natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
By cultural learning, Vygotsky meant that cognitive and language development, in part, means being introduced to the cultural practices of the adult community and learning to use the cultural artifacts of the community, which in present day societies concern in particular higher order cognitive, math, literacy and language skills.
Zdaj razširjeni sistemi za ocenjevanje kakovosti, kot sta Revidirana lestvica za ocenjevanje okolij, v katerih se izvaja predšolska vzgoja (ECERS–R; Harms et al., 1998) in Opazovalna lestvica za ocenjevanje okolij, v katerih je organizirano varstvo otrok, (ORCE), ki jih uporabljajo v študiji Mreža zgodnjega otroškega varstva (NICHD) neposredno temeljijo na predstavljenih idejah (za primere glej Evropsko raziskavo z ECERS–R in ORCE, med drugim glej tudi Sylva et al., 2004; Tietze in Cryer, 1999, 2004; Vermeer et al., 2005).
Vygotskian theory inspired researchers to study children’s development as a process of acculturation (Rogoff, 2003).
Sedanje razprave: razvojno primerne prakse proti akademskim standardom
Important for the present debates about early childhood curricula are findings that young preprimary children are very keen in observing the everyday practices of the adults in their environments and are intrinsically driven to imitate them, for instance, in using literacy technologies.
Dozorevanje in konstruktivistične teorije še naprej navdihujejo ravnanje, osredinjeno na otroka, v katerem so igra, igranje s sovrstniki, samoiniciativno raziskovanje, učenje skozi raziskovanje in sodelovanje s sovrstniki glavni mehanizmi za spodbujanje razvoja in priprave na osnovno šolo.
The terms ‘emergent literacy’ and ‘emergent numeracy’ were coined to refer to the fact that young children spontaneously (but, of course, based on observing adults and stimulated by them) try to learn about print, try to read and write themselves, and try to count, group, measure and compare all kinds of objects.
Teorije učenja, ki izvirajo iz behaviorizma prve polovice prejšnjega stoletja in iz informacijsko procesnih teorij druge polovice prejšnjega stoletja, pa, nasprotno, poudarjajo pomen učiteljevega prenosa jezika in spoznavnih spretnosti.
Similarly, studies using naturalistic observations of child rearing practices in families, revealed that everyday conversations, shared book reading, story telling, play and problem-solving
Ta prenos je neposredno povezan s šolskim kurikulumom in pomeni bolj didaktično ravnanje (celo z zelo majhnimi otroki); uporablja metodo neposrednih navodil in nagrad, s katerimi se spodbuja proces otrokovega učenja v natančno razčlenjenem in načrtovanem »akademskem« kurikulumu. Programi predšolske vzgoje za otroke staršev z nizkimi
Findings like these are important to consider in regard of the continuing debate about what constitutes appropriate practice in early childhood care and education.
Dober zgled takega načina dela, z razmeroma dobrimi učinki na jezikovne in predpismene spretnosti, je poskus s »pošto«, raziskovalcev Neumana in Roskossa (1993).
Yet another line of scientific research gained major influence in early childhood care and education.
Poleg tega je mogoče zaznati približevanje k socialno-čustveni metodi, ki izvira iz teorije navezanosti. Danes velja, da so čustveno varni in stabilni socialni odnosi v predšolski vzgoji bistveni pogoj za zdrav razvoj in učinkovito učenje (Pianta et al., 1997; Hamre in Pianta, 2001; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2002). Zdrav (psihični) razvoj je deniran kot razvoj samoregulacije.
Maturation and constructivistic theories have continued to inspire childcentred approaches, in which play, peer-play, self-initiated exploration, discovery learning, and cooperative work with peers are seen as the prime mechanisms of development stimulation resulting in school readiness by the age of 6 or 7 years for most children.
Novo je soglasje – podpirajo ga raziskave otroškega razvoja in novi vpogledi v učenje kot dejavno, skozi kooperativne medčloveške odnose posredovano konstruktivno dejavnost, ki za vodenje in sodelovanje pri otroških igrah zahteva senzibilno-odzivne učitelje, – o konceptu »razvojno primerne prakse«, na kratko RPP, kakor je pojem skoval Bredekamp (1987).
Preprimary education programmes for low income and ethnic minority children working according to the learning approach, using direct academic instruction, have been reported to be rather effective in obtaining the cognitive and academic goals (e.g., Gersten et al., 1988; Schweinhart & Weikart, 1997). Nonetheless, the approach has been criticized for having negative effects in the socialemotional domain (see for instance Burts et al., 1992; Haskins, 1985; Stipek et al., 1995). In the present debate on early childhood education curricula, neither ‘pure’ maturation, constructivistic nor learning theories are prominent on the foreground.
