natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
De ansatte placerer sig også i forhold til sådanne inddelinger. De kan acceptere dem eller afvise dem, dvs. vurdere dem.
Working status conferred by job classifications is an alienable category.
Her drejer det sig om en egenskab, der knytter sig til personer ne.
You can then go back to a semi-skilled grade.
Det er altså feltet for den påberåbte kvalifikation.
The change that then takes place is a gain or a loss in job status.
J. Boutet fastslår for øvrigt, at det som be kendt ikke kun er kvalifikationerne, der tæller for at nå videre. Favoritisme, vil kårlighed og held skal også tages i be tragtning.
This informal component of skills - made up of clandestine knowledge, the intuitive talent, tacit work and hidden cooperation -enriches the analysis of work situations in two ways, one succeeding the other over a period of time.
Sprogforskerens sondring falder sammen med sociologens, der netop skelner mel lem formelt og uformelt arbejde og har gjort det lige siden den industrielle sociologis akademiske oprindelse i tyverne og de menneskelige relationers opdukken in den for industrien.
At first the informal sphere is seen as the ineradicable aspect of work ers' resistance to the Taylor-style organi zation of labour, or even the basis for subversive self-organization among the workforce, but then it is also seen as an "untapped seam of productivity", a form of worker expertise rooted in practical work that can, with the help of quality circles, be turned into functional know ledge.
Både for sprogforskeren og for sociologen gælder det om at fat te den mening, parterne selv lægger i de res virke for at berige kvalifikationsbegrebet.
Indeed, in new forms of the organi zation of labour, there is a specific effort to take advantage of the informal knowledge acquired in this way.
situationerne uafhængigt af arbejdsaktiviteterne og skolens bestemmende faktorer uafhængigt af skoleverdenen.
Basically, however, has the design behind any form of organi zation of labour ever been anything else?
Det er også den stiltiende kunnen, der former kvalitetskredsenes ekspert.
In the interpretation of the different spaces
Selv om skolen er adskilt fra arbejdet, knyttes den nødvendigvis til beskæftigelsen ved den lønmodtager, den uddanner.
For both the linguist and the sociologist, the important thing is to understand the meaning at tached by the parties themselves to their own activity in order to enrich the concept of "qualification".
Endda i så høj grad, at de nye former for arbejdsorganisation netop bestræber sig på at bygge på
They can accept them or refuse them; in other words, they can
der består til trods for sektorielle, regionale eller nationale karakteristika ingen snæver overensstemmelse mellem ud dannelsesniveau og -type på den ene side og den besatte stilling på den anden.
The forms of organization of labour, which are also forms of classifying and remunerating jobs, produce a twofold recognition procedure by different methods.
Det er først efter mange overvejelser, at der kan skabes forbindelse mellem uddannelsesapparat og produktionsstruktur.
On the one hand there is formal, institutionalized recognition, taking the outward form of grading and the scale of remuneration; on the other, there is the whole body of know ledge that is absorbed and taken for granted and is part of the social structure of work.4
For Belgiens vedkommende5) har vi på peget eksistensen af en allerede gammel og meget udviklet teknisk og erhvervs faglig uddannelse, men inden for alle aktivitetssektorer tillige en betydelig mængde afgangsbeviser fra almenundervisningen.
Just like formal classifications, the informal use of a qualification defines the em ployee. In the theory of human relations, for example, it is the non-rational, nonregulated component which specifically defines a worker.
Inden for industrien finder man også folk med beviser for kunstnerisk eller f.eks. pædagogisk uddannelse.
It is his tacit knowledge that makes him the expert in quality circles. cles.
De samme undersøgelser har vist, at Bel giens virksomheder, efter at arbejdsløsheden i 1974 begyndte at vokse betydeligt, i væsentlig grad har øget deres ansættelseskrav.
Behind the words and all their ambiguity, beneath the complexity of skills, there is a clearly discernible tendency in the extension of employee relationships: a distinction is being made between the classification of workers on the one hand and the classification of posts and jobs on the other.
Ved besættelse af samme stilling kræves der nu et højere uddannelsesniveau end tidligere.
The employer, indeed, has to take into account the prior definition of the workforce as forged by the education sys tem, whereas employees have to fit in with the demands of the jobs they are offered.
intet tilfælde kan man af denne iagttagelse konkludere, at overensstemmelsen bliver bedre, hvis uddannelsen som i Tysk land domineres af lærlingeuddannelsen eller som i Frankrig af den almene skoleuddannelse. leuddannelse.
