natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Ολοι σχεδόν οι κανόνες που διέπουν τους διάφορους τύπους συμβάσεων είναι "ρυθμιστικοί", δηλαδή οι αντισυμβαλλόμενοι έχουν τη δυνατότητα να μην τους ακολουθήσουν: έτσι δεν αποτελούν από μόνοι τους εμπόδιο για την εγκυρότητα των συμβατικών όρων όταν αυτοί παρεκκλίνουν, ακόμα και αν εισάγουν πολύ ευνοϊκότερους κανόνες για τον ένα αντισυμβαλλόμενο από εκείνους που προβλέπονται από το ισχύον δί και ο.
The second paragraph of Article 1341 states that "In any case conditions are ineffective, unless specifically approved in writing," - i.e. in substance, if the pure formalism of the double signature is not applied -"which establish, in favour of him who has prepared them in advance, limitations on liability, the power of withdrawing from the contract or of suspending its performance, or which impose time-limits involving forfeitures on the other party, limitations on the power to raise defences, restrictions on contractual freedom in relations with third parties, tacit extension or renewal of the contract, arbitra ion clauses or derogations from the competence of courts" (it should also be noted that, for international contracts, arbitration clauses are excluded from the scope of Article 1341 of the Italia: Civil Code on the basis of the 1958 New York Convention, and the indication of the competent forum is similarly treated on the basis of Article 17 of the 1968 Brussels Convention).
Εν τούτοις στο Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο τα δικαστήρια έχουν καθιερώσει εδώ και καιρό κάποιους κανόνες προκειμένου να αποφευχθεί
The first paragraph of Article 1342 stipulates that "In contracts made by subscribing to forms or formularies prepared for the purpose of regulating certain contractual relationships in a uniform manner, clauses added to such forms or formularies prevail over the original clauses of said forms or formularies when they are incompatible with them, even though the latter have not been struck out".
- τουλάχιστον στις ακραίες περιπτώσεις
Article 1370 adds that "Provisions contained in the standard
S3 ως μέσο άσκησης παράνομης κο: ι καταχρηστικής εξουσίας από τον ένα συμβαλλόμενο επί του άλλου.
-37- conditions of a contract or in forms or formularies [...] are interpreted, in case of doubt, in favour of the other".
(unreasonable) συνεκτιμώντας κάποιους παράγοντες, όπως π.χ. την συνήθη εμπορική πρακτική ή την σχετικά ισχυρότερη θέση του ενός έναντι του άλλου συμβαλλομένου.
It is evident that Italian law affords inadequate protection to the weaker party against general terms imposed by the other party: a foreign subcontractor should therefore exercise particular caution over these general terms of contract.
— τότε εφαρμόζονται όσα προβλέπονται από το ισχύον δίκαιο.
If it happens that any aspects of the subcontracting relationship have not been settled by the parties by specific agreement or by means of general terms, the legal rules apply.
(LUVI), η οποία εξάλλου εφαρμόζεται στις συναλλαγές με λίγες χώρες
It should be pointed out, however, that Italy has ratified the Hague Convention of 1964 on the international sale of goods and the Vienna Convention of 1980.
(λόγω του περιορισμένου αριθμού των χωρών που την έχουν επικυρώσει).
Where the appropriate conditions are met, therefore, the rules governing a subcontract should be sought primarily in the relevant Convention.
Av αντίθετα στη συγκεκριμένη περίπτωση εφαρμόζετο: ι το δίκαιο του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου, το νομικό καθεστώς εξαρτάται από τον χαρακτηρισμό της σύμβασης (βλέπε παρ.1 ανωτέρω).
On the other hand, if it is Italian law which applies, the not insignificant drawback of the lack of special rules adapted to subcontracts (especially as regards the need for protection of the weaker party) is compounded by the difficulties in deciding to which category a particular subcontract belongs and hence on the rules that will be applicable.
Στις συμβάσεις πώλησης (sale) εφαρμόζεται ο Νόμος Sale o-F
In fact, the distinction between the categories of contract referred to above - sales contract, independent contract, supply contract and independent labour contract (see 1. above) - is rather uncertain and sometimes blurred.
