natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
That is why its fiscal externalities are of a small scale and they are offset by equalization grants serving as a major source of funding for communities, especially in rural areas. 
Pitanje odgovornosti pritom nema veću ulogu zbog nerazvijenosti lokalnih institucija i velikih udjela vanjskih prihoda u proračunima lokalnih uprava.
For the local governments, vertical fiscal competition, especially as concerns state grants, seems to be more important because it results in much more substantial revenue gains. 
slovnih subjekata registriranih kao porezni obveznici i efektivne stope JPFO-a, što je očit dokaz postojanja porezne konkurencije među jurisdikcijama, s ciljem privlačenja poreznih obveznika.
Despite all these “buts”, there is a negative correlation between the number of small 
U toj utakmici gradske su zajednice vjerojatno u prednosti pred ruralnima.
We suppose that such competition could become noticeable in case the national gover 
Pretpostavljamo da bi se takva konkurencija mogla očitovati ako državna uprava od
nment decides to widen the gap between the minimum and maximum UTNP rates (some intentions to do so in the face of the deepening recession, and the consequential decline in revenues have been announced). 
luči povećati raspon između najmanje i najveće stope JPFO-a (neke namjere u tom smjeru, u uvjetima sve dublje recesije i, posljedično, smanjenja prihoda, već su najavljene).
At the moment, the floor tax rate of 20 UAH (about 2 Euro), or even the ceiling rate of 200 UAH (20 Euro) per month approved in 1998 seems ridiculous, taking into account the fact that many small businesses earn quite substantial amounts of money. 
U ovom se trenutku najniža porezna stopa od 20 UAH (oko 2 eura), pa čak i najviša stopa od 200 UAH (20 eura) mjesečno, utvrđena 1998, čini smiješnom uzme li se u obzir činjenica da mnoga mala poduzeća ostvaruju pozamašne zarade.
Another factor which could contribute to this issue is the re-shifting of functions in favor of the basic-level local governments and making UTNP an own revenue source, thus excluding it from the revenue sources taken into account for the calculation of equalization grants and from the sharing procedure. 
Drugi čimbenik koji bi mogao pridonijeti tome jest prijenos funkcija na najniže razine uprave, čime JPFO postaje njihov vlastiti izvor prihoda te se izuzima iz prihoda za izračunavanje potpora izravnanja i iz zajedničkog korištenja.
This kind of policy would raise the motivation of local governments for expanding the revenue base and strengthen their desire to compete for taxpayers. 
Takva bi politika povećala motiviranost lokalnih uprava da šire vlastite osnove prihoda te bi pooštrila natjecanje za porezne obveznike.
A new real opportunity for competition could arise with the adoption of legislation on local property taxation, which would grant significant tax rate discretion to the local governments. 
Još jedna stvarna prilika za konkurenciju mogla bi nastati donošenjem zakonodavstva o lokalnom oporezivanju imovine koje bi lokalnim upravama osiguralo značajna prava na diskrecijsko odlučivanje o poreznim stopama.
The relevant legal acts are still on the agenda of the Ukrainian Parliament. 
Odgovarajući zakonski akti još su uvijek na dnevnom redu ukrajinskog parlamenta.
How close are these developments to reality? 
Koliko su ta kretanja realna?
Actually, almost all the leading political 
Zapravo, gotovo sve vodeće političke snage u Ukraji
forces in Ukraine support the idea of strong local self-government and, consequently, of transferring fiscal authority to lower government levels. 
ni podupiru ideju o jakoj lokalnoj samoupravi i, posljedično, prijenosu fiskalne vlasti na niže razine uprave.
„Tax Competition under Minimum Rates: The Case of European Diesel Excises“. 
“Income Tax Competition at the State and Local Level in Switzerland”.
“Income Tax Competition at the State and Local Level in Switzerland”. 
“Tax Competition and Profit Shifting: On the Relationship between Personal and Corporate Tax Rates”.
“Tax Competition and Profit Shifting: On the Relationship between Personal and Corporate Tax Rates”. 
„Intergovernmental Grants and Public Input Provision: Theory and Evidence from Germany“.
Centre of Economic Analys 
Centar za ekonomske analize
University Paul Cezanne Aix-Marseille III 
Sveučilište Paul Cezanne Aix-Marseille III
Aix-en-Provence, France 
Aix-en-Provence, Francuska
The aim of this paper is to analyse the economic efficiency of electronic money and 
Cilj je ovog članka analizirati ekonomsku efikasnost elektroničkog novca te identi
to identify different factors hindering its growth. 
ficirati različite čimbenike koji utječu na rast njegove upotrebe.
