natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
As concerns the “equalization grant share” variable, the reason for such a difference
nosti koeficijenta u regresiji i onoga koji smo prikazali u prethodnome modelu (tabl.
This fact suggests that vertical fiscal competition interacts with the horizontal one and could be used as a means of attracting new taxpayers.
Ta činjenica upućuje na interakciju između vertikalne i horizontalne fiskalne konkurencije te se može upotrijebiti kao sredstvo za privlačenje novih poreznih obveznika.
The fact of small businesses' reaction to the UTNP rate variation leaves open the que
Reakcija malih poduzeća na promjene stopa JPFO-a ostavlja otvorenim pitanje koriste
stion on whether the local governments actually use the tax instrument in question in order to attract more taxpayers.
li se lokalne uprave doista dotičnim poreznim instrumentom za privlačenje poreznih obveznika.
This question could be answered after a more detailed analysis with more comprehensive data sets involved.
Odgovor na to pitanje moguć je tek nakon detaljnije analize opsežnijih skupova podataka.
The time series analysis would give some useful insights into this matter.
Analiza vremenskih serija mogla bi dati koristan uvid u tu problematiku.
The low value of R2 in the case of a merged set of observations could signal that there
Mala vrijednost R2 u slučaju spojenih skupova opažanja mogla bi biti znak pogrešno
We can guess that economic rationale for such behavior could be the fact that UT proceeds are allocated to the revenue basket intended for funding delegated functions.
Možemo pretpostaviti da bi ekonomsko opravdanje za takvo ponašanje moglo biti uključivanje prihoda od JP-a u košaricu prihoda za financiranje delegiranih funkcija.
Another fact contributing to such behavior is the sharing of tax proceeds.
Drugi je uzrok takvom ponašanju zajedničko korištenje poreznim prihodima.
To sum up, the local governments feel that there is no need to care much about the UTNP administration, because there are much more attractive and cost-effective options.
Ukratko, lokalne uprave smatraju da ne moraju mnogo brinuti o administraciji JPFO-a jer postoje druge, privlačnije i ekonomičnije mogućnosti.
The statement could be supported by an estimation of UTNP revenue potential.
U prilog toj tvrdnji govori procjena potencijalnih prihoda od JPFO-a.
E.g. in the Ivano-Frankivsk region, according to the local property census 2007, there are about 6,000 tractors and 9,000 horses in the private possession.
Na primjer, prema popisu imovine iz 2007, u regiji Ivano-frankivska bilo je oko 6.000 traktora i 9.000 konja u privatnom vlasništvu.
Should the local authorities manage to have all the tractor and horse owners registered and pay UTNP at the minimum rate (UAH 240 a year), which would really not be not burdensome for micro entrepreneurs, this would produce about UAH 3 million of additional income for local governments in rural areas which accounts for about 25 per cent of the current UT proceeds of rural councils.
Kada bi lokalne vlasti uspjele postići da svi vlasnici traktora i konjâ budu registrirani i da plaćaju JPFO po najmanjoj stopi (240 UAH godišnje), što stvarno ne bi bio teret za mikropoduzeća, prikupilo bi se oko 3 milijuna UAH dodatnih prihoda za lokalne uprave u ruralnim područjima, što čini oko 25% tekućih prihoda od JP-a ruralnih vijeća.
And this is just a small example of a missed opportunity to generate revenues from UTNP.
To je samo mali primjer propuštanja prilike za ostvarivanje prihoda od JPFO-a.
S. Slukhai: Inter-Location Small Business Tax Rate Variation in Ukraine: What Is Behind It?
Općenito, obje regresije pokazuju vrlo malu signifikantnost nekih koeficijenata i slabu
Generally speaking, both regressions show quite a low significance of some coeffici
Stoga se predviđanja u oba modela moraju uzeti s velikim oprezom te im se ne smije pridati prevelika važnost.
ents and low reliability of predictions, especially in the case of the second one, due to the low number of observations.
Na osnovi njih ne možemo tvrditi da ukrajinski sustav financiranja na lokalnoj razini stvarno dovodi do porezne konkurencije.
That is why the predictions of both models must be taken with high caution and not overstated.
Možemo samo reći da u sadašnjim uvjetima postoje određene pretpostavke za nastanak porezne konkurencije.
Based on them, we cannot state that the Ukrainian local finance system really gives rise to tax competition; we can only say that, under the current conditions, there are some prerequisites for the emergence of tax competition.
U tom slučaju bilo bi vrlo korisno procijeniti čimbenike koji kontroliraju varijablu porezne konkurencije kako bi se ustanovilo povećava li porezna konkurencija učinkovitost javnog sektora ili je smanjuje.
