natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Particularly interesting has been how any differences or ‘gender gaps’ are interpreted and the extent to which such studies are ‘meta-evaluative’ showing, for example, boys outperforming girls in a subject such as mathematics, or ‘meta-analytic’, concentrating on whether outcomes and differences have decreased since such studies began, that is, the impact of social influences (Brusselmans-Dehairs et al.,1997).
Posebno zanimivo je bilo, kako se kakršne koli razlike ali ‘razlike med spoloma’ interpretirajo in koliko so take študije ‘metaevalvacijske’ pri izkazovanju npr. tega, da so fantje boljši od deklet pri matematiki, ali ‘me-taanalitične’ pri odgovorih na vprašanje, ali so se razlike, odkar študije potekajo, zmanjšale oziroma kako nanje vplivajo družbeni dejavniki (Brusselmans-Dehairs in sod., 1997).
There is substantial variation in gender patterns across different countries (see more details in Chapter 2).
Vzorci razlik med spoloma kažejo precejšnje razlike po državah (za podrobnosti glej 2. poglavje).
For example, Iceland has demonstrated the greatest ‘gender gap’ in favour of girls in the three subjects of mathematics, science and reading assessed by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).
Na Islandiji so se izkazale največje razlike med spoloma, in sicer v prid deklet; kot je bilo razvidno iz Programa mednarodne primerjave dosežkov učencev (Programme for International Student Assessment – PISA), so bila boljša pri treh predmetih: matematiki, naravoslovju in branju.
Thus sex differences identified in the tests may reflect the effects and biases of the instrument (as in the Irish case above) rather than of what it is designed to measure.
Prav tako ni‘ravnega igralnega polja’ali enakih začetnih položajev, saj so med državami precejšnje razlike pri zagotavljanju predšolske vzgoje, starosti za vstop v formalno izobraževanje, virih, npr. knjižnicah, usposabljanju učiteljev, splošni učni kulturi itd. (Topping in sod., 2003).
So it is difficult to adduce which factors have the greatest influence and why.
Zato je težko dokazati, kateri dejavniki so najvplivnejši in zakaj.
Such studies can it is true provide indicators of how a national policy is working in comparison with others. But they are less helpful in identifying particular causal factors, or what should or could be done to create a more equal gender system.
Res je, da take študije lahko priskrbijo kazalnike o delovanju nacionalne politike v primerjavi z drugimi, manj pa so v pomoč pri prepoznavanju posebnih vzrokov oziroma pri tem, kaj bi lahko in morali storiti, da bi sistemsko zagotovili enakost spolov.
Despite these shortcomings, the possibilities of comparison and internationalisation give cross national studies their substance.
Kljub pomanjkljivostim pa so prav zaradi možnosti primerjanja in internacionalizacije mednarodne študije utemeljene.
It is in the comparisons of educational outcomes across the world that policymakers can ‘question the assumptions about the quality of their own country’s educational outcomes’ (OECD 2001, p. 27).
Primerjave izobraževalnih dosežkov po vsem svetu omogočajo nosilcem odločanja, da ‘pretehtajo domneve o kakovosti izobraževalnih dosežkov v lastni državi’(OECD 2001, str. 27).
A study comparing the gender outcomes of the PISA studies for Sweden and Switzerland suggests that while both countries perform at the upper end of the international spectrum, Sweden has an educational climate with a higher degree of gender equity (with the exception of reading) (Fredriksson et al., 2009).
Primerjalna študija o izobraževalnih dosežkih po spolu iz raziskave PISA je bila narejena za Švedsko in Švico. Iz nje je razvidno, da so se učenci iz obeh držav po uspešnosti uvrstili v zgornji del spektra, izkazalo pa se je, da izobraževalno ozračje na Švedskem pripomore k dosti višji stopnji enakosti med spoloma (razen pri branju) (Fredriksson in sod., 2009).
In asking what the two countries might learn from each other, the authors suggest that the study shows the way for ‘Switzerland to get more equity without reducing quality. In Sweden the quality can be further improved, but it does not necessarily mean that [gender] equity has to be reduced’ (Fredriksson et al. 2009, p. 66).
