natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Denne vedvarende ubalance bekræfter det, som gang på gang er påpeget af observatø­rer og forskere, nemlig at græske forældre og unge foretrækker den almendannende frem for den teknisk/erhvervsfaglige del af uddannelsessystemet'1). Det længe ventede skifte til den teknisk/erhvervsfaglige sko­leuddannelse enten med henblik på direkte overgang til beskæftigelse efter sekundær­trinnet eller et utraditionelt tertiært forløb (andre steder end på universiteterne) er ikke blevet til virkelighed5).
For example: emphasis has been placed on the type of planning and resource development (de­centralization, wider participation in deci­sion making) that would ultimately make the country less dependent, economically and technologically, on the great industrial Western centres; new types of secondary institutions, known as the unified multi­lateral lycea (Eniaia Polyclathika Lykeia), have been started, which seek to combine theoretical and practical knowledge and training and to bridge the existing gap between school and work; and higher tech­nological institutions (TEI's) have replaced the previous Centres for Higher Technical and Vocational Education (KATEE's), believed by most not to have measured up to expectations.
industrivirksomheder.
■ a one­ or two­year middle technical and vocational school (MTV) tional schools prepare mainly for work.
De uddanner sig i fag som mekaniker, elektrotekniker, blik­kenslager, frisør, tømrer, grafiker etc. med en afgangseksamen fra en af disse skoler kan man komme ind i anden klasse på det treårige teknisk/erhvervsfaglige gymnasi­um, forudsat man består en adgangseksa­men.
Thus, for the purpose of continuing educa­tion into the more prestigious and sought after AEI's, the general lycea are more favourably located in the educational sys­tem.
Indtil 1980 har ca. 27 000 elever gennemgået en af lærlingeskolerne.
■ on a very restricted, as yet, scale, a three­year 'unified multilateral school' (EPL).
I 1982 fandtes 45 lærlingeskoler med i alt 6 468 elever.
At the tertiary level (ages 18 + ), the options are: universities (general and technical), and technological educational institutions (TEI's).
Efterspørgslen i samfundet efter pladser på disse skoler synes at være meget stor (i 1983 var forholdet efterspørgsel/ udbud 10:1).
The technical/vocational lycea are designed to train technicians of various kinds (e.g. mechanics, electricians, construction work­ers, etc.) while the technical/vocational schools prepare lower level skilled person­nel.
ministeriet samt endvidere af offentlige og private virksomheder, f.eks. arbejdsmi­nisteriet gennem arbejdsformidlingen (OAED), handelsmarineministeriet, social­og landbrugsministeriet, fagskolen for turisme, de offentlige elværker (DEI), det græske telekommunikationsselskab (OTE), postvæsenet (ELTA), de store banker og storindustrier.
intentions and measures of public policy to bring about more balanced student flows, and (b) the apparent high earnings of graduates of secondary and tertiary techni­cal schools, relative to graduates of general schools.2Historical trends show some noticeable increases in middle­level techni­cal/vocational schools during the decade 1965­76, but no increases in the ensuing 10 years (1976­85), during which enrolments were stationary at about the 77 500 level.3 Enrolments for 1985 in middle­level techni­cal/vocational schools represented only 10.4 °7o of all students registered in secon­dary­level institutions.
Faktisk har den private sek­tor indtil for nylig stået for størstedelen af de teknisk/erhvervsfaglige uddannelser (ca. 61 % i 1972).
Two structural characteristics of TVE must be mentioned here: the first is its heavy concentration in the urban centres, particu­larly the two large urban conglomerates of Athens and Thessaloniki, and the second, the considerable under­representation of women.
Denne tingenes tilstand er imidlertid undergået en forandring, ¡det den offentlige sektor, især undervisningsmini­steriet, nu er ansvarlig for de fleste teknisk/ erhvervsfaglige uddannelsestilbud.
Recent data show that over 60 Vo of the students in the middle level of TVE were registered in Athens and Thessaloniki, and about 40 Vo were concentrated in the Athens area alone. Women participation has been consistently very low and stood at about 15°7o in 1982­83.
En nylig undersøgelse af situationen omkring OAED­skolerne (programmer og vilkår for uddannelse og arbejdserfaring, lærlingenes erhvervsudsigter etc.), hvor både elever og lærere blev adspurgt, har givet følgende interessante resultater:
Similar, although not as sharp, differen­tiations in student participation are also noticeable at the tertiary level.
