natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
I overensstemmelse med målsætningerne for og filosofien bag denne uddan­nelsesmodel sker oprettelsen af skolerne især på lokalt, regionalt eller sektorielt (erhvervssektorielt) initiativ, dvs. de eta­bleres på initiativ af offentlige eller private organer ­ , kooperativer, firmaer, fagfor­eninger, sammenslutninger, fonde, almen­nyttige institutioner.
In view of these harbingers of change in the working com munity the occupational programming of the education system is becoming increasingly anachronistic. ...
Undervisningsmini­steriet eller Arbejds­og Socialministeriet, m.fl.­ enkeltvis eller i fællesskab på grund­lag af samarbejdsprotokoller.
Inevitably, less emphasis is being placed on occupations, providing an historical opportunity for training to be imaginatively changed back into a redefined form of education" (Beck 1986: 222, 242, 243).
Med Det Permanente Sociale Samarbejds­råds (CPCS) godkendelse i oktober 1990 af den økonomiske og sociale aftale under­tegnet af regeringen og arbejdsmarkedets parter placeres spørgsmålet om unges grundlæggende erhvervsuddannelse inden for rammerne af dette nye forhandlings­område, som det fremgår af følgende citat fra aftalen:
Where the dual system is specifically concerned, it is con cluded with incredible logic: "Experts agree that skilled workers will form a growing proportion of the unemployed in the future" (Beck 1986: 240).
Initiativtagerne er rent faktisk også aktører i beslutningsprocessen omkring skolens oprettelse.
As the pessimists see it, the dual system is thus based on an antiquated model of holistic production (homo faber) that no longer has a place in industry, let alone the service sector.
En proces, der betår af fire faser: (i) udformning (ii) fra udformning til forelæggelse af projektet, (iii) fra fore­læggelse af projektet til forhandling med staten og endelig (iv) virkeliggørelse af projektet.
The future belongs, they say, to the "flexible worker with a thousand occupations"; permanent flexibility, increased mobility and the lifelong acquisition of skills no longer leave room for the emergence of occupational abilities and skills that forge an identity; the greater pace of change in qualification require ments is increasingly devaluing the rules of the occupation that dictate actions; the "skill collage" of the modern industrial world needs occupations, if at all, only as an illusion (Geissler 1991: 72).
Udformning af ideen
As vocational training is a collective asset, it in vites firms to become "free riders".
Med undertegnelsen af programkontrakten er skolen oprettet.
Why do firms invest in "human capital" when it has legs and can be enticed away by rival firms?
Denne fase svarer til virkeliggørelsen af skoleprojektet, hvilket ikke er ensbetydende med "gennemfør­else" af et i programkontrakten på forhånd defineret projekt, men derimod skal for­stås som en gradvis opbygning.
For one thing, the apprentices pay for much of their training themselves: while an 18-year-old "earns" about a third of an average skilled worker's wage in his trade under the dual system, young workers receive almost 100% of the average wage in France and 80 to 100% in Britain (Casey 1986: 66).
Dvs. at aktørernes deltagelse i "udformningen" og "organiseringen" ikke er slut med sko­lens oprettelse, men fortsætter med delta­gelsen i den pædagogiske, administrative og finansielle forvaltning. Der finder til­
As it does not take long for young people in training to become almost completely productive in many occupations (especially the crafts), the cost-benefit ratio for many firms is positive during the training period.
"På uddannelses­ og erhvervsuddannelses­området og med hensyn til indslusning på arbejdsmarkedet forpligter CPCS sig til... i løbet af det første kvartal af 1991 at etablere grundlaget for indgåelsen af en aftale om erhvervsuddannelsespolitik. del­tager sigte på at fremme dels et uddannel­sessystem, der i stadig højere grad imøde­kommer landets behov og forbedrer de pædagogiske kvalifikationer og den orga­nisatoriske effektivitet, styrker arbejds­markedets parters rolle på dette område og skaber betingelser for, at de eksiste­rende strukturer kan blive mere operative, lige en systematisk dialog sted med GETAP navnlig under hensyntagen til følgende om administrative, finansielle og pædago­giske aspekter.
For another, government (the Länder) pays for the in-school part of vocational training, and regulation (organized along tripartite lines) ensures that firms not only train young people for their own specific purposes but that they also satisfy stringent quality standards, which are examined and certified after training has been completed.
