natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
At second glance, however, it becomes clear that the use of one good as a medium of exchange facilitates the whole process to a considerable extent, as the mutual coincidence
Toda če pogledamo podrobneje, uvedba menjalnega sredstva celoten postopek močno poenostavi, saj skladnost potrebni več potrebna, da bi bila transakcija mogoča.
Money should serve as a medium of exchange, a store of value and a unit of account.
KRATKA ZGODOVINA čim manj stabilna oz. zanesljiva je njegova vrednost.
As in the above-mentioned functions of money, the less stable and reliable the value of money, the more difficult it is for money to fulfil this important function.
Splošno sprejeta in zanesljiva obračunska enota zato pomeni trdno osnovo za izračun cen in stroškov in s tem krepi preglednost in zanesljivost trgovanja.
Over time, the nature of goods serving as money has changed.
S časom se je narava dobrin, ki so se uporabljale kot denar, spreminjala.
It is widely agreed that what at times became the prime function of these goods was often not the same as their original purpose.
Po splošnem prepričanju je bil njihov prvotni namen drugačen, za denar pa so bile izbrane zato, ker jih je bilo mogoče dokaj preprosto hraniti in prenašati, imele so visoko vrednost, a razmeroma majhno težo, hkrati pa so bile trpežne in trajne.
It seems that goods were chosen as money because they could be stored conveniently and easily, had a high value but a comparably low weight, and were easily portable and durable.These widely desired goods were easy to exchange and therefore came to be accepted as money.
Te zelo iskane dobrine je bilo lahko menjati in so zato prevzele vlogo denarja.
So the evolution of money depends on a number of factors, such as the relative importance of trade and the state of development of the economy.
Evolucija denarja je tako odvisna od številnih dejavnikov, med katerimi sta najpomembnejša relativni pomen trgovine in raven gospodarskega razvoja.
Money as a unit of account Of equal importance is the function of money as a unit of account.This can be illustrated by going back to our previous example.
Denar kot obračunska enota Enako pomembna je funkcija denarja kot obračunske enote. Tudi to lahko ponazorimo s prvim primerom.
Even if the difficulty of the mutual coincidence of wants is overcome, people would still have to find the exact exchange ratio between bread and haircuts or between haircuts and shoes, for example.
Tudi če obstaja skladnost potreb, je še vedno treba določiti natančno menjalno razmerje med npr. kruhom in britjem ali med britjem in čevlji.
Such “exchange ratios” – the number of loaves of bread worth one haircut, for instance – are known as relative prices or terms of trade.
To »menjalno razmerje« – število hlebcev kruha, ki jih je treba plačati za britje – se imenuje relativna cena ali »pogoji menjave«.
In the market place, the relative price would have to be determined for each pair of goods and services and, of course, everybody involved in the exchange of goods would need all the information about the terms of trade between all goods.
Ob blagovni menjavi bi bilo relativno ceno na trgu treba določiti za vsak par dobrin ali storitev posebej in seveda bi vsi tržni udeleženci morali imeti vse informacije o pogojih menjave med vsemi dobrinami.
It is easy to show that, for two goods, there is only one relative price, while for three goods there are just three relative prices (namely bread against haircuts, haircuts against shoes and bread against shoes).
Ni težko izračunati, da za dve dobrini obstaja ena sama relativna cena, za tri dobrine pa tri relativne cene (namreč kruh za britje, britje za čevlje in kruh za čevlje).
In the case often goods, however, there are already 45 relative prices, and with 100 goods the number of relative prices amounts to 4950.3 Therefore, the greater the number of goods being exchanged, the more difficult it becomes to gather information on all possible “exchange rates”.
Toda pri desetih dobrinah je relativnih cen že 45, pri 100 dobrinah pa kar 4950.4 To pomeni, daje z naraščanjem števila dobrin, s katerimi se trguje, vedno težje zbrati informacije o vseh možnih »menjalnih tečajih«.
