natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
(eller fuldendte strukturer, som Jean Piaget ville sige), i hvilke der ingen udvikling finder sted, i hvilke tiden ikke er en variabel og i hvilke relationerne til miljøet følgelig er begrænset til "strømninger".
But two years later and 200 kilometres distant a gain will appear in the form of an improvement in delivery dates (definite economic benefit).
Formålet med denne anden fase er netop at fastslå udbyttet - eller underskuddet - d.v.s. ændringen i selve strukturen, nemlig den potentielle ændring.
With these two examples, where time plays a vital role (because it is ac companied by a change in the structure) we have left the first level be hind and therefore recording of short-term flows no longer provides ade quate economic information.
To eksempler herpå: a., Der udføres en organisationsændring på et produktionsanlæg; anvendelsen af en "første fases" teknikker viser, at der ik ke er nogen økonomisk forskel mellem den gamle og den nye form for organisation.
Financial accounting techniques do not disregard these questions; they take them into account by means of inventory operations which, apart from stock variations, include : a. provisions in anticipation of contingencies; b. depreciation, to take account of wear and tear and obsolescence; this amounts to provision for renewal of fixed investments.
Men to år senere og 200 kilometer borte optræder der en gevinst i form af forbedrede leverings datoer (absolut økonomisk nytteværdi).
Depreciation and other provisions are not recorded financial flows but theoretical charges or costs.
b. Det bemærkes, at alderspyramiden i en fabrikationsafdeling er blevet forvrænget. Hidtil skabte forvrængningen ingen
It is precisely by introducing these theoretical costs, taking into con sideration the time-scale and the degree of probability - which is a way
11 omkostninger for virksomheden.
11 of re-integrating the structure with its economic environment - that it is possible to distinguish between the charges for the year (costs) and the expenditure for the year (flows) and to arrive at the result (struc tural gain or loss).
Inden for en overskuelig pe riode bliver det dog ikke desto mindre umuligt for virksom heden at fortsætte driften under disse betingelser (jfr.
The inventory operations thus enable the structure to be placed in its environment or, to put it another way, they make it possible for a sub system (production unit, etc) to be isolated from the overall system con stituted by the economic activity with its diversity of time-scales and participants.
I disse to eksempler, hvor tiden spiller en afgørende rolle (for di den ledsages af en strukturændring), har vi lagt første fase bag os og registreringen af kortsigtede strømninger tilvejebrin ger følgelig ikke længere tilstrækkelige økonomiske informatio ner; Andre metoder må introduceres, hvis vi - på organisations ændringens faktiske tidspunkt eller når forvrængningen oprinde ligt opdages - skal kunne vurdere de potentielle gevinster og tab, der til sin tid vil foranledige finansielle strømninger.
What progress has been made - given the methods proposed and the prob lems raised - towards inventorying the potential (the capacities) of a structure in the field of working conditions?
Her befinder vi os ganske klart på prognosernes område, på om rådet for strategisk planlægning, d.v.s. stadig på økonomiens område. Finansielle regnskabsteknikker ignorerer ikke disse spørgsmål; de tager dem i betragtning ved hjælp af statusopgø relser, der bort set fra variationer i lagerbeholdninger, om fatter: a. hensættelser med uforudsete udgifter for øje; b. afskrivning under hensyn til almindeligt slid og forældelse; dette beløber sig til henlæggelser til fornyelse af faste investeringer.
Let us re-emphasize that these inventories become more necessary as the part played by the passing of time and by probability (or even uncertain ty) increases in importance; this is so whether one is dealing with phenomena that develop slowly, that are sometimes barely perceptible over the short term but are decisive in the long term (particularly since the "cause" may be gradually cumulative and the "effect" brutally sudden), or whether one is trying to assess at any given moment the structure's capacity to respond to disruptions (foreseeable, probable or possible) thrown in its way by a turbulent environment.
Afskrivning og andre henlæggelser er ikke bogførte finansielle strømninger, men teoretiske debiteringer eller omkostninger.