Erhvervsskolerne repræ­senterer således et nyskabende initiativ, også med hensyn til aktørernes deltagelse i beslutninger om den indholdsmæssige side af uddannelsesprojekterne.
As the em ployers have the biggest say in the examining bodies (chambers of crafts, chambers of industry and commerce), their in terests cannot be ignored in training.
Omfatter ideens opståen og dens relate­ring til identificeringen af uddannelsesbe­hovet (4) i den pågældende region og/eller erhvervssektor.
In larger firms, which often spend more on initial training than small firms (e.g. be cause they invest in training workshops and additional machinery), internal opportunities for advancement and other principles of "internal labour markets" ensure that young people do not leave immediately they have completed their expensive training.
En sådan identificering gennemføres generelt på grundlag af en bilateral eller multilateral dialog mellem de forskellige aktører, der indgår i den givne sammenhæng.
As there is, moreover, no obligation on firms to employ apprentices after their training (journeymen or skilled work ers), the dual system appears to be an extremely effective method of personnel screening when seen, for example, from the angle of new institutional economics ("transaction cost theory").
Der identificeres desuden områder inden for den grundlæggende erhvervsuddan­nelse (og ligeledes inden for den efterføl­gende erhvervsuddannelse), hvor der satses påen styrkelse af arbejdsmarkedets parters rolle.
A less speculative argument, but one that should be taken all the more seriously, is developed by Burkart Lutz: if our society generates and legitimizes social inequality with training certificates, there is undoubtedly a tendency towards the kind of train ing that seems likely to put the individual in a more privileged position.
Denne fase består i forhandling/aftale mellem de i projektet involverede aktører (promotorer) og er en integrerende del af udformningen af projektet, der nu skal "synliggøres".
The trend in the numbers of apprentices (trainees) makes the pessimists' arguments look weak.
I denne fase skal der for­handles og indgås aftaler om målsætnin­ger, ressourcer og organisationsmodel; og endelig skal forskellige interesser bringes til at harmonere.
The dual system was able not only to cope reasonably well with the baby boom of the 1970s and early 1980s but also to raise the relative level of training con siderably, with the crafts providing a wider variety of training places than industry.
Opgaven består i at udar­bejde et projekt, der dernæst forelægges den statslige instans (GETAP), som er
However, without special public programmes (the basic vocational training and vocational preparation years) and with out the cushioning effect of vocational training courses in schools, the shortage of training places would have been far higher at times.
Alt dette ligger ud over de uddannelses­strukturer, der er etableret på grundlag af trepartssystemet på den grundlæggende
Leaving aside the shortages of training places due to structural factors in the new Länder? the surplus of training places (18% of registered places were not taken up) was higher in 1990 than it had been for many years.
Repræsentationen af aktører er på dette område mere differentieret.
In 1960 5 5 % (women 42%) of 16- to 18-year-olds were being trained by the dual system, in 1990 75% (women 66%).
Der er tale om en uddannelsesmodel, der tager sigte på at mobilisere en række nye aktører i forhold til det traditionelle undervisningssystem.
The proportion of unskilled workers, 25% 20 years ago, fell to 10%.
Ud over undervisere, elever, ledere og administratorer fremstår der en ny gruppe, nemlig promotorerne.
Youth unemployment (among 14- to 24-year-olds) has been below the national average for many years and lower than in any other European Community country bar Luxembourg (Tessaring et al. 1990: 37).
CEDEFOP i gennemførelsen af uddannelsesprojekter på baggrund af forbindelserne mellem ud dannelsessystemet og det økonomiske og sociale system.
CEDEFOP the situation is similar in the electrical sector and in the commercial occupations.
Der findes normalt en styrende instans, meget ofte af autonom karakter.
These figures can, of course, also be inter preted positively as evidence of a high level of flexibility, a view we will consider below.
Uddannelsessystemet skal forberede de unge til livet i dets forskellige aspekter, herunder arbejdslivet.
Taking an overall view, the roots of the dual system seem strong enough to alleviate the deficiencies identified and to im prove its strengths.
Uddannelsessystemet opfattes ikke som et isoleret system men derimod som relateret til det økonomiske, politiske, sociale og demografiske system.
The dual system is, after all, based on an attractive principle, which also points the way for the future: in pedagogical terms, the flexible coordination of learning and work and of knowledge and ability; in practical terms, the flexible coordination of individual and social requirements and of employers' and employees' interests.
