natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
For det andet behandles landenes forskellige systemer til indkomstfordeling mellem regionerne og til udjævning af de indbyrdes uligheder mellem deres økonomiske formåen.
Although regional and local authorities may be charged with implementing policy and with the provision of services locally, their revenue-raising powers are limited as is their discretion over the way they spend the budget for provision of services received from central government.
Det tredje underafsnit omhandler en faktor, som potentielt indvirker stærkt på styrkelsen af de lokale økonomier, nemlig det relative omfang af de direkte udenlandske investeringer (DUI) på tværs af EU15 og tiltrædelseslandene.
While there is a general tendency towards more decentralisation of responsibility to the regional and local level, this in most case is being accompanied by a strengthening of the means to ensure that less prosperous areas are not disadvantaged by having to provide more services.
Hensigten er her at vurdere, i hvor høj grad de nationale og regionale myndigheder med sandsynlighed vil kunne påvirke investeringernes placering.
A possible exception to this is Italy, where regional authorities are increasingly being given more autonomy for the expenditure they undertake, without this sofar being matched by a comparable increase in the income which the less prosperous regions have for financing spending.
Nationale politikkers indvirkning på offentlige udgifter
Regional variations in government expenditure
Selv politikker, der ikke direkte indebærer omkostninger, er tilbøjelige til at indvirke direkte på de offentlige udgifter og dermed på samhørigheden.
In federations, like Germany, Austria or Belgium, a significant amount of responsibility for the implementation of policy in many areas lies at the regional or state level.
Den Europæiske Centralbank er ganske vist ansvarlig for pengepolitikken inden for ØMU, står de nationale regeringer for skatte- og afgiftspolitikken.
Although the formulation of policy is in general less decentralised, or is a shared responsibility between levels of government, regional authorities in such countries tend to have some autonomy over the measures implemented to achieve common objectives and may have some discretion over the level of priority given to various aims.
En af målsætningerne for denne er at bidrage til fortsat økonomisk stabilitet og at understøtte pengepolitikken, så denne fremmer væksten.
Differences in regional and local circumstances can, therefore, be specifically allowed for in the deployment of expenditure.
Filosofien i Stabilitets- og vækstpagten, der trådte i kraft sammen med møntunionen, er, at man — som en permanent egenskab ved ØMU'en — lader de automatiske stabilisatorer arbejde frit gennem den økonomiske konjunktur og samtidig opretholder budgetdisciplinen på andre områder.
At the same time, as described below, there are mechanisms in place in such countries for preventing wide regional differences in expenditure on public services fromarising, These take the form of standards or norms set centrally and of equalisation mechanisms to ensure that the financial resources which regions have access to do not vary too greatly.
Praktisk talt alle regeringsfunktioner, som indebærer offentlige udgifter, påvirker den regionale balance derved, at den pågældende udgift afholdes i en eller anden region uden, at dette nødvendigvis skyldes en bevidst politisk beslutning om at placere investeringen et bestemt sted.
While these differences in systems of governance across the EU affect both the regional deployment of public expenditure and the amount of revenue for funding spending which is raised locally rather than centrally, in practice, actual spending per head shows only limited variation between regions within countries.
Det bør understreges, at der også er følgevirkninger for lokalområder inden for regionerne derved, at de samme uafhængige mekanismer virker på dette niveau såvel som på tværs af et land i sin helhed.
Equally, as indicated below, there seem to be no substantial differences across countries in the rates of taxation and charges levied on those living and working in different regions.
På budgettets udgiftsside, udskilt fra indtægtssiden, er den eneste faktor, som forventes at reagere automatisk på konjunkturudsving, udgifterne i relation til arbejdsløshed.
At present, their revenue-raising powers are relatively limited compared with the Länder in Germany or the Nordic countries, though not as compared with the situation in Belgium, where the three regions finance only a small proportion of their expenditure from revenue raised
I løbet af de kommende få årtier vil den tiltagende befolkningsaldring i høj grad belaste de offentlige udgifter.
25 higher level of government expenditure in the less prosperous regions in relation to their income than in the more prosperous ones, and in the poorer areas within regions than in the richer ones.
Et af midlerne, hvormed den skattemæssige bæredygtighed kan sikres i årene fremover, består i at udvise finansiel disciplin ved generelt at begrænse udgiftstilvæksten.