"degenerate", the mathematicians would say - to be any use, no doubt partly owing to the fact that they are required to "state a figure" (a figure, moreover, in units compatible with the "flows", so that a total can be summed); that is why the term "operation" (in its strict sense of operational procedures leading to a result) can no longer be used in this context.
Under hensyn til tidsskala og sandsynlighedsgrad er det præcist ved at introducere disse teoretiske omkostninger (som er een måde, på hvilken strukturen kan genintegreres med sit økonomi ske miljø), at det bliver muligt at skelne mellem årets debite ringer (omkostninger) og årets udgifter (strømninger) og nå til resultatet (strukturel gevinst eller tab).
And besides, to remain in the world of business and mana gers, other methods have been deployed (futurology in marketing, for example); these methods do not seem to have attracted much interest in the literature of social economics - which is regrettable.
Statusopgørelsen giver således mulighed for strukturens place ring i dens miljø eller - for at udtrykke det på en anden måde -
We shall look at a few examples of phenomena and of the indicators which can be derived from them.
Hvilke fremskridt ­ ud fra de foreslåede metoder og rejste spørgsmål ­ har man så gjort henimod en statusopgørelse over potentiellet (mulighederne) for en struktur på arbejdsvilkå­ renes område?
Here the scenario method is used to compare the respective merits of two forms of work organization (assembly line versus semiautonomous teams) under the following hypotheses: a. diversification of models (of the same product); b. change in demand; c. evolution of the labour market (workers' aspirations, legislation).
Lad os understrege påny, at disse statusopgørelser bliver nød­ vendige efterhånden som rollen, tidsforløb og sandsynlighed
It will be noted that in order to transform a vague idea - flexibility -into indicators, it is necessary to make some assumptions about the future.
(eller endog usikkerhed) spiller, får stigende betydning.
Here we meet the age pyramid again.
Det er tilfældet, ligegyldigt om man beskæftiger sig med fænomener i langsom udvikling, der undertiden næppe kan mærkes 'på kort sigt, men er afgørende i det lange løb (specielt eftersom
It is a quantifiable indicator whose economic significance, in at least three cases, has not been lost on in dustrialists: circumstances persuaded them to adjust the way their firms' work was organized in order to bring the age pyramid of their workers back to "normal" or else to enable it to remain so. And it goes without saying that these adjustments demanded substantial investment, at least in intangibles.
På dette område er de finansielle regnskabsmodeller ganske klart for tynde ­ matematikerne ville sige "degenererede" ­ til at være af nytte; til en vis grad utvivlsomt på grund af kendsgerningen, at de skal "angive et tal" (oven i købet et tal i enheder, forenelig med "strømningerne", så man kan nå til en samlet sum).
Longitudinal studies have revealed that workers (either in the same trade or under the same type of work organization) have suffered a reduction in physiological or psychological capacity (phenomena which can be signalled by indicators).
Det er derfor, vendingen "drift" (i dens snævre betydning for driftsmæssige procedurer, der fører til et resultat) ikke længere kan anvendes i denne sammenhæng.
Therefore these workers appear as "high-risk popula tions" for the community (ill health, unemployment), not to mention the cost to the individual (suffering, premature death).
Og for nu at blive ved erhvervslivet og virksomhedsledere, har man desuden benyttet sig af andre metoder (fremtidsforsk­ ning inden for f.eks. marketing). Disse metoder lader ikke til at have tiltrukket stor interesse i litteraturen vedr.
On this point, in the present state of affairs, it would be useless to try to express these indicators in terms of costs.
social økonomi ­ hvilket er beklageligt.
Not only is there
Vi ønsker herefter at se på nogle få eksempler på fænomenerne og på indikatorerne, der kan afledes af disse.
It is regret table that the bulk of economists continue to take their images and ana logies from Newtonian mechanical science when, without changing their methods, they could turn to more highly developed disciplines such as chemistry or biology which would provide more useful operational con cepts (indétermination, information, etc).
Her anvendes scenariometoden til sammenligning af de to former for arbejdsorganisations respektive fordele (samlebåndsproduktion kontra semiautonome hold) efter følgende hypoteser: a. spredning af modellerne (af samme produkt); b. ændring i efterspørgslen; c. arbejdsmarkedets udvikling (arbejdernes forventninger, lov givning) .