Der er således tale om et partnerskab mel lem arbejdsmarkedets parter med henblik på uddannelsesmæssige mål.
different ways - e.g. by assisting off-the-job training workshops to compensate for the shortcomings in the quality of training provided by small and medium-sized firms - it stays largely in the background when it comes to regulation.
Relationen mellem promotorerne og de nye aktører, eller rettere mellem traditionelle og utraditionelle aktører i et uddannelsesprojekt, er kompleks - idet hver gruppe aktører har sit eget repræsentations- og interessegrundlag - og er karakteriseret ved en vis grad af usikkerhed og uforudsete faktorers indvirkning som følge af de givne magtforhold, hvilket rejser problemet om skolernes autonomi.
Essentially, it does no more than confirm the quality standards which the parties to collective agreements draw up by the consensus principle to gether with chambers and associations and with the backing of the professional expertise of the Federal Institute for Vocational Training.
Partnerskabet, dvs. de forskellige sociale aktørers deltagelse i uddannelsesprocessen, fremstår således som en nødvendighed, som en samarbejdsstrategi (et instrument) til at etablere en systematisk forbindelse mellem uddannelsessystemet og det økonomiske og sociale system.
The unions thus have no incentive (like, say, the traditional trade unions) to restrict the supply of trained workers, while firms - even small ones - are required to meet minimum quality standards by the statutory training regulations.
En forudsætning for, at disse samarbejdsstrategier kan blive en succes, er, at der skabes sammenhæng mellem mål og aktiviteter på det politiske og administrative plan og på uddannelsesaktionernes plan.
Although quantitative and especially qualitative deficiencies of the dual system are there for all to see, they are far less malignant in labour market policy terms than in other, comparable industrialized countries - with the possible exception of Japan -with which the Federal Republic is in competition (see Commission of the European Communities 1991, Chapter 7).
På sidstnævnte plan er det navnlig af betydning at "identificere pædagogiske projekter på lokalt plan", "udvikle pædagogiske uddannelses- og evalueringsmodeller" og "at undersøge behovet for kvalifikationer".
No reputable study has yet been able to prove that the large hard core of longterm unemployment is primarily a training problem; the chain of cause and effect is in fact reversed: the longer unemployment con tinues, the greater the loss of skills, especially "extra-functional" skills.
Forvaltningen af disse komplekse relationer - informationsmængden, samspillet mellem aktuel tilstand og mulige udviklinger (Melese) - en konfiiktuel ligevægt mellem dynamisk udvikling og stabilitet -kan føre til en endnu højere grad af kom pleksitet og dermed til et højere kvalitetsniveau.
tion in labour markets. Although younger women are beginning to go in for industrial and technical training, there has been little change in the scale of horizontal and vertical segregation.
Det drejer sig ikke om at reducere kompleksiteten, men om at "gøre organiseringen mere kompleks i betydningen af på alle planer at fordele initiativerne og kombinere utallige interne og eksterne faktorer samt skabe handlingsmuligheder" (Melese, 1990: 8).
Young men and women have none of the eight most com mon courses of onthejob training in com mon.
Vil partnerskabet mellem arbejdsmarkedets parter og uddannelsessystemet blive et paradigme for erhvervsskolerne?
The range of occupations in which young women are trained is also narrower.
Partnerskabet mellem arbejdsmarkedets parter og uddannelsesssystemet forudsætter de forskellige parters reelle deltagelse i partnerskabet under hele beslutningsprocessen.
In 1989 one third (33.8%) of all female trainees were to be found in the five com monest occupations in which a recognized training can be obtained, as against just under a quarter (23.4%) of young men.
Ikke kun som deltagere i tilvejebringelsen af informationer som grundlag for beslutningstagningen eller som form idlere af en social teknologi, fastsat af staten, som på den måde kunne skabe betingelser for en social accept af sine initiativer.
Nor has the larger proportion of young women in training done much to change their greater bias towards social occupations, in which they can be trained only at vocational schools.
Erhvervsskolerne står i et privilegeret for hold til den konkrete socioøkonomiske kontekst, hvori de enkelte uddannelses projekter opstår.
Technical school train ing - for which no training allowance is paid - is more common among girls than boys: one third of girls are trained at technical schools, and over two thirds (69%) of the participants in in-school training are female.
Deltagelsen af utraditionelle sociale aktører, promotorerne, er garant for disse privilegerede relationer.