Ob vprašanju, kaj se državi druga od druge lahko naučita, avtorji menijo, da študija‘Švici kaže pot do več pravičnosti, ne da bi se pri tem poslabšala kakovost, na Švedskem pa bi se kakovost lahko še izboljšala, kar pa ne pomeni, da bi bilo treba pravičnost [do obeh spolov] okrniti’ (Fredri-ksson in sod. 2009, str. 66).
Results may also be aggregated for other purposes: for example, to show boys’ ‘natural’ superiority in mathematics and science overall, or girls’ greater competence in languages overall.
Rezultati se lahko zberejo tudi za druge namene: npr. za prikaz fantovske ‘naravne’ prednosti pri matematiki in naravoslovju ali boljših kompetenc deklet pri jezikih.
Or differences between countries and over time can be read as indicative of the presence or absence of sex equality in a particular country or culture.
Ali za prikaz razlik med državami, tako da bo mogoče čez čas prebrati, ali je določena država ali kultura enakost spolov premogla ali ne.
Or such studies may indicate the gender ‘image’ of certain school subjects within countries or cultures (Boaler 1997; Paechter, 1998) or the distribution of resources and equipment to particular schools.
Take študije lahko prikažejo tudi ‘podobo’ o določenih šolskih predmetih v državah ali kulturah (Boaler 1997; Paechter, 1998) ali o delitvi sredstev in opreme po šolah.
Or, as the 1991 International Assessment of Educational Progress (IAEP) comparative study concluded, it is differences ‘in the socialisation patterns of male and female students, both across countries and across time periods, as well as between students within a particular country at a particular time period, [that] are likely to be the most powerful factors influencing the development of gender differences in abilities and achievement’ (Brusselmans-Dehairs et al. 1997, p. 19-20).
Ali, kot kažejo sklepne ugotovitve iz raziskave Mednarodno preverjanje napredka v izobraževanju (International Assessment of Educational Progress – IAEP) iz leta 1991, razlike ‘med socializacijskimi vzorci učencev in učenk, tako po državah kot po časovnih obdobjih, pa tudi med učenci v določeni državi in določenem obdobju so najverjetneje najmočnejši dejavnik, ki vpliva na razvoj razlik med spoloma pri zmožnostih in dosežkih’(Brusselmans-Dehairs in sod., 1997, str. 19 do 20).
Chapter 1: Gender and Educationin Europe: A Literature Overview
1.6 Družbeni dejavniki, ki vplivajo na delo in vedenje deklet in fantov
Other factors such as socioeconomic differences, ethnic origin and language intersect with gender to influence educational performance and indeed, Sammons (1995) found that such social factors are more influential as students grow older.
Sammons (1995) je ugotovila, da je njihov vpliv toliko močnejši, kolikor starejši so učenci.
Controlling for attainment at age 11, girls and students of non-manual backgrounds and those not on low incomes obtained higher GCSE results than other groups.
Dosežki pri enajstih letih so pokazali, da so učenke in učenci, ki ne živijo v družinah fizičnih delavcev ali družinah z nizkimi dohodki, dosegli boljše rezultate GCSE kot učenke in učenci iz drugih skupin.
Thus disparities in absolute attainment related to gender and socioeconomic factors increased as students grew older (Sammons 1995, p. 479).
Neskladje pri dosežkih v celoti, povezano s spolom in socialnoekonomskimi dejavniki, se s starostjo učencev povečuje (Sammons 1995, str. 479).
Obstacles to high academic performance include poverty, family size and parents in unskilled or low skilled employment, while enhancements include higher social class level, being a girl and having educated parents (Sammons, 1995).
Med ovire za boljši uspeh spadajo revščina, velikost družine in neizobraženi ali nizko izobraženi starši, med tiste, ki uspeh izboljšujejo, pa spadajo višji družbeni razred, biti dekle in imeti izobražene starše (Sammons, 1995).