Προκειμένου για συμβάσεις προμήθειας προϊόντων (supply o-F ooods) εοαρυάζετο: ι (εκτός από τη Σκωτία) ο Νόμος Supply o-F Goods and Services Act του 1982. To θέμα της ένταξης μιας συγκεκριμένης σύμβασης υπεργολαβίας στις προαναφερθείσες κατηγορίες συμβάσεων δεν έχει πάντως, σύμφωνα με το δίκαιο του
In practical terms, the uncertainty in particular cases as to whether a subcontract should be considered as a sales contract (perhaps "staggered delivery") or a supply contract (under Article 1559 of the Civil Code, "a supply contract is one by which a party binds itself to supply another with things continuously or periodically, in return for a price") may be of relative importance: on the one hand, because of the reference contained in Article 1570 of the Civil Code, viz.
σχετικά με την ευθύνη γ ι α τα ελαττώματα, την ποιότητα κ.λ.π), έτσι ώστε να είναι απίθανο να έχει κάποια πρακτική σημασία για τον υπεργολάβο η διαφορά στον χαρακτηρισμό της σύμβασης.
"To the extent that they are compatible with the provisions of the preceding articles, the provisions governing the type of contract to which single instalments of performance correspond apply to a supply contract" (which, in such a case, could indeed be the sale of goods); on the other hand, some of the specialist literature and case law seem more and more inclined to apply even to "staggered delivery" sales contracts (being a long-term contract) at least some of the most important specific rules on supply contracts (e.g. Article 1564, which states that "In case of nonperformance of a single instalment by one of the parties, the other can request resolution of the contract if the default is significant and is such as to reduce confidence in the punctuality of subsequent performances.").
(warranties) που θεωρούνται πάντα έγκυροι, εφόσον δεν έχουν εξαιρεθεί στη σύμβαση: α) αν τα προϊόντα περιγράφονται στη σύμβαση > υπάρχει έςνας υπονοούμενος όρος (implied warranty) ότι αυτά vea ανταποκρίνονται στην περιγραφή, β) υπάρχει ένας υπονοούμενος όρος ότι διαθέτουν
The matter is more delicate when it comes to deciding whether a contract should be classified as a sales contract (to which particular rules on supply contracts may have been added) or an independent contract (under Article 1655 of the Civil Code, an independent contract is a contract by which a party undertakes to perform a piece of work or render services, organizing the necessary means and operating at his own risk, in return for compensation in money).
δηλαδή ότι είναι κατάλληλα να χρησιμοποιηθούν για τον σκοπό για τον οποίο συνήθως αγοράζονται τα προϊόντα αυτού του είδους,
In this case, differences in the rules are significant: e.g. with regard to determining the moment of transfer of ownership of the items being supplied and the associated risk (see
Οι όροι αυτοί δεν εξαιρούνται κατά κανόνα από τις συμβάσεις υπεργολαβίας, μολονότι συχνά αντικαθίστανται από πιο ειδικές ρήτρες με σκοπό τον καθορισμό των πλαισίων, βάσει των οποίων ο πωλητής αποδέχεται την ευθύνη για την ποιότητα των παρεχομένων προϊόντων.
Articles 1470 and 1472 of the Civil Code for sales contracts, and Articles 1665, 1666 and 1673 for independent contracts); with regard to the guarantee in respect of latent defects or on the lack of essential quality (Articles 1490 et seq. of the Civil Code, and in particular Article 1495, which relates to the time-limits for notification and the conditions of action for sales contracts; see Articles 1667 and 1668 for independent contracts); with regard to certain rules peculiar to independent contracts (see, for example, Articles 1659 et seq. for variations agreed upon with respect to plans, Article 1662 for inspection of work in progress, Article 1664 for revision of the price, and Article 1671 for unilateral withdrawal from contract).
Οι ειδικοί αυτοί όροι ισχύουν συνήθως γ ι α χρονικό δ ιάστημα τουλάχι στον έξι μηνών.
On the other hand, the distinction between sales contracts and independen* contracts, albeit of great practical significance, is not clear-cut and definite i' Italian law.
(με την απαιτούμενη επιμέλεια και τεχνική πληρότητο:) .
