natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Kort sagt, hvis vi �nsker at dr�fte forholdet mellem uddannelse og arbejde, er det n�dvendigtat analysere arten af det p�g�ldende arbejde, at definere, hvilken uddannelse der kan styrkepersonernes position p� arbejdsmarkedet, unders�ge betingelserne for en mulig ny udvikling iretning af arbejdsformer med et rigere indhold og s�ge efter muligheder og metoder forvidereuddannelse og social fremgang.
Occupationalcompetency (�expertise� according to the terminology used in this Department and in Ajelloand Meghnagi 1998) can be described as a complex articulated combination of abilities andcapacities which is the result of a conceptual and functional synthesis of theoretical aspects,linked partly to disciplinary contents and actual experience. It is the result of training whichmay be initial or continuing.
Viden, som i h�j grad styres af den sproglige beherskelse og af symbolske systemer, er afh�ngigaf et dynamisk forhold mellem kundskaber og erfaring.
The essential skills in any work requiring a minimum of judgement relate to �decision-making� and �problem-solving� in different forms and on various occupational levels.Problem-solving is the outcome of the processing of information, whether innate or acquired,which is often handled differently according to what is being dealt with.
Faktisk �ges et menneskes personlighedgennem en gradvis erhvervelse af viden som et resultat af en fortsat analyse, bearbejdelse ogomdannelse af erfaringsgenstande.
Indeed, problemsolving is often associated with problems which can only be resolved by restructuringknowledge that is partly or wholly mastered.
Denne gradvise opbygning sker ved en stigning i b�dekvantitet og kvalitet af de erhvervede informationer og gennem raffineringsgraden i behandlingen af disse informationer samt en voksende bevidsthed om det, man ved, om udviklingsmuligheder og om, hvordan man kan videregive sin egen viden.
It is no coincidence that the ability to resolveproblems is often the ability to look at them in the right way, and is the result of a process ofunderstanding and perception, of conceptualisation and reorganisation of the data.
De bedste strategier i en given situation findes gennem en kombination af almene og specifikkekompetencer og formel viden, som erhverves i l�bet af et normalt studieforl�b, og af viden,som opn�s p� vidt forskellig vis.
It issometimes the product of creative action taken in response to circumstances not previouslyexperienced. Decision-making is directly connected to the way in which problems are set andthe questions which arise in consequence.
De konsolideres gennem kontrol og selvkontrol af egne ressourcer;de udvikles gennem anvendelsen af erfaringer i situationer, der er forskellige fra l�rings-situationen.
They assume their own shape and form in particular environmentssuch as the workplace, or in the productive sectors in which they are �located�.
Kvalifikationerne �ges takket v�re et arbejde, som under de forskellige arbejds-m�ssige betingelser afkodes, fortolkes p� ny og rekonstrueres i hukommelsen.
From thisperspective, skills are dependent on knowledge and abilities which function in a particularcontext.
Erhvervskvalifikationer er et resultat (Meghnagi 1992) af en l�ringsproces, som aldrig kanforeg� udelukkende i en uddannelsesinstitution eller gennem erhvervsud�velse.
They assume a connection and an inter-relationship with the ways in whichknowledge is used, monitored, expanded and re-structured.
Kvalifikationernekonfigureres p� forskellige m�der fra person til person som individuelle ressourcer af viden ogkompetencer, der er egnede til at klare forskellige arbejdssituationer i tidens l�b. Kvalificerings-forl�bet for de fleste mennesker er kort sagt ikke resultatet af en r�kke programmerede,organiserede, overv�gede og evaluerede uddannelsesforl�b. Tv�rtimod er det et tilf�ldigtforl�b, hvor forskellige erfaringer fra formel uddannelse og praktisk arbejde supplererhinanden, hvor vidt forskellige kognitive ressourcer efterh�nden forenes til kvalifikationer.
If this knowledge is inadequate, itis because of a lack of suitable tools for its continual indispensable restructuring, or for itsapplication in possible new ways in order to resolve a problem.
"Kvalifikationer" kan derfor defineres som en besiddelse af kompetencer, der er egnede til atl�se bestemte opgaver, eller som evne til p� grundlag af f�rdigheder og tilegnet viden atknytte forbindelser, som g�r det muligt at klare en given situation.