From the economic point of view they are sig nals; from the epistemologica! point of view they are transitions, bridges, between disciplines.
Det bør bemærkes, at det til omdannelsen af en vag idé - fleksi bilitet - til indikatorer bliver nødvendigt at etablere nogle antagelser om fremtiden.
If recorded and understood promptly, such signals can enable counter- measures to be taken to prevent disastrous and costly occurrences or to combat the phenomenon, also costly, of continuous rejection of "unsuit able" workers (as we have seen in connection with age pyramids).
Her støder vi igen på alderspyramiden. Den er en kvantificerbar indikator, hvis økonomiske betydning industrialister har været opmærksomme på i mindst tre tilfælde: omstændighederne overtal talte dem til at justere måden, på hvilken deres virksomheders arbejde var organiseret, for således at bringe deres arbejderes alderspyramide tilbage til "normale" tilstande eller at give den mulighed for at blive ved med at være normal.
From the epistemological point of view the importance of these indica tors of potential is equally great: coming as they do from different disciplines (demography, psychology, etc) and building bridges to econo mics, they help to join them together and thus to construct the field of working conditions.
Og det siger sig selv, at disse justeringer krævede betydelige investeringer - i hvert fald i immaterielle aktiver.
I.2.3 The third level is the level of externalized costs and benefits, ie ones which affect the national community.
Langsgående studier har afsløret, at arbejdere (enten i samme fag eller under samme form for arbejdsorganisation) har været udsat for en reduktion i deres fysiologiske eller psykologiske evner (fænomener, der kan signaliseres af indikatorer). Disse arbejdere repræsenterer derfor "stærkt risikoprægede befolk ningsgrupper" for samfundet (dårligt helbred, arbejdsløshed), for slet ikke at tale om omkostningerne for det enkelte
It should be said right at the outset that this is an arbitrary limita tion because it takes account neither of the integration of economies within the European Economic Community nor, in any complete manner, of the incidence of immigration; but we may add that it would have bsen presumptuous to try to cover a wider area, in view of the difficulties encountered in the narrower field.
Der findes ikke blot ingen logvivningsmæssig eller social norm, der ville give mulighed for udførelsen af de nødvendige beregninger (Michel Cretin, I, 3), men der findes heller ingen teorier eller modeller, som kunne sætte os i stand til at danne os et billede af den sådan handling.
That the creation of these social institutions played a part in post-war expansion there is no doubt (Michel Cretin mentions it in his introduction); but after that? Vincent Navarro (USA, 1979) sees the growth of these institutions and the transfers which they make (for health policy in particular) as. a means of meeting the demands of capital and labour at the same time, in short a way of calming the antagonisms; if this hypothesis were accepted, this kind of conspiracy of silence could be understood.
Det er bekla geligt, at de fleste økonomer fortsætter med at tage deres idé er og analogier fra Newtons mekaniske videnskab, når man tænker på, at de uden at skulle ændre deres metoder kunne benytte sig af langt mere fremskredne discipliner, så som kemi eller biolo gi, som ville tilvejebringe mere fordelagtige arbejdsmæssige begreber (ubestemmelighed, informationer o.s.v.).
However that may be, the fact that the system functions with a philosophy of solidarity (as opposed to one of responsibility) has been no incentive to analysis; this is confirmed by the exception constituted by the treat ment of industrial accidents.
På den anden side kan det siges, at disse potentielindikatorer er af stor interesse i dag.
As far as externalized costs are concerned, the public authorities have been more active in the field of industrial pollution.
Ud fra et økonomisk synspunkt er de signaler; ud fra et epistemologisk synspunkt er de overgange, d.v.s. broer mellem discipliner.
A mechanical model with its immutable time-scale, a model which wae long thought to be universal ("nature at every point is equal to it self" said Newton, which nevertheless leaves a few extenuating circumstances for Taylor).
15 omkostningerne, der hidrører fra selve virksomheden, men som bæ res af samfundet eller af de enkelte mennesker (der også kan være eksternaliserede nytteværdier, som et samfund kan nyde godt af).
