natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
' Omfatter kun personer, der tager en af de fire hyppigste eksamener (ikke dimittender fra videre­gående fagskoler eller fra universiteter med hojere eksamen), og som går ud i erhvervslivet umiddel­bart efter eksamen (og ikke på et senere tidspunkt).
* Refers only to persons with one of the four most common qualifications (excludes graduates of specialized institutes of higher education and persons with postgraduate university degrees) who start work immediately after completing their education.
I Japan findes der, alt efter hvilke former for uddannelser der er tale om, helt for­skellige procedurer for hhv. arbejds­
In Germany, by contrast, it is normal for over 80 per cent of new entrants to the workforce in any given year to have com­pleted specialized higher education (al­most 20per cent) or vocational training (over 60 per cent).
EUROPÆISK TIDSSKRIFT søgning og ansættelse i den organisation, der tilbyder beskæftigelse.
Job seeking and employers' recruitment procedures in Japan differ widely, de pending on the type of qualifications of the candidates.
Noget forenklet kan der sondres mellem fire områder eller procedurer for rekrutteringen (Teicher 'Teichler 1994).
To simplify matters, a dis tinction may be made between four areas of recruitment, or four types of pro cedure (Teicher/Teichler 1994).
afdelingen træffer sa efter en ansogningssamtale og gennemgang af ansøgerens papirer den endelige afgørelse.
The personnel department makes a final decision following interviews and a check on the applicants' documents.
Tilsagn om beskæftigelse gives - som i de andre procedurer - ca. et halvt år inden studier nes afslutning.
As with the other procedures, job offers are made about six months before the students graduate.
"De fleste japanere har (...) en erhvervsorienteret skoleuddannelse eller et fagligt orienteret studium bag sig, inden de starter i arbejdslivet.
"MostJapanese then have completed a programme of vocationally orientated education or specialized higher education before they enter occupational life.
Der er sjældent tale om direkte erhvervserfaringer i forbindelse hermed, og endvidere fortolkes resultatet som regel ikke som uddannelse eller faglig kvalificering. " d) Ansøgere til den offentlige sektor underkastes i første omgang særlige kvalificeringsprover.
(d) Applicants for civil service posts must first undergo special tests. Success in these tests does not mean automaticemployment, but it is the most important selection criterion.
Bestået prøve er ikke ensbetydende med ansættelse, men provens resultater udgør det vigtigste ansættelseskriterium.
Schools and universities provide support in the form of guidance, but they are hardly involved in the actual recruitment procedure.
Skolerne og universiteterne yder orienterende hjælp, men spiller næsten ingen rolle ved formidlingen.
"In Germany, by contrast, it is normal for over 80 per cent of new entrants to the workforce in any given year to have completed specialized higher educa tion (almost 20 per cent) or vocational training (over 60 per cent). "
a) En lukket procedure er fremherskende ved overgangen fra gymnasiet til arbejdslivet (se Kariya 1994).
(a) A closed procedure is operated for upper-secondary school-leavers entering employment (see Kariya 1994).
Virksomhederne giver skolerne meddelelse om de ledige stillinger over et halvt år inden skoleårets udgang og efter forudgående godkendelse i arbejdsforvaltningen.
Once the employment authorities have given their approval, enterprises notify the schools of their vacancies more than six months before the end of the school year.
Skolerne informerer om tilbuddene og giver i sidste ende hver elev en anbefaling til en eneste stilling.
The schools then inform their pupils what is available and eventually recommend each pupil for just one job.
Virksomhederne in viterer de anbefalede elever til et besøg, men retter sig i deres ansættelsesafgørelse næsten altid efter skolens anbefaling.
The employers in vite the recommended pupils to visit them, but almost always follow the school's recommendation when deciding who to en gage.
Yderligere anbefalinger og firmabesøg sker kun i de tilfælde, hvor noget er gået skævt i første omgang.
Second recommendations and vis its to enterprises follow only in a minor ity of cases where something has gone wrong the first time round.
Overgangen fra uddannelses- til beskæftigelsessystemet er i Japan for alle implicerede forbundet med en relativ stor ind sats for så vidt angår information, orientering og kontaktpleje.
In Japan, the transition from education to the world of work involves rather a lot of effort on all sides in terms of information, guidance and contacts.
Virksomhederne lægger i denne forbindelse meget stor vægt på, at de får et godt potentiel af ansatte.
For employers, it is the potential of their workforce which is most important. We shall return to this question in due course.
