natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Det er hævdet, at disse principper har udgjort de væsentlige parametre i det idé­ og lovmæssige grundlag for diskussionen om, samt udformningen og gennemførelsen af den uddannelsesmæs­sige planlægning og reform.
In this regard it is pertinent to point out: (a) that all the reforms which sought to elevate the status of TVE vis-à-vis that of general education met with strong opposition by powerful conservative institutions, groups and individuals, and (b) perhaps even more significantly, reformers and reformist ideologies and measures were themselves rent by ambivalences, bifurcations and contradictions on the relative values and significance of technical/vocational and general humanistic education.7 Here it is pertinent to add that, despite the emphasis on the expansion and improve ment of education (including TVE) to meet contemporary techno-economic needs and the goals of economic development, there did not seem to be a clear conception by
Man kunne sige, at der er sket en vis mytedannelse omkring de mangfoldige fordele ved de teknisk/erhvervsfaglige uddannelser (for­
At the beginning of this essay, certain continuities in Greek thinking about education (read schooling) in general, and TVE, in particular, were noted. It was
■ Det har vist sig at være vildledende at gå ud fra behovet for arbejdskraft i den uddan­nelsesmæssige planlægning og reform.
Another aspect of the context, which is often overlooked by many educational observers and policy-makers, pertains to the contemporary non-educational social, economic, and political dynamics of Greek life.
Ud­gangspunktet er utilfredsstillende af for­skellige årsager, hvoraf følgende skal frem­hæves: (a) det forudsættes, at der ikke findes nogen muligheder for at erstatte en slags arbejdskraft med en anden, dvs. at forholdet mellem uddannelse og økonomi er altfor usmidigt, (b) planlægning af arbejdskraft er »vækstorienteret og tager kun sjældent højde for begreber som ret­færdighed eller sociale behov« og (c) det har vist sig, at der er stor uoverensstemmelse »mellem den faktiske økonomiske vækst og de beregninger, som arbejdskraftprogno­serne er baseret på«16).
In the period since the 1950s, Greek economy, as one recent observer correctly put it, 'has followed a distorted and unequal model of development which reflects Greece's position in the 'periphery' of capitalism and whose main characteristics are: hypertrophy in the primary and tertiary sectors, limited and anaemic industrial development, especially in sectors of con sumption goods, overexpansion of such sectors as construction, tourism, commercial, intermediary and parasitic activities, and intensive economic dependence from the metropolitan centres.'
Usikkerheden ved denne fremgangsmåde i planlægningen er også bevist i forbindelse med Middelhavs­landenes Regionalprojekt i Grækenland17).
Paralleling the above, the employment structure has been characterized by a large number of selfemployed in the primary and tertiary sectors, a relatively small number of industrial wage-earners, and a relatively large number of persons employed in construction, tourism and paraeconomic sectors8.
En alternativ planlægningsmetode, der
Certainly in the last couple of decades there have been noticeable positive trends in several sectors.
som vurderes og belønnes), den uddannel­sesmæssige (ensbetydende med sociale) udvælgelses såkaldte »jernlov« fortsat vil bestå, mens de teknisk/erhvervsfaglige uddannelser efter al sandsynlighed også i fortsættelsen vil være sorteper.
supposes adjustments in other structures of the system (e.g., entrance into the universi­ties, internal organization and curriculum, etc.).
■ Uddannelsens, inklusive de teknisk/er­hvervsfaglige uddannelsers, potentielle bidrag til bekæmpelsen af arbejdsløshedens voksende problemer på baggrund af de eksisterende, i alt væsentligt uændrede socio­økonomiske og institutionelle struk­turer, må tages op til fornyet vurdering.
■ It has proved to be misleading to con­ceptualize educational planning and reform from the perspective of the manpower requirements approach.