The construction of abilities and knowledge occurs within a process which is not limitedsolely to contact with reality, whether actual or symbolic, but is shaped by social interactionwith others of the same level of competence, or higher, with whom matters can be discussed.A linguistic and cognitive dialogue can take place in various ways, depending on the subjects
Erhvervskvalifikationer, som betegnes som "ekspertise" i de unders�gelser, der henvises til afbl.a. Ajello Meghnagi 1998, kan rent faktisk beskrives som et kompleks hele, der omfatterf�rdigheder og evner som et resultat af en begrebsm�ssig og operativ syntese af teoretiskeaspekter, der er forbundet dels med fagviden og dels med konkrete erfaringer.
to be discussed. This interaction is crucial in that it can encourage the potential fordevelopment inherent in everyone.
De er resultatetaf en grunduddannelse eller videreuddannelse, som foreg�r gennem koh�rente former og erdelvis pr�get af den p�g�ldende organisations milj�.
The �social context� governsthe development of knowledge in various ways and assists the collection, understanding,analysis and systematisation of experience.
Kompetence er derfor ikke en absolut st�rrelse, men snarere en afh�ngig variabel, sominteragerer med den organisatoriske kontekst, hvori den kommer til udtryk.
Skills are thus not to be valued as things that stand alone, but according to how useful they arein particular contexts.
Den f�r karakterog dimension i de forskellige omgivelser � arbejdsplads, sektorer eller produktionssegmenter.
They are tied to particular environments, to social and employmentsituations, and to the areas of production where they are �located�.
I dette perspektiv er kvalifikationer afh�ngige af de erfaringer og f�rdigheder, som anvendes ien given kontekst. De f�r en konnotation, der er forbundet med erfaringsindhold, anvendelse,kontrol, bearbejdelse og nystrukturering deraf.
They cannot be definedglobally on the basis of predetermined functions, by reference to a theoretical curriculum oftraining or practice.
Utilstr�kkelig kompetence synes derfor atv�re en mangel p� egnede instrumenter til en konstant og uundv�rlig omarbejdelse af denviden, man har, for s�ledes at erhverve ny viden eller anvende den allerede erhvervede p� nyem�der i forbindelse med probleml�sning.
Two conditions are vital for this: there must be a participatoryapproach, and the distinction which is often made between social and vocational skills mustbe abandoned.
Det afh�nger af denne interaktion, om detudviklingspotentiale, som alle er i besiddelse af, anvendes.
Obviously this definition complicates any attempt at analysis based solely onabstract knowledge and abilities.
Den st�tter rent faktisk den enkeltep� det emotionelle plan, g�r det muligt at dele vanskeligheder med andre og analysereproblemerne p� det sociale plan, at observere, forklare synspunkter, fastsl�, om andre er afsamme eller anden mening, opbygge et begrebsm�ssigt "stillads", der er n�dvendigt forerhvervelse af yderligere viden.
It requires a rigorous examination of the nature andcircumstances of the work for which the various social actors involved in training are seekingto work out the appropriate programme.
Erhvervsuddannelse i forbindelse mednedsættelse af arbejdstiden
The key thing to be borne in mind here is thattraining that was useful for work, or even indispensable, was regarded as a reduction inworking time.
Mit indl�g er baseret p� erhvervsuddannelsens historie i Frankrig og p� den lovgivning, denhar medf�rt. Interessen for uddannelsestiden er specielt aktuel i Frankrig, fordi emnet arbejdstidi dag giver anledning til livlige debatter om arbejdsgivernes n�rt forest�ende forpligtelse til atreducere den ugentlige arbejdstid til 35 timer.
The agreement between the social partners which created individual training leave, enshrinedin legislation in 1984, now clearly recognised a right to a reduction in working time, over agiven period, in order to pursue education or training for anything up to 1200 hours, while stillbeing paid.
Men sp�rgsm�let om koordinering mellemuddannelsestid og arbejdstid er gammelt.
That does not mean, however, that time spent in training under a training schemewas regarded as working time.
Vi m� understrege, at det s�ledes rejste problem om en synkronisering af tiderneforuds�tter en fremstilling af uddannelse, der g�r den til en s�rlig aktivitet, der kan identificeresved selve den tid, der anvendes hertil.
Both employers and employees still perceived training timewhich was necessary to the enterprise as absence from work.
Men man kan imidlertid ikke g�re sig tanker om den tid, der er til r�dighed for uddannelse afde erhvervsaktive � dem, der er p� arbejdsmarkedet, i besk�ftigelse eller arbejdsl�se, sagt p�en anden m�de om den tid, som uddannelse tager fra andre aktiviteter � uden at st�de p�arbejdstiden, der forbliver den centrale aktivitet for denne befolkning.