I det omfang, de selv gennemforer interviewer og skriftlige prover, gælder det mere den almene viden end kontrol af faglige kundskaber.
When employers conduct interviews and written examinations themselves, they are concerned with testing general rather than specialist knowledge.
"I Tyskland forventes det derimod, at over 80 procent af en årgang træder ind i arbejdslivet efter gennemførelsen af et fagligt specialiseret studium (næsten 20 procent) eller en erhvervsuddannelse (over 60 procent)."
"Job seeking and employers' recruitment procedures in Japan differ widely, depending on the type of qualifications of the candidates... ", but all of the rest on close cooperation between schools and enterprises.
I Tyskland er skoler og universiteter næsten ikke involveret i formidlingsprocessen.
Schools and higher education establish ments in Germany, by contrast, are hardlyinvolved in the recruitment process at all.
Almenkendt er stillingsannoncer i aviser eller via arbejdsformidlingen.
Vacancies are usually advertised in the press or through the labour office.
Forde unge, der ikke studerer, udgør overgangen fra skole til erhvervsuddannelse det vigtig ste tidspunkt i bestemmelsen af erhvervsforløbet, om end mange efter endt ud dannelse atter er mobile, det være sig fri villigt eller ufrivilligt.
For young people who do not go on to higher education, the most important career de cision comes when they leave school and begin vocational training, although many of them move on to other occupations after completing their training, whether through choice or necessity.
b) En halvåben procedure er almindelig for de højere positioner inden for det tekniske område samt for de underordnede karrieretrin også inden for handel og administration i den private sektor.
(b) A semi-open procedure is the usual choice for more senior technical positions and positions below this on the career ladder in private-sector commercial and administrative fields.
Stillingerne bekendtgøres via håndbøger og postforsendelser til de studerende samt ved tilbud til universiteterne.
Employers advertise their vacancies in directories and circulars sent to students, and by notifying universities and other institutions of higher edu cation.
I alle tilfælde venter virksomhederne i første omgang på anbefalinger fra universiteterne.
Enterprises invariably receive recommendations from these institutions in the first instance.
I mod sætning til den lukkede procedure opfordrer de de fleste universiteter til at give et større antal anbefalinger, end der er stillinger til. Gennemsnitligt anslås forholdet til at være 2:1.
Unlike the closed pro cedure, employers ask most universities for a larger number ofrecommendations than they have vacancies, about twice as many on average.
I anden fase udvælger virksomhederne deres kandidater fra en begrænset ansøgerkreds.
At the second stage, employers then make their selection from a short list of applicants.
Forholdet mellem uddan nelser og karrierer
The relationship between educational qualifications and careers
"I japan findes der, alt efter hvilke former for uddannelser der er tale om, helt forskellige procedurer for hhv. arbejds søgning og ansættelse i den organisation, der tilbyder beskæftigelse", men altid i et nært samarbejde mellem skole og virksomhed.
"Schools and higher education establishments in Germany, by contrast, are hardly involved in the recruitment process at all"
"I Tyskland er skoler og universiteter næsten ikke involveret i formidlingsprocessen. " c) En åben procedure etableredes fra midten af halvfjerdserne for de hojere positioners vedkommende inden for private virksomheders handels- og administrationsområder.
(c) An open procedure became established in the mid-seventies for senior commercial and administrative positions in the private sector.
Det drejer sig primært om de universitære uddannelser.
This principally involves university graduates.
De studerende informeres først og fremmest via håndbøger - der tilstilles dem vederlagsfrit over et ar inden studiernes afslutning - om hvad der tilbydes af stillinger.
Students find out about vacancies mainly through recruitment directories which they receive free of charge more than a year before graduation.
Ved hjælp af vedlagte svarkort kontakter de flere virksomheder.
They contact a number of prospective employers by sending off the en closed reply cards.
De japanske virksomheder understreger, at sondringen mellem kriterier og procedurer til rekruttering af nye medarbejdere først og fremmest er baseret på det karrieremæssige trin, på hvilket den pågældende indtræder i virksomheden.
Japanese enterprises point out that their criteria and procedures for recruiting new employees depend mainly on the career entry level.
Man søger efter egnede kandidater til de respektive trin primært blandt dimittender fra tilsvarende uddannelser, men adgangen til et bestemt niveau er ikke knyttet til en helt bestemt eksamen.
While the search for suitable candidates at any level concentrates on those with an appropriate level of educa tion, admission to a specific career entry
EUROPÆISK TIDSSHRIFT på det tekniske område end inden for handel og administration.