■ En stor del af de adspurgte elever (N = 1 710) får deres arbejdserfaring og on­the­job­training i erhvervsvirksomheder med mindre end 10 ansatte (64% af de adspurgte), mens 48 % har praktikpladser i virksomheder med 1 ­5 ansatte.
At the same time, they have been envisaged as steps towards meet­ing the challenges posed by Greece's in­ternal social and economic goals and aspi­rations, as well as by its non­competitive posture in the international, mainly West­ern economic system, that has been rapidly transformed by a scientific and techno­logical revolution.
samfundet, uagtet de begrænsede beskæfti­gelsesmuligheder efter endt studium, spe­cielt inden for jura, humaniora og socialvi­denskaberne.
Certain features of the system, outlined above, are worthy of further note: First, the unified multilateral lyceum (EPL) which was introduced by the present government and began operation in 1983.
Et yderligere problem har været de forskelligarlede sociale rekrutte­ringsmønstre til de lo uddannelsesområder, hvor det teknisk/erhvervsfaglige system er blevet tilflugtsstedet hovedsageligt for børn og unge fra arbejderklassen.
The EPL's seek to combine what we have called the 'double educational network', and, with it, the traditional separation of theory and practice, thus, among other things, helping to bring about a more effective transition from school to work.
Dertil kom­mer, og mere på det samfundsmæssige plan: (a) arbejdsmarkedet og (b) indstilling og ansættelsespraksis på arbejdsanvisnings­kontorerne, både de offentlige og de priva­te.
However, at present they operate only on a limited and experi­mental scale (there are 20 such schools scattered in selected parts of the country and registering 7 500 students), although the government has committed itself to ultimately establishing this institution as the prevalent post­compulsory pattern of schooling.
Historier, der fortælles desangående, og nogen forskning tyder på, at græske arbejdsgivere generelt har været skeptiske over for uddannelsens kvalitet i de teknisk/ erhvervsfaglige skoler, og ikke altid har været villige til at ansætte elever derfra.
Second, the TEI's, also intro­duced by the present government, to replace the previous KATEE's, which, as generally acknowledged, have not come up to what was expected of them when they were first established in 1972. The purpose of the TEI's is to provide high level technological training equivalent to that of the univer­sities.
Endvidere har efterspørgslen efter forskelli­ge slags faglærte på arbejdsmarkedet ikke altid svaret til udbudet, for så vidt angår specialiseringsområder.
Like the secondary EPL's, TEI's are believed to serve better the social and economic goals of the country, as envisaged by the present administration, and spe­cifically set in the Five­Year Plan (1983­87).
Der har således til­syneladende været et misforhold mellem skolernes produktion, hvad arbejdsgiverne ønskede, og hvad markedet kunne absorbe­re, en ubalance som så igen har forværret bl.a. problemer som arbejdsløshed og underkvalificeret beskæftigelse.
In addition to preparation for the world of work, students in the TVL's can continue their education in the higher technological institutions (TEI's) and, previously in the KATEE's, and after taking supplementary subjects, they may compete for the limited available places in the universities (AEI's). Technical/voca­
Erhvervsuddannelser tilbydes også af andre offentlige myndigheder end undervisnings­
A further issue has been the differential social recruitment pattern in the two educational networks, technical/vocational network becoming the refuge mainly of working class children and youth.
Selv om nærværende artikel først og frem­mest omhandler den formelle type teknisk/ erhvervsfaglige skoleuddannelser under til­syn af undervisningsministeriet, bør de såkaldte »lærlingeenheder«, som hører ind under den nyorganiserede og yderst aktive arbejdsformidling (OAED), nævnes spe­cielt.
Anecdotal evidence and some research have indicated that Greek em­ployers have generally been critical of the quality of training in the technical/voca­tional schools, and not always in favour of hiring their products. Moreover, the demand for different types of trained man­power in the labour market did not always correspond to the supply in terms of areas of specialization.
OAEDs lærlingeskoler giver adgang for elever, der har gennemført den 3årige almene mellemskole, og eleverne går på disse skoler i 3 år.
There appeared, there­fore, to have been a mismatch between what the schools were turning out, what the employers wanted and what the market could absorb, an imbalance which in turn exacerbated among other things, such pro­blems as unemployment and underemploy­ment.