Under the dual system women have to make more adjustments to the labour market situation than men.
Skolerne er en strategisk udviklingsfaktor, for så vidt som de imødekommer uddannel sesbehov i forbindelse med lokale udviklingsstrategier og/eller sektorbestemt modernisering.
After their training women also change firms more frequently than men and, in so doing, suffer losses of income, whereas men are more likely to be able to use such changes to rise to a higher position and to improve their monetary situation.
Uddannelsesbehov, der ikke opfyldes med de eksisterende uddannelsesforanstaltninger.
Foreigners too, especially young foreign women, are still badly underrepresented in the dual system.
Der ses-ganske vist stadig væk svage - tendenser til, at denne uddannelsesform kan bidrage til at skabe efterspørgsel efter nye kvalifikationer i erhvervslivet, dvs. at den ikke begrænser sig til at "opfylde eksisterende uddannelsesbehov", men tillige har den effekt, at den bidrager til at skabe efter spørgsel efter nye kvalifikationer blandt arbejdsgiverne.
The employers and the federal government appear to have been making great efforts of late to tap this "reservoir" (and the 10% of young people who still fail to undergo training) to overcome shortages of workers.4 The trend in the premature termination of training contracts is alarming, the initiative usually being taken by the trainee: 21.2% in 1989, compared with 13.6% in 1979.
Udviklingen af nye sociale værdier - de centralisering, medindflydelse - og den socioøkonomiske udvikling må anses for at være en positiv baggrund for udviklingen af ovennævnte partnerskaber.
A successful example of the flexibility of cooperation between parties to collective agreements is the reorganization of the metalworking occupations.
Den lokale/sektorielle sociale dialog in den for partnerskabet er skolens væsentligte grundlag; de overordnede retningslinjer (6) - nye kurser, undervisningsformer og udviklingsstrategier på kort og mellem lang sigt fastlægges af promotorerne.
Although the process of reaching a consensus took a very long time, mainly because it involved difficult aspects of wage policy, the reduction from 42 occupations to 6 with 16 specialities was a successful response to the technological and labour market policy challenge (Streeck et al 1987:74 ff.).
Det omtalte partnerskab afspejler den so ciale organisations kompleksitet, udviklingen af værdier, såsom medindflydelse på forskellige planer - også inden for ud dannelse, decentralisering i form af over førsel af kompetence og beføjelser til det lokale og regionale plan.
As has been said in various quarters, the "Baden-Württemberg employment miracle", for example, is due not least to this coordination, especially in the form of the regional further training associations based on Steinbeis's principles.
Erhvervsskolerne er tæt forbundet med den socioøkonomiske udvikling og den regionale og sektorielle moderniseringsproces, som de indgår i.
In these associations the providers of initial and continuing training, i.e. firms, chambers of industry and commerce, chambers of crafts, district craft associations, guilds, professional associations, trade unions and adult education centres, cooperate, in varying combinations, with the trade supervisory authorities of the Länder, which ensure support with infrastructure and perform coordinating functions.
Det repræsenterer således en organisatoriskformfor de sociale aktørers deltagelse
This system of coordination has remained largely intact and constitutes institutional capital thatjustifies optimism.
Med disse skoler konkretiseres partner skabet, både for så vidt angår idé og ud
While government provides infrastructure in many
Medindflydelsesprincippettxførst og frem­mest synligt i udviklingen af relationerne mellem arbejdsgivere, fagforeninger og kulturelle instanser, der i dette tilfælde konkretiseres på uddannelsesområdet med den fælles deltagelse i udformningen, or­ganiseringen og forvaltningen af uddan­nelsesprojekterne.
One such centre is the Tuttlingen voca­In this evolutionary development of the tional training centre, which is run jointly dual system particular attention must be by the Konstanz chamber of crafts and the paid to the occupational segregation of the Schwarzwald­Baar­Heuberg chamber of sexes. There is no doubt that the structural commerce.
Der etableres således et rum for forhandlinger mellem de direkte involverede aktører men også med staten.
The Tuttlingen centre was the principles of the dual system ­ and espe­first to offer a course in CNC milling as a cially the pedagogically important role
(1) Denne artikel er baseret på et af forfatteren tidligere gennemført undersøgelsesarbejde om den uddannelsespolitiske beslutningstagning inden for rammerne af forbindelserne mellem uddannelses­systemet og det økonomiske og sociale system på erhvervsuddannelsesområdet.