Interestingly, membership of a minority ethnic group can be advantageous or disadvantageous, depending on its specific cultural disposition towards, and treatment by, education.
Zanimivo, pripadnost etnični manjšini je lahko prednost ali slabost, odvisno od njenih kulturnih dispozicij in obravnave izobraževanja.
Thus having a Black Caribbean or ‘Black other’ background in the United Kingdom produces a wider gender gap in favour of girls than in the case of other ethnic minority groups (DfES, 2007).
Tako v Združenem kraljestvu ‘črnski izvor s Karibov’ ali ‘drugačen črnski’ izvor bolj vpliva na razlike med spoloma – te so v prid deklet – kot pri drugih etničnih skupinah (DfES, 2007).
The interaction of different social factors can produce quite complex gender outcomes.
Medsebojni vpliv različnih družbenih dejavnikov lahko zelo zaplete dosežke posameznega spola. V Španiji
In Spain, for example, research on the incorporation and progression of Roma children in compulsory secondary schooling shows that girls face more obstacles than boys in their transition from primary to secondary schools and also gain lower grades than their male counterparts.
Razlike medspoloma priizobraževalnih dosežkih je raziskava o vključevanju in napredovanju romskih otrok v obveznem sekundarnem šolanju pokazala, da se dekleta pri prehodu iz primarnih šol v sekundarne spoprijemajo z več ovirami kot fantje in so slabše ocenjene kot vrstniki moškega spola.
However, fewer Roma girls than boys leave school early, so that at the end of schooling twice as many Roma girls as boys remain in the system.
Vendar pa manj deklet kot fantov šolanje opusti, tako da je ob koncu šolanja v sistemu dvakrat toliko deklet kot fantov.
It is argued that these school-leaving patterns are related to Roma family discourses which display a narrowed conception of women’s roles and therefore make girls’ involvement in education difficult.
Ta vzorec se lahko pojasni z dognanji o značilnostih romske družine; v njej je vloga ženske zelo ozka, zato se dekleta težko vključujejo v izobraževanje.
However girls’ later continuance is more to do to their greater motivation for studies and learning (CIDE & Instituto de la Mujer, 2006). How factors combine is also significant.
To, da v izobraževanju ostajajo dlje, pa je bolj povezano z njihovo motiviranostjo za učenje (CIDE & Instituto de la Mujer, 2006). Pomembno je tudi, kako se dejavniki prepletajo.
For example, recent research in the United Kingdom (Melhuish et al., 2008) shows the continued impact on attainment of a wide range of family and home learning factors.
Nedavna raziskava v Združenem kraljestvu (Melhuish in sod., 2008) je pokazala, da na dosežke vplivajo številni družinski dejavniki in domače učenje.
The influence of both gender and home learning environment (HLE) on the attainment of younger children (age 3+) is particularly marked, where HLE involves frequency of reading to the child, visiting the library, teaching songs nursery rhymes, playing with letters and numbers, drawing/painting etc.
Posebno opazen je vpliv obeh spolov in okoliščin za domače učenje na dosežke triletnih otrok. Sem spadajo pogostost branja otroku, obiskovanje knjižnic, učenje pesmic za otroke, igranje s črkami in številkami, risanje in slikanje itd.
Girls have a higher HLE (as reported by parents) than boys; so gender difference in attainment found at younger ages (in favour of girls) may principally reflect different levels of parental support.
Deklice imajo (kot poročajo starši) za učenje boljše razmere kot fantje; torej razlike med spoloma (v prid deklic) pri dosežkih v zgodnjih letih mogoče izražajo različno raven starševske pomoči.
The same study also found that gender influences behaviour, both positively and negatively though has weaker effects on English (where girls have higher attainment) and mathematics (where boys have higher attainment) (Sammons et al., 2008).
V študiji je bilo ugotovljeno tudi, da spol tako pozitivno kot negativno vpliva na vedenje, vendar to le malo vpliva na dosežke pri angleščini (kjer so boljša dekleta) in matematiki (kjer so boljši fantje) (Sammons in sod., 2008).