The specialist literature and case law take as the decisiv criterion a point of uncertain practical application, viz. that of predominance ("prevalenza"), in the intentions of the parties, of the work necessary for the production of the goods ("appalto") or of the acquisition of the goods by the buyer without regard to the details of the production process ("vendita").
Είναι όμως προς το συμφέρον του υπεργολάβου - στην πραγματικότητα προς το συμφέρον και των δύο συμβαλλομένων — νο: προσδιορίζονται με τη μεγαλύτερη δυνατή ακρίβεια στη σύμβαση υπεργολαβίας, αντί για την εφαρμογή αυτής της γενικής ρήτρας, οι τεχνικές προδιαγραφές και εν γένει οι υποχρεώσεις του υπεργολάβου.
It should also be noted that, under Italian law, a distinction may be drawn between supply contracts and independent contracts only where the supply of goods is involved; where it concerns the supply of services, it is always an independent contract ("appalto") (Article 1677 of the Civil Code, which also refers in this case to the concurrent application - where compatible - of the rules governing independent contracts and those governing supply contracts).
Αξίζει ακόμα να επισημάνουμε ότι αναφορικά με τον καθορισμό του τιμήματος, συνηθίζεται στο Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο να εφαρμόζονται μηχανισμοί για την αναπροσαρμογή του τιμήματος
Another point to remember is that, under Italian law, when the person who "binds himself to perform a piece of work or render a service for compensation" is a "small entrepreneur" within the meaning of Article 2083 of the Civil Code, that is to say someone who carries on activities "primarily by his own effort" (Article 2222 of the Civil Code), then the contract is an independent labour contract and not an independent contract; in this case, some of the rules applicable differ quite significantly from those for independent contracts (see, for example, Article 2226 on latent defects).
62 στον τομέα της υπεργολαβ ί ο:ς (σε συνάρτηση με το κόστος της εργασίας, των υλικών κ. λ. π).
In practice, the above-mentioned difficulties create uncertainty as to the true content of the relevant law; all the more reason, therefore, why a foreign subcontractor who finds himself caught between accepting general terms (often binding) prepared by the other party and applying rather uncertain (although more balanced) existing rules should seek in any event to negotiate a specific contract to govern the subcontracting relationship.
01 ΤΕΧΝΙΚΕΣ ΠΡΟΟΙΑΓΡΑΦΕΣ
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
(BSI 9000 για τα ηλεκτρονικά).
It is also not unusual to find references to the better-known Community or foreign standards (DIN, AFNOR, DSI).
Ακόμα όμως πιο συχνά απαιτείται, εκτός από την πιστοποίηση της ποιότητας των προϊόντων, και ένα πιστοποιητικό που να
In specific fields, of course, certain minimum standards are laid down by national or Community law (either directly or by reference to standards drawn up by the competent bodies).
Contract Terms Act ταυ 1977 (βλέπε την παρ. 2.4 ανωτέρω).
Among the most serious of the "oppressive" clauses which a contractor may include in the general terms he imposes are those excluding or limiting his liability (see Part One of the Guide, paragraph 2.12).
Γιο: άλλες βλάβες παρόμοιες ρήτρες ισχύουν μόνο αν ικανοποιούν τα κριτήριο της λογικής.
However, it must be pointed out that, under Article 1229 of the Civil Code, "Any agreement which, in advance, excludes or limits the liability of the debtor for fraud, malice or gross negligence" (or which, under the second paragraph of the Article, actually constitutes "a violation of a duty arising from rules of public policy": second paragraph) is void.
(sale or supply of goods), οι ρήτρες που αποκλείουν ή περιορίζουν την ευθύνη που προκύπτει από την παραβίαση ουσιωδών υποχρεώσεων του πωλητή
Clauses excluding liability for negligence are therefore quite valid under Italian law (except for the formal limitation under the second paragraph of Article 1341).
ΥΠΕΡΓΟΛΑΒΩΝ. ΤΟ ΕΘΝΙΚΟ ÛIKAI0 ΤΟΥ ΑΝΤΑΓΩΝΙΣΜΟΥ.
Furthermore, Italian case law has not as yet introduced in practice more clearly defined forms of control over such clauses for the protection of the weaker party.