I betragtning af de strukturelle og institutio­nelle mangler inden for økonomien og uddannelsessystemet, arbejdsmarkedets ufuldkommenhed og de former for udvik­ling, der har præget det moderne Græken­land, samt Grækenlands placering i verdensøkonomien, vil de seneste års uddannelsescentrerede omlægninger næp­pe i sig selv have nogen . chance for at afstedkomme en mærkbar forbedring af beskæftigelsesforholdene.
This approach has been found to be unsatisfactory on several grounds, among which the following have been stressed: (a) it assumes zero substi­tution possibilities of one type of labour for another i.e., it assumes too rigid a relation­ship between education and the economy; (b) manpower plans are 'growth­oriented and few integrate objectives of equity or social demand;' and (c) huge discrepancies have been found to exist 'between the actual rates of economic growth and the assumed ones upon which the manpower forecasts are based'.16 argued that these tenets constituted the main parameters of the conceptual and legitimating framework within which edu­cational planning and reform were dis­cussed, shaped and supported.
For så vidt angår sociale forandringer kan skolerne have en vis betydning i det omfang, som de sam­fundsmæssige og politiske rammer giver mulighed herfor.
One could say that a certain mythology has developed around the multiple benefits of TVE (read schooling) to the individual and to socie­ty.
Praktisk taget alle nylige strukturelle, organisatoris­ke reformer og ændringer i uddannelsespro­grammer er blevet ti! og retfærdig­gjort som tiltag, der skulle afhjælpe disse misforhold: de skulle bidrage til en demo­kratisering, forstået som en mere retfærdig fordeling af muligheder og chancer her i livet, de skulle navnlig forbedre de lavere socio­økonomiske gruppers sociale og er­hvervsmæssige status, og de skulle bidrage til at udviske grove socio­økonomiske ulig­heder. Med reformer som disse skulle ud­dannelsessystemet som helhed bidrage til at fremme målsætningen om et retfærdigt, meritokratisk og demokratisk velfærds­samfund.
The unreliability of this planning approach has been established also in the case of the Mediterranean Regional Project in Greece.17An alternative planning method that has been found elsewhere to be more reliable, and could more profitably be used in Greece would entail: (a) studies of the labour market, using recent cross­sectional data, (b) assessments of the degree of ease or difficulty one type of labour could be substituted for another (coefficient of elas­ticity of substitution), (c) on the basis of the data established from the above and, after a detailed analysis of the costs of education, comparisons of the social costs with the social benefits of each type and level of schooling.18
J) Regeringskilder påstår, at en ændring til fordel for den tekniske tertiærsektor er begyndt at aftegne sig ved nylige stigninger i antallet elever på TEI'er.
Implicit in much of the present essay, there are intimations that all of the afore­mentioned continuities cannot be taken as self­evident unquestioned truths.
Vedrøren­de regeringens påstande og modsatte opfattelser om spørgsmålet jf. Ta Nea, 4. september 1985.
Such veri­ties must be carefully scrutinized and with this, new educational policy guidelines must be sought.
6) Jf. K. Kassimati, Z. Pilaftzogiou og C. Tsakiris, The OAED Apprenticeship Centers: Findings, Pro­blems, Recommendations (Athen: Statens social­forskningscenter, 1984), s. 25 og passim.
We close this essay with some thoughts that could serve as springboards for further analysis and discussion along these two lines.
') Til uddybning af disse synspunkter jf. A. Kazamias, » Uddannelseskrisen i Grækenland og dens paradok­ser: Et historisk­komparativt overblik«, i Meddelel­ser fra Athens Akademi, bd. 58(1983), s. 415­467 (på græsk).
Schools could give more emphasis to the more efficient development of general education skills, and firms to specific tech­nical/vocational skills.1S
8) A. Zessimopoulos, »Bekæmpelsen af arbejdsløs­heden og statens omsorg for de arbejdsløse«, ikke offentliggjort foredrag holdt på det 4. seminar vedrørende arbejdsmarkedsforhold og fønmodtage­re, Thessaloniki, november 1985, s. I (på græsk).