In Greece likewise it has been found that students at high risk of school failure include boys, students with psychological problems, those coming from backgrounds with low socioeconomic and educational levels or a combination of these factors (Livaditis et al., 2003).
Podobno je bilo tudi v Grčiji ugotovljeno, da so v rizični skupini učencev fantje, učenci s psihološkimi težavami, tisti, ki prihajajo iz okolij s slabim socialno-ekonomskim položajem ali nizko izobrazbeno ravnjo ali nanje vpliva preplet naštetih dejavnikov (Livaditis in sod., 2003).
Thus, in a Scottish collection of studies on gender and special needs in education, issues are
Pripadnost spolu se, na splošno na škodljiv način, prepleta tudi s posebnimi potrebami in invalidnostjo.
Gender Differencesin Educational Outcomes raised about the invisibility of girls with special needs – it is boys with learning and behavioural and emotional difficulties who attract most attention, concern and resources – and how the formal and hidden curriculum of schools affects issues such as restricted learning opportunities, low achievement and aspiration, poor self concept and body image, discrimination against (female) students with a disability, sexuality concerns and so forth (Lloyd, 1996).
V škotski zbirki študij o enakosti spolov in posebnih potrebah v izobraževanju je obravnavano vprašanje o nevidnosti deklet s posebnimi potrebami – vsa pozornost, skrb in sredstva so namenjena fantom z učnimi, vedenjskimi ali čustvenimi težavami – ter vprašanje, kako formalni in prikriti kurikulum vplivata na okrnjene učne možnosti, slabe dosežke in nizke cilje, slabo samopodobo, diskriminacijo invalidnih učencev (učenk) in s spolnostjo povezane skrbi (Lloyd, 1996).
A number of recurrent themes or topics are to be found in the literature on gender and education which deal primarily with educational practice (or what goes on in schools).
V literaturi o spolu v izobraževanju je mogoče najti številne ponavljajoče teme o tem, kaj se dogaja v šolski praksi.
These are the curriculum (official and hidden), school reading materials, subject preference and choice, motivational and psychological factors of students, school organisation and management, teacher attitudes, assessment, teaching as a profession, co-education and single-sex settings, and the problem of boys.
To so kurikulum (uradni in prikriti), šolska gradiva za branje, predmetna izbirnost, motivacijski in psihološki dejavniki, organiziranje in upravljanje šol, naravnanost učiteljev, preverjanje znanja, poučevanje kot poklic, skupno ali po spolu ločeno izobraževanje in fantovski problemi.
The curriculum(official and hidden)
1.7.1 Kurikulum (uradni in prikriti)
The official curriculum concerns the subjects that are taught in schools and their content.
Uradni kurikulum zadeva predmete, ki se poučujejo v šoli, in njihovo vsebino.
It varies from country to country and in many there is a national curriculum.
Od države do države se razlikuje, v mnogih imajo nacionalni kurikulum.
However, as the curriculum theorist Paechter (2000) points out, though official curricula tend rarely to address gender equality with the some exceptions such as Sweden and South Africa, they tend to imply certain gender assumptions; for example, that ‘power’ subjects (e.g. science, mathematics and technology) will attract males and others (e.g. languages, literature) females.
Švedska in Južna Afrika, je v njih, kot poudarja kurikularna teoretičarka C. Paechter (2000), nekaj s spolom povezanih predpostavk; npr. ta, da bodo ‘močni’ predmeti (npr. naravoslovje, matematika in tehnologija) privlačni za fante, drugi (npr. jeziki, književnost) pa za dekleta.
This means that the content of different subjects attracts boys and girls on the basis that’ ‘this is what proper girls or boys do’.
To pomeni, da vsebina različnih predmetov fante in dekleta pritegne na podlagi mnenja ‘to je to, kar počnejo pravi fantje in dekleta’.
The hidden curriculum, on the other hand, concerns everything that happens in the school that is not ‘official’, for example, social relations in the classroom or playground, friendships, relationships between teachers and pupils, levels of bullying and harassment and so on.
