natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Mens det i 1979 kun drejede sig om 13,6% af aftaler
■ government's shared social responsi­bility.4
Selv om attributet "dual" relateret til erhvervsuddannelsens udformning i Tys ne, ophævedes i 1989 i alt 21,2%.
Firms are the most important providers of continuing training.
Og det er kland (dvs. kvalifikationsformidling på et ligeledes betænkeligt, at kun 40% af de inden for metalområdet udlærte arbejdere fem år (1989) efter endt læretid (1984) arbejdede inden for deres fag, og at 28% har skiftet erhverv, selv om der i denne sektor klages over mangel på faglært arbejdskraft. Lignende forhold eksisterer inden for elektrobranchen eller i handelsog kontorfagene.
They arrange and fi­nance over half of all schemes (the private sector spent some DM 27 billion on con­tinuing training in 1987). The firms' main task is to ensure their own success by enabling their employees to maintain and develop their skills.
Selvfølgelig kan alt dette også ses positivt som tegn på store fleksibilitetsmargener - et synspunkt, der skal undersøges nærmere i forbindelse med de afsluttende overvejelser.
The idea of govern­ment requiring firms to provide continu­ing training must be rejected because such an obligation is no substitute for the em­ployee's own responsibility in this sphere.
Fleksibel koordinering på organisatorisk plan finder også udtryk i et nært samvirke og gensidig befrugtning mellem erhvervs faglig grunduddannelse og efter- og videreuddannelse.
Government responsibility for financing is needed primarily on social grounds where individuals, e.g. the unemployed, are un­able to meet the expense of continuing training.
Som gentagne gange påpeget, er f.eks. "beskæftigelsesmiraklet i Baden-Württemberg" ikke mindst baseret på denne koordinering, især i form af regionale arbejdsgrupper til erhvervsrettet vi dereuddannelse, der kan føres tilbage til Steinbeis.
The training of the unemployed in the Federal Republic is, however, largely financed from the employers' and em­ployees' contributions to the Federal Insti­tute of Labour, supplemented by tax rev­enues.
Fleksibel koordinering praktisk og et teoretisk indlæringssted) er fuldt berettiget, er det organisatoriske koordineringsprincip mere et "triadisk" system, hvor staten, arbejdsgiverne og disses organisationer samt fagbevægelsen medvirker (Streeck et al. 1987:5).
In support of demands that firms continue to pay the wages of employees while they are undergoing training it is argued, for example, that only this approach will en­able employees to pursue their interest in continuing training and motivate others who do not show this interest to participate in such training.
Mens staten på mangfoldige måder stiller infrastruktur til rådighed - bl.a. ved at støtte eksterne undervisningsværksteder med sigte på at kompensere for de små og mellemstore virksomheders kvalitative uddannelsesdeficitter - er den til gengæld meget tilbageholdende for så vidt angår reguleringer.
Particularly where ar­rangements under collective agreements are concerned, it should be remembered that the demand for an agreement on time set aside for continuing training vies with demands for such things as wage increases, reductions in working hours and other factors that would increase labour costs.
Staten bekræfter i det væsentlige kun normeringen af kvalitetsstandarder, som arbejdsmarkedets parter i sammen med kamre og organisationer samt med videnskabelig ekspertise fra Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (statens erhvervsuddannelsesinstitut) udarbejder efter konsensusprincippet.
At best, the benefits derived from a real improvement in productivity can be con­sidered for distribution.5 A further crucial factor to be borne in mind in the case of collective agreements is the firm's own need for continuing training. It is not its task to train workers for the external la­bour market.
Fagbevægelsen tilskyndes derfor ikke (som f.eks. de traditionelle fagforbund) til at begrænse det kvalificerede udbud, mens virksomhederne - også de små - i henhold til lovsikrede uddannelsesordninger skal overholde kva
Practical experience also confirms that blanket arrangements do not motivate people unaccustomed to continu­ing training to participate in suitable schemes: they have to be convinced of the benefits of appropriate continuing training and encouraged by offers of continuing training that match their potential.
Erhvervsuddannelse 1/1992
Vocational training I/I992
lede styktal er tilsvarende små. CNC-fræsemaskinerne giver håndværkervirksomhederne mulighed for både at for øge produktiviteten og opretholde et om fattende produktudvalg.
Possible underutilisation of skilled workers and engineers is as important a source of poor economic perform ance as shortages.
Det at kunne noget bør virkelig opvurderes i forhold til den rene viden, men det ene findes ikke uden det andet.