All the survey findings concur on this point: workers in similar jobs hold very different paper qualifications, and there is no close equivalence - despite sectorial, regional or national characteristics - be tween a given level and type of training on the one hand and, on the other, the job occupied.
Silvestre også, at den tyske uddannelses mere erhvervsrettede karakter og den snævrere sammenhæng mellem skolebeviser og beskæftigelse modsat den almindeligt udbredte opfattelse ikke skaber be dre tilpasning mellem den ansatte og de af denne udførte arbejdsopgaver og derfor ikke siger noget om den brug, der gøres af denne uddannelse inden for produktionen. tionen.
The link between the education and training system and the production structure is created only after it has passed through many forms of mediation.
Alle disse iagttagelser samler sig om et es sentielt punkt: Det er ikke i de af arbejder ne udførte opgavers natur, at man skal søge kvalifikationskriterierne, men snarere i en samling forbindelser.
The surveys have helped to show that, with the growth of unemployment in Belgium since 1974, employers are far more demanding when they recruit new man power.
Uddannelse og beskæftigelse udgør disse forbindelsers centrale punkt.
As time goes by, then, a higher level of education is needed than before to obtain the same job.
Således fin der kvalifikationen sine bestemmende faktorer uden for arbejdet, specielt i undervisnings- og uddannelsessystemet, men den kan kun komme frem og bekræftes i relation til arbejdet.
The main finding in our surveys on structures of employment is still that they are fairly stable in terms of job classification (the relative proportions of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled work ers), whereas the level of school education of workers in the same period is consider ably higher.
Sammenlignende undersøgelsers betyd ning for forståelsen af sammenhængen mellem uddannelse og beskæftigelse er allerede påpeget.
The comparative research aimed at under standing the relations between training and work has already been mentioned.
Navnlig er de af Laboratoire d'économie et de sociologie du travail d'Aix-en-Provence — LEST — gen nemførte undersøgelser heraf velkendte og værdsatte.
The studies conducted by the Laboratoire d'Economie et de Sociologie du Travail at Aix-en-Provence-LEST are also rightly known and appreciated.
»Tværtimod er erhvervsuddannelsen langt mere repræsentativ for typen af de forbindelser, som arbejderne har indbyrdes ved arbejdsopgavernes udførelse.
To envisage skills as being at the centre of a set of methods of determining employ ment through training, and training through employment, would in the final analysis explain work situations as distinct from merely the job done, as well as the influence of schooling outside the school sphere.
Medens denne undersøgelse af forholde ne i Frankrig og Tyskland nu er velkendt, er der andre undersøgelser, der sjældent omtales.
For example, in the case of Belgium5 there is a long-established, highly developed system of technical and vocational educa tion, but even so a substantial proportion of people arriving in every sector of em ployment have qualified in the general education system.
Således viser Maurice, Sellier og
In various forms of in dustrial work we also find people with qualifications on the arts side, or even in teaching.
Henvisninger en beskæftigelse og senere for at opnå for fremmelse, dvs. »at kvalificere sig«.
ting the patterns of behaviour and life styles associated with those skills, which the person has already been actively pre pared for by his environment and school.
Man oplever da en relativ devaluering af skoleafgangsbeviserne, hvis hovedsagelige ofre paradoksalt nok bliver dem, der ikke er i besiddelse af sådanne og derfor står magtesløse over for de stedse øgede krav, der giver adgang til beskæftigelse.
We then find that academic diplomas suffer a decline in value, the main victims paradoxically be ing those who do not hold such diplomas and are placed at a disadvantage as the criteria giving access to employment steadily climb higher.
Det er altså ikke nok at øge uddan nelsen for at forbedre kvalifikationen.
It is not enough to in crease training to increase skills.
Uddannelsen hører hjemme i denne for bindelse, men dominerer den ikke, og kvalifikationen indskrænker sig ikke til nogen af disse to faktorer: På en vis måde bestemmer, udgør og definerer den dem.
Training is one factor in this relationship but it does not dominate it, and skills cannot be re duced to either of these two terms: in a way skills govern, constitute and define them.
Dels drejer det sig om evnerne til at udføre opgaver, der over for andre afslører den gode fagmand.