Prikriti kurikulum pa, po drugi strani, zajema vse tisto, kar se v šoli dogaja, pa ni ‘uradno’, npr. socialne stike v razredu ali na igrišču, prijateljstva, odnose med učitelji in učenci, ustrahovanje in nadlegovanje itd.
The hidden curriculum transmits to children a collection of messages which often reinforce sex stereotyping thus sustaining ‘a sexual division of labour in the social process of schooling’ (Humm 1989, p. 95).
Prikriti kurikulum učencem prinaša množico sporočil, ki pogosto krepijo spolne stereotipe in tako v ‘družbenem procesu, kot je šolanje’, vzdržujejo ‘delitev dela po spolu’ (Humm 1989, str. 95).
Studies of these more informal relations have been consistent in revealing the dominance of (individual and groups of) boys regarding the school space they occupy, the teacher-time that they demand, and the influence that they have over the rest of their peers (Myers et al., 2007).
1. poglavje: Spolinizobraževanje v Evropi: pregledliterature manj formalnih odnosov dosledno razkrivajo prevlado fantov (posameznikov ali skupin) glede šolskega prostora, ki ga zavzemajo, časa, ki ga zahtevajo od učiteljev, in vpliva, ki ga imajo na druge svoje vrstnike (Myers in sod., 2007).
It is further argued that students’ informal interactions within the school are the most influential aspect of their socialisation into what it means to be female and male in society, and that if this aspect of school culture remains unchallenged, nothing much is likely to change (Öhrn, 1998).
Pojasnjeno je tudi, da je neformalno vzajemno sodelovanje učencev najvplivnejši vidik socializiranja v vloge, ki se v družbi štejejo za ženske ali moške; če se taka kultura v šoli ne zdi sporna, je malo verjetno, da se bo kaj spremenilo (Öhrn, 1998).
The gendered nature of reading material and other school texts provide important indicators of the extent of gender stereotyping in the education system as a whole.
Kar zadeva kvantitativno, so bile ženske slikovno prikazane v grobem pol manjkrat kot moški (32,95 % od vseh).
The language used is highly influential (particularly on younger children) and has drawn criticism in the past for excluding or demeaning girls and women and for favouring stereotyped gender roles; ‘fireman’ instead of ‘fire fighter’, boys who ‘laugh’ as opposed to girls who ‘giggle’ are two examples.
Tako je bilo poskrbljeno, da ilustracije niso seksistične in da je jezik nevtralen (glej Desprez-Bouanchaud in sod., 1987), pripovedne oblike, recimo klasične pravljice o princih, ki rešijo princese, pa so še naprej nespremenjene (Skelton, 1997).
Research studies have also focused on the frequency and manner in which the sexes are portrayed, and have found that men appear more often and in a wider set of roles as workers, whereas women are shown mainly in domestic and ‘romantic’ roles.
Pozornost je bila posvečena tudi temu, kako čimveč otrok pritegniti k branju, zato so bile organizirane posebne knjižnične službe, katerih naloga je spodbujanje učenja v knjižnicah (Adler, 2007).
A recent Polish study suggests that textbooks used by older students are even more sexist than texts for younger children, not only concerning illustrations but the language used.
Evropska statistika o izobraževalnih ciljih učencev, ki končujejo šolanje (glej 5. poglavje), kaže, da si mladi ljudje še naprej izbirajo po spolu stereotipne poklicne poti; zato bi bilo treba poklicne svetovalce ozavestiti o enakosti spolov, tako da bi se laže spoprijemali s stereotipnimi predpostavkami učencev, šol in zaposlovalcev (glej 4. poglavje).
Regarding quantitative biases, women’s pictorial representation in these materials was roughly half of men’s (32.95 % of the total).
Nedavno je bilo v nekaterih državah ugotovljeno, da se je neskladje po spolu zmanjšalo, in sicer pri (nekaterih) učencih srednjega sloja, npr. tistih, ki obiskujejo šole, za katere je treba plačati šolnino; v teh šolah je malo več možnosti za izbiro predmetov in poklicnih poti (Arnot s sod., 1999).