What is difficult to ignore, however, is the fact that these models not only affect scientists; one way or another they are deployed in diffe rent industries and form a part - implicitly and in an impoverished form maybe - of the culture of those who work in those industries, particular ly of the supervisory staff and technicians who organize work.
Fra et epistemologisk synspunkt er betydningen af disse poten tielindikatorer lige så stor: idet disse kommer fra forskelli ge discipliner (demografi, psykologi o.s.v.) og bygger broer' til økonomierne, bidrager de til at samle dem og således til at konstruere arbejdsvilkårenes område.
J. Woodward (as long ago as 1958 and I965) noted that work organization tends to be mechanical in mass production (especially in the mechanical engineering industry) and organic in the process industries (which are concerned largely with transforming matter by means of heat).
2.3- Det tredie niveau er de eksternaliserede omkostningers og nytteværdiernes niveau, f.eks. sådanne, der har indflydelse på samfundet som helhed.
The Tavistock Institute developed social engineering (largely systemic) after encountering random occurrences in the coal-mines (1950).
Det bør siges fra starten, at dette er en vilkårlig begræns ning, fordi den hverken tager hensyn til integrationen af na tionaløkonomierne inden for EF eller på nogen fuldstændig måde til immigrationens udbredelse.
It is perhaps no exaggeration to suggest that the authors of the litera ture we are examining may themselves have been influenced by these ideas
Vi ønsker dog at tilføje, at det ville have været for ambitiøst at forsøge at dække et bre dere areal, når man tænker på vanskelighederne, man er kommet ud for på det snævrere område.
- put forward with reference to society at different moments and more or less widely disseminated - and that this influence has had its effect not only in the field of the economy but also and perhaps above all in the type of relationships these authors have looked for between work situations and indicators.
Litteraturen vedr. emnet er praktisk talt uden betydning, el ler det er i det mindste vort indtryk.
I.3 Relations between phenomena and work situation: the significance of the indicators
Alting sker på en sådan måde, som om det var målet for betyde lige sociale overførelser (og man er berettiget til at spørge, om i det mindste en del af de med helbred eller arbejdsløshed forbundne overførelser ikke havde deres ene eller anden form for oprindelse i arbejdssituationer) at holde systemet gående.
The search for causality, at least in our Western world, is a condition of conscious action: it presupposes a theory that is operational and not merely explanatory.
Der er ingen tvivl om, at skabelsen af disse sociale institu tioner spillede en rolle under efterkrigstidens ekspansion
Thus, as it is little use to anyone to know the influence of the solar system on absenteeism - the solar system not being an action variable - no one has carried out such a study.
(Michel Cretin nævner dette i sin indledning); men hvad så herefter? Vincent Navarro (USA 1979) anser væksten i disse institutioner og overførelserne, de udfører (især hvad sund hedspolitik angår) som et middel til på samme tid at
For similar reasons, no one - at least for a certain period - looked for the causes of the phenomena in the way work is organized; work organiza tion, deemed by its very nature to be scientific - and nature at every point being equal to itself - was regarded as almost as uninfluenceable as the solar system.
Dette be kræftes af undtagelsen, behandlingen af arbejdsulykker danner.
Admitted ly, Cournot - inspired by the kinetic theory of gases - had presented a model which reconciled individual fluctuations and global determinisms, but this model was macroeconomic and therefore not usable at the level of production.
Hvad de eksternaliserede omkostninger angår, er de offentlige myndigheder blevet mere aktive på området, industriel forure ning.
It was left to the psychologists, Elton Mayo (Hawthorne, 1925) with his "human relations" and then Herzberg (around the mid-1950s) with his "human resources", to put forward theories to explain these phenomena.
De forudgående sider kunne lige så godt være blevet skrevet omkring tre "modeller" fra naturvidenskaberne (omend de ikke ville have svaret helt til de tre analyseniveauer): a. En mekanisk model med dens uforanderlige tidsskala, som er en model, man længe har betragtet som universel ("på hvert eneste punkt er naturen lig med sig selv", erklærede Newton, hvilket ikke desto mindre efterlader nogle få formildende omstændigheder for Taylor).
