natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
The Tavistock Institute (1950) og højskolen for social teknik kan gøre krav på æren for at have draget teknologi og arbejds organisation i tvivl og for at have foreslået den første syste miske model - d.v.s. en model, der er åben over for de ydre om givelser - af virksomheden.
To investigate varying and numerous factors it is necessary to adopt a "structure of explanation" possessing great variety (to use the language of systems) so that it can meet the following needs: a. the different factors are provided by different scientific disciplines; it is therefore necessary to provide the bridges and routes of transition that will permit them to be joined together; b. effects flowing from one factor or another may in turn be causes of this or that other factor - indeed an effect may even be its own cause - hence the necessity for loops of reaction or counterreaction (feedback); c. there will constantly be lags between a factor and a final flow and it will be necessary to record the intermediate effects in the form of accumulation: temporary storage or modification of the struc ture itself (variables of potential); \ d. the explanation model must be able to admit phenomena of irreversibility, either total irreversibility or - especially - partial irreversibility (hysteresis) in that the cessation of a cause does not produce complete cessation of the effect, even in the long term (which would bring us back to the problem of a simple lag); e. finally, it is necessary - since we are dealing with open systems -to be able to take account of changes in the environment; for
19 kan drages i tvivl - d.v.s. elementer, der kan "stilles for ret ten" og i det mindste blive anklaget. Og det bliver derfor mu ligt at skelne mellem flere niveauer m.h.t. den undersøgte kau salitets indviklede beskaffenhed.
19 example, it would be unwise, at a time of growing unemployment, to attribute a fall in labour turnover to improved working conditions, and so on.
3.2. b. Et niveau, på hvilket lineær kausalitet søges (en årsag, der producerer en virkning, eller snarere en gruppe årsager, der producerer en gruppe virkninger).
The cybernetic models fulfilling these requirements are clearly very complex (in construction they can only be multidisciplinary, with all the problems of epistemology and metrology that that entails).
d. Man har søgt en relation af denne art (lineær kausalitet) ved at tage de fysiske determinanter (støj, varme, arbejds hastigheder o.s.v. på støberier) som faktorer.
The formal modelling - if it is necessary - remains to be done (which is also the case with economics, etc), but these cybernetic models are begin ning to become established: at least as modes of analysis (it was by referring to such a model that
Epidemiologiske metoder kan even tuelt gøre fremskridt på dette område under forudsætning af, at der træffes et par statistiske forholdsregler (derfor betyd ningen af den af de italienske fagforeninger foreslåede "homo gene gruppe").
ANACT, with fine "causal" boldness, was able to call a study "the cost of working conditions", even though Davis's ambitions were still far from being realized); or as a scheme of action (cf Michel Cretin's lines about the virtuous circle of circular causality).
Nietzsches ord - kan "tænke sig årsagen som et stempel, der presser og skubber, indtil virkningen er opnået".
Studies and publications
3.3- Et niveau, på hvilket der er cirkulær kausalitet
This part is divided into three chapters:
I dette kapitel ønsker vi at fremsætte kritiske kommentarer i kro nologisk orden om forskningsarbejdet, vi er blevet gjort opmærksom me på. Dette kræver to forklarende kommentarer: a.
Some entries are lacking in information on methods, the reason being that this aspect was not actually mentioned in the publications at ■ our disposal.
Nogle bidrag mangler oplysninger om metoder, idet grunden hertil er, at dette aspekt faktisk ikke blev nævnt i publikationerne, der stod til vores rådighed.
On the other hand, we have listed a number of studies which we know for certain have not included any investigation of cost calculations
På den anden side har vi opstillet en liste over en række stu dier, om hvilke vi ved med sikkerhed, at de ikke omfattede un dersøgelser af omkostningsberegninger (amerikansk forskning forud for Davis; Douard i Frankrig), fordi de eventuelt kan være nyttige til angivelse af måden, på hvilken idéerne har udviklet sig.
(US research prior to Davis; Douard in France) because they may be useful in indicating the way in which ideas have developed.
Disse beregninger, der iøvrigt er yderst omstridte inden for selve HRD-bevægelsen
These calcu­ lations, highly controversial even within the HRD movement itself
(f.eks. Mirvis og Macy), lader man til at have opgivet.
(Mirvis and Macy, for example) appear to have been abandoned.
Man kan skelne mellem tre faser: i.
Three phases may be distinguished: i.
Davis' intuitive indsigt; ii. udviklingen af omkostnings- og interne regnskabsteknikker; iii. en søgen efter kausalitet og kritik af konventionelle regnskabs- metoder.
