natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
En omfattende formalisering og regu­lering i lighed med grunduddannelsen for­byder derfor sig selv, idet dette kun ville være en hæmsko for udviklingen.
The fact that skilled wage differentials are not notably higher than in other Community countries could be taken to suggest that supply and demand are in rough alignment.
Der fin­des kun få efter­ og videreuddan­nelsesordninger, der gælder for hele Forbundsrepublikken.
This view leaves out one important consideration.
Med henblik på en samlet konstatering af reguleringsbehov og eventuelt udarbejdelse af eksamenskrav har arbejdsmarkedets paraplyorgani­sationer! 1992 etableret et samarbejdsorgan "Koordinierungskreis Weiterbildung" for at samordne dette område.
The long term availability (or lack) of skilled labour may induce firms to adopt different product and production strategies.
ud tilgodeses under forhandlingerne og at erhvervsskoler og uddannelsesvirksom­heder.
It was mentioned earlier that British engineering firms tended to produce goods of lower unit value than their German and French counterparts.
uddannelsesindholdet orienteres efter virk­somhedernes aktuelle og forudsigelige kvalifikationsbehov.
It is possible that they were constrained to do so by a lack of suitably qualified labour for the higher value products.
Statens opgave må i et markedsøkonomisk orienteret efter­ og videreuddannelses­system koncentreres om at sikre og fremme tilbuddenes strukturelle mangfoldighed og udbydernes pluralitet.
A number of the problems underlying the underutilisation of skills in Britain can be analysed in relation to different kinds of labour market structure and skill system.
Erhvervsuddannelses­udvalget skal høres i alle vigtige spørgs­mål vedrørende erhvervsuddannelsen og udsteder statutariske reguleringer, som f.eks. eksamensordninger og særregler for handicappede. Kamrene nedsætter endvi­dere eksamenskommissioner, der består af repræsentanterforarbejdsgiverne, arbejds­tagerne og erhvervslærerne.
These might be characterised as occupational or professional labour markets (OLM), 'internal labour markets' (ILM), and labour markets based on qualification levels (QLM).6The difference between each of these three types derives from problems of labour market information about the content and quality of skills, and the extent to which this is available to other than the employee's current employer.
Konsensusprincippet støttes af alle implicerede, men i enkelte tilfælde, når der ikke kan opnås enighed parterne imellem, kan det bevirke væsentlige for­sinkelser og endog blokere for nye regler.
It hinges on the related questions of transparency and transferability of skills: OLMs and QLMs each offering different ways of codifying information about skill content and quality.
■ På virksomhedsniveau berettiger loven om virksomhedernes organisation (Be­triebsverfassungsgesetz) arbejdsstyrkens tillidsrepræsentanter til at medvirke ved gennemførelsen af den erhvervsfaglige uddannelse.
This problem has been described by Finegold and Soskice ( 1988) as a 'low skill equilibrium' since it has all the elements of a self-reinforcing circle of skill formation, production systems and product markets.
For så vidt angår beslutninger med sigte på at gøre uddannelsesreglerne mere ensar­tede, f.eks. rekommandationer vedrørende udformningen af eksamenskrav eller gen­nemførelsen af mundtlige prøver, ligger ansvaret ligeledes i vid udstrækning hos arbejdsmarkedets parter. Forbundsregerin­gen indskrænker sig mere eller mindre til at fungere som en slags notariat.
While the argument has been developed primarily in the case of the availability of apprentice-based skills which have been in decline, it also has its counterpart in professional engineering skills.
Virksomhederne er de vigtigste udbydere af erhvervsfaglig efter­ og videreuddan­nelse. Over halvdelen afalle foranstaltnin­ger i Tyskland gennemføres og finansieres af virksomhederne (de private virksomhe­ders udgifter til efter­ og videreuddannelse androg i 1987 ca. 27 mia. DM).
Studies by Campbell and Warner (1991), and Northcott (1986) found British mechanical engineering firms less able than their German counterparts to incorporate new technical shifts in their products.
For at sikre virksomhedens succes er det virksomhe­dernes opgave at skabe forudsætningerne for, at medarbejdernes erhvervskvalifi­kationer vedligeholdes og videreudvikles.
One of the responses of engineering firms to an ticipated shortages of skilled and engineering professionals has been to contract out such work to other smaller firms, lead ing to a diminishing range of core skills in the firm5.
Men den enkelte må også selv sørge for at holde præstationsevnen vedlige.