It should be pointed out as well that this right to training leave, to time for education andtraining to be taken out of working time, was a principle that was applied infrequently inpractice: even in the best years, there were no more than 34 000 beneficiaries of individualtraining leave (in 1994) (27), compared with the more than 3 million employees trained underenterprise training schemes.
Tiden fremst�r i denforbindelse som en relevant faktor for den v�rdi, der socialt tildeles en aktivitet, i detforeliggende tilf�lde uddannelse; b�de tiden som en varighed (man anvender lang eller korttid p� det), men ogs� tiden som et valgt �jeblik i tilrettel�ggelsen af den sociale tid og endeligen tid, der set fra de to sider i �vrigt har en omkostning, s� snart den interfererer medarbejdstiden.
It is nonetheless the case that time spent on education andtraining, whatever its purpose, is generally perceived in France as belonging to working time.This is reflected in several ways: firstly, new forms of training leave have been created forspecial purposes, though these are not always paid (sabbatical leave, examination leave, skillsassessment leave, and leave for elected politicians, voluntary firefighters, and so on);secondly, there is no research into the education and training courses pursued outside workingtime; all that is known is that the funds devoted by the Regional Councils to �socialadvancement� courses have fallen sharply.
Det arbejde, man ud�ver, eller det, mantragter efter med udsigt til en arbejdsm�ssig forfremmelse.
)The need to make such a distinction arose in 1974 out of a ruling by the Council of State.
Hvilken deling mellem arbejdstiden, der forts�tter med at strukturere samtlige sociale tider,og uddannelsestiden skal man g� ind for, is�r n�r man har til hensigt at inddrage disse formers
)This figure fell to less than 25 000 in 1996: cf. the vocational training annexes to drafts of the Finance Act.
forskellighed i erhvervsuddannelsen?
The management of training time
M�den, hvorp� man svarer p� dette sp�rgsm�l, er blevet�ndret meget siden 60�erne is�r p� grund af den accelererende udvikling mod en neds�ttelseaf arbejdstiden, og de fundne kompromiser har ikke v�ret holdbare.
From the point of view of the internal organisation of an enterprise, is it necessary to devotesome working time to the training of employees, or do employers do so because they have tocomply with the obligations imposed on them?
Den f�rste iagttagelse, som jeg gerne vil uddybe, er, at de forhandlinger, der har f�rt til lovenaf 1971, objektivt har behandlet uddannelsestiden som en neds�ttelse af arbejdstiden.
Some enterprises, notably large companies,did not wait for the 1971 Act before realising that training was one of the tools necessary forthe management of their human resources.
Det erunder disse omst�ndigheder logisk, at udsigten til en �nsket kraftig neds�ttelse af arbejdstidenmedf�rer, at princippet om erhvervsuddannelse i arbejdstiden drages ind i debatten.
But the majority only took an interest once theyfound themselves obliged to apply the regulation introducing so-called compulsory participationin further training, which imposed on them a minimum expenditure on training, initially 0.8 %of the total wages and salaries bill, a figure that has now risen to 1.5 %.
Min tredje iagttagelse vedr�rer i mods�tning til de ovenst�ende punkter uddannelsens plads iden tid, hvor der ikke arbejdes, f�rst og fremmest fritiden, men ogs� i de ledige stunder iforbindelse med arbejdsl�shed.
This reflects the fact that most of them have come to realise that suchexpenditure meets what is primarily an internal need.
Vil en neds�ttelse af arbejdstiden i den sammenh�ng udmunde i, at uddannelsestiden flyttesfra arbejdstiden til fritiden?
There are other externally imposed obligations, particularly of two types.
Under mit fjerde punkt vil jeg komme n�rmere ind p�begr�nsningerne for denne outsourcing af uddannelsestiden, men ogs� p�, at forhandling omnye kompromiser mellem arbejdsmarkedets parter er uundg�elig.
One of these resultsfrom negotiations between the social partners, sometimes at enterprise level, and more often atindustry or inter-industry level.
Jeg vil endelig unders�ge udfordringerne i en mulig udvikling af uddannelse i fritiden, hvilket,man ikke skal forvente, vil ske spontant.
It may be agreed, for example, that priority should be given tothe training of untrained staff, as can be seen in agreements on overall training time.
Der er i s�rdeleshed her et omr�de for offentlig indsats,som forekommer mig vigtigt, men som de offentlige myndigheder endnu ikke synes at havetaget m�l til, det g�lder i s�rdeleshed de lokale myndigheder, der nu har kompetence p�omr�det, idet erhvervsuddannelse indg�r under de kompetenceomr�der, som staten hardecentraliseret.