In this case, an estimation of the factors which control the tax competition variable could be very useful to establish whether horizontal tax competition would encourage or reduce the public sector efficiency.
Gledano iz naše perspektive, u tom bi slučaju institucionalne promjene imale najveći učinak, ali ih je teško obuhvatiti ekonometrijskom analizom.
taken into account for calculating the amount of equalization grant could change the fiscal behavior of local governments.
uzimaju u obzir za izračun iznosa potpore izravnanja moglo promijeniti fiskalno ponašanje lokalnih uprava.
It could make them more aggressive in maintaining the taxpayers' discipline and increase propensity to use tax rates for attracting taxpayers and hence expanding their own tax base because in this case it will not affect the amount of equalization grant received.
Ono bi ih moglo učiniti agresivnijima u održavanju discipline poreznih obveznika i povećati sklonost korištenju poreznih stopa za privlačenje poreznih obveznika, a time i za širenje vlastite porezne osnovice, jer u tom slučaju ona neće utjecati na iznos primljene potpore izravnanja.
The same could be true especially for the Ukrainian local governments which seem to be set to gain more autonomy in the nearest future, as suggested by the recent developments in the Ukrainian public sector: the central government, being unable to prevent a decline in local revenues and deterioration of locally operated public service infrastructure as a result of global recession which sharply hit the Ukrainian economy in 2008, seems now to be more eager to unleash local fiscal initiatives through granting greater fiscal autonomy to territorial communities.
To bi moglo vrijediti ponajprije za ukrajinske lokalne vlasti koje su, čini se, u najskorijoj budućnosti odlučile postići veću autonomiju, što pokazuju novija kretanja u javnom sektoru Ukrajine: u nemogućnosti da spriječi pad lokalnih prihoda i pogoršanje infrastrukture javnih usluga na lokalnoj razini zbog globalne recesije koja je snažno pogodila ukrajinsko gospodarstvo u 2008, središnja država nastoji pokrenuti lokalne fiskalne inicijative davanjem veće fiskalne autonomije teritorijalnim zajednicama.
The Ukrainian local revenue system does not give much room for horizontal fis
Ukrajinski sustav lokalnih prihoda ne nudi velike mogućnosti za horizontalnu fiskalnu
Nowadays, as the local property tax is still not implemented, the best possible area for tax competition is the UTNP, which is structured in a way that allows local governments to use this revenue instrument for attracting a greater number of taxpayers and, consequently, generate more revenue for funding the expenditures on local delivery of public goods.
Danas, kada se još uvijek ne primjenjuje lokalni porez na imovinu, najbolje područje za poreznu konkurenciju jest JPFO, čija struktura omogućuje lokalnim upravama da se koriste tim prihodima kao instrumentom za povećanje broja poreznih obveznika i, u skladu s time, za povećanje prihoda za financiranje javnih dobara na lokalnoj razini.
This conclusion stems from the fact that local governments are granted some discretion in setting tax rates.
Taj zaključak proizlazi iz činjenice da lokalne uprave imaju određeno diskrecijsko pravo na određivanje poreznih stopa.
On the other hand, this possibility is weakened by a low sharing rate applied to this revenue source (which contradicts the right of taking decisions on the rates) and high local government dependence on state equalization grants.
Međutim, ta je mogućnost ograničena niskim udjelom u korištenju tim izvorom prihoda (što je u suprotnosti s pravom na odlučivanje o stopama) i velikom ovisnošću lokalnih uprava o državnim potporama izravnanja.
petition in Ukraine is heavily limited by the central government which neglects the issue of voluntary tax coordination at the local level.
Zato su njezine fiskalne eksternalije malog opsega i neutraliziraju se potporama izravnanja koje služe kao glavni izvor financiranja lokalnih zajednica, osobito u ruralnim područjima.
That is why its fiscal externalities are of a small scale and they are offset by equalization grants serving as a major source of funding for communities, especially in rural areas.
Pitanje odgovornosti pritom nema veću ulogu zbog nerazvijenosti lokalnih institucija i velikih udjela vanjskih prihoda u proračunima lokalnih uprava.
For the local governments, vertical fiscal competition, especially as concerns state grants, seems to be more important because it results in much more substantial revenue gains.
slovnih subjekata registriranih kao porezni obveznici i efektivne stope JPFO-a, što je očit dokaz postojanja porezne konkurencije među jurisdikcijama, s ciljem privlačenja poreznih obveznika.
Despite all these “buts”, there is a negative correlation between the number of small
U toj utakmici gradske su zajednice vjerojatno u prednosti pred ruralnima.