Skolerne giver formel undervisning på almene, tekniske og værk­stedskurser om eftermiddagen, mens de unge har lønnet beskæftigelse og on­the­job­training om formiddagen som regel på
One crucial problem has been the relatively low demand and atrophic growth of TVE in contrast to general education. And this anomalous situation, despite: (a) the pro­claimed 'needs' of the country, the general­ly accepted significance of TVE, and the
■ Ca. halvdelen af de adspurgte elever vil begynde at arbejde, når de er færdige med skolen, men heraf vil 39% gerne »starte deres egen virksomhed«, mens 46 % vil søge ansættelse i den offentlige sektor.
■ Only 43 < % of the student apprentices stated that their work experience was 'abso­lutely related' to their area of vocational specialization; 41 < % responded 'so so', while 16°7o stated that such experience was totally unrelated to their vocational special­ty. ■ About half of the sampled students wish to start work after finishing school, but 39 % of these wish to 'open up their own shop', while 46% want to be employed in the public sector.
Sideløbende hermed har beskæftigelses­strukuren været kendetegnet ved et stort antal selvstændige erhvervsdrivende i pri­mær­ og tertiærsektoren, et forholdsvis lille antal industrielle lønmodtagere og et for­holdsvis stort antal personer beskæftiget inden for bygge og anlæg, turisme og paraøkonomiske områder«8).
Indeed, until recently, the private sector accounted for most of techni­cal and vocational educational provision and workshop courses in the afternoon hours with morning gainful employment and on­the­job practical training mainly in industrial enterprises; and they prepare for careers as mechanics, electrotechnicians, plumbers, hairdressers, carpenters, graphic artists, etc.
Utvivlsomt har de i den sidste snes år været bemærkel­sesværdige positive tendenser på flere områder.
Those who complete such schools may be placed in the second class of the three­year technical/vocational lycea, after sitting for special examinations.
Men i forhold til de andre EF­stater er Grækenland fortsat overvejende et land­brugsland.
Until 1980, about 27 000 students had finished such apprenticeship schools.
(Gennemsnitstallene for de ti medlemsstater er 7,5 % af den erhvervsak­tive befolkning i primærsektoren og 35,5 % i sekundærsektoren9).
In 1982, there were 45 apprenticeship schools registering 6 468 students. The social demand for
Men allige­vel har sværindustrien kun forholdsvis rin­ge vægt, mens forbrugsvareindustrien gør sig meget mere gældende.
■ The student perceptions regarding their prospects for an assured employment on the basis of the 'diploma' are ambivalent.
I hele denne periode og den dag i dag støder man bestandig på den ikke umiddelbart indlysende antagelse, at tekniske kompetencer og færdigheder ligesom forskellige erhvervsrettede bestræ­belser i alle tilfælde udvikles bedst gennem formel teknisk/erhvervsfaglige skoleunder­visning eller ved at foretage ændringer i undervisningsprogrammet.
(about 61 °?o in 1972). This state of affairs, places in these schools seems to be very high however, has been changing, with the public (in 1983 the demand­supply ratio was sector, mainly the Ministry of Education, 10:1). being now responsible for most of TVE provision.
Grækenlands »deformerede økonomiske udvikling« har også været præget af store økonomiske og sociale forskelle mellem by­og landområder og storbyerne Athen og Thessalonikis økonomiske dominans.
■ There seems to be a widespread feeling among students and teachers that many employers 'exploit' the student­apprentices (long hours of work, underpay, unrelated to their training 'chores', no adequate in­surance, etc.).
Forsøg på at korrigere uddannelsesmæssige utilstrække­ligheder uden samtidig at komme de mere generelle sociale og kulturelle forbehold til livs giver efter vores vurdering ikke anled­ning til megen optimisme. Det samme gæl­der med hensyn til den anden hovedtype af teknisk/erhvervsfaglige uddannelser i un­dervisningsministeriets regie.
A recent study of the situation prevailing in OAED schools (programmes and con­ditions of study and work experiences, occupational prospects of student appren­tices, etc.), as gauged through student and teacher opinion, has brought out some interesting findings:
Et andet aspekt i denne sammenhæng, som ofte overses af mange uddannelseseksperter og ­politikere, vedrører den sociale, økono­miske og politiske dynamik i det græske moderne samfund uden for uddannelsessy­stemet.
Although this paper is concerned mainly with the formal type of technical/vocation­al schooling, under the control of the Ministry of Education, special mention should be made of the 'educational appren­ticeship units' which come under the reformed and considerably active OAED.
