natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
1978/79 (Hopkin og Town, forestående) viser, at brug af bus er koncentreret i visse aldersgrupper af arbejdere (unge arbejdere af begge køn, midaldrende kvinder, yngre husmødre, de ældre).
Research using the 1978/79 British NTS (Hopkin and Town, forthcoming) shows that bus use is concentrated among particular age groups of workers (young workers of both, sexes, middle aged women, younger housewives, the elderly).
Disse mønstre er ret stabile. Forskning dokumenterer en betydelig træghed blandt pendlere i retning af på kort sigt at ændre rejsemåde.
These patterns are fairly stable; the research documents a considerable inertia among commuters towards changing mode in the short term.
Valg af rejsemåde synes at være et langsigtet fænomen, der i betydelig grad påvirkes af vaner og en rutinemæssig levevis, hvoraf pendling er en del.
Modal choice would appear to be a longer term phenomena, considerably influenced by force of habit and a routine life style of which commuting forms a part.
Kun over en længere periode reagerer pendlere på ændringer i de generaliserede omkostninger ved pendling.
Commuters only respond to changes in the generalised costs of commuting over a longer period.
Valg af rejsemåde afhænger ikke alene af sådanne ændringers faktiske omfang, men også af disse ændringers historie.
Modal choice depends not only on the actual level of such changes but also a history of these changes.
Medmindre historien er af definitiv karakter, vil valg af rejsemåde blive påvirket.
Unless that history has a definite character it will rarely affect modal choices.
Som følge af pendleres vaner er det vanskeligere at vende en udvikling end at fremhæve den.
Due to the habits of commuters it is more difficult to reverse a trend than to accentuate it.
For eksempel må politiske foranstaltninger til subsidiering af kollektiv transports takster eller til forbedring af kollektiv transports hastigheder med det formål at tilskynde bilpendlere til at bruge kollektiv transport nødvendigvis omfatte ændringer, der er større end eventuelle tidligere ændringer, som fik dem til at skifte fra kollektiv transport til bilpendling, rent bortset fra de ændringer i levevis som anskaffelsen af en bil betyder for arbejderen.
For example, any policies to subsidise public transport fares or improve public transport speeds which are intended to encourage car commuters from public transport will need to involve changes greater than any past change which caused them to switch from public transport to car commuting, quite apart from the changes in life style that accrue to workers caused by becoming a car driver.
Som tysk forskning har understreget, vil erhvervelse af bil kun give bilisten meget lidt realistisk valg af rejsemåde, medmindre omkostningerne stiger dramatisk.
As German research has stressed, car acquisition, unless costs rise dramatically, provides the user with little realistic choice of mode.
124 kollektiv transport, sandsynligvis hidrøre fra udtrykkelige bilbegrænsninger snarere end fra ny investering i kollektiv transports drift.
In the main, policies to influence the proportion of workers commuting by public transport are more likely to originate through positive car restraint than through new investment in public transport operations.
PENDLING OG BOPÆL
COMMUTING AND RESIDENTIAL LOCATION
Set i langsigtet perspektiv repræsenterer pendling en daglig tilkendegivelse af et stort antal beslutninger om bopæls og virksomheders beliggenhed.
Seen in a longer term perspective, commuting flows represent the daily manifestation of a large number of residential and firm location decisions.
Mønstret for bopæls og arbejdssteds beliggenhed i forskellige medlemslande er gennemgået i kapitel 2.
The broad patterns of residential and workplace locations in different member countries have been reviewed in Chapter 2.
Valget af bopæl afgør - og afgøres også af - de rejsemåder, der er til rådighed for pendling, samt sådanne rejsers længde og varighed.
Residential choices determine, and are also determined by, the travel modes available for commuting and the length and time such journeys take.
Ved at bo mere tilgængeligt kan arbejdere formindske deres problemer med at rejse til og fra arbejde; dette kan have en gunstig indvirkning på familieliv og selskabelig hed og på præstationen på arbejdspladsen.
By residing in more accessible locations, workers can minimise their travel problems getting to and from work; this may have a positive impact on family and social life and on their performance at work.
I den faktiske hverdag involverer husstandens valg af bopæl imidlertid mange andre aspekter af deres levevis.
In the real world however households residential choices involve many other aspects of their life style.
Det omfang, hvori arbejdere vælger eller kan vælge bopæl for at have let adgang til arbejde, afgør i sammensat form
The extent to which workers choose, or are able to choose, residential locations for their accessibility to work will determine at the aggregate scale the nature and size of 'commuting problems'.