We suppose that such competition could become noticeable in case the national gover
Pretpostavljamo da bi se takva konkurencija mogla očitovati ako državna uprava od
nment decides to widen the gap between the minimum and maximum UTNP rates (some intentions to do so in the face of the deepening recession, and the consequential decline in revenues have been announced).
luči povećati raspon između najmanje i najveće stope JPFO-a (neke namjere u tom smjeru, u uvjetima sve dublje recesije i, posljedično, smanjenja prihoda, već su najavljene).
At the moment, the floor tax rate of 20 UAH (about 2 Euro), or even the ceiling rate of 200 UAH (20 Euro) per month approved in 1998 seems ridiculous, taking into account the fact that many small businesses earn quite substantial amounts of money.
U ovom se trenutku najniža porezna stopa od 20 UAH (oko 2 eura), pa čak i najviša stopa od 200 UAH (20 eura) mjesečno, utvrđena 1998, čini smiješnom uzme li se u obzir činjenica da mnoga mala poduzeća ostvaruju pozamašne zarade.
Another factor which could contribute to this issue is the re-shifting of functions in favor of the basic-level local governments and making UTNP an own revenue source, thus excluding it from the revenue sources taken into account for the calculation of equalization grants and from the sharing procedure.
Drugi čimbenik koji bi mogao pridonijeti tome jest prijenos funkcija na najniže razine uprave, čime JPFO postaje njihov vlastiti izvor prihoda te se izuzima iz prihoda za izračunavanje potpora izravnanja i iz zajedničkog korištenja.
This kind of policy would raise the motivation of local governments for expanding the revenue base and strengthen their desire to compete for taxpayers.
Takva bi politika povećala motiviranost lokalnih uprava da šire vlastite osnove prihoda te bi pooštrila natjecanje za porezne obveznike.
A new real opportunity for competition could arise with the adoption of legislation on local property taxation, which would grant significant tax rate discretion to the local governments.
Još jedna stvarna prilika za konkurenciju mogla bi nastati donošenjem zakonodavstva o lokalnom oporezivanju imovine koje bi lokalnim upravama osiguralo značajna prava na diskrecijsko odlučivanje o poreznim stopama.
The relevant legal acts are still on the agenda of the Ukrainian Parliament.
Odgovarajući zakonski akti još su uvijek na dnevnom redu ukrajinskog parlamenta.
How close are these developments to reality?
Koliko su ta kretanja realna?
Actually, almost all the leading political
Zapravo, gotovo sve vodeće političke snage u Ukraji
forces in Ukraine support the idea of strong local self-government and, consequently, of transferring fiscal authority to lower government levels.
ni podupiru ideju o jakoj lokalnoj samoupravi i, posljedično, prijenosu fiskalne vlasti na niže razine uprave.
„Tax Competition under Minimum Rates: The Case of European Diesel Excises“.
“Income Tax Competition at the State and Local Level in Switzerland”.
“Income Tax Competition at the State and Local Level in Switzerland”.
“Tax Competition and Profit Shifting: On the Relationship between Personal and Corporate Tax Rates”.
“Tax Competition and Profit Shifting: On the Relationship between Personal and Corporate Tax Rates”.
„Intergovernmental Grants and Public Input Provision: Theory and Evidence from Germany“.
Centre of Economic Analys
Centar za ekonomske analize
University Paul Cezanne Aix-Marseille III
Sveučilište Paul Cezanne Aix-Marseille III
Aix-en-Provence, France
Aix-en-Provence, Francuska
The aim of this paper is to analyse the economic efficiency of electronic money and
Cilj je ovog članka analizirati ekonomsku efikasnost elektroničkog novca te identi
to identify different factors hindering its growth.
ficirati različite čimbenike koji utječu na rast njegove upotrebe.
It is argued that electronic money might eventually make paper money obsolete.
Šira upotreba elektroničkog novca u konačnici može potpuno izbaciti gotovinu iz upotrebe.
Nevertheless, prospects for the development of this monetary innovation remain uncertain due to the complexity and ambiguity of electronic money products.
Međutim, budućnost te monetarne inovacije je neizvjesna zbog složenosti i neodređenosti elektroničkog novca.
In particular, the paper identifies network effects and habit persistence as major factors hindering the adoption and more widespread use of electronic money.
Ovaj članak posebno identificira učinke stvaranja mreže i postojanost navika kao glavne činitelje prihvaćanja i šire upotrebe elektroničkog novca.
Keywords: e-money, ICT, network externalities, habit persistence.