I perioden fra 1950erne har den græske økonomi, som det er sagt for nylig og korrekt, »fulgt en forvrænget og unens­artet udviklingsmodel, som genspejler Græ­kenlands position i kapitalismens periferi, og hvis typiske kendetegn er følgende: syge­lig vækst inden for primær­ og tertiærsek­toren, begrænset og anæmisk industriel udvikling, særlig inden for forbrugsvare­
The OAED apprenticeship schools admit students who have completed the 3­year general gymnasium; the period of attend­ance in them lasts for 3 years; they combine formal instruction in general, technological
Et yderligere relevant socialt kendetegn har været flugten fra landområderne og som følge heraf de Stor­Athenske og Stor­Thes­salonikiske byområders abnorme vækst.
In addition to the above, the study indicated that the vast majority of the students came from lower socio­economic backgrounds (71% had fathers who were 'farmers' or labourers).
I dag bor alene i Athen ca. 40% af hele den græske befolkning, hvilket har ført til uba­lance på arbejdsmarkedet og i udbud og efterspørgsel efter arbejdskraft. Beskæfti­
The general profile of the stu­dents in the OAED schools was drawn as follows: 'boy, 17 years old, mostly from urban areas, gymnasium education, aver­age school achievement, offspring of work­er or farmer.6
ser var den mest lønsomme uddannelses­mæssige investering for så vidt angår mål­sætningen om økonomisk udvikling i mod­sætning til den almene uddannelse13).
Obviously, even within the functionalist economic efficiency - social equity framework, the general situation in the OAED type of vocational education stands to gain with more corrective measures and readjustments in the linkages among school, work and employing agencies.
Uden nødvendigvis at bekende sig til disse filoso­fier in toto kunne politikerne alligevel over­veje at reformere de eksisterende struktu­rer, som beskrevet i det foregående, med henblik på; (a) at opnå større konvergens mellem de almene og de teknisk/erhvervs­faglige uddannelser for at, ifølge en OECD­kilde, »forskellen mellem hvad der er akademisk og hvad der er erhvervsfag­ ligt mister betydning«14), og (b) at ændre skolernes og erhvervsvirksomhedernes eksisterende ansvarsområder for de tek­nisk/erhvervsfaglige uddannelser.
reformers, planners and policy-makers as to what precisely these needs were, under what conditions various kinds of competencies and skills were fostered, what the costs and benefits of alternative methods of training entailed, and how, in fact, education and training were woven into the processes of production and development.
Skolerne skulle lægge hovedvægten på en mere effek­tiv udvikling af almene færdigheder, mens virksomhederne skulle koncentrere sig om de specielle teknisk/erhvervsfaglige færdig­heder15).
industry is relatively small, while that of light industry is much greater.
En sådan uddannelsesmæssig forandring dikteres endvidere af teknolo­giens voksende komplicitet, som gør alle former for teknisk uddannelse i skolerne mere vanskelig.
Added to this weakness, are: (a) the absence of certain basic 'modern and dynamic branches of heavy industry' (e.g. machine production), and (b) the non-existent preconditions 'for the wide application of modern technological achievements'.10
gelsesproblemet er delvis afhjulpet ved, at et stort antal personer er taget til udlandet for at søge arbejde (ca. 900 000 svarende til over 10% af befolkningen i alt og ca. 30% af den erhvervsaktive befolkning).
Throughout this period and continuing today, one constantly comes across the not so self-evident assumption that in all cases, technical competencies and skills, as well as different vocational aspirations are best developed through formal technical/vocational schooling or through changes in the curriculum.
På denne baggrund må den generelle poli­tik, der tilstræber en reorganisering af hele sekundærsystemet efter enhedsskoleprin­cippet (EPL'erne), betegnes som et skridt i den rigtige retning, om end forskellige ændringer, som foreslået i det foregående, også bør inddrages i overvejelserne.
The 'deformed economic development' of Greece has also been characterized by great economic and social differences between urban and rural areas, and the economic predominance of the two great urban con glomerates, namely Athens and Thessaloniki.
Endvi­dere forudsætter en enhedsskolestruktur, at der foretages tilpasninger i andre af syste­mets strukturer (f.eks. adgang til universi­teterne, intern organisation og undervis­ningsprogrammer etc.).
Still another feature of the same process has been the growing significance of large foreign multinational corporations operating in Greece through branches which, among other things, has resulted in decreases in the contribution of indigenous Greek enterprises to the consumption needs for industrial goods."
