natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
I 20erne påbegyndtes opbygningen af stats­lige erhvervsuddannelsescentre, der tilbød fagarbejder­(Oficialia) og mesterkurser (Maestria).
The 1920s saw the introduction of the first State vocational training centres, which offered courses to skilled worker (oficialía) and master crafts­man (mestria) level.
Under Francodiktaturet tilfaldt erhvervsuddannelsesopgaven i første række navnlig de tvangssammensluttede syndika­ter; disse drev i 1940 seks, i 1950 70 uddannelsescentre.
During the initial stages of Franco's dictatorship vocational training was largely the responsibility of the corpor­atist trade unions, which maintained six training centres in 1940 and 70 in 1950.
Med overgangen fra den økonomiske autarkipolitik til en kapi­talistisk industrialiserings »udviklingsdik­tatur« fra oven fra halvtredserne greb Fran­costaten til forskellige foranstaltninger for at forbedre erhvervskvalifikationerne hos (en del af) de beskæftigede.
With the transition in the 1950s from a policy of economic self­sufficiency to a 'development dictatorship' of capitalist industrialization from the top, the Franco government took various measures to improve the vocational training of (part of) the labour force.
■ For tidlig beslutning om det senere erhverv
The Spanish often refer to the 'barbarity of specializ­ation' in this context.
Den (fremherskende) treårige »specialisere­de uddannelse« under FP II består for 40%'s vedkommende af almen grundud­dannelse og for 60%'s vedkommende af erhvervsmæssig­teknisk undervisning (hvoraf igen ca. halvdelen består af praktis­ke øvelser).
The (predominant) three­year course of 'specialized training' in FP II comprises 40% general basic education and 60% tech­nical vocational instruction (about half of which again consists of practical exercises.
Det erhvervsmæssige tilsnit af den »regulerede« erhvervsuddannelse, altså FP I og FP II orienteres meget snævert efter spredningen af erhvervslivets sektorer og udgør 21 erhvervsområder med i alt 67 erhverv (for FP I) og 19 erhvervsområder med i alt 128 erhverv (for FP II), i hvilken forbindelse det må huskes, at mange enkelte erhverv endnu befinder sig i afprøvningsfa­
'Regulated' vocational training ­ FP I and FP II ­ is geared very closely to the various sectors of the economy and covers 21 occupational fields comprising a total of 67 occupations in FP I and 19 occupational fields with 128 occupations in FP II, although it should be remembered that many occupations are still at the trial stage.
Førstegangsuddannelsen som motor for modernisering?
Initial training as the motor of modernization?
■ Ikke gennemførelse af den almene sko­lepligt
■ Failure to complete compulsory education
Integreringen af den »regulerede erhvervs­uddannelse« i det almendannende skolesy­stem sker navnlig gennem følgende forbin­delser: Dimittenderne fra FP I kan besøge videreførende skoler med henblik på at opnå adgang til universiteter og højere læreanstalter (BUP), dimittenderne fra FP II kan ved universiteterne studere fag fra deres specialområde.
'Regulated vocational training' forms part of the general 'school system principally because graduates of FP I may attend higher schools with a view to obtaining a university entrance certificate (BUP) and graduates of FP II may study the subjects in their specialized field at university level.
Omvendt berettiger adgangsprøven til universiteter og højere læreanstalter (BUP) til umiddelbar besøg af FP II.
Similarly, a university entrance certificate gives immediate access to FP II.
Med den »generelle uddannelseslov« fra 1970 forsøgtes det at indføre et system med almen erhvervsmæssig førstegangsuddan­nelse i statsligt regi; denne »regulerede erhvervsuddannelse» (Formación Profesio­nal Reglada) skulle gennemføres i (offentli­ge og private) uddannelsescentre.
The 1970 General Education Act rep­resented an attempt to introduce a State system of general initial vocational training. This 'regulated vocational training ' (forma­ción profesional reglada) was to be pro­vided by (public and private) training centres.
Efter en første eksperimentel fase indførtes dette erhvervsuddannelsessystem, og det gælder endnu i dag.