The entry levels are given different designations, and in some en­terprises a distinction is made between technical occupations, on the one hand, and commercial and administrative occu­pations, on the other.
Som regel er der tale om tre karriereforløb:
It is usually possi­ble to speak of three career levels:
I Japan er "adgangen til et bestemt niveau (...) ikke knyttet til en belt bestemt eksamen. " res mobilitet er stigende.
( 1 ) Admission to the comprehensive career level, often called sogo shiku, is conditional on a university degree.
Rent faktisk skif­tede omkring 1980 ca. 40 procent af folk med studentereksamen inden for de for­ste tre erhvervsår deres arbejdsplads.
Around 1980. some 40 per cent of upper secondary school­leavers were changing their employer during the first three years.
Denne kvote steg til ca. 50 procent i be­gyndelsen af halvfemserne (Ernst et al. 1993, s. 276).
This figure had risen to some 50 per cent by the early nineties (Ernst et al 1993. p. 276).
Den er ikke meget lavere end mobiliteten blandt unge lønmodta­gere i Tyskland (Schöngen og Westhoff 1992).
It is not much lower than mobility among young em­ployees in Germany (Schöngen and Westhoff 1992).
Disse begynderpositioner be­sættes i japanske virksomheder med mænd.
Development of compet­ences among new entrants to the labour force
Kompetenceudvikling i starten af erhvervs­beskæftigelsen
In Germany, many enter­prises have four or even more career levels. (...)"
(2) Det højere karriereforløb, der som regel betegnes som ippan shoku og over­sættes med general career, er først og fremmest beregnet til kvinder inden for handel og administration.
(2) A general career, generally called ippan shoku, is intended mainly for women in commercial and administrative occupations.
Eksamen fra en læreanstalt for korte studier, dvs. en 14 års forudgående uddannelse, betragtes som typisk adgangsforudsætning.
Successful applicants for this career level are usually required to have completed a short course of higher edu­cation, i.e. to have attended school and college for a total of 14 years.
Men mange kvinder med en universitetsud­dannelse tilrådes at søge inden for dette område.
At the same time, many women with a university de­gree are advised to apply at this level.
En del virksomheder har analoge karriereforløb også inden for det tekni­ske område.
Some enterprises offer similar careers in technical occupations.
"I en del japanske virk­somheder fremstilles løn­og karrieretrinnene som et integreret system. (...) I Tyskland har mange virksomheder fire eller endnu flere karrieretrin. "
In the summer of 1993, 80 big Japanese companies affiliated to Nikkeiren, the Japanese employers' federation, took part in a written survey in which they provided details of the competences they expected from their employees
(3) Til manuelle produktionsopgaver, enkle salgsopgaver o.l. forudsættes i de fleste virksomheder efterhånden studen­tereksamen som adgangsberettigelse.
(3) Most enterprises now require candi­dates for manual production work. straightforward sales duties, etc.. to hold an upper secondary school­leaving cer­tificate.
I sommeren 1993 oplyste 80 store japan­ske virksomheder, der er medlemmer af den japanske arbejdsgiverforening Nikkeiren, i et skriftligt rundspørge om de kompetencer, der forventes af deres medarbejdere □ på ansættelsestidspunktet (dvs. rekrutteringskriterier), Ü efter den første indlæringsfase i virk­somheden og □ på tidspunktet for den første store for­fremmelse.
□ at the time of their engagement (i.e. recruitment criteria), □ after the initial stage of learning in plant, and J at the time of the first major promo­tion.
Svarene fremgår af diagrammerne 1 og 2.
The responses are summarized in Figs. 1 and 2.
Undersøgelsen gennemførtes i et fælles projekt vedrørende "Forholdet mellem uddannelses­ og beskæftigelsessystem i Japan i et sammenlignende perspektiv", der støttes af Folkevognsfonden og hvis koordinator er forfatteren af nærværende indlæg (jf. også Demes/Georg 1994).
The survey was carried out by a project group established to look at rela­tions between the education and employ­ment systems in Japan and compare them with the situation in other countries. The project is supported by the Volkswagen Foundation, with the present author as coordinator (seeDemes/Georg 1994).
"I Japan er (...) de yngre lønmodtageres mobilitet (...) ikke meget lavere end mobiliteten blandt unge lønmodtagere i Tyskland (...)."
"In Japan, (...) mobility (...) among younger members of the labour force (...) is not much lower than mobility among young employees in Germany (...)."