Ključne riječi: e-novac, ICT, mrežne eksternalije, postojanost navika
Around the world, entrepreneurs and institutions are racing to develop ef
Svuda u svijetu poduzetnici i institucije utrkuju se kako bi razvili učinko
fective means of exchange for transaction across the internet and World Wide Web.
vita sredstva razmjene na Internetu i World Wide Webu.
Their aim is to create units of purchasing power that are fully usable and transferable electronically: 'virtual' money that can be employed as easily as conventional currencies to acquire real goods and services.
Njihov je cilj stvoriti jedinice kupovne moći koje su u potpunosti upotrebljive i elektronički prenosive - stvaran novac koji se može upotrijebiti jednako jednostavno kao i konvencionalna valuta prilikom kupovine realnih dobara i usluga.
The era of electronic money will be soon upon us.
Era elektroničkog novca uskoro će doći.
I am grateful to professors Jean-Pierre Centi, Pierre Garello and Thierry Sebagh for comments and advice.
Zahvaljujem profesorima Jean-Pierreu Centiju, Pierreu Garellou i Thierryu Sebaghu na komentarima i savjetima.
I would also like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for invalable comments and suggestions that improved the quality of this paper.
Također zahvaljujem dvama anonimnim recenzentima na dragocjenim komentarima i savjetima koji su pridonijeli kvaliteti rada.
The last decade of the 20th century was a prosperous decade economically, characte
Posljednje desetljeće 20. stoljeća bilo je ekonomski vrlo uspješno, karakterizirano zna
rised by significant advances in technological innovation and adaptation and their application in all socioeconomic activities.
čajnim napretkom u tehnološkim inovacijama te njihovom primjenom u svim društvenim i ekonomskim aktivnostima.
The last decade of the 20th century was also marked by rapidly decreasing costs and
I posljednje je desetljeće 20. stoljeća obilježeno velikim padom troškova te pobolj
improvements in performance of computing and telecommunications.
šanjima u radu računalne i telekomunikacijske industrije.
As a result, the computer is becoming omnipresent: most offices use computers for managing their internal and external activities, and more and more households are becoming connected to the Internet and other networks.
Kao rezultat toga računalo je postalo sveprisutno - većina ureda danas se koristi računalima za svoje poslovne aktivnosti, te je sve više kućanstava spojeno na Internet, ali i na druge mreže.
This development has encouraged commercial activity over the Internet and allowed a larger variety of assets to be exchanged electronically.
Takav je razvoj ohrabrio komercijalnu aktivnost na Internetu i omogućio da se sa sve više različitih vrsta roba trguje elektronički.
It has also led to the development of some new forms of assets.
Doveo je i do razvoja nekih novih oblika imovine.
The new form of “money” that has received most attention around the world is called “e-money products”.
Novi oblik “novca” koji je u posljednje vrijeme privukao najviše pozornosti zove se elektronički novac.
This term refers to pre-payment systems in the real and the virtual worlds whose purpose is to enhance the effectiveness of existent payment systems and replace cash and coins in retail transactions.
Pojam se odnosi na sustave plaćanja u realnome i virtualnom svijetu čiji je cilj unaprijediti efikasnost postojećih sustava plaćanja i zamijeniti novčanice i kovanice u maloprodajnim transakcijama.
Actually, there is no universal definition of e-money.
Zapravo ne postoji univerzalna definicija elektroničkog novca.
tlements (BIS, 1996:1) affirms that electronic money is difficult to define because it combines specifics technological and economic characteristics.
dna poravnanja (BIS, 1996:1) potvrđuje da je elektronički novac teško definirati jer utjelovljuje specifična tehnološka i ekonomska obilježja.
In addition, various e-money schemes are being developed and they differ considerably in their features, their technical implementation, and in the way in which value is transferred.
Osim toga, razvijene su različite verzije elektroničkog novca koje se znatno razlikuju svojim obilježjima, tehničkom implementacijom te načinom na koji se vrijednost transferira (ibid., str.
As a result, several definitions of electronic money have evolved over time (Baddeley, 2004).
Zbog svega toga pojavilo se nekoliko definicija elektroničkog novca (Baddeley, 2004).
In 1998, the ECB defined electronic money as “an electronic store of monetary value on a technical device that may be widely used for making payments to undertakings other than the issuer without necessarily involving bank accounts in the transaction, but acting as a prepaid bearer instrument” (ECB, 1998:7).
Europska centralna banka (ECB) definirala je 1998. elektronički novac kao “elektroničko spremište monetarne vrijednosti na tehničkom uređaju koji se može široko koristiti za plaćanja obveza bez uključivanja bankovnih računa u transakciju, već da služi kao prepaid instrument” (ECB, 1998:7).