It is argued that electronic money might eventually make paper money obsolete. 
Šira upotreba elektroničkog novca u konačnici može potpuno izbaciti gotovinu iz upotrebe.
Nevertheless, prospects for the development of this monetary innovation remain uncertain due to the complexity and ambiguity of electronic money products. 
Međutim, budućnost te monetarne inovacije je neizvjesna zbog složenosti i neodređenosti elektroničkog novca.
In particular, the paper identifies network effects and habit persistence as major factors hindering the adoption and more widespread use of electronic money. 
Ovaj članak posebno identificira učinke stvaranja mreže i postojanost navika kao glavne činitelje prihvaćanja i šire upotrebe elektroničkog novca.
Keywords: e-money, ICT, network externalities, habit persistence. 
Ključne riječi: e-novac, ICT, mrežne eksternalije, postojanost navika
Around the world, entrepreneurs and institutions are racing to develop ef 
Svuda u svijetu poduzetnici i institucije utrkuju se kako bi razvili učinko
fective means of exchange for transaction across the internet and World Wide Web. 
vita sredstva razmjene na Internetu i World Wide Webu.
Their aim is to create units of purchasing power that are fully usable and transferable electronically: 'virtual' money that can be employed as easily as conventional currencies to acquire real goods and services. 
Njihov je cilj stvoriti jedinice kupovne moći koje su u potpunosti upotrebljive i elektronički prenosive - stvaran novac koji se može upotrijebiti jednako jednostavno kao i konvencionalna valuta prilikom kupovine realnih dobara i usluga.
The era of electronic money will be soon upon us. 
Era elektroničkog novca uskoro će doći.
I am grateful to professors Jean-Pierre Centi, Pierre Garello and Thierry Sebagh for comments and advice. 
Zahvaljujem profesorima Jean-Pierreu Centiju, Pierreu Garellou i Thierryu Sebaghu na komentarima i savjetima.
I would also like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for invalable comments and suggestions that improved the quality of this paper. 
Također zahvaljujem dvama anonimnim recenzentima na dragocjenim komentarima i savjetima koji su pridonijeli kvaliteti rada.
The last decade of the 20th century was a prosperous decade economically, characte 
Posljednje desetljeće 20. stoljeća bilo je ekonomski vrlo uspješno, karakterizirano zna
rised by significant advances in technological innovation and adaptation and their application in all socioeconomic activities. 
čajnim napretkom u tehnološkim inovacijama te njihovom primjenom u svim društvenim i ekonomskim aktivnostima.
The last decade of the 20th century was also marked by rapidly decreasing costs and 
I posljednje je desetljeće 20. stoljeća obilježeno velikim padom troškova te pobolj
improvements in performance of computing and telecommunications. 
šanjima u radu računalne i telekomunikacijske industrije.
As a result, the computer is becoming omnipresent: most offices use computers for managing their internal and external activities, and more and more households are becoming connected to the Internet and other networks. 
Kao rezultat toga računalo je postalo sveprisutno - većina ureda danas se koristi računalima za svoje poslovne aktivnosti, te je sve više kućanstava spojeno na Internet, ali i na druge mreže.
This development has encouraged commercial activity over the Internet and allowed a larger variety of assets to be exchanged electronically. 
Takav je razvoj ohrabrio komercijalnu aktivnost na Internetu i omogućio da se sa sve više različitih vrsta roba trguje elektronički.
It has also led to the development of some new forms of assets. 
Doveo je i do razvoja nekih novih oblika imovine.
The new form of “money” that has received most attention around the world is called “e-money products”. 
Novi oblik “novca” koji je u posljednje vrijeme privukao najviše pozornosti zove se elektronički novac.
This term refers to pre-payment systems in the real and the virtual worlds whose purpose is to enhance the effectiveness of existent payment systems and replace cash and coins in retail transactions. 
Pojam se odnosi na sustave plaćanja u realnome i virtualnom svijetu čiji je cilj unaprijediti efikasnost postojećih sustava plaćanja i zamijeniti novčanice i kovanice u maloprodajnim transakcijama.
Actually, there is no universal definition of e-money. 
Zapravo ne postoji univerzalna definicija elektroničkog novca.
tlements (BIS, 1996:1) affirms that electronic money is difficult to define because it combines specifics technological and economic characteristics. 
dna poravnanja (BIS, 1996:1) potvrđuje da je elektronički novac teško definirati jer utjelovljuje specifična tehnološka i ekonomska obilježja.
In addition, various e-money schemes are being developed and they differ considerably in their features, their technical implementation, and in the way in which value is transferred. 