Briefly, by influencing social relations in the factory, the intention was to persuade workers to accept that the technological imperative was justified; a justification of which managers and technicians were al ready persuaded.
b. En traditionel termodynamisk model: modellen med dampmaski nen, i hvilken en forøgelse i entropien - i forstyrrelser ne - er forbundet med en uundgåelig forringelse (som
The Tavistock Institute (1950) and the social engineering school can claim the honour of having questioned technology and work organization and of having proposed the first systemic model - ie a model that is open to the exterior - of the enterprise.
17 indlysende uden for denne rapports område.
17 viour (flows).
Så langt tilbage som i 1958 og 1965 bemærkede J. Woodward, at arbejdsorganisation er tilbøjelig til at være mekanisk inden for masseproduktionen (især i maskinbygningsindustrien) og stor ganisk i bearbejdningsindustrigrenene (som i det store og hele beskæftiger sig med omdannelse af stoffer ved hjælp af varme).
This relationship is correct when one of the factors stands out clearly from the others, but in that case it is trite (silica produces silicosis, excessive noise makes people deaf); the difficulty comes when it is re quired to build up the total effect of a number of factors (nuisances at permitted levels, for example) on the physiology of individuals.
The Tavistock Institute har udviklet socialteknikken (hovedsage ligt systemisk) efter af og til at være kommet ud for tilfældige hændelser i kulminerne (1950).
Epi demiological methods may bring progress in this field, provided that a few statistical precautions are taken (hence the importance of the "homo geneous group" proposed by the Italian trade unions).
Det er måske ingen overdrivelse at sige, at forfatterne af lit teraturen, vi er i færd med at undersøge, eventuelt selv har været påvirket af disse idéer - fremsat under henvisning til samfundet på forskellige tidspunkter og mere eller mindre ud bredte - og at denne indflydelse ikke blot har haft sin virkning på økonomiens område, men måske frem for alt i formen for rela tionerne, disse forfattere har søgt, mellem arbejdsorganisatio ner og indikatorer.
To resolve this difficulty, which is inherent in physiology, a solution has sometimes been sought by the following method: nuisances generate avoidance reactions (absenteeism, etc), the costs of which can be measur ed; but this amounts to giving accountancy the responsibility for making
Relationer mellem fænomenerne og arbejdssituationer: indikatorernes betydning
From the methodological point of view the search for a linear causal re lationship encounters several difficulties:
En søgen efter kausalitet er forbundet med en bevidst handling - i det mindste i vor vestlige verden: en sådan søgen forudsæt ter en teori, der kan bruges, og som ikke blot er forklarende.
By isolating a few factors from a complex whole the researcher is assum ing that the other factors have little influence, that they merely pro duce "background noise", an assumption that is difficult to maintain.
Eftersom det ikke er til megen nytte for nogen at kende solsy stemets indflydelse på fravær - idet solsystemet ikke er en handlingsvariabel - har ingen udført en sådan studie.
- are of the probabilistic type (which is a necessity if account is to be taken of individual variability: this question is familiar to sociolo-
Arbejdsorganisation, dømt til at være videnskabelig på grund af selve sin art (og eftersom naturen er lig sig selv på alle punkter), blev anset for at være næsten lige så upåvirkelig som solsystemet.
18 gists), it will always be possible that in a moving group correlations or co-variations which tend merely to support the case rather than actual ly proving it may be found (and econometrics has already suffered a few disappointments of this kind).
Det blev overladt psykologerne (Elton Mayo (Hawthorne 1925) med sine "menneskelige relationer" og senere Herzberg (omkring midten af 1950'erne) med sine "menneskelige ressourcer" at frem sætte teorier til forklaring af disse fænomener.
Basically, linear causality is really suitable only for mechanical or mechanizable systems; systems for which, to put it bluntly in the words of Nietzsche, one can "imagine the cause as a piston which presses and pushes until the moment the effect is obtained".
I studiens anden del skal vi se, hvorledes bevægelsen, The
I.3.3 A level where there is circular causality