Davis's intuitive insight; ii. development of cost and management accounting techniques; iii. search for causality and criticism of the conventional accountancy approach.
- Systematisk undersøgelse af konsekvenserne af opdelin gen af job i standardkomponenter (jobudstykning).
Systematic investigation of the consequences of breaking down jobs into standard components (job parcelling).
- Analyser vedr. virkningen af ændringer i opfattelsen af arbejdet.
Analyses the effectiveness of changes in the conception of work Criteria used: a. quantitative output, b. quality of work, c. measurements of attitude and satisfaction.
- Samme emner, samme kriterier plus indlæringsperiode.
Rice Same subjects, same criteria, plus learning-in period.
Marks afhandling) og går ind for en "ny angrebsmåde".
Recapitulates these studies (he had supervised Marks's thesis) and preaches a "new approach".
Han kritserer kriteriet for "minimumsomkostninger", som afdelinger for arbejdsstudier anvender, uden at han fak tisk kender noget til, hvad der virkeligt foregår inden for produktionen.
He criticizes the "minimum cost" criterion used by work-study departments without any knowledge of what really goes on in production.
Han henstiller indtrængende til, at man ikke blot bør tage hensyn til produktionens tekniske krav, men også til organisationsmæssige krav, sociale behov, forbundet med arbejdssituationen o.s.v.
He urges that account should be taken not only of the techni cal demands of production but also of organizational require ments, social needs connected with the work situation, etc.
Han slår kraftigt til lyd for udviklingen af metoder til beregning af de samlede økonomiske omkostninger, inklusi ve sociale omkostninger (fysiologiske og psykologiske).
He urges the development of methods of calculating the overall economic cost including social (physiological and psychologi cal) costs.
. muligheden for at genbruge erhvervede færdigheder
Davis marked an important stage of development by virtue of all the paths he opened up, but neither the social psycholo gists and ergonomists nor the economists were to pay any heed to him.
Og her endte historien for en tid.
And there matters were to rest for a while.
Læg mærke til de mangfoldige angrebsmåder eller i hvert fald bibetydninger (trivsel, menneskelige ressourcer, social teknik, nationaløkonomi).
Note the multifarious approaches, or at least connotations (satisfaction, human resources, social engineering, economics).
- gennemtræksraten er 61%.
A calculation of the cost of labour turnover in six firms in the textile industry yields the following results: the rate of turnover is 61#; its cost represents 8.89e of the total wages bill.
NEDO (Det forenede Kongerige 1972)
NEDO (UK 1972)
Forklarende kommentarer til tabellen på side 29.
Explanatory notes to table on page 26
- selektion, rekruttering, ansættelse; dækker også omkostningerne, forbundet med arbejdere, der forlader virksomheden:
Recruitment Includes all the costs associated with the engagement of new workers: selection, recruitment, admission.
- afsluttende interviewer.
Also covers the costs associated with workers leaving the firm: final interviews.
Omfatter alle indlæringsomkostninger: omkostninger til instruktører, plus omkostninger for be gynderes uproduktive arbejdstimer, idet sidstnævnte base res på en standard indlæringsperiode (f.eks. een uge).
Includes all learning-in costs: cost of all instructors plus the cost of the unproductive hours of the beginners, the latter being based on a standard learning-in period (one week, for example).
Hvis regnskabet er tilstrækkeligt detaljeret, bruges de faktiske omkostninger, men ellers anvendes følgende formel :
If the accounting system is sufficiently detailed, the actual costs are used; otherwise, the following formula is applied:
Højere lønsats for overtid
Increased rate of pay for overtime
Den her anvendte hypotese er, at de af gennemtræk forårsa­gede produktionstab udlignes gennem overtidsarbejde.
The hypothesis adopted here is that the production losses caused by la­ bour turnover will be made up by overtime.
Beregningen udføres ved at tage det gennemsnitlige antal tomme job for året og omregne disse til timer. Resultatet multipliceres med den gennemsnitlige timebetaling og heref­ter med den procentmæssige forøgelse for overtidsarbejde.
The calculation is made by taking the average number of vacant jobs through the year and converting this into hours; the result is multi­ plied by the average hourly rate of.pay and then by the percentage increase for overtime.
Efter udførelsen af overtidsarbejde antages det, at der opstår en række semi­proportionale omkostninger, så som tilsynsførende personale, belysning o.s.v.
It is assumed that, when overtime is worked, a number of semi-proportional costs are also incurred, such as supervisory staff, lighting, etc.