Such an educational change is also dictated by the increasing sophistication of tech­nology, which renders any technological training by the schools more difficult.
■ På samme måde er det måske for opti­mistisk og urealistik at forvente, at interne skolereformer som indførelse af tekniske eller erhvervsintroducerende fag, integra­tion af teori og praksis, erhvervsrettet ud­dannelse eller erhvervsvejledning i sig selv vil bevirke væsentlige ændringer i elevernes sociale holdninger, aspirationer og endelig uddannelses­ og erhvervsmæssige destina­tioner (f.eks. en mere positiv holdning tilde teknisk/erhvervsfaglige uddannelser og ar­bejdslivet, mindre tilbøjelighed til at slå ind på den akademisk/universitære vej og et traditionelt karriereforløb etc.) og derved gøre overgangen fra skole til arbejdslivet lettere samt reducere presset på AEI'erne.
■ The potential contribution of edu­cation, including TVE, to the alleviation of the increasing problem of unemployment, within the existing, substantially unaltered socio­economic and institutional struc­tures, needs to be re­evaluated.
Selvfølgelig skal fornyelserne i uddannel­sesprogrammerne, som er beskrevet i det foregående, og andre aktiviteter, som er ved at blive introduceret i det græske system, hilses velkommen.
Bearing in mind the structural and institutional de­ficiencies in the economic and in the edu­cational systems, the imperfections of the labour market, and the types of develop­ment that have characterized contemporary Greece, as well as Greece's location in the world economy, the contribution of edu­cation­centred readjustments alone as those that have been embarked upon in recent years, stand little chance of successful fru­ition in the employment­unemployment sectors.
Men også her må der tages et lignende forbehold som i det fore­gående: Andre steder19) ­ og der er grund
In the area of social change, schools can play a part to the extent that the social and political context allows them to do so.
Men også i den henseende er situationen mere kompliceret end oprindeligt antaget, og udsigterne er ikke så lyse. For som med kravene om økonomisk effektivitet, som allerede er diskuteret, følger der med krave­ne om social retfærdighed et omfattende kompleks af relationer skole og samfund imellem, og der stilles spørgsmål vedrøren­de skoleuddannelsens begrænsninger og muligheder med henblik på samfundsmæs­sige forandringer.
■ In the context of the Western liberal model of development, the heavy reliance on separate technical/vocational schooling as the most efficient context to develop the necessary skills for increased productivity and economic development should be re­examined.
') Vedrørende specifikke data for græsk økonomi og tilsvarende data for EF­staterne jf. J. P. Hatzipaer­nayiotou, »Udviklingen pá del græske arbejdsmar­ked«, 1961 ­ 1983 (Athen, januar 1984, ikke offent­liggjort rapport), s. 25­31 og s. 68 (på græsk).
In this context, the general policy of re­organizing the entire secondary system along the comprehensive school lines (the unified multilateral schools), may be said to be a step in the right direction, although changes along the lines suggested above need also to be considered. Also a compre­ hensive/multilateral school structure pre­
S. Babanases og C. Soulas, »Grækenland i periferien af industrilandene: Internationale sam- menligninger« (Athen: Themelio, 1976), s. 56 (på
See S. BABANASES and C. SOULAS, Greece on the Periphery of Developed Countries: International Comparisons, (Athens: Themelio, 1976), p. 56 (in Greek).
'Ό OECD, uddannelseskomiteen, komiteen for arbejd- samme forfatter, »Educational Planning: Past and Present«, Prospects, bd. VIII, nr. 2 (1978), s. 137-138.
See G. PSACHAROPOULOS, 'Education as an Invest­ment' in Education and Development, by Aklilu Habte, et. al. (Washington, D.C. The World Bank, 1983), pp. 13­14.
' ) Jf. undersøgelsen ved Psacharopoulos og Kazamias, . ,38Q
OECD, Education Committee, Manpower and Social Affairs Committee, Draft Report on Future Policies for Vocational Education and Training, Paris, 7 November 1978.