Še več, pritisk ustvarjalcev politik, ki želijo takojšnje rezultate na lahko merljivih področjih, kot sta pismenost in matematika, ter vedno večje poudarjanje uporabnosti spodkopavajo razvojni model in vodijo v zniževanje akademskih meril (Dickinson, 2002; Marcon, 2002). Ta pritisk se zaradi strahu pred neuspehom čuti zlasti v programih za prikrajšane otroke staršev z nizkimi dohodki in otroke pripadnikov manjšin.
The consensus of the scientific community, as well as among many teachers, can be characterized as social-constructivistic, stressing the importance of children’s intrinsically motivated activity and initiative as the motor of development, but acknowledging at the same time that development does not take place in a cultural void but should be geared to culturally valued domains of knowledge and skills, much in the sense of Dewey and Fröbel.
Še pomembnejše pa so morda značilnosti strukturne kakovosti predšolske vzgoje in vzgojnega okolja. Razvojno primerna prepričanja in spretnosti učiteljev je teže udejanjiti v praksi, če okoliščine temu niso naklonjene – na primer, kadar je skupina prevelika in zahteva od učitelja preveč časa za njeno organiziranje in upravljanje. (glej 5. razdelek).
Early Childhood Education and Carein Europe: Tackling Social and Cultural Inequalities
Ocenjevanje kratkoročnih in dolgoročnih učinkov programa
The role of the teacher in socialconstructivism, therefore, is not confined to creating conditions for optimal, self-propelled development.
Za uspešnost razvojnega kurikuluma v primerjavi z didaktičnim ali akademskim je bistveno, ali se učinkovitost programa ocenjuje kratkoročno ali dolgoročno.
The teacher should also deliberately introduce children to cultural domains such as school (or ‘academic’) language, literacy, numeracy, math and science and should interact with children in order to scaffold their development in these domains.
Schweinhart in Weikart (1997) sta primerjala kurikulum High/Scope skupaj s kurikulumom didaktičnega programa in tradicionalnim programom, ki ga raziskovalci označujejo kot »laissez faire«, verjetno zaradi večinskega stališča učiteljev o dozorevanju.
Yet, the way in which should respect developmental and motivational principles, allowing children to take initiatives and to determine to a certain extent their own routes through the curriculum, using construction and symbolic pretend play, and collaborative work in small groups with authentic materials and tasks as main vehicles to stimulate development, again much in the spirit of the early pedagogues, especially Dewey.
Na kratko: kurikuluma didaktičnega in razvojno-konstruktivističnega programa High/Scope sta bila v grobem enako učinkovita na kognitivnem področju, vendar se je izkazalo, da ima kurikulum High/Scope dolgoročno dodatne pozitivne učinke: boljšo samoregulacijo, boljši odnos do dela, motiviranost, socialno in vedenjsko prilagoditev, kar daje v primerjavi z drugimi najboljše socialne rezultate v zgodnji odraslosti (na primer manj kriminala in večjo ekonomsko neodvisnost).
A nice example of this approach, with sizeable effects on language and pre-literacy skills, is the post office experiment by Neuman and Roskoss (1993), in which children playfully and intrinsically motivated learned about letters and the functions of literacy, acquired new vocabulary and world knowledge by playing for several consecutive weeks in the post office that was installed in the classroom.
Omenjeni socialni rezultati so podobni rezultatom predšolskega projekta Perry (Perry Preschool Project), predhodnika kurikuluma v projektu High/Sco-pe. Bodite pozorni na to, da je bil model »laissez faire« v vseh pogledih najmanj učinkovit.
In addition to this, there is also convergence with the socialemotional approach rooting in attachment theory.
Večina otrok, zajetih v študiji, je izhajala iz družin z nizkimi dohodki in priseljenskih družin.
The extensive set of principles and criteria of developmentally appropriate practice has been successfully used in the USA to evaluate practices in day care centres and preprimary schools, and to improve on structural and process quality, and is also adopted by the World Organisation for Early Childhood Education (OMEP), a non-governmental organisation with 60 member organisations from countries all over the world, including several European countries.
To prednost so ohranili do tretjega razreda (devetega leta). V tretjem razredu je prednost pri ohranjanju položaja ali številu napotitev v posebno izobraževanje izginila, v četrtem razredu (pri desetih letih) pa so otroci z izkušnjo mešanega modela in vzgoje, osredinjene na otroka, prve prehiteli pri številnih šolskih predmetih in povprečnem številu točk, čeprav je bila splošna velikost učinka majhna.