It is evident that it is because skills define work in the process of change that they do not lend themselves to categorization.
Den empiriske viden er uadskillelig fra dens sociale tilkendegivelse og fra den daglige demonstration af, at man er kvalificeret til at praktisere den.
Skills, therefore, are a broader concept than training. They include social relation ships transmitted by the school at the same time as knowledge and job-linked social relationships that are also learned at school, in the family, through the media, in other words outside work just as much as in the actual doing of a job.
Dels bruges kvalifikationen, som allerede Pierre Naville9) nævnte, til at sondre
It could not be concluded, however, from this observation that adjustment is better when technical learning predominates in school education as in Germany or when general subjects predominate, as in France.
Kvalifikationen, der på samme tid er en klassifikationshandling og resultatet af denne handling, deltager i denne for et hvert samfund essentielle mekanisme: klassifikationsfunktionen.
Skills, then, can be defined on two levels. On the one hand, they are the ability to perform acts that convey a message of professionalism to others.
Ud fra dette synspunkt drejer det sig om et af sociale vurderinger frembragt klassifikationssymbol, som bruges til at sondre mellem lønmodtagerne.
Empirical knowledge cannot be divorced from its social manifestation, from the day-to-day demonstration that one is qualified to exercise that knowledge.
Nye uddannelsesstrategier til at forme vor fremtid
New educational strategies for moulding our future
De epokegørende forandringer i det økonomiske system underentrepriser blev ikke blot uklare be greber, men ændrede også rolle, idet de blev til en ny form for netværkssamarbejde mellem virksomhederne.
Decentraliz­ation and sub-contracting not only dif­fused, but changed their role, becoming a new form of network cooperation between firms.
Denne måde at styre forholdet mellem virksomheder på, som oprindelig var et forsøg på at op nå defensiv fleksibilitet, blev hurtigt en kilde til fortsat fornyelse.
This way of arranging inter-firm relationships, which was initially a way of seeking defensive flexibility, rapidly be­came a source of continuous innovative patterns.
Fornyelse blev således en ny form for konkurrence i sig selv inden for mange brancher, mens an dre brancher i stigende grad blev berørt som klienter i forbindelse med fornyelse.
Innovation thus became a new form of competition in itself in many sec­tors, while other sectors were increasingly involved as clients in innovation.
Kriserne i 1970'erne resulterede i betydelige ændringer i virksomhedernes kon kurrencestrategier i de fleste industrilande. Disse ændringer i retning af, hvad man kunne kalde »innovativ konkurrence«, var ikke de første ændringer, der var sket i dette århundrede.
The evolution of the state of human resources is interrelated with that of socio-economic systems.
Den traditionelle form for konkurrence, der tog udgangspunkt i gensidige prisnedsættelser, og som var fremherskende i det 19. århundrede, og som nu kun findes i lærebøger om økonomi, har været på vej ud igen nem hele dette århundrede, og er blevet erstattet af forskellige former for oligopoli og frem for alt forskellige former for ufuldstændig konkurrence, der bygger på kvalitetsforskelle, markedsføring, reklame, kundeservice osv.
Our century has to be regardedas a transition of phase in the configuration and working of our socio-economic systems, from rural and relatively stagnant and poor societies, with restricted access to edu­cation, to societies characterized by high productivity, affluence, the abil­ity to innovate, and mass education.
Udviklingen med hensyn til men neskelige ressourcer hænger sammen med udviklingen i samfundsøkonomiskesystemer.
The shocks of the seventies produced im­portant changes in the competitive strate­gies adopted by the companies of most developed countries.
Den grundlæggende logiske begrundelse for, at der består en sådan sammenhæng kan imidlertid kun forstås, hvis man anskuer begivenhederne i dette århundrede i lyset af de epokegørende og re volutionerende forandringer, der er sket.
Such changes, to­wards what might be called "innovative competition", were not the first ones to occur in the course of this century.
Dette århundrede må betragtes som en overgangsfase i vore samfundsøkonomiske systemers sammensætning og funktion fra at være et land brugssamfund, der var forholds mæssig stagnerende og hvor der var begrænset adgang til uddan nelse, i retning af samfund ken detegnet ved høj produktivitet, velstand, evnen til nytænkning og bred adgang til uddannelse.