Osim toga, razvijene su različite verzije elektroničkog novca koje se znatno razlikuju svojim obilježjima, tehničkom implementacijom te načinom na koji se vrijednost transferira (ibid., str.
As a result, several definitions of electronic money have evolved over time (Baddeley, 2004). 
Zbog svega toga pojavilo se nekoliko definicija elektroničkog novca (Baddeley, 2004).
In 1998, the ECB defined electronic money as “an electronic store of monetary value on a technical device that may be widely used for making payments to undertakings other than the issuer without necessarily involving bank accounts in the transaction, but acting as a prepaid bearer instrument” (ECB, 1998:7). 
Europska centralna banka (ECB) definirala je 1998. elektronički novac kao “elektroničko spremište monetarne vrijednosti na tehničkom uređaju koji se može široko koristiti za plaćanja obveza bez uključivanja bankovnih računa u transakciju, već da služi kao prepaid instrument” (ECB, 1998:7).
Despite the strong interest worldwide in e-money, the adoption of this monetary in 
Unatoč velikom interesu za elektronički novac, primjena takve monetarne inovacije
It has not been in widespread use so far either in the European Union or in other industrial countries. 
Takvi se instrumenti znatnije ne koriste u Europskoj uniji, kao ni u drugim industrijskim zemljama.
Cash remains the dominant means of payment especially in small-value retail payments and everyday retail transactions. 
Gotovina je još uvijek najčešće sredstvo plaćanja, posebno pri plaćanju svakodnevnih maloprodajnih transakcija male vrijednosti.
The aim of this paper is to analyse the economic aspects of e-money and to identi 
Cilj je ovog rada analizirati elektronički novac s ekonomskoga gledišta te identifici
fy factors which might hinder its growth. 
rati čimbenike koji mogu spriječiti njegov razvoj.
The existing literature on the development of e-money is limited. 
Postojeća literatura o temi elektroničkog novca prilično je ograničena.
They argue that the slow adoption of electronic payment systems such as e-money is due to high fixed costs, which require large up-front investment on the part of merchants. 
Oni navode da su razlozi spore primjene elektroničkih sustava plaćanja poput e-novca visoki fiksni troškovi koji od trgovaca zahtijevaju veliku početnu investiciju.
They argue that the use of electronic payment systems requires many preconditions, such as a relatively high level of income and education, which are not necessary for the use of other payment instruments. 
Oni tvrde da korištenje elektroničkog sustava plaćanja zahtijeva mnoge prethodno definirane uvjete kao što su relativno visoka razina dohotka i obrazovanja, što nije potrebno za druge instrumente plaćanja.
lities and the two-sided (adoption and use) nature of the market for the use of electronic money. 
Prvi su mrežne eksternalije i dvostruka priroda (primjena i korištenje) tržišta elektroničkog novca.
The second one is the “the habit problem”, a psychological factor related to socalled path dependency in the development and use of electronic money. 
Drugi je čimbenik problem postojanja navika - psihološki moment koji se odnosi na tzv. vremensku ovisnost u razvoju i upotrebi elektroničkog novca.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. 
Ostatak rada strukturiran je na sljedeći način.
The first section describes the evolution of electronic forms of payment (e-money) and analyses their economic efficiency. 
U prvom odjeljku opisuje se razvoj elektroničkih sustava plaćanja (e-novac) i analizira njegova ekonomska efikasnost.
The second section examines barriers hindering the more widespread use of electronic money, including network effects and habit persistence. 
Drugi odjeljak prikazuje ograničenja vezana za širu upotrebu elektroničkog novca, uključujući mrežne eksternalije i postojanost navika.
The conclusion summarises the findings. 
U zaključku su predstavljeni glavni rezultati analize.
2 ICT revolution and money innovation 
2. Informatička revolucija i inovacije vezane za novac
Electronic money is not a new phenomenon. 
Elektronički novac nije nov fenomen.
Since the Information and Computing 
Od informatičke revolucije sredinom devedese
Commerce over the Internet is increasing the use of these new technologies and consequently, the demand for a new electronic payment system is enhanced. 
Trgovina putem Interneta povećala je primjenu novih tehnologija te se stoga potražnja novih elektroničkih sustava plaćanja povećala.
However, the electronic transfer of payments in retail financial transactions and the 
Međutim, ono što je uistinu novo jesu elektronička plaćanja u maloprodaji te korište
use of the Internet as a monetary marketplace are relatively new. 
nje Internetom kao novim monetarnim tržištem.
As a result, the geography of money has changed (Cohen, 1998). 
Rezultat toga je činjenica da se geografija novca promijenila (Cohen, 1998).