Lerman, R.I., Pouncy, H., (1990), The Compelling Case for Youth Apprenticeships, in: The Public Interest, No. 101:62­77
Crozier M. • 1989 ­ Etat Modeste, Etat Moderne, Paris. Fayard β 1990 ­ L'entreprise à l'écoute. Apprendre le management post­industriel. Paris. Inter Editions
However, as the sex­specific split in the labour market is hardly less pronounced in social systems without dual initial train­ing, it seems reasonable that approaches to the equal treatment of women in the labour market should also be sought outside ini­tial training.
Den enkelte skoles dynamiske udvikling er betinget af den kontekst, som skolen indgår i.
CNC milling machines enable craft firms both to increase their productivity and to maintain a wide range of products.
Der er tale om en konjunkturel funktion (Thorn, Prigogine), idet den si­tuation, som et system (skolen) befinder sig i på et givet tidspunkt, er afhængig af dets historie, af de forskellige former for samspil og de mangfoldige faktorer, der gør sig gældende på alle områder.
With the trade concentrated in this region and with the firms cooperating closely among themselves and with the chambers, the potential of CNC technology for all firms was quickly recognized "on the spot", and appropriate courses of initial and con­tinuing training were developed in coop­eration with the manufacturer of the ma­chines.
(4) Begrebet "uddannelsesbehov" og især de metoder, der anvendes til at "identificere uddannelses­behov" rummer en vis tvetydighed.
It will be imperative for higher school education to become more accessible to trained and experienced graduates of the dual system in order to allay the growing fear among trained young people that train­ing by the dual system is a vocational cul­de­sac; conversely, more might be done to supplement courses at universities or tech­nical colleges with practical training in firms.
De traditionelle økonomiske målinger af det fremtidige behov for arbejdskraft erstattes i stigende grad af nye strategier, f.eks. de såkaldte langsigtede studier (Godet) baseret på en "aktørstrategi".
Some upgrading of ability com­pared with knowledge is indeed needed, but the two are inseparably linked; their simultaneous acquisition must be coordi­nated flexibly.
(5) Programkontrakten fastlægger de deltagende instansers respektive ansvarsområder såvel som de administrative, finansielle og pædagogiske for­valtningsstrukturer, studieplanerne, kursernes kvalificeringsniveau og de materielle ressourcerunder hensyntagen til den finansielle gennemførlighed.
Casey, B„ ( 1986), The Dual Apprenticeship System and the Recruitment and Retention of Young Persons in West Germany, in: British Journal of Industrial Relations, 24/1:63­81
(6) I betragtning af den fleksibilitet der kendetegner erhvervsskolerne, erfastlæggelsen af de overordnede retningslinjer ikke et problem, der løses én gang for alle ved skolens start, men spiller derimod en væsentlig rolle i hele projektets forløb.
(2) Unless otherwise stated, the following information is based on Berufsbildungsberichte 1990 and 1991 and on Grund­ und Strukturdaten 1991/2, both published by the Federal Ministry of Education and Science.
(7) regulerer initiativer og initiativernes gennem­førelse.
Federal Ministry of Education and Science ( 1991 a), Berufsbildunsbericht 1991, Bonn [and other annual editions]
Erhvervsskolerne etableres som nævnt på grundlag af forhandlinger mellem promo­torerne (i de tilfælde hvor flere promotorer er tilknyttet projektet), dernæst mellem promotorerne og staten og endelig mellem skolen og staten.
(4) The newly introduced section 40c of the Employment Promotion Act now enables the employment services to make grants up to the basic training allowance rate to assist the training of foreigners and of Germans who have learning difficulties orare socially disadvantaged; this opens the door to more extensive public financing of the dual system.
Disse partnerskaber udgør den sociale kontekst for skolernes uddannelsesprojekter.
It is beyond question that the principle of flexible coordination in the shape of the dual system will require further renova­tion and improvement as the single Euro­pean market unfolds.
Erhvervsuddannelse I/I992
Vocational training 1/1992
Fleksibel koordinering: Det duale systems fremtid, arbejdsmarkedspolitisk set svarer de erhvervsfaglige arbejdsmarkeders filosofi, men ser, at det sociale grund lag for det duale system svinder ind.
The role of government and the two sides of industry in vocational training supply of highly qualified and motivated workers.