The traditional competition, based on the re­ciprocal curtailing of prices, which pre­vailed in the nineteenth century and exists now only in economic text books, had been fading away throughout this century, replaced by various forms of oligopoly and. above all, various patterns of imperfect competition, based on quality differentiation, marketing, advertising, customer service, etc.
Ser man på uddannelsesmæssige fænomener i et sådant langtidsperspektiv, synes sondringen mellem knowwhy (at vi de hvorfor) og knowhow (at vide hvor dan) at være den vigtige, men historisk af hængige arv efter en sådan overgangsperiode.
If one regards educational phenomena in such a longterm perspective, the distinc­tion between knowwhy and know-how appears to be the important, but histori­cally contingent, inheritance of such a transition.
Så snart vi tager hensyn til dette i forbindelse med de aktuelle problemer, viser det sig tydeligt, at erhvervsuddannelsens betydning er overdrevet.
Once we take this into account while facing present problems, it becomes clear that the importance of vocational training is over-emphasized, while the real issue of our age is that of redefining pro­foundly our educational strategies.
Vor tidsalders egentlige opgave er at foretage en gennemgribende omdefinering af vore uddannelsesmæssige strategier.
Similar considerations are likely to apply to people who, throughout the century, have worked in non-agricultural activities and/or have migrated from the places where they were born.
Disse ændringer var så godt som indført ved udgangen af 1970'erne, hvor landene i vesten blev udsat for et tredobbelt chok, nemlig en periode med ustabile valuta kurser, oliekriserne og fremkomsten af synkroniserede restriktive nationaløkonomiske politiske foranstaltninger, som blev vedtaget af industrilandenes regeringer som reaktion på oliekriserne uden no gen form for samordning.
These former changes were almost com­pleted on the eve of the seventies, when Western countries found themselves ex­posed to a triple shock: the advent of a period of unstable currency exchange rates, the oil shocks, and the emergence of syn­chronized restrictive macro-policies, adopted without any coordination by the governments of industrialized countries in response to oil shocks.
Dette gav ikke blot anledning til faldende vækst, højere inflation og en stigende arbejdsløshed, men det dannede også grundlag for en ny overgang i konkurrencemønsteret. Beho vet for at omstrukturere og reorganisere gav virksomhederne incitamentet til at lære at ændre sig.
This not only pro­duced growth decline, higher inflation and increasing unemployment, but also estab­lished the basis for a new transition in the competitive patterns.
I den periode, hvor oligopolistiske/ufuldstændige former for konkurrence bredte sig (som ofte fejlagtigt kaldes Ford/Tay- lor-produktions/konkurrencemodeller), var hovedparten af arbejdsstyrken næsten overalt dårligt uddannet og havde som helhed betragtet ikke et særlig højt kvalifikationsniveau.
If, when considering the issues of man­power qualification and of education, we do not insert our analyses and our policy ideas in such a framework, we would be unavoidably bound to narrow-minded thinking.
På den anden side set svarede standardiseret masseproduktion til beho-
Faculty of Economic-Science, University of Rome
De gennemførte fornyelser var sket lejlighedsvis og drejede sig hovedsagelig om produktionsprocesser og var i vid ud strækning forenelige med den eksisterende form for arbejdstilrettelæggelse, me dens de fornyelser, der begyndte at opstå eller er blevet indført siden sidst i 1970'erne, hovedsagelig angik produkter eller processer knyttet til produkter, og forudsatte radikale ændringer i virksomhedernes organisation og en ny definition på hele det system, der styrer forholdene mellem arbejdstagere og arbejdsgivere, både på den enkelte virksomhed og mel lem virksomheder. Decentralisering og
While until then innovations were occa­sional, concerned mainly the production processes, and were highly compatible with the existing labour organization, requiring only small adaptations of the labour force qualifications, the innovations that began to be created or adopted since the late seventies mainly concerned products, or
vet for at få mere homogene forbrugere, samtidig med at tilrettelæggelsen af de tilsvarende produktionsprocesser passe de temmelig godt til arbejdsstyrkens fremherskende sammensætning, som er beskrevet ovenfor.
CEDEFOP visory tasks, while the required qualification of the bulk of the labour force was basically provided on the job. by an explicit use of a routinized environment.
arbejde på i kraft af langtidskontrakter og en rimelig udsigt til at stige på virksomhedernes rangstige.
But. more generally, the changes in the competitive strategies which emerged and diffused throughout this century reflect the tendency to escape from the high instability of the previous forms of competition.