The second meaning contains the idea that there is a potential demand for, and supply of, skill that is not being realised for one reason or another.
Den simultane erhvervelse af begge dele må koordineres fleksibelt.
It is not easy to measure, but its presence may be detected by analysing different scenarios and by comparisons.
Det man kan lære af dette eksempel er, at et nært samarbejde mellem producenterog brugere af ny fremstillingsteknologi samt de ansvarlige forde lokale eksterne uddannelsescentre giver mulighed for hurtig re aktion på den tekniske udvikling og kravene til arbejdskraftens kvalifikation.
Until recently, it was widely supposed that British employers also spent less on train ing than their counterparts in other industrial countries, so one might have con cluded that Britain's skills problem was essentially one of inadequate supply.
En sådan fleksibel koordinering kan imidlertid kun tænkes, såfremt det duale system, dvs. den decentrale uddannelse på virk somhederne, suppleres med et landsdækkende net af erhvervsrelaterede uddannel ses, efter- og videreuddannelsescentre.
How ever, a major recent study (Training Agency 1989) has suggested that employer spend ing on training in Britain is considerably higher than previously thought, possibly as high as £18bn a year (based on 1986/ 87).
Eksemplet fra Baden-Württemberg viser, at det duale system også åbner mulighed for at handle fleksibelt på regional og sektorplan med sigte på en evolutionær videreudvikling.
Even allowing for major technical problems in the study's estimation proce
( 1 ) Det stærkt "maskuline" præg. som forholdet har. og indvirkningen på kvinders muligheder for erhvervsfaglig uddannelse vil blive diskuteret længere fremme.
NIESR2confirm Britain's relative specialisation in products with a lower skill input than in Germany, and possibly also Fiance.
Luxembourg: Kontoret for De Europæiske Fællesskabers Officielle Publikationer
If these estimates are indeed correct, then the problems of skill shortages suggest that inadequate num-
(2) De efterfølgende oplysninger baserer, med mindre andet er nævnt, på Berufsbildungsbericht 1990 og 1991 samt Grund- og Strukturdaten 1991/ 92, begge udgivet af Bundesminister für Bildung und Wissenschaft (undervisningsministeriet).
The experience of persistent skill short ages even during periods of high unemployment, and fears that recurrent skill shortages would stifle economic recovery, have caused attention to focus on numbers of skilled workers available.
Hermed er vejen åbnet foren videregående offentlig finansiering af det duale system.
Lecturer, Organisational Behaviour and Comparative Management at Manchester Business School (Manchester University).
I forbindelse med den evolutionære videreudvikling af det duale system kræver den kønsspecifikke erhvervsmæssige se gregation særlig opmærksomhed. Det er sikkert og vist, at det duale systems strukturprincipper - især den pædagogisk vigtige rolle, som instruktørerne har på arbejdspladsen - frem for alt befordrer eksisterende opsplitninger af arbejdsmar
Vocational skills are provided by two main routes in Britain: professional or occupational training regulated primarily by em ployers, unions and professional groups; and a combination of general education and informal onthejob training (OJT) in the enterprise.
Statens og arbejdsmarkedets parters rolle i erhvervsuddannelsen virken i de forskellige uddannelsessystemer prøve. Næsten alle virksomheder, der eg er yderst divergerende.
For most other blue and white collar work ers, informal onthejob instruction remains the principal supplement to their general education.
I de systemer, hvor den erhvervsfaglige grunduddannelse først og fremmest sker på skoler, spiller staten en dominerende rolle, mens arbejdsmar kedets parter som regel kun medvirker i en vejledende funktion.
Current reforms of vocational training may be laying the basis for the third route, based on certified onthejob training and vocational qualifications.
Men når uddannel sessystemet er mere integreret i beskæftigelsessystemet, byder der sig større muligheder for, at arbejdsmarkedets parter kan repræsentere deres interesser.
In this section we look at the problems of utilisation for intermediate and engineer's skills, looking first at the static (existing skills) and then at the dynamic (potential skills) aspects of skill utilisation.
Overgangen til beskæftigelsessystemet bliver derved mindre problematisk end i et skolebaseret erhvervs uddannelsessystem.
Sometimes this took the form of flexibility agree ments, and on otheroccasions, the changes were implemented unilaterally (Marsden and Thompson 1990).
Arbejdsmarkedets parter øver betydelig indflydelse på uddannelsens indhold og udformning. Staten fastsætter kun rammebetingelserne.