This may pose few problems in a world in which product markets and technology are relatively static.
Samarbejde og ansvar i et partnerskab
However,
Med henblik på samarbejdet mellem de i erhvervsuddannelsen involverede grupper
The evidence on this score is tentative, but a series of case study comparisons of inter mediate skills between Britain and Germany in branches of manufacturing indicate that the British firms produced sim
Det er helt naturligt, at samspillet mellem staten og arbejdsmarkedets parter på grund afdivergerende interesseforhold ikke altid er uden problemer.
For many generations, one of the dominant forms of transparency has been provided by OLMs for particular skills, such as electricians or mechanical engineers.
Men inddragelsen af arbejdsmarkedets parter gør det lettere at gennemføre aftalte beslutninger, som f.eks. nye uddannelsesregler.
There is also a considerable investment by both workers and employ ers in the basic training and subsequent acquisition of work experience.
En ufravigelig for­udsætning for, at systemet kan fungere er, at der på tværs af naturlige gruppeinteresser og til trods for væsentlige meningsforskelle i principspørgsmål forefindes en bred ba­
Although there has been an increasing amount of public financing of formal training off the job in such occupations, OLMs depend predominantly upon private regulation by the parties concerned (Marsden 1986).
Med henblik på fordelingen og finansie­ringen af omkostningerne ved erhvervs­faglig efter­ og videreuddannelse er nytte­virkningen det vigtigste kriterium.
As concerns blue collar skills, and to some extent also, engineers' skills, OLMs have proved very vulnerable to skill shortages in recent decades.
Det vil sige, at ikke alene virksomhederne, men også den pågældende person skal betale
The problem arises out of the very transparency and transferabil-
CEDEFOP for efter­ og videreuddannelse, navnlig når det drejer sig om individuelle formål.
CEDEFOP change. This can prove costly to employ ers.
Individets bidrag burde endvidere være, at efter­ og videreuddannelsen i større om­fang finder sted uden for arbejdstiden.
It has led them to rely on rather unsystematic OJT compared with Japan. By doing so, they can minimise the investment at stake when someone leaves.
"Den differentierede og forskelligt kom­binerede fordeling af omkostninger og belastninger alt efter nyttevirkning og in­teresser er et vigtigt element i den sociale markedsøkonomi og understreger i mod­sætning til kollektive finansierings­ordninger
It has also pushed them to use subcontracting as a means of economising on skill needs and hence training, and to use relatively low paid graduate engineers as cheap labour for tasks that could be done by skilled manual workers or technicians.
■ virksomhedens ansvar for etablering og styrkelse af egen konkurrenceevne
There is some evidence that before the Second World War, the combination of long apprentice ships and low apprentice pay enabled em ployers to provide apprenticeship training for a relatively low cost (Ryan 1986).
Et offentligt ansvar for finansieringen er navnlig påkrævet af sociale årsager, når den enkelte ikke er i stand til at betale for efter­ og videreuddannelsesforanstalt­ninger, som f.eks. lediges kvalifikation.
However, the detailed estimates of costs borne by employers for the 1970s, suggest that the net cost to them of training an apprentice was equivalent to between one and a half and two years' gross pay of an adult skilled worker.
Tiltag af denne art gennemføres i Tysk­land i stort omfang via arbejdsgivernes og arbejdstagernes afgifter til Bundesanstalt für Arbeit (arbejdsdirektoratet), suppleret med skattepenge.
This cost had been boosted by the gradual rise of apprentice compared with adult pay, by the increased quality of apprenticeship training de manded by the Industrial Training Boards, and by the shortening of apprenticeships.7 there are several reasons why this might be so.
Derudover er der andre aspekter, der må tages hensyn til og hvor offentlig medfinansiering af den enkelte forekommer rimelig inden for visse ram­mer, uden dog at retfærdiggøre en 100% offentlig finansiering af individuel efter­og videreuddannelse.
The lack of effective information systems means that many potential skills remain unrecognised and untapped. In contrast, the Japanese firms, confident of the long term commitment oftheiremployees, could develop elaborate internal skill develop ment and skill information systems (Lam 1992, Gota 1986).
■ individets ansvar for egne fremtidige erhvervsmuligheder samt
Under these conditions, the OLMs for skilled blue collar workers proved highly vulnerable to shortages.
Krav om betalt frihed til uddannelse for arbejdstagere for virksomhedernes regning begrundes bl.a. med. at arbejdstagere kun
In Britain, from the 1960s, such problems have been endemic for skilled labour causing a general problem of insufficient training and declining rates of apprentice training.