Generelle kognitive kompetencer, sociale kvalifikationer og arbejdsmæssige dyder har ved ansættelser på det tekniske om­råde næsten samme vægt som inden for handel og administration.
(a) When recruiting new employees among university graduates, big Japanese companies, according to the information they provided, set the greatest store by
I Tyskland har mange virksomheder fire eller endnu flere karrieretrin.
In Germany, many enterprises have four or even more career levels.
Traditionelt besættes niveauet umiddelbart over den faglærte arbejdskraft ikke med begyndere fra en bestemt uddannelse, idet de fleste lønmodtagere forst tilegner sig disse mel­lemkvalifikationer ved siden af erhvervs­arbejdet.
The level im­mediately above that of a skilled worker is traditionally occupied not by new en­trants to the workforce with a certain level of education, but by employees who have obtained the relevant intermediate­level qualifications through in­service training.
I Tyskland understreges endnu stærkere end i Japan, at "praktikere", dvs. personer uden højere eksamener, har gode muligheder for at avancere.
In Germany, it is stressed more than in Japan that "practitioners", i.e. employees
(b) For erhvervskarrierer pa mellemniveau og for manuelle fag er billedet nogen­
Q diligence and commitment 3 communication skills 3 ability to work in a team, and □ learning ability.
Ansattes forventede kompetencer inden for handel og administration i japanske virksomheder (aritmetisk middelværdi)
Competences expected of employees in commercial and administrative departments of Japanese enter­prises (arithmetic mean)
Højere karriere* ··
Ordinary career*
Almindelig karriere*
General career*·
På tidspunktet for den forste forfremmelse
Sense of responsibility Creativity Reliability
(c) Dimittender fra universiteter skal i de første måneder tydeligvis udvide deres
(b) The picture is much the same for in­termediate­level careers and manual oc­cupations.
Ansattes forventede kompetencer inden for det tekniske område i japanske virksomheder (aritmetisk middelværdi)
Desirable competences rank in much the same order of priority, except that the expectations are rather more moderate.
$ > ! β Godt helbred Flid. arbejdsvilje Evne til teamarbejde Kommunikationsvilje Læreevne Opførsel Ansvarsfølelse Kreativitet Pålidelighed Selvbeherskelse Almendannelse Andelig fleksibilitet Selvstændig handling Belastningsevne Mobilitetsvilje Loyalitet Initiativ/engagement Analytisk-metodisk tænkning Selvtillid Matematisk forståelse Problemlosningsevne Risikovilje Organisatoriske evner Forhandlingsevne Fremmedsprog Manuelle færdigheder Databehandling Lederevner Faglige grundkundskaber Specialkundskaber
Self­control General education Intellectual agility Independence Ability to work under stress Mobility Loyalty Initiative/Commitment Analytical and methodical thinking Self­confidence understanding of mathematics Ability to solve problems Readiness to take risks Organizational skills Negotiating skills Koreign languages Manual skills Data processing Leadership skills Knowledge of fundamentals Specialist knowledge
7 = meget ringe
7 ■ very low
Efter indarbejdningsfasen
• upon recruitment after induction stage
Ved ansættelsen
♦ at first major promotion
♦ Pa tidspunktet for den torste iortremmel.se
Another study carried out in the late eight­ies reveals the duration of the typical phases of initial training:
fikationer og den personlige udvikling fremgår det ligeledes, at der i denne pe­riode forventes langt større fremskridt end i begyndelsesfasen.
J One in four enterprises invite future employees for a familiarization pro­gramme before they start work. This might last anything up to one month (average duration among all enterprises surveyed 2.3 days).
I tiden efter eksamen mellem begyndel­sesfasen og den første større forfremmelse forventes storre kompetenceforbedringer.
induction phase, i.e. the period which elapses until new employees are able to work more or less normally, the question elicited surprise and requests for clarifi­cation or else, in most cases, very non­committal estimations.
"I Tyskland findes ingen undersøgelse, der adskil­ler forventede kompetencer efter lære­og arbejds stadier på samme måde (...).
"There is no study on Germany which draws distinctions between the competences expected after the various learning and working stages (...).
Men det er helt klart, at der i et langt tidligere stadium forventes et stort mål af faglig kompetence."
It is, however, clear that employers expect a high degree of specialized competences at a much earlier stage. "
(e) Det er frem for alt lederevner, der skal udfolde sig inden første større forfrem­melse.
□ The survey revealed an average dura­tion of 100.2 days for initial on­the­job training.
Dette gælder i næsten samme om­fang for alle karriereforlob.