Det forholdsmæssigt la ve uddannelsesniveau gik i retning af en relativ standardisering af arbejdsfunktioner, hvor et begrænset antal personer havde ansvaret for styring og tilsyn, samtidig med at de kvalifikationer, der krævedes i forbindelse med størsteparten af arbejdsstyrken, dybest set lå i selve arbejdet, i og med at der tydeligt var tale om rutinemæssige funktioner.
Quality competition is a way of construct ing sheltered and relatively stable mar kets; it was partly deliberately pursued, partly permitted or stimulated by the op tions opened by the limited, but important inventions and discoveries matured since the second half of the 19th century.
bindelse med konkurrencestrategier, og som bredte sig igennem hele dette århundrede, udtryk for tendensen til at komme væk fra den store ustabilitet forbundet med de tidligere konkurrenceformer.
competition) the quantitative core of the labour force was, almost everywhere, poorly educated and. on the whole, poorly qualified.
Konkurrence baseret på kvalitet er en måde at opbygge beskyttede og forholds vis stabile markeder på.
However, the recent memory of poverty and the opportunity to raise rapidly their living standards transformed work ers into people highly motivated to effort and. on the whole, respectful of industrial discipline.
Det var noget, man til dels bevidst stræbte mod, dels no get, der blev muliggjort eller stimuleret af de muligheder, de begrænsede, men be tydningsfulde, opfindelser og opdagelser i anden halvdel af det 19. århundrede frembød.
Mass standardized production, on the other hand, corresponded to the requirement of upgrading homogeneous consumers, while the ways of arranging the corresponding production processes fitted quite well with the prevailing patterns of the labour force whose features have been recalled above.
De tilsvarende forandringer i forbindelse med menneske lige ressourcer
The corresponding changes concerning human resources
Sidstnævnte var i realiteten kendetegnet ved stor ustabilitet for såvel virksomheden som for beskæftigelsen.
When involved in the very heart of a process of change, it is extremely difficult for the analyst to regard the process itself in a correct perspective.
De var stærkt destruktive, idet de resulterede i mindre afkast, betød stor usikkerhed for virksomhederne og mange virksomhedslukninger.
Around the sixties many people, connected in some way with the OECD, were concerned that a lack of educated people might constrain economic growth.
Efter vores opfattelse er det vigtigste spørgsmål imidlertid den omstændighed, at denne nye form for konkurrence for udsatte eller nød stor fordel af etableringen af forholdsmæssigt bedre og mere beskyttede markeder for arbejdsstyrken.
The scholars and policy-makers that favoured the need to develop and use manpower-requirement forecasting were probably disappointed by the growing rate of unemployment among educated youth that manifested itself throughout the seventies.
Faktisk var det alle steder sådan, at ud bredelse af denne nye form for konkur rence skete samtidig med og byggede på etablering og/eller konsolidering af interne arbejdsmarkeder, som medarbejderne blev tiltrukket af og blev motiveret til at
This was in fact regarded as a failure of their analysis, while, if we regard such events now, many experts would be likely to consider it as a simple timing error.
Oligopoli stammede til dels fra det, der var tilbage af den hårde krig i erhvervslivet. Men ud fra en mere generel synsvinkel var de forandringer, der opstod i for
On closer scrutiny, the supporters of the manpowerforecasting approach appear now to have been wrong in so far as they overestimated the possibility of maintain ing the high growth rates which prevailed in the fifties and sixties, paying too little attention to the qualitative transformations which were in progress in the economy and in society.
11960'erne var der mange med en el ler anden tilknytning til OECD, der gav udtryk for bekymring for, at mangel på uddannet arbejdskraft kunne virke hæmmende på den økonomiske vækst.
The most central issue from our point of view, however, is the fact that this new form of competition required, or benefited highly from, the creation of relatively superior and more protected markets for the labour force.
De forskere og politiske beslutningstagere, der gik ind for at udbygge og bruge prognoser over arbejdskraftbehov, blev for mentlig skuffet over den stigende arbejdsløshed blandt unge med en uddan nelse, der kom til udtryk i 1970'erne.
In fact, everywhere, the diffusion of this new form of competition coincided with, and was based upon, the creation and/or the consolidation of internal labour markets, where workers were attracted and motivated by longterm labour contracts and fair prospects for up grading along the companies' job ladders.