") Jf. i den forbindelse M. Malios, »Kapitalismens aktuelle udviklingsfase i Grækenland« (Athen:
See A. PSACHAROPOULOS and A. KAZAMIAS, Educa­tion and Development in Greece: Social and Eco­nomic Study of Tertiary Education, manuscript, p. 306 (to be published by Papazeses Press, Athens, 1986).
,ä) En mere detaljeret redegørelse for denne fremgangsmåde og dens anvendelse i Grækenland til planlægning af tertiæruddannelsen s. sammesteds, s. 369- 381. ") Jf. bl. a. G. Psacharopoulos og William Loxley, Diversified Secondary Education and Development, (Washington.
For a more detailed explanation of this approach and its application to Greece for the planning of tertiary education, see Ibid., pp. 369­381.
D. C, Verdensbankens uddannelsesafdeling, 1984).
(Washington, D.C., Educa­tion Department, The World Bank, 1984).
Erhvervsuddannelse i Grækenland
Vocational training in Greece
Hermann Schmidt te beskrivelse af de øjeblikkelige udviklinger i Grækenland støtter sig i vidt omfang til Stavrous oplysninger, der i deres eksakthed er enestående.
Hermann Schmidt article gives of current developments in Greece is largely based on the information presented by Stavrou, which has yet to be matched for accuracy.
begyndelsen af 80erne anledning for den græske regering til yderligere at opvurdere erhvervsuddannelseskurserne.
vocational training courses in the early 1980s.
Et integreret gymnasium (EPL), der skal forene erhvervsmæssig og almen uddannelse med hinanden, indrettedes i 1984 som en tredje slags gymnasium.
The integrated lyceum (EPL), designed to bring vocational training and general education together under one roof, was established in 1984 as the third type of lyceum.
Læren i virksomhederne forbedredes og blev til nærmet det i de tysksprogede lande kendte duale system (vekseluddannelse).
In-company train ing was improved and approximated to the dual system (alternance training) common in the German-speaking countries.
Ingeniørskolerne (KATEE) videreudvikledes i 1983 til faghøjskoler (TEI) med autonom akademikarakter.
In 1983 the schools of engineering (KA TEE) underwent further develop ment and were converted into technical colleges (TEI) with their own academic status.
11976 indledtes i Grækenland en omfattende uddannelsesreform, der endnu ikke er afsluttet.
In 1976 the first steps were taken in a comprehensive reform of the Greek education system, a process that is still under way.
Skolepligten blev for længet fra 6 til 9 år, der oprettedes tekniske erhvervsskoler (TES) til for midling af en erhvervsmæssig grund uddannelse, der oprettedes et teknisk erhvervsgymnasium (TEL) ved siden af det traditionelle almendannende gymnasium, og ved siden af universiteterne udbyggedes et ingeniørskolevæsen (KATEE), der tilbød en videregående erhvervsuddannelse.
Compulsory education was increased f rom six to nine years, technical vocational schools (TES) were introduced to provide basic vocational train ing, the traditional general lyceum was joined by the technicalvocational ly ceum (TEL, and schools of engineering (KATEE) were set up alongside the universities to provide higher-level vocational training.
Ved siden af de skolemæssige veje til erhvervet førte uddannelsen i virksomhederne (OAED-læren) snarere en skyggetilværelse. relse.
By comparison with the academic routes to an occupation, in-company training (OAED apprenticeships) led a shadowy existence.
Befolkningsudviklingen i Grækenland er i de sidste tyve år karakteriseret af en naturlig befolkningsforøgelse og stærke vandringsstrømme til de vesteuropæiske industristater og tilbage igen.
The demographic trend in Greece in the last 20 years has been characterized by natural population growth and extensive migration to and from the industrialized countries of Western Europe.
Befolkningstallet er fra 1961 til 1981 steget fra 8,3 til 9,7 millioner. Alene i 70erne steg befolkningstallet med ca. 1 million, hvoraf ca. to tredjedele skyldtes naturlig befolkningstilvækst og en tredjedel nettotilbagevandringen fra europæiske stater. Urbaniseringen øgedes stærkt i de tyve år.