Yet, despite this consensus, early childhood care and education programmes still differ in emphasis and solutions to the problem of reconciling all concerns and satisfying all stakeholders.
Rezultati so nakazali relativno izgubo za otroke iz »akademskih« institucij na prehodu v četrti razred, ko so se pojavile povečane zahteve po samoregulaciji učenja in preusmeritev iz osnov branja, pisanja in matematike na razumevanje, sestavljanje in uvid.
In many countries, preprimary schools and kindergarten (for children over 34 years) are absorbed into the primary school system (see Chapter 3 on Access to early childhood education and care) and forced to help to meet the academic standards that are set for primary schools.
Marcon (2002) zato sklene, da so otroci iz mešanih in na otroka usmerjenih vrtcev očitno bolje pripravljeni na spopadanje z novimi izzivi v četrtem razredu.
Moreover, pressure by policy makers to produce immediate results in easy measurable domains as literacy and math, and the increasing emphasis on accountability are reported to undermine the developmental approach and to lead to an academic push-down (Dickinson, 2002; Marcon, 2002).
Tudi časovno usklajevanje je lahko pomembno – vzgojni programi, ki se ukvarjajo z zelo majhnimi otroki, to je, pred petim letom, morajo biti usmerjeni predvsem na otroka in njegov razvoj, programi za otroke med petim in šestim letom pa lahko vsebujejo akademske predmete v bolj načrtovanem kurikulumu, ki ga usmerja učitelj, ne da bi to imelo negativne socialno-čustvene posledice.
This pressure is especially felt in programmes that serve disadvantaged low income and minority children at risk of educational failure.
Pozornost, posvečena akademskim spretnostim po poprejšnjem prevladujočem razvojnem obdobju, v katerem so se spodbujale socialno-čustveno kompetence, ima lahko pri prehodu v primarno šolo celo pozitiven vpliv.
Perhaps even more important are the structural quality characteristics of early childhood education and care settings.
O dokazu za časovni učinek poroča Stipek et al.
Developmentally appropriate beliefs and skills of teachers may be difficult to put into practice if the circumstances are not favourable, for instance, if the group size is too big and the teacher is too much occupied with class management (see section 4).
(1998); primerjal je štiri skupine otrok, večinoma staršev z nizkimi dohodki in priseljencev, ki so bili od 3. do 5. leta v razvojno (v tej študiji označeno kot »socialno-čustveno«) ali akademsko usmerjenem vrtcu, pozneje, od 5. do 6. leta, pa so obiskovali razvojno ali akademsko usmerjeno pripravo na šolo. Rezultati študije so pokazali,
Chapter 1: The Impact of High Quality Education and Care on Young Children: Review of the Literature
Marconsova študija (2002) pa je pokazala, da so imeli ti programi rahlo boljši učinek pri otrokovi sposobnosti za reševanje problemov in pri jezikovnem razumevanju.
Crucial to the issue of developmental versus didactic or academic approaches to the early childhood curriculum, is whether programme effects are assessed in short or long term.
Vsi se ne strinjajo z razvojno primerno prakso ali natančneje, z njeno močno socialno-čustveno različico (v primerjavi z akademsko), saj dokazi zanjo niso čisto prepričljivi. Na primer van Horn et al.
Schweinhart and Weikart (1997) compared the High/Scope curriculum with a didactic basic skills oriented programme and a traditional approach, characterized by the researchers as ‘laissez faire’, probably because of a predominant maturation view of the teachers.
Po mnenju raziskovalcev imajo vse te študije hude metodološke pomanjkljivosti, kot so na primer vnaprej pripravljene podatkovne zbirke, ne da bi pri tem uporabili primerne statistične multinivojske analitične tehnike.
In short term, the didactic programme and the developmental-constructivist High/Scope curriculum were roughly equally effective in the cognitive domain, but in the long term additional advantages of the High/Scope curriculum became manifest: better self-regulation, work attitude, motivation, and social and behavioural adjustment, resulting in superior social outcomes (for instance, less crime, more economic independence) in early adulthood compared to the other approaches.
Simulacijske študije kažejo, da bi ob uporabi primerne analitične tehnike le redki izmed ugotovljenih pozitivnih učinkov na kognitivne in akademske spretnosti ostali statistično pomembni v primerjavi z akademsko ali didaktično vzgojo.
These later social outcomes are similar to the outcomes reported for the Perry Preschool Project, the predecessor of the High/Scope curriculum.
Morda je razvojno primerna praksa preveč preprost način označevanja izzivov predšolske vzgoje otrok staršev z nizkimi dohodki in otrok priseljencev.