"pendlingsproblemernes" art og omfang. Adskillige undersøgelser på dette felt har for eksempel identificeret husstande, som er indstillet på at gennemføre lange, ubekvemme arbejdsrejser for at kunne bo i et mindre tætbefolket og mere behageligt boligmiljø.
For example, several studies in this area of research have identified households that are prepared to undertake long, uncomfortable work journeys for the opportunities to reside in less dense, more amenable residential environments.
I modsætning hertil har man identificeret arbejder grupper, som ikke har meget valg, hvad bopæl angår, og som faktisk som følge heraf lider under følgerne af dårlige arbejdsmuligheder, arbejdsløshed eller lange og vanskelige arbejdsrejser.
In contrast, other groups of workers have been identified who have little choice of residential location and indeed suffer the consequences of poor job opportunity, unemployment or long, difficult work journeys as a result.
Dette kapitel i rapporten beskæftiger sig derfor med, hvad man fra både erfarings- og modelforskning ved om fremgangsmåden ved valg af bopæl og pendlings betydning.
This chapter of the report thus reviews what is known from both empirical and modelling research about the process of residential choice and the importance attached to commuting.
Faktorer der påvirker bopælsændringer i medlemslandene
8.1 Factors influencing rates of residential movement in member countries
Bopælsændringer forekommer med betydelig hyppighed. I United Kingdom viste den britiske husstandsundersøgelse af 1977, at en tredjedel af alle husstande var flyttet i de foregående fem år (Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, 1979).
Residential moves occur at a considerable rate; in the United Kingdom the 1977 General Household Survey of Great Britain showed that one third of all nouseholds had moved residence in the previous five years (Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, 1979).
Hyppigheden af bopælsændring varierer imidlertid betydeligt fra befolknings gruppe til befolkningsgruppe, alt efter husstandenes sociale karakteristika og den fleksibilitet, boligmarkedet giver i hvert medlemsland.
However, rates of residential moves do vary markedly between different groups of the population depending on the social characteristics of the household and also the flexibility provided by the housing market in each member country.
Mens den årlige hyppighedsgrad af bopælsændring i United Kingdom forblev uændret i 1970'erne, er der i nogle medlemslande tegn på, at hyppigheden af bopælsændring er i aftagende.
While annual rates of residential movement in the United Kingdom have remained steady during the 1970's there is evidence from some member countries that rates of residential mobility are declining.
I Italien viser de foreløbige resultater af folketællingen i 1981, at bopælsændringen i det foregående tiår var den hidtil laveste som følge af et mere og mere usmidigt boligmarked.
In Italy, preliminary results from the 1981 census show that residential mobility rates for the previous decade were the lowest ever as a result of an increasingly rigid housing market.
Dette synes at tyde på, at arbejdere i
This would suggest that
126 stigende grad er tilbøjelige til at indrette mønstret for deres arbejdsrejse fremfor at flytte bopæl, dersom deres arbejdsvilkår ændres (Ecoter, 1982).
123 workers are increasingly likely to adjust their journey to work patterns in the event of a change in their job circumstances, rather than move residence (Ecoter, 1982).
De fleste undersøgelser af bopælsbevægeligheden falder i tre grupper: for det første er der dem, der sætter den totale bopælsændring i forhold til de underliggende samfundsmæssige karakteristika (her er der omfattende forskning fra USA), for det andet er der en række mere detaljerede husstandsundersøgelser om valg af bopæl, og for det tredje er der omfattende modelværker om valg af bopæl og arbejde, væsentligst ud fra bymæssig økonomi.
A majority of the studies of residential mobility fall into three areas: firstly, those which relate aggregate rates of residential moves to background social characteristics (here there is a strong body of research from the USA); secondly a series of more detailed household surveys on residential choices and thirdly a large body of modelling literature of residential and job choices deriving largely frem urban economics.
Blandt de mange undersøgelser af de faktorer, som bestemmer husstandes bevægelighed, er der betydelig enighed om, hvilke karakteristika der er de vigtigste; pendling er almindeligvis ikke en af dem.
Among the large number of studies that have been made into the factors that determine the residential mobility of households, there is consideróle agreement as to which characteristics are the most important; on average, commuting is not one of them.