Anotherexample is the agreements on day or block release training courses, which oblige enterprises tocontribute to their funding, although not necessarily to accept young people with such contracts.In this respect, the rate at which credits collected under this system are used may provide anindication of the willingness of enterprises to incorporate this type of training into theiractivities, and hence into collective working time, or to leave it up to other employers to do so.
Ret til uddannelsesorlov
Training such as this, for which the employer isresponsible, can obviously only take place within working time.
Det, der har kendetegnet 50�erne og 60�erne og f�rt til lov af 1971 om erhvervsm�ssig efterog videreuddannelse som led i den livslange uddannelse, er en fremstilling af uddannelsestiden,som det er legalt at fradrage fra arbejdstiden: det er en orlovstid.
Thedevelopment of workplace training, where this incurs costs, particularly for the payment oftrainers and tutors, provides plenty of examples, especially in small enterprises, in which it isimpossible to distinguish between training time and working time.
)I midten af 50�erne blev der fremsat flere lovforslag fra parlamentet om indf�relse af uddannelsesorlov, jvf.Y. Palazzeschi (1998) Introduction � une sociologie de la formation (Introduktion til en uddannelsessociologi),Anthologie de textes fran�ais, L'Harmattan.
On the other hand, the average duration of training courses has fallen from 60 hours in the1980s to less than 40 hours, obviously reflecting a desire to control more rigorously theproportion of working time allotted to training.
betydning med loven af 1971, der generaliserer brancheaftalen fra 1970.
The most remarkable current development in the management of training time is, however,what can be called the notion of co-investment.
Det franske begreb"ret til uddannelse" skal s�ledes forst�s som fremkomsten af en ret, man kan g�re g�ldendemed hensyn til tid � tid til uddannelse.
By this is meant an agreement between anemployer and an employee that a training course paid for by the enterprise should take placepartly in the employee�s leisure time.
Fra den grundl�ggende aftale mellem arbejdsmarkedets parter i 1970 vil man blot fastholde,at den lagde grunden for det lovf�stede frav�r fra arbejdet med henblik p� uddannelse (selveordet orlov er ikke anf�rt deri), og at den fastsatte kvantitative m�ls�tninger for antallet affrav�rstimer fra arbejdet i virksomhederne, der skulle anvendes til uddannelse.
As a result of the heavy emphasis in France on the right to training during working time, thereappears to be less interest in education and training during leisure time than in other countriesin the European Union.
Dettehenviser naturligvis til en fremstilling af uddannelse prim�rt set i form af kurser eller praktikophold uden for arbejdspladsen.
Simply, in orderto fill their free time, employees have chosen products which entertain them and allow them tothem dream rather than products which increase their knowledge and give them the desire totake part in creative activities of a cultural or political nature, or in debates on majorphilosophical questions� (28).
Det var endvidere i den konkrete anvendelse op til arbejdsgiverne at tilrettel�gge uddannelser,der var i virksomhedens interesse, helt eller delvis ud af det timeantal, der skulle anvendes tiluddannelse, eller overlade en ikke-foreskreven anvendelse heraf til l�nmodtagerne.
I shall limit myself to remarking that training provided in response to individual demand isregarded as uneconomic; training organisations prefer to seek funding for their activities fromprivate companies and public institutions, while the latter are progressively refusing to pay foreducation and training aiming at social advancement or general culture.
Men detvigtigste, man kan iagttage i den forbindelse, er, at selv hensigtsm�ssige uddannelser, ellerendog uddannelser uundv�rlige for arbejdet, blev betragtet som en neds�ttelse af arbejdstiden.
The Regional Councils,which have responsibility in this field, seem inclined to forget that there can be no demand fortraining in leisure time unless there is a supply of training to guide and structure such demand.
Denne aftale mellem arbejdsmarkedets parter, som skabte den individuelle uddannelsesorlov, der blev gjortretsgyldig ved lov i 1984, anerkender denne gang tydeligt en ret til en neds�ttelse af arbejdstidenover en fastsat periode med henblik p� uddannelse af en samlet varighed, der kan str�kke sigover op til 1200 timer med l�n. Dette betyder dog ikke omvendt, at uddannelsestiden underuddannelsesplanen betragtes som arbejdstid.
It must be acknowledged that the state and the Regional Councils have had a different priorityfor twenty years, namely the fight against unemployment, particularly among young people.The public supply of training in this area, which is generally provided by private bodies usingpublic funding, has been and remains quite large.