■ statens sociale medansvar." (4) på denne måde vil kunne realisere deres efter­og videreuddannelsesinteresser, samt at også arbejdstagergrupper uden større interesse for sagen ville blive motiveret til at deltage.
A final consideration that has been raised in connection with the shortcomings of employer-based training in Britain for both OLMs and ILMs is the problem of longterm finance.
Efter fagbevægelsens opfat­telse bør generelle krav om betalt frihed til uddannelse forankres i overenskomster eller ved lov.
Soskice (1992) has argued that capital markets in Germany and Japan, combined with the closer involve ment of financial institutions in the firms they support, enables managers in those countries to take a long term view of many investments, and notably training.
Fordringer af denne art læg­ger ensidigt hele ansvaret over på arbejds­giveren og er ikke alene i modstrid med ovennævnte omkostnings/nytte­princip, men ville også stille alt for store krav til virksomhederne.
In Britain, the demand for short-term profitability makes such long term investments much harder for managers to undertake.
Navnlig i forbindelse med overenskomstmæssige ordninger bør man være opmærksom på, at kravet om en aftale om frihed til efter­ og videreuddan­nelse konkurrerer med andre krav, f.eks. om lønforhøjelse, og arbejdstidsned­sættelse, der sætter arbejdsomkostningerne i vejret.
A solution to the poaching problem seems to have been found in Germany. At the same time, and under similar economic conditions that led British employers to cut their training budgets and the number of apprentices, in Germany, the number of apprentices was greatly increased.
Den pulje, der er til rådighed, kan højst udgøre, hvad der svarer til den reelle produktivitetsstigning.
Three factors appear responsible for these developments.
(5) Af afgørende betydning for overenskomstmæssige afta­ler er endvidere virksomhedernes behov for efter­ og videreuddannelse.
First, Germany had not got into the vicious circle of shortage and poaching to which apprentice training in Britain had succumbed.
Kvalifice­ring med sigte på det eksterne arbejdsmar­ked er ikke virksomhedernes opgave.
Secondly, the cost of apprenticeship training to employers was kept down by somewhat lower apprentice pay levels than in Britain.
En­delig bekræfter erfaringerne fra praksis, at personer, der ikke er vant til efter­ og videreuddannelse, næppe heller kan moti­veres gennem generelle ordninger, men må overbevises om nytten af at deltage i passende foranstaltninger samt gennem tilbud, der svarer til deres muligheder.
And thirdly, peer group pressures from employers' organizations (notably the chambers of industry and commerce and the employers' associations) and support from the trade un ions helped to foster a consensus that train ing rates should be maintained and even increased.
Er mangelen på kvalificeret arbejdskraft i Storbritannien et spørgsmål om uddannelse eller kvalifikationsudnyttelse?
However, unlike German apprenticeships, those in Britain are not integrated into a broader system of technical training but stand out as a barrier to up ward mobility by semiskilled workers, and as technician and engineering training have come to involve a greater input from further and higher education, it has be come harder for those trained in craft skills to advance further.
get, idet de sandsynligvis ligger på 18 milliarder GBP pr. år (1986/1987). Selv under hensyntagen til de betydelige praktiske vanskeligheder i forbindelse med undersøgelsesmetoderne for uddannelse på virksomhederne anførte Ryan (1991), at arbejdsgivernes udgifter kan ligge helt oppe på 8-10 milliarder GBP pr. år, 3 % af nationalindkomsten eller mere end de af enkeltpersoner eller staten investerede beløb".
Yet to abandon apprenticeships in favour of enteiprise specific training in ILMs would seem retrograde given that British firms do not have the tradition of long term employment that has been the key to successful incompany training in large Japanese firms.
Forudsat at disse skøn er korrekte, tyderkvalifikationsunderskuddet på, at det utilstrækkelige antal personer, der uddannes, kun udgør en del af problemet.
ever, the training involved remains mostly below apprenticeship level, the TECs' prime job being to take over Youth Train ing (the successor to the YTS).
Det generelt mindre antal deltagere i undervisning og uddannelse og disses hyppigt lavere uddannelsesniveau har også igennem længere tid givet anledning til bekymring ved sammenligninger mellem Storbritannien og landets vigtigste samhandelspartnere (Prais, 1989).
The evidence for Germany suggests that peer group pres sures among employers have helped to avoid shortages and to curtail poaching.