Chapin (1968) fremkom med en gyldig sondring, nemlig at flytningen er en proces i to etaper; først beslutningen om at flytte ("tilskyndelsesfaktor") og derefter valget af bopæl
Chapin (1968) made a valid distinction that the relocation procedure is a two stage process, firstly, the decision to move ('push' factors) and then the choice of location ('pull' factors).
I disse undersøgelser er det fremtrædende begreb, at ændringen sker i successive stadier af familiens liv, og det medfører bopælsændringer, efterhånden som husstandens pladsbehov ændres (Goldstein, 1964; Speare, 1976;
Predominant in these studies is the concept of a transition through successive stages of a family life cycle which generates residential moves as the housing space requirements of the household change (Goldstein, 1964; Speare, 1976; Mincer, 1978; McCarthy, 1976; Jones, 1981).
Quigley, 1975), netop har haft familieforøgelse (Morrison, 1967) bor i egen eller lejet bolig (Holmans, 1979) eller tilhører de yngre aldersgrupper (Speare,
Moving households are more likely to have just formed through marriage or common law agreement, to have broken up through divorce or death (Kain and Quigley, 1975), to have increased the family size (Morrison, 1967) to live in owner occupied or private rented accommodation (Holmans, 1979) and to be in younger age groups (Speare, 1970).
1976), blandt ældre, blandt etniske mindretal (Pickvance, 1974) og blandt de laveste indkomstgrupper (Catanese, 1971).
Residential mobility is lowest among those households where no recent change in household composition has occurred, among tenants in public housing (Jones, 1979) and those who have not moved residence for some years (Speare, 1976), among households in older age groups, among members of ethnic minority groups (Pickvance, 1974) and workers in the lowest income groups (Catanese, 1971).
Mange af disse variabler er tydeligvis beslægtet.
Clearly many of these variables inter-relate;
127 fremgår det af disse undersøgelser, at behovet for pendling er en underordnet faktor.
124 while it is fairly easy to visualise households with typical 'styles' of life in both the groups of movers and non-movers, it is evident from these studies that commuting requirements are a minor consideration.
Faktorer der påvirker valg af bopæl
8.2 Factors influencing residential choice
I mange detaljerede husstandsundersøgelser om bopælsændring hævdes det, at arbejdsrejsen ikke har indflydelse på valget af bopæl.
A large number of detailed household surveys of residential moves have argued that the journey to work is not influential in residential choices.
I Frankrig har undersøgelser i Nantes (CETE, de L'Ouest, 1981) og Toulouse (Agence d'Urbanisme de l'agglomération Toulousaine, 1979) vist, at husstande mere var påvirket af deres pladsbehov og af ønsket om at reducere boligomkostningerne end af at opnå nemmere arbejdsrejse.
In France, studies in Nantes (CETE, de L'Ouest, 1981) and Toulouse (Agence d'Urbanisme de l'agglomération Toulousaine, 1979) found that households were more influenced by housing space requirements and reducing their housing costs than by achieving an easier journey to work.
Undersøgelser i Italien og United Kingdom bekræfter, at pendling er en underordnet faktor ved valg af bopæl.
Studies in Italy and the United Kingdom confirm the minor importance of commuting in residential choice.
I Italien var den største indflydelse på husstandene de begrænsninger, der fandtes på boligmarkedet, og som indvirkede, hvor det var muligt at flytte, samt den socialforsorg der er til rådighed forskellige steder.
In Italy the major influences on households were the constraints of the housing market influencing where moves were possible, and the provision of social services at different locations.
I modsætning hertil understreger forskning i United Kingdom betydningen af lokalsamfundets kvalitet samt, især for gifte par, kvaliteten af miljøet for børnene.
In contrast research in the United Kingdom emphasises the importance of the quality of the neighbourhood and, particularly in the case of married couples, the quality of the environment for children.
I Toulouse var det kun 15 pet. af de husstande, hvis arbejdssted var ændret, som agtede at flytte, og kun 5 pet. af de husstande, hvis arbejdsvilkår ikke var ændret, flyttede for at opnå bedre arbejdsrejse; blandt potentielle flyttere var andelen 6 pet. Disse undersøgelser underbygges af resultater fra Tyskland
In Toulouse, only 15 per cent of those households whose workplace location had changed intended to move residence and only 5 per cent of those households who had not changed their employment circumstances were moving to improve their journey to work; among potential movers of residence the proportion was 6 per cent.