Consequently, collecting and remembering information on the terms of trade creates high costs for the participants in a barter economy, increasing disproportionately with the number of goods exchanged.
Zbiranje in pomnjenje informacij o pogojih menjave tako predstavlja visoke stroške, ki so vedno bolj nesorazmerni s številom dobrin na trgu.
These resources can be used more efficiently in other ways if one of the existing goods is used as a unit of account (a socalled “numeraire”).
Ta sredstva bi bilo mogoče uporabiti mnogo bolj učinkovito, če bi ena od obstoječih dobrih prevzela vlogo obračunske enote ( t.i. »numeraire«).
In this case, the value of all goods can be expressed in terms of this “numeraire” and the number of prices which consumers have to identify and remember can be reduced significantly.4 relative prices.
Vrednost vseh dobrin se v tem primeru izrazi z »numerairom«, kar bistveno zmanjša število cen, ki si jih morajo potrošniki zapomniti.5 Če so vse cene izražene v denarju, je trgovanje torej mnogo preprostejše.
3 More generally, for n goods, there are ________ n x (n – 1) 24 Namely to n – 1 absolute prices.
Bolj splošno to pomeni, da v denarju ni mogoče izraziti le cen blaga, ampak tudi ceno katere koli druge dobrine.
A variety of items have served as commodity money – for example brightly coloured shells.
Kot naturalni denar so se uporabljali najrazličnejši predmeti – na primer pisano pobarvane školjke.
Metallic money The introduction of metallic money was away by which ancient societies tried to overcome the problems associated with using decaying commodities as money.
Kovinski denar Z uvedbo kovinskega denarja so starodavne družbe skušale rešiti težave, ki so jih imele z netrajnimi dobrinami v vlogi denarja.
It is not known exactly when and where metallic money was used for the first time.
Ni povsem znano, kdaj in kje se je prvič pojavil kovinski denar.
What is known, however, is that metallic money was in use in around 2000 B. C. in Asia, although in those times its weight does not seem to have been standardised nor its value certified by the rulers.
Vemo pa, da so kovinski denar pred približno 2000 let pr. n. š. uporabljali v Aziji, čeprav se zdi, da takratni vladarji niso standardizirali teže denarja in jamčili za njegovo vrednost.
Chunks or bars of gold and silver were used as commodity money since they were easy to transport, did not decay and were more or less easily divisible.
Kosi ali palice iz zlata in srebra so se uporabljale kot naturalni denar, ker jih je bilo lahko prenašati, niso izgubljale lastne vrednosti in jih je bilo mogoče bolj ali manj deliti na manjše enote.
Moreover, it was possible to melt them in order to produce jewellery.
Poleg tega jih je bilo mogoče taliti in iz njih izdelovati nakit.
finance the Empire’s gigantic deficit.
Z upadanjem lastne vrednosti kovancev so cene blaga in storitev začele naraščati.
With the intrinsic value of the coins declining, the prices of goods and services began to rise.This was followed by a general rise in prices that may have contributed to the downfall of the Western Roman Empire.The more stable Eastern Roman solidus, introduced by Constantine the Great in the fourth century A. D., was maintained at its original weight and precious metal content until the middle of the 11th century, thus gaining a reputation that made it the most important coinage for international trade for over five centuries.
Sledil je splošen dvig cen, ki je verjetno prispeval k zatonu Zahodnega rimskega imperija. Nasprotno se je bolj stabilni vzhodnorimski solidus, ki ga je v 4. stoletju n. š. uvedel Konstantin Veliki, z nespremenjeno težo in vsebnostjo plemenite kovine obdržal do sredine 11. stoletja in več kot pet stoletij ohranjal sloves najpomembnejšega kovanega denarja v mednarodni trgovini.
Byzantine Greek coins were used as international money and were found by archaeologists as far away as Altai in Mongolia.
Kot mednarodni denar so se uporabljali tudi bizantinski grški kovanci, ki so jih arheologi našli celo v tako oddaljenih krajih, kot je pogorje Altaj v Mongoliji.