Despite the strong interest worldwide in e-money, the adoption of this monetary in
Unatoč velikom interesu za elektronički novac, primjena takve monetarne inovacije
It has not been in widespread use so far either in the European Union or in other industrial countries.
Takvi se instrumenti znatnije ne koriste u Europskoj uniji, kao ni u drugim industrijskim zemljama.
Cash remains the dominant means of payment especially in small-value retail payments and everyday retail transactions.
Gotovina je još uvijek najčešće sredstvo plaćanja, posebno pri plaćanju svakodnevnih maloprodajnih transakcija male vrijednosti.
The aim of this paper is to analyse the economic aspects of e-money and to identi
Cilj je ovog rada analizirati elektronički novac s ekonomskoga gledišta te identifici
fy factors which might hinder its growth.
rati čimbenike koji mogu spriječiti njegov razvoj.
The existing literature on the development of e-money is limited.
Postojeća literatura o temi elektroničkog novca prilično je ograničena.
They argue that the slow adoption of electronic payment systems such as e-money is due to high fixed costs, which require large up-front investment on the part of merchants.
Oni navode da su razlozi spore primjene elektroničkih sustava plaćanja poput e-novca visoki fiksni troškovi koji od trgovaca zahtijevaju veliku početnu investiciju.
They argue that the use of electronic payment systems requires many preconditions, such as a relatively high level of income and education, which are not necessary for the use of other payment instruments.
Oni tvrde da korištenje elektroničkog sustava plaćanja zahtijeva mnoge prethodno definirane uvjete kao što su relativno visoka razina dohotka i obrazovanja, što nije potrebno za druge instrumente plaćanja.
lities and the two-sided (adoption and use) nature of the market for the use of electronic money.
Prvi su mrežne eksternalije i dvostruka priroda (primjena i korištenje) tržišta elektroničkog novca.
The second one is the “the habit problem”, a psychological factor related to socalled path dependency in the development and use of electronic money.
Drugi je čimbenik problem postojanja navika - psihološki moment koji se odnosi na tzv. vremensku ovisnost u razvoju i upotrebi elektroničkog novca.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows.
Ostatak rada strukturiran je na sljedeći način.
The first section describes the evolution of electronic forms of payment (e-money) and analyses their economic efficiency.
U prvom odjeljku opisuje se razvoj elektroničkih sustava plaćanja (e-novac) i analizira njegova ekonomska efikasnost.
The second section examines barriers hindering the more widespread use of electronic money, including network effects and habit persistence.
Drugi odjeljak prikazuje ograničenja vezana za širu upotrebu elektroničkog novca, uključujući mrežne eksternalije i postojanost navika.
The conclusion summarises the findings.
U zaključku su predstavljeni glavni rezultati analize.
2 ICT revolution and money innovation
2. Informatička revolucija i inovacije vezane za novac
Electronic money is not a new phenomenon.
Elektronički novac nije nov fenomen.
Since the Information and Computing
Od informatičke revolucije sredinom devedese
Commerce over the Internet is increasing the use of these new technologies and consequently, the demand for a new electronic payment system is enhanced.
Trgovina putem Interneta povećala je primjenu novih tehnologija te se stoga potražnja novih elektroničkih sustava plaćanja povećala.
However, the electronic transfer of payments in retail financial transactions and the
Međutim, ono što je uistinu novo jesu elektronička plaćanja u maloprodaji te korište
use of the Internet as a monetary marketplace are relatively new.
nje Internetom kao novim monetarnim tržištem.
As a result, the geography of money has changed (Cohen, 1998).
Rezultat toga je činjenica da se geografija novca promijenila (Cohen, 1998).
Due to the ICT revolution, a new form of electronic payments appeared and quickly received considerable attention around the world and we talk about electronic money products (also known as electronic cash, e-purse, ecurrency, digital currency, digital money, scrip or digital cash).
Zbog informatičke revolucije pojavio se nov oblik elektroničkih plaćanja, koji je ubrzo privukao veliku pozornost diljem svijeta - elektronički novac (poznat i pod imenima elektronička gotovina, e-torba, e-valuta, digitalna valuta, digitalni novac ili digitalna gotovina).
Money has information stored in a microprocessor or on a computer database which allow data, including account balances, personal information, PIN codes, shopping information and loyalty rewards to be stored on the card.
Danas novac postaje informacija spremljena na mikroprocesoru ili u bazi podataka koja sadržava podatke o stanju računa, osobne informacije, PIN broj, informacije o kupnjama te nagradama za lojalnost.
The purpose is incontestably to enhance and to improve the efficiency of traditional payments systems.
Cilj takvog instrumenta jest neosporno poboljšanje efikasnosti tradicionalnog sustava plaćanja.