Jones (1979) i Manchester, United Kingdom, sammenlignede betydningen af pendling, bolig og lokalsamfund, når husstande overvejede at flytte fra tre forskellige typer besiddelsesmåde.
A study by Jones (1979) in Manchester, United Kingdom compared the importance of commuting, housing and neighbourhood considerations in households' decisions to move residence from three different types of housing tenure.
Undersøgelsen koncentrerede sig om husstandenes grad af tilfredshed med disse tre aspekter af boligen, og om hvorvidt der var sammenhæng mellem eventuel utilfredshed og deres ønske om at flytte.
The analysis focused on households' satisfaction levels with these three aspects of residential living and whether any dissatisfaction related to their propensity to move residence.
Blandt prøvens husstande, som havde flyttet bopæl inden for alle besiddelsesmåder (selvejet bolig, kommunalt ejet bolig og privatlejet bolig) var adgang til arbejde ikke så vigtig grund til flytningen som overvejelser om boligbehov og om nabolagets kvalitet.
Among the sample of households that had moved residence in all housing tenure groups (owner occupied, public housing and private rented housing) access to work was not as important a reason for moving as considerations of accommodation requirements and the perceived quality of the neighbourhood environment.
128 sammenligne resultaterne af Manchester-undersøgelsen med undersøgelser gennemført i Glasgow og Leeds konkluderede Jones, at "økonomer har anbragt arbejdsrejsen som et centralt element ved overvejelser om valg af bopæl.
125 households found these to be less satisfactory than work journeys. Comparing the results of the Manchester study with studies conducted in Glasgow and Leeds, Jones concluded that "Economists have placed the journey to work as a central element in the residential location decision.
Dette synspunkt drages nu i tvivl ... bekvem arbejdsrejse er stort set af underordnet betydning ... pendlingstiderne er stort set de samme før og efter bopæls ændring". I United Kingdom var den gennemsnitlige afstand ved bopælsændring i 1976 kun 3,6 km (Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, 1978).
This view is now being questioned ... convenience to work is largely of only minor significance ... on the whole commuting times are similar before and after residential moves."
En undersøgelse af Bird (1976) af foretrukne boligområder blandt kommunale lejere i Newcastle viste, at de gennemsnitlige pendlingsafstande kun ville forøges med 0,5 km, hvis lejerne opnåede at flytte til de foretrukne områder.
(1976) of the residential area preferences of local authority tenants in Newcastle found that mean commuting distances would only increase by 0.5 kms if tenants' area preferences were achieved.
Det forekommer, at familier kan opnå betydelige ændringer i tilfredsheden med andre af tilværelsens aspekter ved at flytte inden for en beskeden afstand.
It would appear that families can obtain significant changes in the satisfaction of other aspects of living by moving residence only a short distance.
Trods omfanget af bopælsændringer i medlemslandene har folk stadig tilbøjelighed til, når det er muligt, at forblive i deres eget sociale og familiemæssige miljø.
Despite the volume of residential movement within member countries, people still tend whenever possible to stay within their own social and relational surroundings.
For mange er det sådan, at fordelene ved at bo med nem adgang til arbejde ikke kompenserer for det minus, der er forbundet med, at de skal forlade deres "samfund" (dvs. tab af social identitet).
The advantages of accessible living for many do not compensate for the disadvantages of leaving the area of their 'community' (ie a loss of social identity).
Dette synes at gælde for husstande både i tætbefolkede indre byområder (Young og Wilmott, 1968) og i udprægede landdistrikter som f.eks. Mezzogiorno (Ecoter, 1982) eller græske land distrikter.
This would appear true of households resident in both densely populated inner city areas
Undersøgelser i Eire af Bannon (1981) og O'Connor (1976) viste, at trods en forværret beskæftigelsessituation i det indre af Dublin var slægtsbåndene mellem familier stærk. 70 pet. af de adspurgte ønskede ikke at flytte, og kun 3,5 pet. var utilfredse med deres rejse til arbejde.
Studies in Ireland by Bannon (1981) and O'Connor (1976) found that, despite a worsening employment situation in inner city Dublin, the degree of kinship between families was strong; 70 per cent of those questioned did not wish to move and only 3.5 per cent were dissatisfied with their journey to work.
Dette mønster er også blevet fundet blandt arbejdere, som må pendle lange afstande. En undersøgelse i Belgien (Six, 1976) viste, at tilknytningen til bopæl var særligt stærk blandt pendlere, som rejste lange afstande til centrum af Bruxelles.