In the mid-11th century, however, the Byzantine monetary economy collapsed and was replaced by a new system which lasted throughout the 12th century, until the Crusader conquest of Constantinople in 1204 eventually ended the history of Graeco-Roman coinage.
Ko je sredi 11. stoletja bizantinsko denarno gospodarstvo propadlo, ga je nadomestil nov sistem, ki je vztrajal do konca 12. stoletja, do leta 1204, ko se je s križarskim zavzetjem Konstantinopla končalo obdobje grškorimskega kovanega denarja.
The Greeks and Romans had spread the custom of using coins and the technical knowledge of how to strike them over a vast geographical area.
Kovinski kovanci Evropejci so bili med prvimi, ki so razvili standardizirane in certificirane kovinske kovance.
In 793 A. D. Charlemagne reformed and standardised the Frankish monetary system, introducing a monetary standard according to which one Frankish silver pound (408g) equalled 20 shillings or 240 pence – this standard remained valid in the United Kingdom and Ireland until 1971.
V antični Grčiji so srebrne kovance uvedli okrog leta 700 pr. n. š. in prve mestne države, ki so poznale kovani denar, so bile otok Ajgina (595 pr. n. š.), Atene (575 pr. n. š.) in Korint (570 pr. n. š.).
Metallic coins Europeans were among the first to develop standardised and certified metallic coins.The Greeks introduced silver coins around 700 B. C.; Aegina (595 B. C.), Athens (575 B. C.), and Corinth (570 B. C.) were the first Greek citystates to mint their own coins.The silver content of the Athenian drachma, famous for depicting the legendary owl, remained stable for nearly 400 years.
Delež srebra v atenski drahmi, znani po svoji legendarni sovi, je ostal enak skoraj 400 let.
Greek coins were therefore widely used (their use was further spread by Alexander the Great), and have been found by archaeologists in a geographical area ranging from Spain to modern India.
Grški kovanci so se, tudi zahvaljujoč osvajanjem Aleksandra Velikega, uporabljali na zelo obširnem območju, saj so jih arheologi našli v nahajališčih od Španije na zahodu do sodobne Indije na vzhodu.
The Romans, who had previously used cumbersome bronze bars called aes signatum as money, adopted the Greek innovation of using official coins and were the first to introduce a bi-metal scheme using both the silver denarius and the gold aureus.
Rimljani, ki so kot denar sprva uporabljali nerodne bronaste palice, imenovane aes signatum, so sprejeli grško iznajdbo uradnih kovancev in prvi uvedli dvokovinski sistem s srebrnimi kovanci denarius in zlatimi kovanci aureus.
Under the Emperor Nero in the first century A. D., the precious metal content of the coins started to diminish as the imperial mints increasingly substituted gold and silver for alloy in order to
Grki in Rimljani so uveljavili navado uporabe kovancev, pa tudi tehnično znanje o tem, kako jih je mogoče uporabljati na velikem geografskem prostoru.
After the fall of Constantinople, the Italian merchant citystates of Genoa and Florence introduced gold coinage in 1252 with the genoin of Genoa and the fiorina (or florin) of Florence.
Več in osrednjega veka so glavno plačilno sredstvo predstavljali lokalni zlati in srebrni kovanci, čeprav so se vedno več uporabljali tudi bakreni kovanci.
In the 15th century their place was taken by the ducato of Venice.
Leta 793 je Karel Veliki reformiral in standardiziral frankovski denarni sistem in uvedel denarni standard, po katerem je bil en frankovski srebrni funt (408 g) vreden 20 šilingov ali 240 penijev – standard, ki se je v Veliki Britaniji in na Irskem ohranil vse do leta 1971.
The responsibility for establishing and regulating the system of fiat money in a country remained with the governments, but other public or private institutions such as central banks and the financial system played an increasingly crucial role in the success of the national currency.