Βασίλειο άλλοι σημαντικοί
CLAUSES RESTRICTING THE RIGHTS OF THE SUBCONTRACTOR AND DOMESTIC COMPETITION LAW
65- περιορισμοί, πέρα από αυτούς που ετέθησαν με την Ανακοίνωση της ΕΟΚ του 1978
Italian legislation does not impose any limits on the validity of clauses restricting the rights of the subcontractor with regard to confidentiality, the use of knowhow, dealings with third parties, etc., over and above those set out by the EC Commission's 1978 Notice (see Part One of the Guide, paragraphs 5.9 et seq.).
0 όρος για την παρο:κράτηση της κυριότητας
As a result, the buyer acquires title only when the full price has been paid, but he assumes all the risks in respect of the goods sold from the time of delivery.
(βλέπε Μέρος Ι του Οδηγού. παρ.6.9) ισχύει στο Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο στην περίπτωση πώλησης με καθυστέρηση της καταβολής του τιμήματος.
A clause retaining title can be relied upon against the buyer's creditors only if it arises from a written document bearing a certain date prior to the date of attachment (first paragraph of Article 1524 of the Civil Code); by "certain date" is meant the date of registration (or transcription) of the document (or - and here the assumption is of little practical relevance - the date upon which the requirements of Article 2704 of the Civil Code are satisfied).
Αυτό σημαίνει ότι ο αγοραστής αποκτά την κυρ ιότητα μόνο με την ολοκληρωτική εξόφληση του τ ιμήματος.
If machinery is not involved in the sale, the clause cannot be relied upon against a third party who acquired the buyer's rights in good faith (Article 1153 of the Civil Code).
Η ρήτρα αυτή .για να είναι έγκυρη πρέπει να έχει διατυπωθεί γραπτώς και να αφορά συγκεκριμένα και δυνάμενα να προσδιοριστούν προϊόντα.
On the other hand, Italian law does not deal adequately with the case in which the goods sold with retention of title are intended for incorporation into another product, this being the most relevant case where subcontracting is concerned. From this point of view, the clause retaining title can, in practice, provide the
Υπάρχουν όμως σοβαρές δυσκολίες από πλευράς νομολογίας για την εφαρμογή της παρακράτησης της κυριότητας στην περίπτωση μεταπώλησης ή μετατροπής των προ ï όντων.
-40- subcontractor with a minimum guarantee only for as long as the goods in question have not been incorporated into the final product (or, if separation can take place without notable damage, for as long as the final product has not been marketed) and are still identifiable to the contractor (i.e. they have not been mixed with other fungible items).
Βασιλείου οι συνέπειες της καθυστέρησης της παράδοσης των προϊόντων εκ μέρους του
Part One of the Guide points out how important it is that a subcontractor should be aware of the precise extent of the possible consequences of any breach on his part (paragraph 2.10).
ce υπεργολάβου θα διαφέρουν ανάλογα με το αν η ημερομηνία: της παράδοσης ο:ποτελε ί ή όχι ουσιώδες στοιχεία της σύμβασης.
The general rule in Italian law (Article 1453 of the Civil Code) where a party to a contract fails to perform his obligations is that the other party may, at his discretion: (a) require specific performance of the contract; or (b) seek to have the contract terminated through the courts; and, in any event, (c) claim compensation for the loss suffered.
Π προβεσμίο: δεν ε f νο: ι ουσιώδης, τότε στην περίπτωση καθυστέρησης της παρό:δοσης δεν
It should be noted that a request to have the contract terminated can be made only when the breach of contract is of more than "slight importance"; under Italian law, this can be achieved as a rule only by taking proper legal action.
(breach of contract) μέχρις ότου ο κυρίως κατασκευαστής απευθύνει στον υπεργολάβο έγγραφη προειδοποίηση με την οποία βα του θέτει μια εύλογη προθεσμία για την εκπλήρωση της παροχής.
The need to do so can only be avoided if the contract contains an express cancellation clause or, where faced with the breach of contract, the other party gives notice in writing to perform within an appropriate time: both these mechanisms result in dissolution of the contract.