By the early 1990s considerable progress had been made, but judging by subsequent reports, many such demarcation rules remain.
På denne måde sikres det, at kravene fra praksis tilgodeses i til strækkelig grad, og at der også tages højde for arbejdstagernes interesser. Ansvarsbevidst handling ud over gruppeinteresser er forudsætningen for, at det duale system kan fungere.
Generally it seems that employers have been more successful in blurring demarcations between skills, as this is often in the interest of skilled workers themselves, but less so in blurring those between the skilled and the semi-skilled.
På baggrund af en kulturel mangfoldighed og faste traditioner har erhvervsuddannelsessystemerne i EF-landene udviklet sig forskelligt.
The first has been the inflexibility of skill demarcations both between different skills and between the skilled and the semi skilled1.
Dog er der overensstemmelse på europæisk plan - og i medlemsstaterne - om, at Europas kvalitet som hjemsted for erhvervsvirksomheder i den hårde internationale konkurrence i stigende grad bestemmes af udbuddet af højt kvalificeret og præstationsmotiveret arbejdskraft. bejdskraft.
Tight restrictions on which categories of worker may undertake particular tasks increase the risk that people have to remain idle while they wait for someone to conduct routine maintenance, and in creases the number of skilled workers needed for a particular operation.
Inden for rammerne af det duale system for erhvervsuddannelsen i Tyskland findes omfattende institutionaliserede former for samvirke parterne imellem (stat, arbejdsgivere og arbejdstagere).
For example, some relatively simple jobs could require the simultaneous presence of a fitter, an electrician and a plumber, each of which would be responsible for particular elements of the job on hand.
På baggrund af mange års traditioner og på basis af erhvervsuddannelsesloven er der i For bundsrepublikken Tyskland opstået et kompleks system af relationer arbejds markedets parter imellem og i forhold til de statslige institutioner, grundet på tanken om et fælles ansvar for erhvervs uddannelsen. I et samarbejde på de for skellige niveauer, fra det nationale plan via regionen til den enkelte virksomhed, bestemmes de politiske beslutninger in den for erhvervsuddannelsen.
Such rules developed originally to protect the supply of work available for each of these trades, and so to guarantee a return on the work ers' investment in training, but in the con ditions of skill shortages of recent decades, they have reduced the effectiveness with which management may utilise their skills.
Men systemets funktionsdygtighed afhænger helt og holdent af, at samfundsgrupperne varetager deres interesser på forsvarlig vis.
As a result, they have probably intensified the shortages.
Uddannelsen på arbejdspladsen finansieres af virksomhederne.
Craft and professional skills involve a de gree of standardisation of training and jobs among firms.
Den individuelle finansiering er en af hjørnestenene i det duale system.
Otherwise, an inter-firm market for such skills could not function properly.
Den duale uddannelses markedsøkonomiske orientering sikrer et behovsrelateret udbud af uddannelsespladser og tilstrækkeligt med fleksibilitet.
In theory, such standardisation for both skilled manual workers and professionals should favour good utilisation.
Virksomhedernes plan lægning ville blive erstattet af en styring, der bestemmes udefra. (1).
However, as concerns craft skills, some features of the system in Britain obstruct utilisation of skilled and other workers.
stedfortrædende leder af afde lingen for arbejdsmarkedsog erhvervsuddannelses
During the 1980s, many employers sought to negotiate changes in working practices
Hovedansvaret forgrunduddannelsen i det duale system ligger principielt hos virk somhederne og erhvervslivets selvstyrende organer (kamre).
Faced with such constraints on the use of skilled labour, one might expect employ ers to make more use of semiskilled work ers and informal onthejob training.
Subsidiære støtteforanstaltninger fra staten er derimod på sin plads i tilfælde af, at virksomhederne overtager uddannelses-
Compared with the cost of apprenticeship training, relying on informal OJT may often seem relatively cheap, but this is because many of the costs are hidden, at least from most organisations' accounting procedures.
CEDEFOP opgaver, der ikke falder ind under deres egentlige kompetence i forbindelse med uddannelsen af ny arbejdskraft.
CEDEFOP technical roles (Lam 1989, and Thurley and Lam, 1990).4
Ansvaret for den ledsagende undervisning i erhvervsskolerne påhviler delstaterne.
A contributory factor to the underutilisation of young engineers lies in the narrow spe­cialisation of their tasks.
Erhvervsskolerne kan kun udføre deres opgave, såfremt de råder over et tilsva­rende teknisk udstyr og fagligt egnede lærere, der er fortrolige med moderne uddannelsesmetoder.