Den langsomme industrielle vækst, de strukturelle svagheder i græsk økonomi, den forvrængede og unensartede udvik­lingsmodel for økonomi og uddannelse, arbejdsstyrkens demografiske kendetegn, Athens og Thessalonikis abnorme vækst og misforholdet mellem uddannelsessystemet og beskæftigelsessektorerne ­ alt dette har tilsammen bidraget til yderligere to so­cio­økonomiske forhold: arbejdsløshed, især ungdomsarbejdsløshed, og den uafba­lancerede efterspørgsel på arbejdsmarkedet (stor efterspørgsel og overskud i nogle områder og mangel på arbejdskraft i andre).
We would argue, nevertheless, that some of the dysfunctions and problems, pointed out by the students and teachers in the OAED schools, reflect more fundamental structural and cultural constraining characteristics of Greek society.
Konklusioner og perspektiver stået som skoleuddannelse) for den enkelte og samfundet som helhed.
Attempts to rectify such training inadequacies without at the same time seeking to grapple with the broader social and cultural constraints do not, in our judgement, provide grounds for much optimism.
Det tilkendegives indirekte i store dele af nærværende essay, at ikke alle ovennævnte sammenhænge kan betragtes som selvindly­sende absolutte sandheder, men bør gran­skes nøje, mens der samtidig må søges etableret nye uddannelsespolitiske retnings­linier.
An objective examination of the existing TVE system, there fore, and any hypotheses as to its prospects must necessarily consider the cultural and structural context of the Greek social for mation as it has evolved in the contemporary (i.e. post-World War II) historical juncture. ture.
Afslutningsvis skal der fremføres nogle tanker, der kunne tages som ud­gangspunkt for flere analyser og diskussio­ner i følgende retning: ■ På baggrund af den vestlige liberale udviklingsmodel bør den ubetingede tillid til, at den adskilte teknisk/erhvervsfaglige skoleuddannelse udgør det mest effektive redskab til udvikling af de nødvendige færdigheder for øget produktivitet og øko­nomisk udvikling, tages op til fornyet over­vejelse.
Yet another relevant social characteristic has been the rural exodus of people and the consequent hydrocephalic growth of the greater Athens and Thessaloniki areas.
I den internationale litteratur findes bl.a. en ret så troværdig filosofi, der ofte refereres til som »fejlslutningen om er­hvervsskolerne« og som argumenterer mod erhvervsuddannelse i formelle uddannel­sesinstitutioner (dvs. skoler) med henblik på den økonomiske udvikling.
Today, Athens alone accounts for about 40 % of the total population of Greece. This has meant imbalances in the job market and occupational demands which could not be satisfied.
Denne filosofi sætter endog spørgsmålstegn ved troen på, at almen og teknisk/erhvervsfaglig uddan­nelse kan sættes i stedet for hinanden, idet almen uddannelse er en forudsætning for teknisk uddannelse.
The employment problem has been partly alleviated by the migration of a large number of persons to other countries searching for jobs (about 900 000, account ing for over 10% of the total population of the country and about 30% of the working population).
Sidstnævnte kan i hen­hold til samme filosofi tilvejebringes mere effektivt på arbejdspladsen, ved praktisk oplæring, end i skolerne12).
One aspect of the historical context that must be considered in this connection is predominantly cultural.
Endvidere har økonomiske analyser baseret på udbytte­værdien skabt usikkerhed omkring troen på, at de teknisk/erhvervsfaglige uddannel­
For various reasons, in the course of modern Greek his torical development the traditional, nonutilitarian, essentially humanistic concept of 'paideia' became so entrenched institutionally, socially and politically that it con stituted a stumbling block to any substantial reforms in TVE.
I begyndelsen af dette essay er omtalt visse kontinuiteter i græsk tænkemåde om uddannelse (dvs. skoleuddannelse) i almin­delighed og de teknisk/erhvervsfaglige ud­dannelser i særdeleshed.
Slow industrial growth, the structural weak nesses of the Greek economy, the distorted and unequal model of economic and educational development, the demographic characteristics of the labour force, the hydrocephalic growth of Athens and Thessaloniki and the mismatch between the educational system and the employment sectors have all jointly contributed to yet two other socio-economic characteristics: unemployment, particularly youth unemployment, and unbalanced labour market demands (high demands and surpluses in some areas and shortages in others).