Αυτό σημαίνει ότι καθίσταται όλο και πιο διαδεδομένη η εφαρμογή της ρήτρας, σύμφωνα με την οποία ο χρόνος της παράδοσης θεωρείται ουσιώδηc
With a sales contract, for example, the seller is liable for latent defects in the item sold which render it unfit for the use for which it was intended, which appreciably diminish its value or which could not be known or could not be easily detected by the buyer, while an agreement excluding or limiting such warranty has no effect if the seller has, in bad faith, omitted to mention such defects to the buyer (Articles 1490 and 1491 of the Civil Code).
πράγμα nou θα επιτρέπει στον κυρίως κατασκευαστή να αρνηθεί νο: παραλάβει τα προϊόντα που παραδόθηκο:ν με καθυστέρηση ή να ζητήσει να αποζημιωθεί για την βλάβη που υπέστη.
The buyer, however, forfeits all rights if he fails to notify the seller of the defects within eight days of their discovery (unless a different time-limit is established by the parties concerned) and, in all cases, no action can be taken after one year from delivery (Article 1495 of the Civil Code).
Η ρήτρα αυτή είναι κατά συνέπεια πολύ επικίνδυνη για τον υπεργολάβο κο: ι θα πρέπει να σκεφτεί κανείς καλά. το θέμα πριν να την αποδεχθεί.
Finally, in a sales contract, the buyer does not generally have the right to require that goods having latent defects be repaired or replaced; this is permitted only where a specific warranty of proper functioning ("garanzia di buon funzionamento") (for a specific period) has been included in the contract (Article 1512 of the Civil Code).
Πρέπει να συμπληρώσουμε ότι γενικά ο αγοραστής έχει το δικαίωμα, σύμφωνα με τον νόμο Sale of Goods Act του 1979, να ζητήσει τη λύση της σύμβασης και να αρνηεεί να παραλάβει τα προϊόντα, στην περίπτωση αθέτησης ιδιαίτερα σοβαρών υποχρεώσεων (δηλαδή στην περίπτωση υποχρεώσεων που απορρέουν από ουσιώδεις όρους της σύμβασης:
In an independent contract, however, the independent subcontractor is liable for nonconformity or defects in the work, except where the customer has accepted the work and the changes or defects were known to him or were detectable; however, in order to enforce the subcontractor's liability, the customer must, under penalty of forfeiture, notify the contractor of the problems within sixty days, and no further action can be taken against the contractor after two years from the date of delivery (Article 1667 of the Civil Code).
Αυτό όμως δεν ισχύει στην περίπτωση αθέτησης μικρότερης σημασίας υποχρεώσεων (που αφορούν "warranties"), οι οποίες δίνουν το
Where the conditions exist for the subcontractor's liability to be ascertained, the customer can choose (without affecting compensation for damages) not only to have the price reduced or the contract terminated (although only where the non conformity or defects in the work are such as to render it totally inadequate for
Στην περίπτωση καθυστέρησης της πληρωμής του τιμήματος, οφείλονται τόκοι (βλέπε Μέρος Ια του Οδηγού, παρ.
In the event of late payment of the purchase price, Italian law lays down that interest will be payable (see Part One of the Guide, paragraph 6.8) at an annual rate of 10% (from 1991).
6.8.) μόνο εφόσον αυτό έχει συμφωνηθεί.
Where further damage can be shown, then additional compensation is allowed over and above the interest payable (second paragraph of Article 1224 of the Civil Code).
(βλέπε Μέρος Ια του Οδηγού, παρ. 8.5.5 και επόμενες) ετέθη σε ισχύ στο Ηνωμένο
The Community Directive of 1985 (see Part One of the Guide, paragraphs 8.5.5 et seq.) was implemented in Italy by Presidential Decree No 224 of 24 May 1988, which transposes the Directive fully into Italian law.
"κινδύνων κατά το στάδιο ανάπτυξης του προϊόντος") ούτε καθορίζεται ανώτατο όριο για τη συνολική ευθύνη του παραγωγού.
In general, the option to apply any of the derogations provided for (Articles 15 and 16) has not been exercised: thus, no exception is made to the rule that the producer is not liable if he proves that the state of scientific and technical knowledge at the time when he put the product into circulation was not such as to enable the existence of the defect to be discovered ("development risk"); and no ceilings are set on the producer's total liability.