Det er artiklens formål at uddybe et andet emne, som har indtaget en større plads i nyere uddannelsespolitiske debatter, nemlig arbejdsgivernes brug af faglært arbejdskraft og anvendelsesmønstrenes indflydelse på tilskyndelserne til at søge uddannelse.
Close union and works council involve ment in apprentice training have also helped There is some question as to whether ap
Eventuel underudnyttelse af faglærte og ingeniører er en lige så væsentlig kilde til dårlige økonomiske resultater som mangelfaktorer.
One solution to the poaching problem that has been proposed recently is that a system of 'training credits' should be introduced to be used for both theoretical and onthejob training.
Artiklen gennem går eksempler på britisk industris underudnyttelse af faglærtarbejdskraft og mulige årsager dertil.
Thus the problems of quantity and quality could be simultaneously resolved.
Kvalifikationsmangel er i et vist omfang årsag tilunderudnyttelse, da mangelen mod virker et transparent marked for fag lært arbejdskraft.
It is beyond the scope of this paper to examine such schemes in detail. However, it is unlikely to work unless the problem of transparency is solved.
Større transparens og mere effektiv udnyttelse afhænger i sidste ende af accept på arbejdspladsen og dermed på forhandlinger mellem arbejdsgiverne, de ansattes repræsentanter og erhvervsorganisationerne.
Unless workers have good infor mation about the nature and quality of training on offer, it is hard to see how they could use the credits to good effect, and it is not difficult to imagine that, faced with a shortage of training places and jobs, some workers might be tempted to use their credits as a sort of employment sub sidy.
Britisk uddannelsespolitik har måske i højere grad end andre steder været præget afhensynet til økonomiske resultater.
to make low apprentice allowances ac ceptable to adult workers thus reducing the cost of apprenticeship to employers (Marsden and Ryan 1990).
Ved varende kvalifikationsmangel selv i perioder med stor arbejdsløshed og frygt for, at periodisk tilbagevendende mangel på kva lifikationer ville bremse den økonomiske
Thus, overall, a considerable amount of collective regulation from both the workers' and the em ployers' side has helped to maintain the viability of apprenticeship training in Germany. many.
Indtil for nylig var det en udbredt opfattelse, at britiske arbejdsgivere også brugte færre penge på uddannelse end andre industrilandes arbejdsgivere, hvorfor man kunne formode, at det britiske kvalifikationsproblem hovedsagelig skyldtes utilstrækkelige midler.
prenticeship has been allowed to decline too far in Britain to be revived as the basis for intermediate level skills across the whole economy.
Men en nyere under søgelse (Training Agency, 1989) viser, at britiske arbejdsgiveres uddannelsesudgifter er langt højere end tidligere anta-
Even at its height in Britain, it never extended far beyond manufacturing and construction, unlike its German counterpart which covers also a large number of white collar and service occupations.
"Anvendelse" kan betragtes på to måder: Undladelse af at udnytte de forhåndenværende kvalifikationer fuldt ud, og undladelse af at udnytte hele potentiellet til kvalifikationsudvikling.
Against the background of decline of OLMs and the problematic nature of ILMs, the development of a system of transparency in labour markets based upon levels of qualification combined with work experi ence certified as to its quality and scope is a potentially attractive option.
Det første er an alogt med kapitaludnyttelse og relativt nemt at vurdere - i hvert fald konceptuelt.
Develop ments on these lines can be seen partly in the attempts by the French to integrate a greater component of workplace practice
Den anden betydning indebærer forestillingen om potentiel kvalifikationsefterspørgsel og udbud af samme, som man af en eller anden grund ikke er sig bevidst.
It is unlikely that Britain could simply copy such collective regulation of apprentice training given the long time required to build up relations of mutual trust and cooperation among the parties involved.
Det er ikke nemt at vurdere, men tilstedeværelsen deraf kan spores ved analyse af forskellige situationer og sammenligninger. For eksempel har man længe vist, at Storbritannien in den for den mekaniske industri sammen lignet med Tyskland og Frankrig generelt har specialiseret sig i enklere produkter med lavere stykpris, selv når man betragter nøje definerede brancher (Saunders, 1978).
Nevertheless, a degree of employer and union involvement has been sustained in the past through the industrial training boards, and to a lesser degree at present through the employer led Training and Enterprise Councils (TECs) which took over much of the government's responsibility for organising training in 1991.