After an initial, experimental phase the new vocational training system was introduced generally in the mid­1970s and still has its value today.
Det blev opbygget for ved siden af den alment uddannende­akademiske uddannelsesvej at skabe en anden uddan­nelsesvej, der var stærkere orienteret efter de praktiske erhvervsområder.
It was designed to provide a form of training geared more closely to actual occupations than the gen­eral education obtained at school and uni­versity.
Den almene skolepligt indtil 16 år er kun en pligt for staten til at stille tilstrækkelige pladser til rådighed for alle uddannelsesvil­lige i denne alder.
Compulsory education to the age of 16 merely imposes an obligation on the State to provide enough places for all young people of this age who want training or further education.
I virkeligheden forlader ca. 10­15% af de 14­årige hovedskolen (EGB) uden i tilslutning hertil at deltage i den videregående almene eller erhvervs­mæssige skoleuddannelse.
In fact, some 10 to 15% of young people aged 14 do not go on to further general or vocational school edu­cation after leaving primary school (EGB).
Sammenlignin­ger mellem hovedskoledimittendtallene og uddannelsespladserne (i skoler og erhverv) på provinsbasis viser til dels betydelige forsørgelsesdeficit, navnlig i struktursvage regioner (men også kapacitetsoverskud i andre områder).
Comparisons of the numbers leaving pri­mary schools with the number of places in schools and vocational training centres at provincial level indicate shortages, serious in some cases, especially in structurally weak regions (while other areas have sur­plus capacities).
Denne sidste er imidlertid endu ikke blevet gennemført i praksis.
■ Extremely low success rate in secondary education
Alle videreførende uddannelser i Spanien knytter sig til den otteårige »hovedskole« (Enseñanza General Básica ­ EGB).
A comparison of the quanitative develop­ment of general education (BUP/COU) and vocational training (FP I/I I) in the last 10 years reveals that in terms of numbers of training centres, staff and pupils vocational training has grown much faster than general education.3Without a doubt, then, vo­cational training has gained in importance in the Spanish education system.
Gen­nemførelsen af EGB (»Graduado«) er forudsætning for at besøge »gymnasiet« (»Bachillerato Unificado y Polivalente — BUP«), hvorefter der kan følge forberedel­
In this respect it is easy to draw parallels with developments in other European countries which also have education systems long dominated by school and university educa­tion .
Af de hovedskoledimittender, der vil opnå adgangseksamen til universiteter og højere læreanstalter afbryder næsten halvdelen, af indgangsdeltagerne i erhvervsuddannelsen (FP) over 60%. Denne »fracaso escolar« er
Almost half of primary school leavers want­ing to obtain a university entrance certifi­cate and over 60% of participants in vo­cational training (FP) fail.
Sammenligner man nu den kvantitative udvikling af akademisk og erhvervsmæssig uddannelse (BUP/COU i forhold til FP I/II) i de sidste ti år, viser der sig både med hensyn til antallet af uddannelsescentre, med hensyn til lærerkorpset og med hensyn til eleverne en overproportional udvidelse af erhvervsuddannelsen3).
All further education in Spain follows eight years of general primary education (Ense­ñanza General Básica ­ EGB).
Uden tvivl er altså erhvervsuddannelsen inden for rammerne af det spanske uddannelsessystem vokset i betydning; her viser der sig helt igennem paralleller til andre europæiske lande, der ligeledes stammer fra traditionelt af skole og universitet prægede uddannelsessystem mer.
Successful completion of EGB (graduado) is a require­ment for admission to a 'grammar school' (Bachillerato Unificado y Polivalente — (BUP), which may be followed by prepa­ration for a university course (COU). As the age­limit for employment is 16, those who complete their EGB with no more than a
Samtidig må det imidlertid bemærkes, at den spanske erhvervsuddannelse befinder sig i en yderst problematisk tilstand.