Følgende formel anvendes til vurdering heraf: mistede timer χ gennemsnitlig timebetaling χ samlede semi­proportionale omkostninger samlede lønudgifter
The following formula is used to assess these: hours lost χ average hourly rate of pay χ total semi-proportional costs total wages bill
Udskudsvarer ­ retouchering
Rejects - Retouching
Omfatter alle omkostninger, der direkte kan tilskrives nye arbejdstagere.
Includes all the costs directly imputable to new recruits.
NEDO, DET FORENEDE KONGERIGE 1972
NEDO, UK 1972
Tabellen forneden indeholder minimumskomponenterne for beregningen af om­kostningerne.
The table below gives the minimum components for calculating the cost.
De viste komponenter er dem, der blev anset for at have størst betydning i tekstilindustrien; den her anvendte fremgangsmåde kan naturligvis udvides til andre komponenter om nødvendigt.
The components shown are the ones that seemed the most significant in the textile industry; the procedure used here can, of course, be extended to other components if they are needed.
A Antal arbejdere ved årets begyndelse
A Number of workers at the beginning of the year
Β Antal arbejdere an­sat i årets løb
Β Number of workers engaged during the year
C Antal arbejdere, der har forladt virksom­heden i årets løb
D Number of workers at the end of the year
D Antal arbejdere ved årets slutning
E Number of workers with more than one year's service
H Produktionstab Hl højere lønsats for overtid
H1 Increased rate of pay for overtime
H2 Alm. omkostn.
H2 General costs
TIL BEREGNINGEN NØD­VENDIGE INFORMATIONER
INFORMATION NEEDED FOR THE CALCULATION (in addition to F, G)
M Samlede lønudgifter N Gennemsnitlig timeløn
N Average hourly rate of pay
"Jobrestrukturering" Socialteknisk angrebsmåde; understreger værdien af økono­misk vurdering.
"Job restructuring" Socialengineering approach; emphasizes the value of economic assessment.
H. Savali "Det menneskelige arbejdes berigelse i organisationer".
"Economie and financial aspects of setting a value on tasks"
Savall kommenterer, at arbejdsvilkår og arbejdsorganisation hidtil er blevet grebet an via socialpsykologiske teorier (af hvilke social teknik danner den mest fremskredne form).
Expert report (chairman J.D. Reynaud, rapporteur P.L. Remy) prepared at the request of the Minister for Labour; concludes that there is a need to develop methods of evaluation (finan cial and non-financial) for job restructuring.
Han nægter dog at acceptere, at nationaløkonomier og øko­nomer bør udelukkes fra dette område (som foreslået af medlemmerne af den socialtekniske skole, der anser national­økonomi for at være en anløben videnskab).
1973/75 Neil Herrick Columbus, Ohio USA He defines and calculates the cost of the 10 "counter productive activities" (CPAs); methods also used by Mirvis and Macy (and analysed below, Annex A).
At stræbe efter forøget produktivitet er ikke drivfjede­ren, der tilvejebringer en ændring, omend det uden tvivl er nødvendigt at måle virkningerne af den nye form for
Legal constraints, assistance and obligations: employee representation, strikes and industrial disputes, financial incentives for geographical decentralization, etc.
. ændringens virkninger skal måles (med sigte på beslut ninger om dens fortsættelse og mere udbredte introduk tion) .
Development of an analytical accounting system for working conditions, on the basis of three industrial plants (car bodies, glass containers and weaving mill).
At finde optimeringspunktet for trivsler af en psykologisk art og trivsler af en økonomisk art under givne ufriheder
Before it is possible to talk of the cost of working conditions
(produktionsniveau, vækstrate) er problemet, økonomen står overfor, idet den tayloristiske situation ganske indlysende ikke er det optimum, man havde håbet.
(which indicates, by implication at least, a move towards regu­ lation on the basis of costs), it is first necessary to identi­ fy and authenticate a chain that links working conditions to attitudes (avoidance behaviour) and their costs (problems of causal connection).
Anvendelse af en regnskabsteknik: rationel fordeling af faste omkostninger:
The chain selected is as follows:
- fysisk produktivitet.
(reflection) of the working conditions.
Under forudsætning af, at der træffes nogle få forsigtig hedsforanstaltninger, er det muligt at sammenlægge omkost ningerne for disse indikatorer og således opnå et indeks
This leads to a parti­ cular study of the biases of the A — > Β relation and the conclu­ sion that the only probable relation is through a set of indica­ tors. The variables selected a priori are: absenteeism, labour turn­ over (internal and external), production losses (because of stoppage), the proportion of immigrant workers, the proportion of temporary workers, age, length of service, first aid admini­ stered, increased work tempo, and rejects and returns (quality).
