A฀ 7 H AT฀ ARE฀ @ MATTERS฀ RELATING฀ TO฀ CONTRACT฀ ' I V E N ฀ THE฀ D IF FERENCES฀ IN฀ -EMBER฀ 3TATES฀ NATIONAL฀ LAW฀ON฀ THE฀ P RE C I S E ฀ SCOPE฀OF฀ MATTERS฀ RELATING฀ TO฀ CONTRACT฀ FOR ฀EX A M P L E ฀ C U L P A฀ IN฀ CON T R A H E N DO฀ � ฀ P RE CONTRACTUAL฀ L I ABILITY฀ � ฀ IS฀REGARDED฀AS฀CONTRACTUAL฀IN฀SOME฀-EMBER฀3TATES฀BUT฀NON CONTRACTUAL฀ IN฀ O T H E R S ฀ THE฀ #OURT฀ OF฀ *USTICE฀ HAS฀ I D E N T I l E D ฀ THE฀ NEED฀ FOR฀ AN฀ INDEPENDENT฀ CON C EP T ฀ BUT฀ HAS฀ NOT฀ D E V E L OP E D ฀ A฀ HARD฀ AND฀ F A S T ฀DE l N I TION฀ 4HE฀ #OURT฀ HAS฀ TENDED฀ TO฀ A D D RE S S ฀ THE฀ PROBLEM฀ P R A G M A T I C AL L Y ฀ R U L ING฀ OUT฀ AS฀ A฀MATTER฀ OF฀COURSE฀ANY฀REFERENCE฀TO฀THE฀NATIONAL฀LAW฀OF฀THE฀3TATES฀CONCERNED฀AND฀ PROVIDING฀GUIDANCE฀FOR฀DETERMINING฀WHERE฀A฀CASE฀INVOLVES฀A฀CONTRACTUAL฀ OBLIGATION฀AND฀WHERE฀NO฀CONTRACT฀ IS฀ IN V O L V E D ฀ ฀ ! ฀ DIS P U T E ฀ AS฀ TO฀ THE฀ EXISTENCE฀OR฀THE฀VALIDITY฀OF฀A฀CONTRACT฀IS฀ALSO฀CONSIDERED฀TO฀BE฀A฀MATTER฀ RELATING฀ TO฀ CONTRACT฀ ฀ - O RE OVER฀ WHEN฀ AN฀ ACTION฀ IS฀ BASED฀ ON฀ BOTH฀ A฀ CLAIM฀ OF฀ B R EACH฀ OF฀ A฀ CONTRACTUAL฀ DUTY฀ AND฀ A฀ CLAIM฀ OF฀ TORT฀ NO฀ ANCILLARY฀ JURISDICTION฀ MAY฀ BE฀ A S S U M E D ฀ *U R I S DI C TION฀ FOR฀ THE฀ lRST฀ CLAIM฀ HAS฀ TO฀BE฀ DETERMINED฀BY฀REFERENCE฀TO฀!RTICLE฀ ฀AND฀FOR฀THE฀ SECOND฀ BY฀ REFERENCE฀ TO฀ !RTICLE฀ ฀ RE G A R D ING฀ TORT฀ EVEN฀ IF฀THIS฀ IN V O L V E S ฀ THE฀ P L A IN T IF F ฀ IN฀ BRINGING฀ TWO฀ A C T I O N S ฀ BEFORE฀ COURTS฀ IN฀ DIFFERENT฀ 3TATES฀ ฀ A฀ SITUATION฀ WHICH฀ CAN฀ALWAYS฀BE฀AVOIDED฀BY฀APPLYING฀THE฀GENERAL฀RULE฀THAT฀JURISDICTION฀IS฀ V E S T E D ฀ IN฀ THE฀COURTS฀OF฀ THE฀ D E FENDANTS฀ D O M I C I L E ฀
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