Expenditure per headwas also above the national average in London, again reflecting in part higher spending on administration because of the large number of government offices located there, though over the years efforts have beenmade to decentralise these .
Udgifterne til sådanne politikker er mange gange større end dem, der finansieres af Strukturfondene, så den potentielle indvirkning på både den økonomiske og den sociale samhørighed er betydelig større.
Although there is some variation between regions in spending per head on education and health care, this is comparatively limited across the English regions at least, as is the variation in environmental and transport expenditure.
Som påvist nedenfor er de nationale politikker for offentlige udgifter og måden, hvor på disse finansieres, afgørende for en understøtning af indkomstniveauet i mindre velstående regioner.
Unfortunately, given the data available, the relative scale of public expenditure in different regions cannot be assessed for all Member States.
Størstedelen af disse politikker tager dog ikke direkte sigte på regionerne, selv om de får følgevirkninger for den regionale balance.
Nor is it possible to make comparisons of this betweencountries since the information available tends to be partial and specific to a particular country.
Her fokuseres der typisk lige så meget på umiddelbare sociale problemer og på indkomststøtte som på en styrkelse af den tilgrundliggende konkurrenceevne.
This is done by examining the regional incidence of expenditure in selected countries where data exist and by considering the way that revenue is raised across the Union.
Del 2 omhandler ikke den almene makroøkonomiske situation som sådan, selv om denne ligger til grund for de seneste tendenser, hvad angår de samlede offentlige udgifter og indtægter i medlemsstaterne og for forandringerne i sammensætningen af det offentlige forbrug.
In the UK, as in the rest of the EU, most of the public expenditure which it is possible to distinguish at regional level (some85%of the total) goes on social protection, health and social services and education.
Der mangler viden om følgevirkningerne for forskellige regioner eller samfundsgrupper i henseende til skattemæssig konsolidering.
These together accounted, on average, for 75% of government spending in the regions in the 2000–01 financial year (Graph 2.2 and Table A2.4).
Denne har ganske vist mindsket gældsrentebyrden, efterhånden som lånemængden er faldet, hvilket potentielt har frigjort økonomiske res-
Even leaving aside Northern Ireland, which is a special case because of recent history and ongoing political problems, expenditure in 2000–01 ranged from just over 41% of GDP in Wales and the North of England to 21–22% in London and the South-East.
Mens de offentlige udgifter i perioden blev reduceret mærkbart i alle EU-lande, faldt den offentlige sektors indtægter fra skatter og andre kilder kun en smule i forhold til BNP, hvorved skattesatserne i det store hele kunne holdes uændrede.
At the same time, much of this additional expenditure, it should be noted, consists of current rather than capital spending— ie it goes to consumption rather than to investment—and as such is likely to have a only a limited effect in strengthening underlying competitiveness.
På nær Irland, hvor BNP-væksten var usædvanlig høj, oplevede ingen af medlemsstaterne et fald i skatteindtægten på mere end 2% af BNP, og i 6 lande steg den.
For example, an average of only 1%ofGDPwas spent on roads and transport and inno region was the figure above 1½%ofGDP.On the other hand, it is also the case that some expenditure classified as current, such as that on education and training, R & D or support for business development, is more similar to
Forandringer i de offentlige udgifters sammensætning
Color profile: Generic CMYK printer profile Composite Default screen
Selv om dette pres generelt har forårsaget et udgiftsfald i forhold til BNP, giver stramningen nok også et stadig større incitament til at forbedre kvaliteten af udgiftsprogrammerne.
25 investment and can potentially make an important contribution to increasing productive potential in the region concerned.
Men i hvor høj grad dette har resulteret i mere effektive regionale samhørighedspolitikker, er stadig et åbent spørgsmål.
Nevertheless, even allowing for this, most regional expenditure can be regarded as having social rather than economic objectives.
Dertil kommer, at skatte- og afgiftstilpasninger kan have dæmpet den økonomiske aktivitet på kort sigt til eventuel skade for de svagere regioner.
In the case of education and health care, differences in expenditure per head were less marked, though it remains true that in education, in all southern regions except Sardegna, spending per headwas below the national average and in health care, it was below the average in all of them.