Due to the ICT revolution, a new form of electronic payments appeared and quickly received considerable attention around the world and we talk about electronic money products (also known as electronic cash, e-purse, ecurrency, digital currency, digital money, scrip or digital cash). 
Zbog informatičke revolucije pojavio se nov oblik elektroničkih plaćanja, koji je ubrzo privukao veliku pozornost diljem svijeta - elektronički novac (poznat i pod imenima elektronička gotovina, e-torba, e-valuta, digitalna valuta, digitalni novac ili digitalna gotovina).
Money has information stored in a microprocessor or on a computer database which allow data, including account balances, personal information, PIN codes, shopping information and loyalty rewards to be stored on the card. 
Danas novac postaje informacija spremljena na mikroprocesoru ili u bazi podataka koja sadržava podatke o stanju računa, osobne informacije, PIN broj, informacije o kupnjama te nagradama za lojalnost.
The purpose is incontestably to enhance and to improve the efficiency of traditional payments systems. 
Cilj takvog instrumenta jest neosporno poboljšanje efikasnosti tradicionalnog sustava plaćanja.
Generally this system was used by banks and other financial institutions to exchange and to transfer large amounts of money at national and international levels. 
Navedenim su se sustavom koristile banke i druge financijske institucije kako bi razmjenjivale i prenosile velike količine novca na nacionalnoj i međunarodnoj razini.
The essence of EFT is to make money move via networks as a substitute for cash or 
Osnova funkcioniranja EFT-a jest da se novac kreće putem mreža kao supstitut go
The use of EFT became widespread with the introduction and acceptance of automated teller machines (ATMs) which enable direct fund transfers at points of sale (EFTPOS). 
Uporaba EFT-a znatnije se povećala s pojavom i prihvaćanjem bankomata, koji omogućuju izravni transfer novca na mjesto na kojemu
The EFT is considered the first step of payment electronification. 
se roba prodala (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale - EFTPOS).
The development of encryption played a major role in the success of the card-payment system. 
Jednako tako, razvoj enkripcije odigrao je veliku ulogu u uspjehu plaćanja s karticama.
This innovation was considered the second step of payment electronification. 
Ta se inovacija smatra drugim stupnjem elektronizacije transakcije.
The rise and acceptance of card payment had a negative repercussion on the tradi 
Rast i prihvaćanje plaćanja karticama ostavilo je negativne posljedice na tradicional
tional payment system. 
ne sustave plaćanja.
There was a transition from paper-based instruments, in particular cheques and cash, to electronic-based instruments in many countries. 
Mnoge su zemlje ostvarile prijelaz s uporabe papirnih instrumenata, kao što su gotovina i čekovi, na služenje elektroničkim instrumentima.
As Table 2 shows, cheques (as the popular instrument for payments) lost their market share and are actually declining even in absolute volume. 
Kao što pokazuje tablica 2, čekovi kao vrlo popularan instrument plaćanja gube tržišni udio, te se smanjuje njihov ukupan opseg korištenja.
Some countries like the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium are already moving toward the cheq 
Neke zemlje poput Nizozemske, Njemačke i Belgije već se sada kreću putem “društva bez upotrebe čekova”.
Source: European Central Bank, 2005 
Izvor: European Central Bank, 2005.
Electronic money has a twofold origin. 
Dva su razloga pojave elektroničkog novca.
Firstly, according to Austrian economic ana 
Prvi, prema austrijskoj školi ekonom
lysis (Menger, 1982; Von Hayek, 1976; Centi, 1979, etc), money as a “social institution” is anyway subject to ongoing institutional change; it is interpreted as the fruit of a spontaneous evolution intended to cure the disadvantages of barter and the double coincidence of want. 
ske analize (Menger, 1982; von Hayek, 1976; Centi, 1979, itd.) novac je kao “socijalna institucija” podvrgnut već započetoj institucionalnoj promjeni, te se interpretira kao posljedica spontane evolucije koja bi trebala premostiti nedostatke trampe i dvostruke koincidencije želja.
E-money is the most recent stage of this development and is a further instance of institutional change (Schmitz, 2001). 
Danas je e-novac posljednja faza tog razvoja te dodatni stupanj institucionalne promjene (Schmitz, 2001).
TTS principal role is to stimulate electronic 
Njegova je glavna uloga da podupire elektroničku tr
The second origin of e-money is related to the ICT revolution characterized by the integration of information processing and telecommunications technologies and the increase of the geographical distance over which information can be transmitted and spread among the public and around the world. 