(i et lukket regnskabssystem).
Comments on the set of problems formulated
Savall ydede et stærkt bidrag til etableringen af natio naløkonomien på arbejdsvilkårenes område.
Sociologie du Travail, Aix en Provence) research on ergono­ mie job-analysis scales).
"Økonomiske og finansielle aspekter af etableringen af
A change of approach
FRANKRIG en værdi på arbejdsopgaver" (citeret til henvisningsfor mål) .
This set of problems and their associated difficulties lead the authors to entertain doubts about regulation purely and simply on the basis of costs (at least when confined to shop- floor level) and, as a result, to devote less attention to the
Remy), udarbejdet på arbejdsministeriets anmodning; konkluderer, at der er et behov for at udvikle evalue ringsmetoder (finansielle og ikke-finansielle) til job restrukturering .
Β — > C relation and to highlight a number of elements: a. concerning work organization: i. laboriousness (and costs) induced by the diversification of products when plant and equipment, organization or management have not been adapted to it; ii. laboriousness (and costs) induced by the failure to make allowance for random phenomena (which are consequently difficult and costly to regulate).
(CPA)); metoderne anvendes også af Mirvis og Macy (og analyseres forneden i bilag A).
Entreprise et Personnel and NEDO; b. use of probabilistic and statistical models (phenomena subject to wide scatter, instantaneous observation, queue- ing theory).
Det er derfor nødvendigt:
Note by literature group
- at definere de sociale omkostninger mere præcist: de er spredte i eksisterende regnskabssystemer;
Essentially, this study failed to achieve the objective set for it, namely development of an analytical accounting system for working condi tions.
(f.eks.: hvor meget kan man vinde gennem en reduktion i fraværet med een enhed?).
The study also proposed other methods of evaluating short-term remedial actions (probabilistic models).
Hovedoverskrifter og de valgte variabler
The study dealt with costs (generated by what?
Forfatterne kommer kort ind på nogle få spørgsmål :
The variables chosen are as follows:
- Introduktionen af sociale omkostninger i de finansiel le og omkostningsregnskabssystemer.
INDICATORS OF HIDDEN COSTS Type Β indicators relating to the production process: plant utilization, materials/energy consumption, utilization of floor area, labour productivity, quality costs.
Mirvis og Macy
1977/1980 F. Butera and 0.
Omkostningsnytteberegning af programmer til udviklingen af menneskelige ressourcer.
Brivio ITALY "Autonomous work groups" (I gruppi autonomi di lavoro) Cited as being in the press in 1977, this work still had not been published in 198O.
To afhandlinger, der dækker talrige emner og metoder, som gør status over ambitioner, metoder og bidrag i forbindelse med udviklingen af menneskelige ressourcer.
It apparently contains cost/benefit analyses using the tradi­tional parameters of industrial accounting.
Social rengskabsføreise (arbejdsvilkår, omkostninger og produktivitet).
Pfeiffer and Staudt's Diagnostic System This economic assessment model was devised by a group of re­
Målsætning
FEDERAL REPUBLIC
Udviklingen af et analytisk regnskabssystem for arbejds vilkårene på grundlag af tre industrianlæg
„, GERMANY searchers at the University of Duisburg and was the subject of the following publication: Richter, Pfeiffer and Staudt, Einfuhrung neuer Formen der Arbeitsorganisation in Industrie­betrieben (Introduction of new forms of work organization in industrial firms), Göttingen, 1978.
Før man kan tale om arbejdsvilkårenes omkostninger (som i hvert fald underforstået antyder en bevægelse henimod regulering ud fra omkostningerne), er det nødvendigt, at man først identificerer og godtgør gyldigheden af en kæ de, der forbinder arbejdsvilkårene med holdninger (afvær gende adfærd) og deres omkostninger (problemer med kausa le tilknytninger).
To evaluate innovations within an enterprise, a method was sought which is capable of integrating technical, social and economic criteria, enables a diagnosis to be made and sup plies indicators with calculated values.
Problemer og resultater. Den valgte kæde er som følger:
Problems formulated and method
A. arbejdsvilkårene identificeres ud fra ergonomisk ob servation;
For instance, a study must be made of the consequences of changes in organization on the following factors: a.