Selv på kort sigt vil en skattemæssig konsolidering dog måske understøtte væksten, hvis den gennemføres hensigtsmæssigt og ledsages af strukturreformer.
These differences, however, may reflect lower wage and other costs in the south than in the north rather than any difference in the standard of service provided.
På længere sigt vil et stabilt makroøkonomisk klima skabt af ØMU'en og de tilknyttede politikker sandsynligvis virke vækstfremmende.
A similar picture emerges in Italy, though the variation in the relative scale of public expenditure across regions is slightly less systematic than in the UK and differences in the effective contribution of spending to GDP smaller, despite the wider regional variation inGDPper head.
Dette kan forventes at gavne alle regioner, selv om det under den aktuelle afmatning ikke har udmøntet sig i højere tilvækstrater.
It should be noted, however, that the public expenditure data are more complete than in the UK, where 15% of total spending is not allocated betweenregions, which could affect the comparison if the outlays concernedwere concentrated in London and other more prosperous regions.
Ud over faldet i gældsrentebyrden er den offentlige sektors udgifter til overførsler til såvel private som virksomheder i de senere år også blevet mindre, set i forhold til BNP.
Spending per head on transport, the environment and other programmes also tended to be less in southern regions than in northern ones.
Mellem 1995 og 2002 blev udgifterne til sociale ydelser (lige over 16% af BNP i EU under ét) gennemsnitlig formindsket med næsten 1% af BNP, trods befolkningsaldringen og det voksende antal pensionister.
Nevertheless, the difference in these areas of expenditure as in social protection, health and education was generally smaller than that inGDPper head, so that overall government spending was in most cases—but not all as noted below — higher in relation to GDPper head in the less prosperous parts of Italy than in the more prosperous ones.
Denne nedgang skyldtes til dels et fald i arbejdsløsheden men genspejler også en almen tendens til i muligt omfang at be-
Expenditure relative toGDP, therefore, ranged from 35% above the national average in Sardegna and 30% above in Calabria, the region with the lowest GDPper head, to 25% below average in Veneto, a slightly narrower difference between extremes than in the UK2.
De samlede offentlige udgifter er i de senere år faldet betydeligt overalt i EU. Mellem 1995 og 2002 var den gennemsnitlige nedgang fra lige over 51% af medlemsstaternes BNP til lige over 47%. Portugal noterede som eneste land en stigning, som dog kun var på 1 procentpoint (Graf 2.1 og Tabel A2.1).
At the same time, while all southern regions have above average public expenditure relative toGDP, not all northern regions have a level which is below average, despite the above averageGDPper head which all of them enjoy.
Offentlige udgifter i medlemsstaterne, 1995 og 2002
Public expenditure* by region in Italy, 2000
grænse stigninger i de sociale ydelser. Nedskæringen på dette område var dog ingenlunde generel for hele EU, idet Tyskland, Grækenland og Portugal oplevede betydelige stigninger og Italien en mindre stigning.
25 accompanied by higher taxes and other charges to fund this higher level — or howfar , in other words, the effect of the higher spending is offset by higher charges levied on income in the regions concerned.
I sammenligning med lønudgiften til offentligt ansatte og andre løbende indkøb er de offentlige udgifter til investering i anlæg af diverse typer infrastruktur forholdsvis beskeden overalt i EU. I 2002 lå denne post på kun lige over 2% af BNP i EU og nåede kun over 4% i Irland og Luxembourg.
expenditure taxes, which are typically proportional, even though theymight vary with the composition of spending, and social contributions, which are also typically proportional at least up to a certain level of earn- ings5.
Desuden er det samlede udgiftsbeløb i de senere år faldet i forhold til BNP.
The evidence suggests that tax systems in most
I årene 1995-2002 var stigningen kun mere end marginal i Grækenland, Irland og Nederlandene.
0 0 countries in the EU are mildly progressive and in others are broadly proportional, or at most only slightly re- gressive6.
Ikke desto mindre forblev den afsatte, samlede udgiftsandel til faste investeringer praktisk talt uændret gennem perioden.
As such, theymay add in some cases to the differential effect across regions resulting from policy on public expenditure and in others are unlikely to offset it much if at all.
Det kunne tyde på, at den offentlige sektors infrastruktur i mange medlemsstater ikke er vokset meget i de senere år og at den offentlige kapitalbeholdning ikke har været tilstrækkelig solid.