Po padcu Konstantinopla sta italijanski trgovski mestni državi Genova in Firence leta 1252 uvedli zlata kovanca genoin in fiorina (ali florin). V 15. stoletju je njuno mesto prevzel beneški ducato.
Paper money The Chinese began using paper money around 800 A. D. under Emperor Hien Tsung and continued to do so for several hundred years.This paper money had no commodity value and was money only by imperial decree, or socalled fiat money (i.e. money without intrinsic value).
Zadolžnice so večinoma uporabljali italijanski trgovci, sicer pa je vse do tridesetletne vojne (1618-1648) prevladoval dvokovinski sistem. Zaradi gospodarskih pretresov, ki jih je povzročila vojna, so nekateri vladarji, npr. švedski kralji, začeli prednost dajati papirnatemu denarju. Prva ga je leta 1694 uvedla Bank of England, leta 1716 pa ji je sledila Banque Générale de France.
Obligations It was, however, difficult to conduct long-distance trade as long as value could only be stored in the form of commodities and coins.The Italian citystates were therefore the first to introduce certificates of indebtedness (“obligations” or “bills of exchange”) as a means of payment.
Vlade so sicer ostale odgovorne za vzpostavitev in upravljanje sistema fiduciarnega denarja, toda vedno pomembnejšo vlogo v prizadevanjih za trdnost nacionalne valute so dobivale tudi druge javne in zasebne ustanove, predvsem centralne banke in finančni sistem.
The Chinese began using paper money around 800 A. D. and continued to do so for several hundred years.
Papirnati denar Kitajci so papirnati denar uvedli okrog leta 800 n. š. v času vladarja Hien Tsunga in ga uporabljali več stoletij.
Gold standard Since the adoption of fiat money approximately two centuries ago, the monetary system has undergone great change.
Ta papirnati denarni imel nobene vrednosti kot dobrina in je vlogo denarja lahko opravljal samo na osnovi vladarskega dekreta, kar pomeni, daje bil t.i. fiduciarni denar (fiat money, denar brez lastne vrednosti).
Paper money was – and still is – legal tender only by an act of the competent authority.
Na Kitajskem je bil najbolj razširjen okrog leta 1000, opustili pa so ga okrog leta 1500, ko se je po mongolskem zavzetju začel zaton takratne kitajske družbe.
It was issued in fixed units of national currency and had a clearly defined nominal value.
Kitajci so papirnati denar uvedli okrog leta 800 n. š. in ga uporabljali več stoletij.
For along time, the nation states held gold reserves in their central banks to ensure the credibility of their currency – a system known as the Gold Standard.
Zadolžnice Denar je menjavo sicer močno poenostavil, toda na daljše razdalje je bilo še vedno težko trgovati, če je bila vrednost shranjena zgolj v dobrinah ali kovancih.
Currencies in the form of coins and fiduciary paper notes were convertible into gold at a fixed parity.
Italijanske mestne države so zato kot plačilno sredstvo prve uvedle potrdila o zadolženosti oziroma zadolžnice.
To reduce the risk of being robbed on their journeys, merchants took these obligations with them.
Te so trgovci začeli jemati s seboj na trgovska potovanja, da bi se zaščitili pred roparji.
Debtor and lender were mentioned in the certificates, a payment date was fixed, and the amount of gold or silver noted.
Na zadolžnici sta bila navedena dolžnik in upnik, določen je bil datum plačila, prav tako tudi količina zlata ali srebra, ki jo zadolžnica izplača.
Soon, merchant bankers began to trade these obligations.The first evidence of such a contract dates back to 1156.
Kmalu so trgovski bankirji začeli trgovati z zadolžnicami. Prvi viri o takšnih pogodbah segajo v leto 1156.
With the start of World War I, many countries began printing more and more money in order to finance the cost of the war.
Zlati standard Od uvedbe fiduciarnega denarja pred približno dvema stoletjema je denarni sistem doživel velike spremembe.