Although the present Spanish vocational training system was designed during Fran­co's dictatorship, it was not introduced until 1975, a time when sweeping changes
ubestridt og signaliserer manglende pæda­gogisk effektivitet ved mellemuddannelser­ne både for de pågældende og for uddan­nelsessystemet og samfundet som helhed.
■ Changing function of vocational training under the pressure of youth unemployment ting themselves off from the outside world, especially at times of crisis, has always been particularly pronounced in the Spanish employment system.
■ Erhvervsuddannelsen af socialt mindre værdi arbejdssituation (relativt lukkede arbejds­markeder inden for virksomhederne, relativ stor betydning af senioritetsprincippet for belønning og erhvervsmæssig karriere, den formelle kvalifikations relativt ringe betyd­ning for virksomhedernes rekruterings­praksis), det bekræftes også ved undersø­gelser af virksomhedernes personalepolitik og viser sig i al tydelighed i de også i sammenligning med andre europæiske lan­de enormt høje ungdomsarbejdsløshedsra­ter (i slutningen af 1984 var 58% af alle 16­ 19­årige arbejdsløse, mere end tre fjer­dedele af dem havde endnu aldrig haft fast beskæftigelse)6).
university education, it is increasingly beco­ming, in the eyes of society and in fact, the depository for all who are denied access to a general education: The role of FP I is to show how far it can achieve the objective of 'absorbing' young people between the ages of 14 and 16 who are not admitted to the BUP, it being of secondary importance whether their preparation for working life during vocational training is good, average or bad.s Also indicative of the standing of vocational training in Spain is the widely held view that it is 'for the stupid rich and the clever poor.'
■ Erhvervsuddannelsens funktionsænd­ring under ungdomsarbejdsløshedens pres
■ Comparative irrelevance of vocational training to labour market prospects
For alle Europas lande gælder, at det erhvervsmæssige kvalificeringsinstrument ikke er tilstrækkeligt for unges integration i beskæftigelsessy steinet, når der er kronisk mangel på arbejdspladser.
Three main problem areas are emerging, and they also dominate the current Spanish debate on the reform of vocational training and of secondary education generally:
Unge indtager i mange af Europas lande med hensyn til beskæftigelseschancer, alders­ og situa­tionsbetinget snarere en marginal position, i hvilken de rammes særlig hårdt af eksterna­lisering af beskæftigelsesrisicierne som føl­ge af den retlige og sociale sikring af de bestående arbejdsforhold. Disse erhvers­mæssige lukningsprocesser, der i særlig grad kan iagttages i krisesituationer, er traditionelt særlig udpræget i det spankse arbejdssystem.
Against this background it is particularly true to say of the first stage of vocational training (FP I) that its real function is no longer primarily to teach basic skills but to act as a parking bay for young people whose prospects of finding stable employment are poor, whether or not they have completed FP I. What this means for many training centres in real social and pedagogical terms is easy to imagine.
Integrationen af unge i beskæftigelsessystemet ville altså også kræ­ve andre arbejdspolitiske foranstaltnin­ger7).
Our observations indi­cate a slight improvement in the labour market prospects of FP II graduates of late.
Betegnende for erhvervsuddannelsens stilling i Spanien er også dens udbredte karakterisering som uddannelse »for den dumme rige og de kloge fattige«.
How can the social and real discrimination against vocational training be reduced or even eliminated to meet the demand for equality of opportunity in society?
Der udskilles tre centrale problemområder, der også bestemmer den aktuelle spanske debat om reformen af erhversuddannelsen og mellemuddannelserne som helhed:
This not only stems from the peculiarities of the Spanish labour market and labour rela­tions (relatively self­contained in­company labour markets, relatively major impor­tance of the seniority principle for bonuses and 'professional' advancement, relatively limited importance attached to formal quali­fications by firms when recruiting): it is also confirmed by studies of firms' personnel policies and is reflected very clearly in extremely high rates of youth unemploy­ment, even by comparison with other Euro­pean countries (at the end of 1984 58% of all young people aged 16 to 19 were unem­
■ Erhvervsuddannelsens relative mang­lende betydning for mulighederne på arbejdsmarkedet
It is true of all European countries that, when there is a chronic shortage of jobs, vocational training is incapable of integrat­ing young people into the employment system.