Although this question is difficult to answer given the data available, an insight can be gained into the regional incidence of the funding system in operation from data on the division of taxes between central and regional or local government.
Men i samme periode er en stadig stigende andel af investeringerne i offentlige infrastrukturer i mange medlemsstater foregået via en form for offentligt/privat samarbejde.
In principle, therefore, the more that regions are responsible for covering the cost of the spending carried out at regional or local level by levying taxes or charges on the people living there and the businesses located there, the more are any beneficial effects from higher expenditure relative to GDP likely to be offset4.
Den deraf følgende erstatning af offentlige investeringer med private fremgår ikke nødvendigvis af den offentlige sektors regnskabstal.
These higher taxes may, of course, themselves be offset by policy decisions to increase transfers from central government, or to set up an equalisation fund to reduce the extent of differences between regions in the income available to finance expenditure.
Skønt andelen af de sociale ydelser til alderdomspension i EU har været tilbøjelig til at vokse i de senere år, efterhånden som antallet af pensionister er steget, er andelen til arbejdsløshedsunderstøttelse generelt faldet på grund af en betydelig nedgang i arbejdsløshedstallet.
In practice, in most EUMember States, taxes are predominantly levied centrally and revenue from regional and local taxes represents only a small proportion of the total finance raised to fund public expenditure.
Ifølge det nyeste talmateriale (år 2000), udgør alderdomspensionerne (her betegnet som "overlevelsesydelser") lige over 46% af samtlige sociale overførsler i EU og kun betydeligt under 40% i de tre nordiske lande, hvor socialsikring er mere udbredt end andre steder, og i Irland, hvor antallet af borgere over pensionsalderen er forholdsvis lavt (Tabel A2.2). Kun i Italien udgør denne andel over halvdelen, nemlig 63%.
In theEUas whole, only 15% of finance came from regional and local sources in 2001, with only the federal states of Germany and Austria, the three Nordic countries, where local authorities have significant responsibility for expenditure, and Spain,where the regions are important, having proportions larger than this (Graph 2.5 and Table A2.7).
I kontrast hertil repræsenterer arbejdsløshedsunderstøttelse kun lige over 6% af de samlede sociale overførsler i EU og under 10% i alle medlemsstater bortset fra Belgien, Spanien, Finland og Danmark, idet tallene for de tre førstnævnte lande genspejler de forholdsvis høje arbejdsløshedstal og for sidstnævnte det høje udgiftsniveau pr. person.
Moreover, except in a few countries, the share of revenue raised from regional and local sources has remained much the same over recent years and the main change in the composition of government receipts has been a shift from social contributions to taxes in order, in part, to reduce the tax burden on employment.
Andre overførsler end sociale ydelser, herunder tilskud og støtte til virksomheder, faldt mere, nemlig med gennemsnitlig 2½% af BNP.
Receipts from taxes and social contributions by level of government, 2001
Nedgangen var størst i Tyskland (knap 7% af BNP) og i Nederlandene (over 4% af BNP).
% of total receipts
Opdelingen af offentlige udgifter mellem disse brede kategorier genspejler den offentlige sektors funktioner og serviceudbud samt arten af det fungerende system til levering af disse ydelser, hvilket varierer fra land til land, afhængigt af nationale ordninger.
Where rates of taxation, or of social contributions, are set centrally, the problem does not arise in the sense that those living in less prosperous regions — or indeed in poorer areas within more prosperous regions — will tend automatically to pay a smaller amount in tax than those living elsewhere because their income in aggregate is lower.
Mange af udgifterne til varer og tjenesteydelser går derfor til uddannelses-, sundheds- og socialsikringssektorerne.
If there are common rates of tax and contributions applying to income and expenditure, and tax revenue, therefore, is the same in relation to GDP in the region as elsewhere, the tax system will have a neutral effect on the income available to fund expenditure and will, accordingly, not serve to offset the contribution of spending to GDP.
Måden, hvorpå disse funktioner tilrettelægges i praksis — dvs. ved direkte ansættelse af personale eller ved køb af disse ydelser udefra — genspejles således i størrelsen af den offentlige lønbudget i relation til den offentlige sektors øvrige indkøb af varer og tjenesteydelser.