Although job demarcation rules of the kind dividing craft skills are absent, there is a parallel in the high degree of task specialisation, es­pecially within various stages of the prod­uct cycle to be found among British engi­neers, at least as compared with similar types of engineers in Japan and Germany (Thurley and Lam 1989 b, Campbell and Warner 1991 ).
erfaringer (f.eks. virksomhedsbesøg og praktikophold). Ved udformningen af disse tilbud bør skolerne søge og finde støtte hos virksomhederne. (2)
Such narrow specialisation restricts the range of experience acquired by OJT, and inhibits development of hy­brid skills and transmission of knowledge within the organisation, and thus limits their adaptability to changing demands from the enterprise.
■ sikring af overvågning og kontrol.
/ áF: greater risk of failure, or greater responsi­bility, and there is no corresponding re­ward of career advancement.
I henhold til loven er det kamrene, der har ansvaret på regionalt plan. Kamrene af­holder prøver og nedsætter eksamens­kommissioner til formålet.
Thus, the bottlenecks in the supply of craft skills also affect the training and utilisation for semi­skilled workers.
Forbundsstaten fastsætter rammebetingel­serne for uddannelsen, som virksomhe­derne skal respektere.
Another failing of informal OJT is that it provides an unsystematic build­up of ex­perience which may be wasteful.
De bør være flek­sible nok og tage højde for de forskellige strukturer, brancher og virksomheds­størrelser. Til rammevilkårene hører bl.a.
A com­plaint of the young British electronics en­gineers interviewed by Lam and Thurley was that the critical incidents that gave rise to their experience were not cumulative, unlike those experienced in the Japanese firms they surveyed.
■ det lovmæssige grundlag (erhvervs­uddannelsesloven og håndværkerloven)
In contrast, occupational training often has high set up costs, owing to the formal nature of instruction and supervision, but equally, it has declining average costs, as the initial costs are spread over a larger number of trainees.
■ nationale standarder for de ca. 370 statsanerkendte uddannelsesfag (forbunds­statens retsforordningersamt rammeplaner for erhvervsskolernes undervisning)
There­fore, compared with occupational train­ing, as the number of trainees increases, informal OJT becomes relatively less effi­cient.
■ fastlæggelse af minimumsvilkår for uddannelsesaftaler samt uddannelses­lønnen ­ sidstnævnte er et overenskomst­anliggende
The above factors have contributed to poor motivation among young engineers, and to high labour turnover and a widely held desire to move out of engineering work and into management.
Erhvervsskolernes materiale­ og personale­omkostninger finansieres af det offentlige (delstater og kommuner).
Turning to engineers and related profes­sionals, one of the commonest complaints of underutilisation is that young engineers are used to do work that could easily be carried out by technicians or skilled manual workers.
Den tekniske og organisatoriske udvikling i arbejdets ver­den stiller voksende krav til grunduddan­nelsen.
It is widely believed that this is due to the shortage of skilled workers and to recruitment difficulties at the technician level (Thurley and Swarbrick 1990, Campbell and Warner 1991, Finniston 1980).
En mere gnidningsløs integration af de unge i erhvervsuddannelsessystemet forudsætter, at det nødvendige grundlag for evnen til uddannelse og viljen til livs­lang indlæring allerede tilvejebringes i den almene skole.
The existing pattern of skill demarcations effectively shuts off large areas of skilled work from upgrading of semi­skilled work­ers, such as might occur in France.
Tysk erhvervslivs paraply­organisationer har i en for nylig publiceret uddannelsespolitisk udtalelse henledt op­mærksomheden på, at "den nære sammen­hæng mellem uddannelses­ og beskæfti­gelsessystem nødvendigvis må bevirke, at ændrede kvalifikationskrav i arbejds­verdenen og erhvervslivet følges op af en videreudvikling af det almene skolevæ­sen".
Com­pared with France, the British system of access to skilled work via apprenticeship truncates the internal labour markets (ILMs) for semi­skilled workers, and so removes one of the incentives for them to acquire additional skills and responsibility (Eyraudetal 1990).
Alle elever skal udstyres med en solid basisviden og en grundlæggende informationsteknisk uddannelse ved brug af moderne indlæringsteknik og nye tekni­ske medier.
For both blue and white collar skilled labour, skills built up by informal OJT generally lack of transferability, and a large part of them is effectively scrapped when a worker changes firm, and remains unutilised in the new job.