Σε ό,τι αφορά ειδικά τη θέση του υΕεργσλάβου, υιοθετείται πιστά τόσο ο ορισμός του "παραγωγού" όσο και ο αποκλεισμός της ευθύνης στην περίπτωση του παραγωγού ή του προμηθευτού ενός εξαρτήματος ή πρώτης ύλης, όταν το ελάττωμα οφείλεται αποκλειστικά στον σχεδιασμό του προϊόντος στο οποίο έχει
As regards the position of subcontractors in particular, Italian law faithfully takes over the definition of "producer" (Article 3 in both instruments and the exclusion of liability in the case of a manufacturer or supplier of a component or raw material if the defect is attributable entirely to the design of the product into which it was incorporated or to the instructions given by the manufacturer who used it (Article 6(f) of the Italian Decree, corresponding to Article 7(f) of the Directive).
Στην περίπτωση κατά την οπού ο: ο υπεργολάβος υπέχει αλληλέγγυα ευθύνη με τον τελικά παραγωγό έναντι, τρίτων για τις ζημίες που πραεκλήθησαν από ένα ελαττωματικό προϊόν, τίθεται το πρόθλημο: των κριτηρίων για τον επιμερισμό μεταξύ των συνυπεύθυνων αερών, της αποζημίωσης που οφείλεται σε τρίτους (Βλέπε Μέρος Ιο: του Οδηγού, παρ.6.3, 8.8, 8.9).
Where a subcontractor finds that he is jointly and severally liable, along with the final producer, for damage caused to a third party by a defective product, the further problem arises as to how the burden of the compensation owed to the third party is to be apportioned between the parties jointly and severally liable (see Part One of the Guide, paragraphs 8.3, 8.8 and 8.9).
Κ αναγωγή (ή η ανταγωγή) ρυθμίζεται,, θάσει της κοινοτικής οδηγίας (άρθρο 5) από τα εθνικά: SC και· α.
Under the Directive (Article 5), the rights of contribution or recourse continue to be governed by national law: in
Κατά το
Page 48
(και κατά συνέπεια στον υπεργολάβο, για παράδειγμα, ο οποίος είναι ως επί· το πλείστον το ασθενέστερο μέρος της σύμθασης) το Βάρος της αποζημίωσης για τις ζημίες που υπέστησαν τρίτοι.
Italian law, the courts will apportion between those jointly and severally liable the measure of risk attributable to each party, the seriousness of any fault and the resulting consequences (where doubt exists, the apportionment will be of equal measure).
6ο: καθαρίζεται ότι δικαιούνται να αποζημιωθούν πλήρως από τον κυρίως κατασκευαστή στη περίπτωση ελαττώματος στον σχεδιασμό του τελικού προϊόντος.
For the reasons given above (see 5.), Italian case law may deem to be valid contractual clauses between the parties which lay the burden of compensating an injured third party on one of them (for example, on the subcontractor, usually the weaker contracting party).
TO ΓΕΝΙΚΟ ΠΛΑΙΣΙΟ
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
Συνεπώς στη σύμβαση υπεργολαβίας εφαρμόζονται οι γενικές αρχές που αφορούν τις εμπορικές συμβάσεις αλλά και οι κανόνες του συμβατικού "τύπου" στον οποία υπάγεται, ανάλογα με την περίπτωση (Βλέπε παρ.3 κατωτέρω) : σύμβαση πώλησης (sale of goods) ή σύμβαση παρογής υπηρεσιών (supply of services).
They are governed by the general principles applicable to commercial contracts and by those applicable to the category of contract into which they fall: sales contract, or contract for the supply of goods and services.
Μερικές φορές όμως γίνεται ανάλογη αναπροσαρμογή του υποδείγματος σύμβασης της ORGALIME.
1.3-On the other hand, large contractors frequently prepare standard subcontracting agreements and tend to impose these general terms on their own subcontractors.
ΤΙ ΣΥΜΒΑΙΝΕΙ ΟΤΑΝ Ο ΥΠΕΡΓΟΛΑΒΟΣ ÛEN ÛIΑΠΡΑΓΜΑΤΕΥΕΤΑΙ MIA
WHAT HAPPENS WHERE THE SUBCONTRACTOR DOES NOT NEGOTIATE A SPECIFIC WRITTEN AGREEMENT WITH THE CONTRACTOR?