In Germany, for instance, the number of banknotes issued by the Reichsbank grew from 2,593 million in 1913 to a total of 92,844,720.7 billion banknotes in circulation on 18 November 1923.
Papirnati denar je bil – in še vedno je – zakonito plačilno sredstvo zgolj na osnovi vladnega odloka.
This ultimately led to hyperinflation.5 With more money circulating, most countries suspended the convertibility of their currencies into gold, as its increased quantity was no longer balanced by the national gold reserves.
Izdan je bil v fiksnih enotah in je imel natančno določeno nominalno vrednost.
Obligations continued to be used mostly by Italian merchants, and the bi-metal scheme remained dominant until the Thirty Years’ War.
Njegovo verodostojnost so nacionalne države dolgo zagotavljale tako, da so v svojih nacionalnih bankah hranile zlate rezerve, zato se ta sistem imenuje zlati standard.
Due to the economic turmoil caused by the war, rulers such as the Swedish kings started to prefer paper money.
Valute v obliki kovancev in fiduciarnega papirnatega denarja je bilo po vnaprej določenem nespremenljivem razmerju mogoče zamenjati za zlato.
This was subsequently introduced by the Bank of England in 1694 and the Banque générale in France in 1716. The advent of paper fiat money in Europe marked the beginning of a new phase in the evolution of money.
Prva država, ki je uvedla zlati standard, je bila leta 1816 Velika Britanija, potem ko je leta 1717 sam Isaac Newton določil menjalni tečaj med funtom in zlatom na ravni 3,811 funt sterlingov za unčo zlata.
The nation states held gold reserves in central banks to ensure the credibility of their currency.
Tako je nemška centralna banka Reichsbank leta 1913 v obtoku vzdrževala 2593 milijonov bankovcev, deset let kasneje, natančneje 18. novembra 1923, pa je bilo v obtoku kar 92.844.720,7 milijarde bankovcev nemške marke.
Gold exchange standard The British gold standard finally collapsed in 1931, but the system was revived at the 1944 international conference held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.
Zlati menjalni standard Britanski zlati standard se je dokončno sesul leta 1931, ponovno pa so ga oživili leta 1944 na mednarodni konferenci v Bretton Woodsu v ameriški zvezni državi New Hampshire.
Here, a revised gold standard was agreed upon: the exchange rates of the national currencies of the major economic powers were pegged to the dollar and the dollar was convertible into gold at a fixed price of USD 35 per ounce.
Udeleženci so na konferenci sprejeli prenovljen zlati standard: devizni tečaji nacionalnih valut gospodarsko najrazvitejših držav so bili vezani na ameriški dolar, ta pa je bil zamenljiv za zlato po fiksni pariteti 35 dolarjev za unčo. Brettonwoodski denarni sistem se zato imenuje zlati menjalni standard.
Central banks stood ready to provide dollars in exchange for their national currency and vice versa.
Centralne banke so bile dolarje vedno pripravljene menjati za nacionalno valuto in obratno.
The Bretton Woods monetary system collapsed in 1971 and since then the currencies of the major economies have remained pure fiat money.
Brettonwoodski denarni sistem je propadel leta 1971 in odtlej večina valut obstaja zgolj kot čisti fiduciarni denar.
In addition, most countries have allowed the exchange rates of their currencies to float.
Poleg tega večina držav dopušča, da devizni tečaj njihove valute drsi.
These days, various forms of intangible money have emerged, among them socalled “electronic money”.
V zadnjem času so se pojavile številne oblike nematerialnega denarja, na primer »elektronski denar«.
This chapter provides detailed information to help answer questions such as what price stability, inflation and deflation are, how inflation is measured, what the difference between nominal interest rates and the real return is, and what the benefits of price stability are, or in other words, why it is important for central banks to ensure price stability.
To poglavje poglobljeno odgovarja na vprašanja, kaj pomenijo izrazi cenovna stabilnost, inflacija in deflacija, kako se meri inflacija, kakšna je razlika med nominalno obrestno mero in realno donosnostjo ter kakšne so koristi cenovne stabilnosti. Z drugimi besedami, poglavje govori o tem, zakaj je za centralne banke pomembno, da ohranjajo stabilnost cen.