Note that the ‘laissez faire’ model was least effective in all respects.
Dokazi kažejo, da je razvojni model najboljša možnost za najmlajše otroke, malo starejše predšolske otroke pa moramo postopno pripravljati na učne naloge, s katerimi se bodo morali spopasti v primarni šoli in jim tako omogočiti nemoten prestop v prvi razred.
Marcon (1999) compared three different preprimary approaches for their effect on children’s development and mastery of basic language, literacy and math skills at the end of preprimary school. The majority of the children involved in this study came from lowincome and minority families.
Akademsko usmerjenost na osnovne spretnosti (na primer glasoslovno ozaveščenost in poznavanje črk) lahko uvrstimo v kurikulum avtentičnih, igralnih dejavnosti, tudi v skupno branje in pogovarjanje z vzgojiteljico, kar dodatno spodbuja k širjenju besednega zaklada, razumevanju pogovora in razgledanosti (Dickinson et al., 2003).
The results revealed that children who attended a child-centred, developmental preprimary school, characterized by a strong emphasis on following children’s initiatives (‘DAP’), demonstrated greater mastery of basic skills at the end of preprimary school than did children in programmes where academics were emphasized and skills were directly taught (‘standards’, referring to the orientation on the learning standards of primary school).
Še več, v vseh primerih se zdijo bistveni pozitivno socialno-čustveno ozračje in čustveno varni ter stabilni odnosi z nevsiljivimi in senzibilno-odzivnimi (sensitive-responsive) vzgojitelji.
However, the advantage of childcentred over academic preprimary schools was small, and both programmes had far better results than a mixed model approach, that combined in a eclectic way elements of both approaches.
Nobenega vnaprejšnjega razloga nimamo za trditev, da uporaba avtentičnih dejavnosti, v katerih sodelujejo vzgojitelji, pri pridobivanju prvih šolskih spretnosti ne bi bila združljiva s pozitivnim socialno-čustvenim ozračjem (cf.
In a follow-up study an even more complex picture was found (Marcon, 2002).
Stipek et al., 1998, ki pride do istega sklepa).
Children who attended academic preprimary schools had better results in initial learning in grades 1 and 2, were less often retained (especially the boys) or referred to special education than children who were in the childcentred or mixed models.
Koristni razvojni učinki predšolske vzgoje in varstva za vse otroke, še posebej koristni kompenzacijski učinki za prikrajšane, temeljijo na odlični kakovosti – to je čustveno varnih, senzibilnih, podpornih, nevsiljivih, verbal-no-spodbujajočih in usmerjevalnih stikih med vzgojitelji in otroki.
This advantage was maintained until grade 3 (age 9).
Več, kot je tega, boljše je.
In grade 3 the advantage in retention and referral rates disappeared and in grade 4 (age 10) children with childcentred and mixed-model preprimary school experience outperformed children from academic preprimary schools in a broad range of school subjects and in Grade Point Average (GPA), although effect sizes were small in general.
Tu denirano zelo kakovostno vzajemno sodelovanje se pogosteje pojavlja v igralnicah z majhnim številom otrok na vzgojitelja in visoko izobraženimi ter posebno usposobljenimi vzgojitelji (Cost, Quality in Child Outcomes Study Team, 1995; Howes in Smith, 1995; NICHD ECCN, 2002; Phillips et al., 2000).
The results indicated a relative loss for the children from academic preprimary schools upon transition to grade 4, which in the USA system (as probably elsewhere) is characterized by increasing demands on self-regulated learning and by a shift in focus from the basics of reading, writing and math to comprehension, composition and insight.
Tudi večja plača vzgojiteljev ter v povezavi s tem manj menjavanja vzgojiteljskega osebja (kar je pomembno za stabilnost socialnih stikov in ohranjanje izkušenj ter strokovnega znanja) je povezana z boljšo procesno kakovostjo. Phillips et al.
Early Childhood Education and Carein Europe: Tackling Social and Cultural Inequalities directed curriculum without having negative socialemotional consequences.
Nekatere študije so pokazale, da je raven splošne izobrazbe in dodatna usposobljenost za vzgojo majhnih otrok povezana s procesno kakovostjo v skupini ter razvojnimi in akademskimi dosežki (za pregled študij glej Early et al., 2006, 2007).
A later emphasis on academic skills, after a predominantly developmental approach that focused on fostering of socialemotional competence, may even provide better support for the transition to primary school.
Na splošno velja soglasje, da morajo imeti vzgojitelji visokošolsko izobrazbo ter biti posebej usposobljeni za delo z dojenčki in malčki. Toda dokazi niso tako prepričljivi. Early et al.