If tax rates are progressive rather than proportional, in the sense that they increase as income rises, then the tax system will reinforce the differential effect of expenditure on regional levels of GDP.
Offentlige udgifter og social samhørighed
Regional+local govt Social security Central govt
På dette punkt faldt udgiftsandelen til aflønning af offentligt ansatte, til dels på grund af udlicitering eller privatisering af nogle funktioner.
Source: Eurostat, Government sector accounts
Selv om det offentliges lønudgift i forhold til BNP ikke faldt i alle medlemsstater, sås der betydelige nedgange (på over 1% af BNP) i Tyskland, Spanien, Irland, Østrig og Finland. I Portugal steg den offent-
Howfar the tax system in different Member States is progressive as opposed to proportional is difficult to determine, depending as it does on the interaction of income taxes, which are typically progressive,
Den regionale indvirkning af offentlige udgifter
State policies on cohesion
I 2001 (tallene for 2002 foreligger endnu ikke) gik omkring 40% af EU's samlede offentlige udgifter til socialsikring og andre 24% til uddannelse og sundhedspleje.
0 0 The scale of government transfers to different regions or local areas is determined in slightly different ways in different countries, though common principles are evident in the form, in particular, of assessment of needs and of local taxable capacity.
Som det vil fremgå af nedenstående, er disse udgifter også vigtige for en effektiv fordeling af de offentlige udgifter mellem regionerne, eftersom det beløb, der investeres i en given region, for en stor del typisk afgøres af dens befolknings størrelse, aldersstruktur og behov for social støtte.
In addition, in all countries, regional and local authorities, irrespective of the extent of funding provided from central government and irrespective of how closely needs are assessed, have some discretion of how they actually spend the transfers they receive.
Mellem 1995 og 2002 faldt EU-landenes samlede udgifter til socialsikring (inkl. administrationsomkostninger og sociale ydelser) i gennemsnit med omkring 1% af BNP, mens sundheds- og uddannelsesudgifterne holdt sig stort set uændrede (Tabel A2.3).
The only countries in which there has been a significant increase in the importance of regional and local taxes are Denmark, Spain and Italy, in the last of which their share of revenue almost doubled between 1995 and 2001.
Samlet set steg udgiftsandelen til disse tre sektorer dog stadig i de omhandlede 6 år, nemlig fra 59% til 64% af de totale offentlige udgifter, og socialsikringsdelen steg i sig selv fra 38% til 40%.
This reflects a policy in Italy of devolving more responsibility for raising the revenue for funding government expenditure to the regions, a policy which has continued since then, so leading to an increasing proportion of tax being levied regionally rather than centrally and giving rise to a growing possibility of effective tax rates being higher in less prosperous regions where taxable capacity is less .
De fleste offentlige udgifter på regionalt eller lokalt plan er en direkte konsekvens af nationalt vedtagne politikker, der skal sikre servicefunktioner eller indkomststøtte for trængende borgere. Dette gælder uanset, om styret er føderalt eller centralt.
In Italy, as in other countries in which a significant level of responsibility for generating tax revenue is devolved to the regional and local level, there is a need for an explicit mechanism of transfers from more to less prosperous areas if the latter are not to be disadvantaged by having either to impose higher taxes or accepting lower levels of public expenditure and the lower standards of servicewhich this is likely to imply.
Det varierer i høj grad inden for EU, hvor meget ansvar for offentlige servicefunktioner, der udlægges til regionale eller lokale myndigheder, alt afhængigt af graden af politisk magtdecentralisering, hvilket delvis men absolut ikke alene afspejler, om landet er føderalt eller centralt styret.
Because, however, the Länder have considerable autonomy, they do not necessarily spend the same amounts on different public services as assumed in the calculation of equalised per capita expenditure.
Trods det udbredte fald i socialsikringsudgifterne set i forhold til BNP mellem 1995 og 2001 steg deres andel af de samlede udgifter i alle medlemsstater undtagen Nederlandene, Finland og Sverige. I sidstnævnte to lande lå udgiftsniveauet et godt stykke over gennemsnittet i 1995.
In the three Nordic countries, aswell as a number of other Member States, the system has a similar aim to that in Germany, but operates between much smaller authorities — municipalities or counties rather than Länder.