស្ថាបនិករាជវង្សគឺត្រូវនិយាយថាជាហុង វឿង (Hùng Vương) ។ មានរឿងនិទានជាច្រើនដែលពាក់ព័ន្ធនឹងរាជវង្សនេះ ប៉ុន្តែព៌តមានខាងប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រអាចបញ្ជាក់បានមានតិចតួច ដែលប្រហែលជារាជវង្សនេះហើយ ។
រាជវង្សហុងបាង: តើវៀតណាមបង្កើតឡើងយ៉ាងដូចម្ដេចដែរ ?

តើវៀតណាមបង្កើតឡើងយ៉ាងដូចម្ដេចដែរ ? 
វៀតណាម ជាជាតិមួយតាំងនៅតាមបណ្ដោយឆ្នេរខាងកើតនៃដីដ៏ធំអាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍ មានប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រយូរលង់ និងច្របូកច្របល់ ។ ៥០០០ឆ្នាំកន្លងទៅហើយ  វៀតណាមខាងជើងគឺជាកន្លែងមួយដែលសំបូរដោយជួរភ្នំ ព្រៃ និងទន្លេបឹងបួរ ។ ប្រជាជនកាលពីសម័យបុរាណភាគច្រើនបានរស់នៅ ក្បែរៗទន្លេហុង និងទន្លេម៉ា ។