Qualitative differences were found in the representation of both sexes, regarding image colours, which were pale and pink for women; characterisation and behaviour, which were based on gender stereotypes; and spatial representation, which mainly positioned men in public and women in private spaces.
Približevanje enakim možnostim fantov in deklet je bilo zaznano tudi v fantovskih in dekliških šolah v Veliki Britaniji; zdi se, da je v teh šolah manj pritiskov za podrejanje pristranskim spolnim stereotipom (Skelton & Francis, 2009). Zanimivo je, kako na različno izbiro predmetov vpliva njihova vsebina v povezavi z drugimi okoliščinami.
An interesting finding of this study was that the gender composition of editorial teams which produced the texts had little impact on the levels of stereotyping evident within the texts (Luengo & Blázquez, 2004). Reading materials produced more recently in some countries (e.g. Sweden, South Africa, United Kingdom, USA) have responded to some of the criticisms made.
Tak razvoj se je zdel nujno potreben, saj se v nasprotnem primeru z znanjem in metodami, prek katerih je pridobljeno, le obnavljajo ideologije in razmerja moči v družbi (Brickhouse, 2001).
Thus, care has been taken to ensure that illustrations are non-sexist and that language is neutral (see, for example, Desprez-Bouanchaud et al., 1987) even though the narrative form, say of the classic fairy tale of the rescue of the princess by the prince, remains much the same (Skelton, 1997).
Značilnosti, zapovedane za znanstveno raziskovanje, npr.‘racionalnost’, se navadno povezujejo z moškimi in za ‘moški spol’značilnim načinom razmišljanja.
Attention has also been drawn to how best to encourage more children to read, and therefore the kind of library services which are provided and the commitment there is to promoting learning in the library for all children (Adler, 2007).
Taki argumenti so vodili do razvoja novih alternativnih kurikulumov, s katerimi naj bi predvsem dekleta ‘opogumili’, da bi se lotile znanstvenega dela in pripomogle k širjenju takega poučevanja in pedagoških metod, s katerimi bi lahko spremenili tradicionalno hierarhijo v znanosti (Brickhouse, 2001).
Subject preference and choice
1.7.4 Motivacijska in psihološka vprašanja
An early concern of feminists was the different subject and career pathways that girls and boys take.
Šteje se, da je za šolsko uspešnost bistvenega pomena, kaj učenci mislijo o sebi; zato so bile zelo zanimive študije o razlikah med spoloma glede ‘samopodobe’ učencev.
A national curriculum which allows little subject choice tends to reduce the gender gap in subject choice and attainment as was seen in the United Kingdom following the introduction of a national curriculum in 1988 (Arnot et al., 1999).
Te raziskave pa še niso končane, saj imajo dosedanje ugotovitve širok razpon: od tega, da je razlik med spoloma zelo malo, do tega, da imajo fantje o sebi dosti boljšo podobo.
However where choice is allowed, boys generally choose ‘male’-identified subjects and career/vocational pathways and girls ‘female’-identified subjects and career/vocational pathways.
Tudi ‘motivacija’ za dobro delo v šoli je pomemben dejavnik.
Noted recently in some countries, however, is that such gender disparities have reduced for (some) middle-class students (for example, those attending fee-paying schools) where there is more of a convergence in terms of subject choice and career destination (Arnot et al., 1999).
Belgijska študija npr. namiguje, da so slabi dosežki (nekaterih) fantov povezani z njihovim na splošno negativnim odnosom
It is argued that such developments are necessary, because otherwise scientific knowledge and the methods through which it is generated merely reproduce ideologies and powerrelations that exist in societies (Brickhouse, 2001).
1. poglavje: Spolinizobraževanje v Evropi: pregledliterature do šole: njihovi stiki z učitelji niso pozitivni, v šoli se ne počutijo dobro, šolskemu delu niso naklonjeni.