(1998), who compared four groups of mainly lowincome and ethnic minority children who attended either a developmental (referred to as ‘socialemotional’ in this study) or a basic skills oriented preprimary school from age 3 to 5, and after preprimary school either a developmental or a basic skills oriented kindergarten from age 5 to 6, before starting in primary school.
(2006) je v obsežni ameriški večnacionalni, večkrajevni študiji ugotovil mešane učinke različnih ravni izobraženosti na »razredno« kakovost.
The results of the study indicated that a social-emotional, childcentred orientation in preprimary school in the first two years (up to age 5) was essential for positive developmental effects in both academic and socialemotional domains, regardless the type of kindergarten that was attended in the third year.
Vzgojitelji, ki so imeli podiplomsko izobrazbo (tj. magisterij in doktorat) so bili v razredu kakovostnejši kakor vzgojitelji z diplomsko izobrazbo, vendar pa ni bilo opaznih razlik v kakovosti med tistimi, ki so imeli diplomsko in srednješolsko izobrazbo.
However, an academic focus in kindergarten (age 5 to 6), that is, in the third year, after two years in a developmental socialemotional oriented preprimary school, had slightly better learning outcomes in several subjects in primary school and no detectable negative socialemotional outcomes compared to programmes with a continued socialemotional focus.
Podobno je veljalo za vzgojitelje dojenčkov in malčkov, saj je bila kakovost različna, kadar so imeli vzgojitelji nižjo splošno izobrazbo, vendar pa ni bilo nobene razlike v kakovosti med vzgojitelji, ki so imeli diplomsko ali podiplomsko izobrazbo.
The latter programmes, in turn, were slightly better with respect to problem solving and language comprehension, as in Marcon’s (2002) study.
Glede na otrokove akademske spretnosti so se za kakovostnejše izkazali vzgojitelji z diplomsko in podiplomsko izobrazbo, in sicer pri matematiki in reševanju problemov, ne pa pri jeziku in pismenosti.
Not everyone agrees with DAP, or, to be more precise, with the strong socialemotional (vs. academic) version of it.
Prvič, preostale strukturne značilnosti – na primer razmerje med številom odraslih in otrok na oddelek – so lahko pomembne, vendar pa niso močno povezane z izobrazbo ali usposobljenostjo vzgojitelja (za podoben argument glej tudi Early et al., 2007).
The evidence, taken together, is perhaps not overly convincing. For instance, van Horn et al.
Drugič, kot dodatek k izobrazbi številni vrtci ponujajo dodatno usposabljanje in supervizijo, zlasti za vzgojitelje z nižjo izobrazbo (Early et al., 2006).
(2005) criticize the studies that favour a developmentally appropriate approach to early childhood care and education following Bredekamp’s (1987) guidelines.
(2007) je v komentarju na podobne ugotovitve o učinkih vzgojiteljeve izobrazbe v sedmih drugih študijah v ZDA zapisal, da »na splošno (…) še vedno menimo, da bi morala biti izobrazba in usposabljanje vzgojiteljev enako pomembna kot sta za večino drugih poklicev«.
According to these researchers, all studies suffer from methodological flaws, such as working with nested datasets without using appropriate statistical multilevel analysis technique.
Pri iskanju vzroka za pomanjkanje povezave med izobrazbo vzgojitelja in kakovostjo vzgojnega procesa v skupini raziskovalci sklepajo, da sedanja izobrazba vzgojiteljev ni primerno prilagojena vzgoji majhnih otrok.
With simulation studies they show that few of the reported effects on cognitive and academic skills would remain statistically significant relative to academic or didactic approaches if the appropriate analysis technique would have been used.
Opozarjajo, da v izobraževalnem programu za vzgojitelje, ki se osredinja predvsem na znanje o tematiki, še posebej manjka zavedanje o pomenu zaupljivega, varnega, spoštljivega odnosa med vzgojiteljem in otrokom.
Perhaps ‘DAP versus standards’ is a too oversimplified way of characterizing the challenges that preprimary education for low income and ethnic minority children is faced with.
Izkazalo pa se je, da je posebni izobraževalni program za vzgojitelje malčkov, usmerjen k spodbujanju primernega jezika in pismenosti, pomembno izboljšal otrokov jezikovni razvoj in pismenost (Wasik et al., 2006).
The evidence indicates that a developmental approach is the best option for the youngest children, whereas older preschooler should gradually be prepared for the type of learning tasks they encounter in primary school, smoothing the transition to first grade.
Torej je mogoče, da se splošni izobraževalni programi za vzgojitelje premalo ukvarjajo z želeno prakso v zgodnjem vzgojnem procesu.