Between 1961 and 1981 the population grew from 8.3 to 9.7 million.
Grækenland søger målbevidst gennem erhvervsuddannelse at åbne videregående uddannelsesveje og at fremme udviklingen af erhverv og samfund gennem praksisorienteret uddannelse.
The continuing dominance of general and university education prompted the Greek government to make a further attempt to improve the standing of
HERMANN SCHMIDT dynamiske samfundsudviklingsproces i Grækenland i de sidste tyve år.
Any description of sub-systems of Greek society, the vocational training system in this instance, must take account of the highly dynamic process of social develop- ment that has been taking place in Greece in the last 20 years.
Inden for rammerne af en kort artikel kan denne udvikling imidlertid kun antydes.
A short article like this can, of course, do no more than describe this development in outline.
Den, der vil beskæftige sig mere indgående med det græske erhvervsuddannelsessystems meget interessante udvikling, bør læse den om kort tid foreliggende udmærkede monografi af den græske erhvervsuddannelsesekspert Stavrou*. Den i denne artikel indehold- generalsekretær for Bundesinslitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB)
For more detailed information on the very interesting develop ment of the Greek vocational training system reference should be made to the excel lent monograph by the Greek vocational training export Stavros Stavrou, which will be published shortly *.
Beskrivelsen af beskæftigelsesudviklingen støder på nogle vanskeligheder, fordi der i Grækenland først i de senere år har udviklet sig en mere eksakt fastholdelse af beskæftigede og arbejdsløse, og fordi de kraftige vandringer i den erhvervsaktive befolkning i de sidste tyve år atter og atter har forvansket billedet.
Various difficulties are encountered in any attempt to describe the employment trend, since the Greek authorities have only begun to keep accurate records of the employed and unemployed in the last few years and the extensive migratory movements of the labour force in the last 20 years have repeatedly distorted the picture.
Det kan konstateres, at arbejdsløshedstallet også i Grækenland i firserne næsten er fordoblet (1984: 8,2%, skønsmæssigt).
What is certain is that Greece too has seen its unemployment rate almost double in the 1980s (1984: 8.2 %, estimated).
Arbejdsmarkedssituationen er dermed dog gunstigere end i de fleste andre vesteuropæiske stater.
Even so, the labour market situation is better than in most other Western European countries.
Arbejdsløshedsprocenten for kvinder (1983: 11,7%) er dobbelt så høj som for mændene (1983: 5,8%).
The unemployment rate for women (1983: 11.7 %) is twice that for men (1983: 5.8 %).
Knap 43 % af efteråret 1980.
As for youth unemployment, an important
Erhvervsuddannelsens situation i Grækenland 1979/1980 ­tre år efter reformens påbegyndelse alle arbejdsløse er under 25 år. De under trediveårige repræsenterer endda knap 60 % af alle arbejdsløse.
factor for the vocational training system, Greece fares badly in any comparison: almost 43 % of the unemployed are under 25, and nearly 60 % are under 30.
I EF­gennemsnit er de under femogtyveårige derimod i 1984 kun repræsenteret med 38,3 % af den sam­lede arbejdsløshed.
By comparison, the average rate of unemploy­ment among the under­25s in the European Community is 38.3 %.
I Forbundsrepublikken Tyskland ligger dette tal på 27,2% (i slut­ningen af september 1984), hvilket skyldes den overordentlig store andel af denne aldersgruppe i en erhvervsuddannelse i virk­somhederne.
In the Federal Republic of Germany it is only 27.2 % (end of September 1984), owing to the extremely high proportion of this age group engaged in in­company vocational training.
I Grækenlands økonomiske udvikling har der i de sidste tyve år fundet betydelige forskydninger sted inden for sektorerne med hensyn til arbejdskraften.