Nyere af NIESR2) udarbejdede de taljerede sammenligninger virksomhed for virksomhed bekræfter, at Storbritannien forholdsvis har specialiseret sig i mindre kvalifikationskrævende produkter end Tyskland og måske også Frankrig.
How blue collar skills, great advances were made into their intermediate level training that is from the 1960s in the introduction of more based in vocational schools, and in recent rigourous theoretical training, and in de work in Britain setting up a system of veloping forms of multi-skilling among national vocational qualifications (NVQ).
Britiske kvalifikationsudnyttelsesproblemer mellemtrinnets kvalifikationer, og vi begynder med de statiske (forhåndenværende kvalifikationer) for derefter at gå over til de dynamiske kvalifikationsudnyttelsesaspekter (potentielle kvalifikationer).
The recent reforms of Youth Training, in theory at least, entail a mixture of theoretical training and onthejob experience certified up to UK NVQ Level 2 (EC Level 1 ).
Underudnyttelse af forhåndenværende kvalifikationer
Industry and Higher Education, March.
For det første kvalifikationsgrænsernes usmidighed både mellem fagene og mel lem faglærte og specialarbejderei'.
Thurley K, and Swarbrick A. ( 1990) Shortages of electronics engineers in the UK: a literature review of the debate 1978-85.
Håndværks- og fagmæssige kvalifikationer indebærer en vis standardisering af uddannelse og stillinger mellem virksomhederne indbyrdes.
This is a modest beginning. Nevertheless, a system of qualification based labour markets combining theoretical training and certified work experience, supported by a reformed system of finance, has a number of advantages over both ILMs and OLMs as they exist in Britain.
Ellers vil et marked for sådanne kvalifikationer ikke kunne fungere rigtigt mellem virksomhederne.
With regard to the former, it offers transparency, and independence of skill from a worker's current employer.
I teorien burde en sådan standardisering for faglærte af enhver art fremme en god ud nyttelse.
With regard to the latter, it of fers a more generalisable system of labour market qualifications, and potentially, a more integrated system firm basic to ad vanced qualifications, giving workers greater opportunities for advancement in later life.
Erhvervsfaglige kvalifikationerkan i Stor britannien hovedsagelig opnås på to må der: Ved erhvervsuddannelse, der primært varetages af arbejdsgivere, fagforeninger og erhvervssammenslutninger, samt ved en kombination af almenundervisning og uformel uddannelse på arbejdspladsen (on-the-job training - OJT).
(2) National Institute for Economic and Social Research, London. These studies include Steedman and Wagner (1987 and 1989).
For industriens og byggeriets faglærte er lærlingeuddannelse stadig en meget vigtig uddannelsesform.
Ryan P. (1986) Apprentices, employment and industrial disputes in engineering in the 1920s, paper presented to the Workshop of Child Labour and Apprenticeship. University of Essex, May.
Dette afsnit omhandler anvendelsesproblemer i forbindelse med
Finegold D, and Soskice D. (1988) The failure of training in Britain: Analysis and prescription.
I firserne forsøgte mange arbejdsgivere at forhandle sig frem til en bedre kvalifikationsudnyttel.se.
Steedman H, and Wagner K. ( 1989) Productivity, machinery and skills: clothing manufacture in Britain and Germany.
Undertiden skete det i form af fleksibilitetsaftaler og i andre til-
The second type, the OLM. exists where a particular skill is recognised in other firms either by virtue of a diploma or by peer group acceptance, and is therefore transferable among firms.
CEDEFOP fælde gennemførtes ændringerne ensidigt (Marsden og Thompson, 1990).
European Communities International organization Maryse Peschel Documentation, CEDEFOP
Først i halvfemserne skete der store fremskridt, men efter senere beretninger at dømme er der stadig mange faggrænser.
The role of the two sides of industry in initial and continuing training.
Generelt ser det ud til, at arbejdsgiverne har haft større held med at udviske faggrænserne, da dette hyppigt er i de faglærtes egen interesse, end med at udviske grænserne mellem faglærte og specialarbejdere.
Documentation of the conference on 8 and 9 November 1988 in Brussels mation, consultation and participation; protection of health and safety in the working environment; and the protection of children, adolescents, the elderly and the handicapped.
udgift har tendens til at stige med antallet af nyansatte, der skal uddannes samtidig, fordi de kvalificerede afledes fra deres egentlige opgaver.
European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP) Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1989,35 pp. DE, EN, FR ISBN 92-826-0661-9