Initial in­plant training
( f) For den første store forfremmelse for­ventes det endvidere af de ansatte inden for handel og administration, at de i et betydeligt omfang tilegner sig faglige basiskundskaber. På to områder stilles der dog særlige forventninger til ansatte in­den for det tekniske område: de skal er­hverve flere specialkundskaber og udvikle større matematisk forståelse.
" (...) except for a few fields, (...) there is no public coordination or certification of vocational training" in Japan.
En anden studie, der er gennemfort i slut­ningen af firserne, viser varigheden af grunduddannelsens typiske faser:
Apart from that, employees can choose from a range of courses, sometimes in­cluding programmes based outside the enterprise.
_J En fjerdedel af virksomhederne invi­terer deres ansatte til en første kvalifice­ring allerede inden de påbegynder arbej­det.Denne kvalificering kan tage indtil en mäned (for samtlige adspurgte virksom­heder i gennemsnit 2.3 dage).
The Japanese situation is such that "in most cases, on­the­job training follows no defined pattern and obeys no predetermined rules (...) (although) on­the­job training is consid­ered the core training element for new employees in Japanese enterprises." ginner is allocated an experienced em­ployee as supervisor.
Men udtalelserne bekræfter ind­trykket af, at kvalificeringen i virksomhe­den ikke er koncentreret i den indledende fase, men forstås som en nærmest jævn proces.
This in­formal learning process under close su­pervision generally lasts between six months and one year.
Det forklarer også, at vort spørgs­mål i interviewer om, hvor længe indarbejdelsen varede, inden arbejdspræ­stationerne blev overvejende normale, udløste forundrede modspørgsmål eller for det meste meget vage vurderinger.
That it does not constitute the full training programme is Japan and Germany have in common that underlined by the fact that many enter­prises do not begin personnel assessments until employees have been on the pay­roll for two or three years.
3 Introduktionen i virksomheden, der som regel tilbydes umiddelbart efter arbejdsforholdets begyndelse som off­the­job training, omfatter i gennemsnit 25.3 dage.
a successful career is not only, and per­haps not mainly, a question of earnings and associated incentives.
Mest udbredt er to til tre ugers kurser ­ ofte i virksomhedernes uddan­nelsescentre.
It is more likely that the system of vocational training and socialization is called on to provide a durable basis.
□ Grundkvalificeringen på arbejds­pladsen varer i henhold til resultaterne af rundsporgen i gennemsnit 100,3 dage.
In Germany, the focus is on the "occupation ". i.e. pride in the na­ture of one's work and one's training. while enterprises are interchangeable.
I Tyskland findes ingen undersøgelse, der adskiller forventede kompetencer efter lære­ og arbejdsstadier på samme måde som den citerede studie fra Japan. Men det er helt klart, at der i et langt tidligere stadium forventes et stort mål af faglig kompetence.
In Japan, by contrast, training is normally a gradual process based on the functional demands of the job in question, while socialization in the enterprise context is considered the major foundation for a successful career.
□ Under en tredjedel af virksomhederne arbejder med follow­up uddannelses­programmer off­the­job.
On­the­job training is considered the core training element for new employees in Japanese enterprises, while off­the­job training is seen as playing a complemen­tary role.
Disse program­mer varer i gennemsnit 5,2 dage (se dia­gram 3).
Independent learning (jiko keihatsu) was the third type of training mentioned.
Grundkvalificering i virksomheden
In most cases, the company specifies
I Japan er "on­the­job training (OJT) (...) i de fleste tilfælde ikke klart struktureret og for­programmeret (...), (men) betragtes som uddannel­sens kerne i arbejdets startfase i japanske virksomheder. "
"Japan and Germany have in common that (...) the system of vocational training and socialization is called on to provide a durable basis.
On­the­job training (OJT) er i de fleste tilfælde ikke klart struktureret og for­programmeret.
In Ger­many, the focus is on the 'occupation', (...) while enterprises are inter­changeable.
I stedet for udpeges en erfaren person til at vejlede den enkelte begynder.
In Japan, by contrast, (...) socialization in the enterprise context is considered the major foundation f or a success­ful career. (...)"
Inden for rammerne af denne kvalificering fra person til person skal der
In Germany, there is now a stronger emphasis on flexibility in
Grunduddannelsens varighed i Japan
Duration of initial training in Japan
Gruppeundervisning inden arbejdets begyndelse
Instruction in teams before start of employment
Gennemsnitlig varighed: 2.3 dage
Auerage duration