Greece's economic development has been marked by considerable intersectoral move­ments within the potential labour force in the last 20 years.
I den primæ­re sektor, der i Grækenland er stærkt præget af landbrug, vinavl og fiskeri, redu­ceredes beskæftigelsesandelen fra knap 54% i 1961 til knap 31% i 1981; de videreforarbejdende områder steg med 10% punkter fra 19% til 29% og den tertiære sektor med 13 % punkter fra 27 % til 40%.
The share held by the primary sector, dominated by agriculture, viticulture and fishing, fell from almost 54 % in 1961 to just under 31 % in 1981, while manufacturing industry increased its share by 10 % from 19 % to 29 % and the workforce in the tertiary sector rose by 13 % from 27 % to 40 % of the total.
Trods disse betydelige struktur­forskydninger \ årene mellem 1961 og 1981 viser en sammenligning med de tilsvarende EF­tal fra 1983 den stadig enorme betyd­ning af den primære sektor for Græken­lands beskæftigelsesstruktur.
Despite these substantial structural changes between 1961 and 1981, a comparison with the corresponding figures for the Commu­nity in 1983 reveals the tremendously important role the primary sector continues to play in the pattern of employment in Greece.
Beskæftigelsesstrukturen efter sektorer i Grækenland og i EF 1983*
Pattern of employment by sectors in Greece and the European Community, 1983* education from six to nine years.
Grækenland Det europæiske Fællesskab (9)
Greece European Community (9)
Forøgelsen af pligtskolen fra 6 til 9 år krævede de fleste ressourcer. De tekniske erhvervsgymnasier, med hvilke erhvervsuddannelsen skulle gøres accepta­bel i den statusbevidste græske befolknings øjne, noterede i tredje år efter deres indret­ning kun 4% af overgangene til alle gym­nasier.
The introduction of specialized vocational and sectoral schools (for the tourist indus­try, the hotel and catering trade, etc.) was making good progress in 1979 but, like many other reforms in their initial stages, suffered from a serious shortage of staff and equipment.
Dette var dog ikke så mærkeligt, for hvem der ikke bestod de meget svære optagelsesprøver til det almene gymnasium havde stadig mulighed for at gå til det tekniske gymnasium.
There was no well­trained body of vocational school teachers and often enough no money available for the establishment of modern, practical training centres.
Ka­ramanlis, den første demokratisk valgte regeringschef efter oberststyrets sammen­brud, tog i 1976 igen Papandreou­reformen op.
In 1976 Karamanlis, the first democratically elected head of govern­ment after the collapse of the military regime, picked up the threads of the Papan­dreou reform.
Med to grundlægende love (nr. 309/ 1976 til reform af den almene uddannelse og nr. 576/1977 til reform af erhvervsuddan­nelsen) blev
With two basic laws (309/76, on the reform of general education, and 576/77, on the reform of vocational train­ing):
■ pligtskoletiden i Grækenland sat op fra 6 til 9 år,
■ compulsory education was increased from six to nine years;
■ der ved siden af det almene gymnasium (øverste trin, klasserne 10 til 12) indrettet et teknisk erhvervsgymnasium, der skulle give en slags dobbeltkvalifikation (bred almen dannelse plus erhvervsgrunduddannelse) og også åbne adgangen til universitet og højere læreanstalter, og
■ the general lyceum (upper school, 10th to 12th years) was joined by the technical vocational lyceum, which was designed to provide education of two types (a broadly based general education plus basic voca­tional training) and also to give access to university­level education; and
■ udbygningen af et leddelt erhvervsmæs­sigt skolevæsen planlagt.
■ provision was made for the development of a structured vocational school system.
Om en reform af den allerede dengang eksisterende erhvervsuddannelse i aftensko­
As early as 1973 an academic middle tier, below university level, had been created through the establishment of schools of engineering (KATEE).
1976 2 370 dimitten­ le (vekseluddannelse!
The state of vocational training in Greece in 1979/80 — three years after reforms began