Tværfaglige nøglekvalifi­kationer (f.eks. selvstændig indlæring, team work, kreativ problemløsning, helheds­orienteret .systemtænkning) bør være et andet hovedpunkt.
The impact of such skill loss with a change of employer is well illustrated in France where a greater proportion of skills are dependent on ILMs.
Endvidere bør alle elever få en almendannende og erhvervs­orienteret introduktion til arbejds­ og er­hvervslivet ved at inddrage praksis­
There is a significant proportion of skilled workers who change jobs take up semi­ or unskilled jobs in their new firms (Eyraud et al 1990).
Der hersker enighed om målsætningen, at alle unge med de nødvendige evner skal have mulighed for en kvalificeret uddan­nelse.
For blue collar craft workers, this means that there is only a limited incentive to learn additional skills within their current firm, especially as this reduces the inde­
Der er fuld enighed arbejdsmarke­dets parter imellem om, at uddannelsen skal være bredt anlagt og muliggøre tileg­nelsen af den nødvendige erhvervserfa­ring.
There is considerable survey evidence that especially young engineers do not find their work to be stimulating or creative.
Uddannelsen skal endvidere danne grundlag for faglig mobilitet samt efter­og videreuddannelse.
One cause is the gap between expectations aroused by university training of a crea­tive, problem­solving role, and the routine tasks to which they are assigned.
De tværfaglige kva­lifikationer (nøglekvalifikationer) tillæges større betydning end tidligere.
Accord­ing to a study based on in­depth interviews with 55 electronics engineers in six major UK electronics firms, the problem that they felt they were 'working well beneath theircapabilities' was identified as a major source of their disillusionment with their
Arbejds­markedets parter er derfor med hensyn til de nye uddannelsesregler, bl.a. inden for metal­ og elektrobranchen, blevet enige om en definition af faglige kvalifikationer og har som mål for uddannelsen udtrykke­ligt anført dygtiggørelse i selvstændig plan­lægning samt udførelse og kontrol af er­hvervsfaglige opgaver.
The limited scope of ILMs in Britain for semi­skilled industrial workers also means that employers have reduced incentive to retain such workers in a recession.
Det understreges på denne måde, at der udover den nødven­dige faglige viden og de faglige færdighe­der kræves tværfaglige kvalifikationer som forudsætning for en vellykket erhvervs­udøvelse.
This in turn engenders expectations of non­per­manent employment among the semi­skilled, and may discourage the accept­ance of skill enhancing tasks because tougher work assignments may carry
CEDEFOP findes på alle niveauer lovmæssige orga­sis for det praktiske samarbejde.
CEDEFOP pendence they enjoy as a result of their potential mobility.
Her er det ner, der ­ alt efter beslutningsniveau ­ tager ansvarligheden, der skal stå sin prøve.
For white collar professionals, this means that those engineers who remain for more than a certain time with their current firm become attached to its internal labour market (Mace 1979).
sig af principielle problemer eller spørgs­mål i forbindelse med gennemførelsen og videreudviklingen af de erhvervsfaglige uddannelser:
in a world in which they are changing rapidly, the reduced range of skills in the core means that engineering firms are less able to anticipate new technical develop ments in either their product markets or production methods.
Det kræver både tid og personalemæssige ressourcerat udarbejde uddannelsesregler, der udstedes af det pågældende fagmini­sterium.
pler and less sophisticated goods using a combination of large batch production systems and predominantly semiskilled labour (Steedman and Wagner 1987 and 1989).
Dette hoved­udvalg, der er sammensat af repræsentan­ ter for arbejdsgiverne, arbejdstagerne, del­staterne og forbundsregeringen, vejleder forbundsregeringen i forbindelse med prin­cipielle erhvervsuddannelsesspørgsmål og fastlægger forbundsinstituttets arbejdspro­gram.
Under such circumstances, it is easy to see that these firms would have little use for highly qualified labour once the decision on markets and production methods had been made, and equally that without such labour being available, they would have experienced great difficulty in breaking into the more sophisticated product markets.
■ På delstatsniveau findes delstatsudvalg
How do employers come to underutilise skills and skill potential?
Men forinden er organisationerne blevet enige om visse grundlæggende forhold, der sik­ til vejledning af delstatsregeringen, speci­ rer, at de branchespecifikke interesser fuldt elt med henblik på forholdet mellem
One possibility underlying the smaller numbers trained in Britain than in other comparable countries is that British em ployers are more careful to hire only the qualified labour they need.