This pattern has also been found among workers who have to commute long distances; a study in Belgium (Six, 1976) found that the residential attachments of long distance commuters into central Brussels were particularly strong.
Kun få regnede med at flytte til steder, hvorfra der er nemmere adgang til arbejdspladsen.
Few were anticipating residential moves to locations more accessible for work.
Nogle undersøgelser har specifikt beskæftiget sig med husstandes foretrukne boligområde snarere end med deres motivering for at flytte.
Some studies have concerned themselves specifically with households' residential area preferences rather than merely their motives for moving residence.
En vigtig undersøgelse af Dawson og andre (1980) i Glasgow analyserede den betydning, som potentielle huskøbere tillagde pendling ved valg af ny bolig.
An important study by Dawson et al (1980) in Glasgow analysed the importance which prospective home owning households attached to commuting when choosing a new residential location.
Modsat andre undersøgelser, som analyserer, hvad husstande foretrækker ved valg af bopæl, ud fra den antagelse at deres flytte-adfærd nøje vil afspejle det foretrukne, mente Dawson, at der skulle reguleres for den grad af begrænsning, som boligmarkedet indebærer.
In contrast to other studies that analyse households' residential preferences in the assumption that their moving behaviour will accurately mirror such preferences, Dawson et al felt that the
"område-forhåbninger".
It was more accurate in his view to analyse households 'area preferences' as a sub-set of their 'area expectations', ie their 'area aspirations'.
Han fandt i sin analyse, at husstande tydeligvis var omkostningsbevidste (som den franske undersøgelse i Nantes tydede på).
In his analysis he found that households were clearly conscious of cost considerations (as the French research in Nantes suggested).
Lokalsamfundets kvalitet var imidlertid af størst betydning i forhåbninger til bopæl, mens adgang til arbejde og til venner og slægtninge var mindre væsentligt.
Neighbourhood quality was however of greatest importance in residential aspirations but accessibility to work and to friends and relatives were of secondary importance.
Begrundelsen for husstandes endelige valg af bopæl vises i tabel 8.1. Tabellen viser, at husstande var meget forskellige i den betydning, de tillagde pendlingsbehovet ved valg af bopæl.
The reasons for households' eventual residential choices are shown in Table 8.1; the Table shows that households were markedly divided in the emphasis they placed on commuting requirements when choosing residences.
Selv om 34 pet. af husstandene end ikke tog pendling i betragtning, er det muligt, at dette kan være overvejet på et tidligere stadium af valgprocessen, når de evaluerede de områder, hvor de ville søge bopæl.
Although 34 per cent of households did not even consider commuting, it is possible that this may have been a consideration at an earlier stage in the choice process, when they were evaluating the set of areas for residential search.
Selv om pendling er en vigtig faktor at tage i betragtning for en husstand, vil det imidlertid ikke nødvendigvis have indflydelse på bopælsændringen, hvis alle områder har lige god adgang til arbejdspladsen. Dette er en situation, der er fælles for de fleste arbejdere, som er beskæftiget i by- eller storbycentrer, hvortil der sædvanligvis er god adgang fra de fleste forstadsområder.
Furthermore, even if commuting is an important consideration for a household, it might not influence a residential move if all areas have equal access; this is a situation common to most workers employed in town or city centres which are usually accessible from most urban sectors.
I Glasgow-undersøgelsen var 79 pet. af respondenterne jævnt godt eller meget godt tilfreds med deres rejse til arbejde; kun 6,2 pet. var jævnt eller meget utilfreds.
In the Glasgow survey, 79 per cent of respondents were moderately or extremely satisifed with their journey to work; only 6.2 per cent were moderately or extremely dissatisfied.
Boligmarkedets indvirkning under søgen efter bopæl kan også begrænse den grad, i hvilken husstande kan imødekomme, hvad de foretrækker.
The influence of the housing market during residential searches can also constrain the extent to which households can meet their residential preferences.
Undersøgelser af Barrett (1976) i Toronto og af Lyon og Wood (1971) i London viste, at uanset deres begrundelse for at flytte var eftersøgningen efter ny bolig hverken objektiv eller grundig; de fleste husstande gennemgik kun et par steder i et kort tidsrum.
Studies by Barrett (1976) in Toronto and by Lyon and Wood (1971) in London found that irrespective of their reasons for residential moves, searches were neither objective nor thorough; most households analysed only a few locations over a short period of time.