Den centrale vanskelighed, man støder på, er overgangen fra A til B, d.v.s. den opfattede betydning af indikato rerne som en konsekvens (afspejling) af arbejdsvilkårene.
products (raw materials and finished products), at the following stages: i. the initial situation, ii. the situation after the innovatory measures have been put into practice, iii. the various stages in the process, in order to define the problems of reorganization and the costs connected with it.
Dette fører til en særlig studie af tilbøjelighederne af A
This laborious task of detailed quantification, and definition of qualitative data, is intended to make it possible to arrive at an "integrative" decision.
De a priori valgte variabler er: fravær, gennemtræk (in ternt og eksternt), produktionstab (på grund af standsnin ger), det forholdsmæssige antal fremmedarbejdere, det for holdsmæssige antal midlertidige arbejdere, alder, tjeneste forholdets længde, ydet førstehjælp, forhøjet arbejdstempo, samt udskudsvarer og returnerede varer (kvalitet).
So far, the method has been used for drawing up descriptive reports on existing situations, before and after a change in organization.
Kommentarer_til det formulerede sæt problemer. Det adskil ler sig fra de tidligere formuleringer i flere punkter:
The requirement for exhaustive and high-quality data means that it cannot really be used for forecasting purposes or as a tool in decision-making.
En ændring_i angrebsmåden
A method of economic assessment was developed by Mr Zippe at
Dette problemsæt og de hermed forbundne vanskeligheder ledte forfatterne til at tvivle på regulering udelukken­ de på grundlag af omkostninger (i det mindste, når disse begrænses til værkstedsgulvplan) og som følge heraf til at ofre mindre opmærksomhed på Β
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY the IPA (Institut für Produktionstechnik und Automatisierung
. besværligheden (og omkostningerne), der opstår gennem en udvidelse af produktionssortimentet, når anlæg og udstyr, organisationen eller ledelsen ikke er blevet afpasset herefter;
The method is intended to allow comparison of two alternative structures and forms of organization of production, from an economic standpoint.
. besværligheden (og omkostningerne), der opstår gennem undladelse at tage hensyn til vilkårlige fænomener
This is done for two operational hypo theses (mass production and small-batch production), the pur pose being to enable various forms of production to be assessed in terms of versatility.
(der følgelig er vanskelige og kostbare at regulere).
The method was developed initially for assembly plants.
­ vedr. demografiske tendenser (potentielindikatorer): værdien af at følge udviklingen af tendensen i alders­ pyramiden som en funktion af ændringer (i dette tilfælde ved at blive stadig mere byrdefuld) i arbejdsvilkårene og den økonomiske betydning af en pyramide, der ikke rækker helt til pensionsalderen;
"additional costs", many of them hidden costs, which are not taken into account when the investment decision is made but whose magnitude can be a deciding factor in the comparison of two alternative forms of work organization.
37 manglende fluiditet i omkostningerne for holdninger, der ud fra deres struktur højst sandsynligt ikke kan inddrives hurtigt eller nemt, når holdningerne for bedres.
37 c. costs of execution (costs per item produced), d. additional costs (as determined for the period in question).
. regnskabsmetoderne blev lånt fra Neil Herrick,
The first three of these cost categories are conventional.
. brugen af probalistiske og statistiske modeller (fæ nomenerne er underkastet stor spredning, øjeblikkelig observation, kø-teori).
These costs and the costs of execution are the means of express ing the costs connected with absenteeism, turnover, industrial accidents, quality, productivity and overtime.
Studien foreslår også andre metoder til en evaluering af kortsigtede afhjælpende foranstaltninger
Other nonmonetary indicators are also assessed: age, sex, skills, foreign workers.
Studien dækkede omkostninger (produceret af hvad? afholdt af hvem?) og økonomiske aspekter af arbejdsvilkårene, men havde ganske klart vanskeligheder med at forstå og at sammenknytte de forskellige analyseniveauer (se afslut tende kommentar i bilag A).
The IPA method is already in use; it was developed and improved as part of some "Humanization of Work" (HDA) projects, one of them concerning an assembly plant belonging to the Volkswagen group.
"Arbejdsvilkårenes omkostninger" (kollektive).
It may happen, therefore, that a comparison is made between alternative forms of work organization which are at different stages of development.
Ud fra det, vi netop har set, er selve overskriften en erklæring og et program.
As a consequence, from the purely economic point of view an innovatory form is often at a disadvantage: in its initial stage its presence in the undertaking is analogous to that of a foreign body; it will not be able to prove its worth until later and more intensive stages in its testing.
(bilag Β indeholder en mere detaljeret metodologisk be­ skrivelse) :
Picot-Reichwald group: study of the relative profitability