Drugi se razlog nastanka e-novca odnosi na informatičku revoluciju koju obilježava integracija elektroničkog procesuiranja informacija i telekomunikacijskih tehnologija te smanjenje geografskih razlika putem kojih se informacije mogu prenositi diljem svijeta.
ICT has modified the financial sector and is making payment systems more reliable and effective, giving the birth to a new monetary intermediary circulating through networks. 
Informatička je revolucija promijenila financijski sektor te je omogućila da sustavi plaćanja postanu pouzdaniji i učinkovitiji, dajući dodatan razlog za pojavu novih monetarnih inovacija.
ICT is a typical revolution but e-money is not, it is simply a new way of processing 
Za razliku od informatičke revolucije, pojava e-novca nije tipična revolucija, već samo
information and storing purchasing power. 
novi način procesuiranja informacija te prenošenja kupovne moći.
According to White (1996), the various financial innovations do not create new forms of money, but are rather new ways of employing existing money in transactions. 
Prema White (1996), mnoge financijske inovacije nisu nov oblik novca, već drugačiji način upotrebe postojećeg novca u transakcijama.
The e-money3 card is a new means of payment which makes it possible to transfer 
Kartica e-novca3 drugačije je sredstvo plaćanja te omogućuje elektronički prijenos
value from card to terminal or card to wallet electronically only, both in the physical world and via networks. 
vrijednosti od kartice na terminal ili od kartice u novčanik, kako u stvarnom vremenu, tako i putem mreža.
This monetary innovation is seen as a fundamental achievement; it carries a preloaded monetary value and can be used as a means of payment for multiple smallvalue purchases. 
E-novac se smatra najvažnijim dostignućem koje prenosi unaprijed zadanu monetarnu vrijednost te se može upotrebljavati za višestruke transakcije manje vrijednosti.
The purse contains a microprocessor in which information and monetary value are stored. 
E-torbica se sastoji od mikroprocesora u kojemu su spremljene informacije o monetarnoj vrijednosti koja se može iskoristiti.
Transferability among end users 
Prenosivost između krajnjih korisnika
Adapted for network payment 
Prilagođeno za plaćanja putem mreža
Multifunctional payment features 
Multifunkcionalna obilježja plaćanja
Yes (debit card function and ATM access) 
da (funkcija debitne kartice i pristup na bankomat)
Netherlands Chipknip Dedicated loading device 
Nizozemska Chipknip poseban uređaj za punjenje
2 Money serves as a medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value. 
2 Novac služi kao sredstvo razmjene, kao obračunska jedinica te kao spremište vrijednosti.
3 E-money products need to be distinguished from the access products which generally allow consumers to use electronic means of communication to access conventional payment services. 
3 Elektronički novac treba razlikovati od proizvoda koji se koriste komunikacijom putem mreža kako bi se pristupilo konvencionalnim sustavima plaćanja.
The first e-money card, named Danmøn, was created by Danish industrial enterprises in 1992. 
Prva praktična primjena e-novca bila je kartica Danmøn, koju su osmislila danska industrijska poduzeća 1992. godine.
This experience was a success and since then a lot of countries around the world have been trying out different e-money card projects. 
Nakon tog izuzetno pozitivnog iskustva u mnogim su zemljama uvedeni različiti projekti.
As Table 3 shows, the functions and characteristics of an e-money card vary from one country to another. 
Kao što prikazuje tablica 3, funkcije i obilježja e-novca razlikuju se od zemlje do zemlje.
us - including retail transaction accounting, theft, loss of cash, safekeeping and security, deposit costs, as well as costs related to cash management services provided by financial institutions. 
Usto, držanje gotovine prate mnogi troškovi, uključujući troškove blagajne, prevare, gubitka novca, čuvanja, deponiranja, ali i troškove vezane za upravljanje gotovinom u financijskim institucijama.
It was created in order to reduce these costs and to provide a new way of storing and transporting purchasing power temporally. 
Moneo je kreiran kako bi se smanjili troškovi držanja gotovine te kako bi se kupovna moć mogla privremeno prenositi na efikasniji način.
Moneo should facilitate a variety of low value retail transactions and should consequently be a substitute for real cash. 
Taj bi se sustav trebao primjenjivati za različite maloprodajne transakcije manje vrijednosti te bi u konačnici trebao postati supstitut za gotovinu.
It is a modern and rapid payment means; it will certainly be of great convenience for its users. 
Moneo je moderno i brzo sredstvo plaćanja koje će zasigurno postati vrlo prikladno za primjenu.
Moneo provides numerous benefits to both consumers and merchants. 
Sustav Moneo nudi velike prednosti potrošačima, ali i trgovcima.