3.1 explains some basic economic terms such as the concepts of inflation, deflation and price stability.
3.1 pojasnjuje temeljne ekonomske pojme, kot so inflacija, deflacija in cenovna stabilnost.
3.2 focuses on the problems associated with measuring inflation.
3.2 obravnava vprašanja, povezana z merjenjem inflacije.
Inflation and deflation Inflation and deflation are important economic phenomenona that have negative consequences for the economy.
Inflacija in deflacija Inflacija in deflacija sta pomembna ekonomska pojava, ki sta za gospodarstvo zelo škodljiva.
Basically, inflation is defined as a general, or broadly-based, increase in the prices of goods and services over an extended period which consequently leads to a decline in the value of money and thus its purchasing power.
Inflacijo lahko najpreprosteje opredelimo kot trajno rast vseh oz. velikega števila cen blaga in storitev v daljšem časovnem obdobju, ki zmanjšuje vrednost denarja oziroma njegovo kupno moč.
Deflation is often defined as the opposite of inflation, namely as a situation in which the overall price level falls over an extended period.
Deflacija je pogosto opredeljena kot nasprotje inflacije, torej kot splošen padec cen v daljšem časovnem obdobju.
When there is no inflation or deflation, we can say that there is price stability if, on average, prices neither increase nor decrease but stay stable over time.
Če cene s časom v povprečju ne naraščajo niti ne padajo, če torej ni inflacije niti deflacije, lahko rečemo, da obstaja cenovna stabilnost.
If, for instance, EUR 100 can buy the same basket of goods as it could, say, one and two years ago, then this can be called a situation of absolute price stability.
Če 100 € danes kupi isto košarico dobrin, kot jo je pred denimo dvema letoma, je to stanje mogoče imenovati absolutna cenovna stabilnost.
Movements in individual prices and in the general price level It is important to make a distinction between movements in prices of any individual good or service and movements in the general price level.
Spremembe posameznih cen in splošne ravni cen Pomembno je, da razlikujemo med spreminjanjem cene posamičnih dobrin in gibanjem splošne ravni cen.
Frequent changes in individual prices are quite normal in market-based economies, even if there is price stability overall.
Pogoste spremembe posameznih cen so v tržnih gospodarstvih precej običajne, tudi v okolju cenovne stabilnosti.
The changes in supply and/or demand conditions of individual goods or services inevitably lead to changes in their price.
Spremembe v pogojih ponudbe ali povpraševanja posamezne dobrine in storitve nujno terjajo novo ceno.
For example, in recent years we have seen substantial declines in the prices of computers and mobile phones, mainly resulting from rapid technological progress.
Zadnja leta so se na primer zaradi tehnološkega napredka močno pocenili osebni računalniki in prenosni telefoni.
However, from the beginning of 1999 to mid-2006, oil and other energy prices increased, partly as a result of concerns regarding the future supply of energy and partly as a result of increased demand for energy, in particular from fast-growing economies.
Toda po drugi strani so se nafta in drugi energenti od začetka leta 1999 do srede leta 2006 dražili, deloma zaradi negotovosti glede oskrbe z energijo v prihodnosti, deloma pa zaradi večjega povpraševanja predvsem v hitro rastočih gospodarstvih.
On the whole, inflation in most industrialised countries remained low and stable – stability in the general price level can go hand-in-hand with substantial changes in individual prices as long as falling and rising prices offset each other so that the overall price level remains unchanged.
Na splošno je inflacija v večini razvitih držav kljub temu ostala nizka in stabilna. To pomeni, da lahko stabilnost splošne ravni cen vztraja tudi ob precejšnjih spremembah posameznih cen, a le pod pogojem, da se posamezne naraščajoče in padajoče cene medsebojno izravnavajo.