Opfattelsen af, at uddannelsestid, der er n�dvendigfor virksomheden, ogs� svarer til et frav�r fra arbejdet, har fortsat med at v�re denfremherskende opfattelse hos s�vel arbejdsgivere som l�nmodtagere.
But in this case, it is not so much a question ofencouraging training in leisure time but rather of finding ways to fill empty time under the guise of
Det kommer til udtryk p� flerem�der; der er p� den ene side skabt nye typer uddannelsesorlov med s�rlige form�l, menstadigv�k uden l�n (sabbatorlov, eksamensorlov eller orlov med henblik p�kompetencestatus, eller orlov til valgte personer, frivillige brandm�nd mv.); p� den andenside er de uddannelser, der f�lges uden for arbejdstiden, ikke genstand for unders�gelser.
While public funds for training are thus focused on the unemployed, it should be added thatthey do not benefit those who are in between unemployment and employment, occupyingfixed-term temporary or parttime jobs. Although they may be assumed to have more leisuretime than other workers, such people have no opportunities to train because there are very fewways of covering the costs of training, and existing provision is poorly suited to their flexiblehours and chance periods in and out of work.
Mankan kort og godt konstatere, at de regionale r�ds finansieringer til socialt udviklendeuddannelser er kraftigt aftagende.
Hence, where the general reduction in working time to be introduced by the 35-hour week isaccompanied by more flexible patterns of work, there can be little hope for an expansion ineducation and training during leisure time, especially if government persists in denying it funding.
Styring af uddannelsestiden
Limitations to the shift from training in working time totraining in non-working time
Er det set ud fra et logisk synspunkt fra virksomhedens side n�dvendigt at anvende en del afarbejdstiden til at uddanne l�nmodtagerne, eller g�r arbejdsgiveren det, fordi han er tvunget tilat indordne sig under de forpligtelser, han p�l�gges?
The general trend towards rationalisation of the costs of training on the part of enterprises, andhence particularly towards tighter control of the working time allotted to training, takes verydifferent forms, and the 35-hour legislation can only accelerate this process.
Visse virksomheder, is�r nogle af dest�rste, afventede ikke loven af 1971, inden de anse uddannelse som v�rende blandt deinstrumenter, der er n�dvendige for administration af de menneskelige ressourcer.
Above all it willoblige the social partners in an enterprise to negotiate on what they regard as actual work.
Menst�rstedelen interesserede sig f�rst derfor fra det tidspunkt, hvor de var tvunget til at anvendeden s�kaldte bestemmelse om tvungen deltagelse i efteruddannelse, der tvang dem til et udgiftsminimum til erhvervsuddannelse, f�rst p� 0,8 % af de samlede l�nomkostninger, der i dag ersteget til 1,5 %.
It isnot only break times that are at issue, but anything which is not directly productive work:preparation time, repair of breakdowns, etc.
Disse udgifters gennemsnitlige niveau ligger reelt for samtlige virksomheder,der har mere end 10 ansatte, over det dobbelte af den lovf�stede forpligtelse.
From this point of view, training, even whereimposed by management, represents non-productive work.
Det er udtryk for,at st�rstedelen af dem nu finder, at s�danne udgifter for det f�rste modsvarer et internt behov.
Training time may no longer beregarded as absence from work, but it is part of the time where savings have to be made.
De eksterne forpligtelser best�r imidlertid fortsat og er is�r af to typer.
Perhaps the solution may be to negotiate a compromise whereby training time is taken fromemployees� leisure time.
Der kan p� den m�de fasts�ttesoverenskomstm�ssige prioriteringer om uddannelse af personale med f� kvalifikationer, s�ledessom man ser det i de aftaler, der indg�r som led i rammerne for uddannelsestidens kapital.
It seems equally questionable to suppose that short compulsory training coursescould be taken outside working hours, this time for legal reasons.
I den henseende kan anvendelsesgraden af disse kreditter, der s�ledesopsamles, v�re en indikator for virksomhedernes tendens til at integrere denne uddannelsestypei deres aktivitet, og f�lgelig i den kollektive arbejdstid, eller til geng�ld til at forlade sig p�, atandre arbejdsgivere g�r det.
In the case of coursestraining newly appointed persons to carry out their jobs or supporting technical ororganisational changes, an objection by an employee must necessarily lead to the finding thatsuch training time is actual working time in terms of the right to work since the employee isobliged to undergo it.
)Antallet er faldet til under 25.000 i 1996: jvf. finanslovforslagenes bilag om erhvervsuddannelse.
In such cases, it may well be that an enterprise agreement will lay downrules by which all or some courses take place in the time freed by the reduction in workinghours.