Dette viser sig ikke blot gennem de særlige forhold i den spanske arbejdsmarkeds­ og
In terms of employment prospects, their age and situation tend to condemn young people in many European countries to a marginal position, in which they are particularly hard hit by the externalization of employment risks that is due to the legal and social safeguards enjoyed by those in employment.
Hvad dette betyder for den sociale og pædagogiske virkelighed i mange uddannelsescentre kan man let forestille sig.
How can broadly based and effective vo­cational training which both satisfies the requirements of the employment system and is in the employee's interests be achieved?
For dimittenderne fra FP II synes efter vores iagttagelser arbejdsmarkedsudsigter­ne i den sidste tid at være blevet lidt bedre.
How can vocational training be organized so as to facilitate transition to the employment system, and in what sense and within what framework can it assume inte­gration functions?
bejdsforhold, sidstnævnte skal muliggøre uddannelse og arbejde i virksomhederne for de unge med en varighed fra tre måneder til tre år.
The substance, scale and direction of the reform of vocational training in Spain largely depend on whether, under the pressure of the present crisis and in view of the need for action, it is primarily subordinated to short-term employment policy objectives or becomes an integral part of the general social and educational policy setting in which the structure of secondary education is reformed.
Hvorledes kan en bred og effektiv er hvervsmæssig kvalificering opnås, der både modsvarer beskæftigelsessystemets krav og arbejdstagernes interesser?
What might be expected, on the other hand, is growing pragmatism in the measures taken - were it not for a Spanish peculiarity which, though in some ways a reflection of 'backwardness', may provide a creative opportunity whose significance may spread beyond Spain's frontiers.
Den talmæssige vægt af disse praktikant- og uddannelseskontrakter i forhold til den regulerede erhvervsuddannelse er (endnu) relativt ringe (1984 ca. 35 000 i forhold til ca. 650 000 i den offentlige og private FPR)8).
(Acuerdo Económico y Social) concluded in 1984 provides for the establishment of a tripartite 'General Vocational Training Council', which is to draw up a 'National programme for regulated initial vocational training and continuing vocational train ing'.
Hvorledes kan erhvervsuddannelsen for mes, således at overgangen til beskæftigelsessy stemet lettes, på hvilken måde og i hvilken ramme kan den overtage innovationsfunktionen ?
It should be stressed, however, that the UGT is now playing an active part in the debate on future vocational training, while the employers have been extremely reticent and almost 'indifferent'.9
Erhvervsuddannelsesreform Hvorhen fører vejen?
Vocational training and general education: reform of secondary education
Erhvervsuddannelsesreformens indhold, rækkevidde og retning i Spanien afhænger væsentligt af, om den under det aktuelle krise- og handlingspres i første række underordnes kortsigtede, beskæftigelsespolitiske mål eller integreres i den generelle samfundsmæssige og uddannelsespolitiske sammenhæng i forbindelse med strukturreformen af mellemuddannelserne.
The deficiencies of vocational training, and of secondary education generally, and the structural problems in this area explain the broad consensus among experts, political parties and institutions in Spain on the need for the reform of secondary education. The present government's reform project began with the extension of compulsory education for all until the age of 16 through the introduction of an integrated two-year stage, the 'tronco común'.
Erhversuddannelse som beskæf tigelsespolitik og dens stærkere integration i beskæftigelsessystemet?
To test this frist phase, numerous pilot projects were implemented and evaluated. Preparations are now being made for its general introduction by law.
Med henblik på øget integration af er hvervsuddannelsen i beskæftigelsessystemet inddrages arbejdsmarkedets parter i reformen af erhvervsuddannelsen.
At the same time, the risks involved in integrating vocational training more closely into the employment system are also becoming increasingly apparent.
Den spanske situation er altså helt igennem kompliceret, og man kunne også med hen blik på de mangfoldige faktiske mangler i erhvervsuddannelsen betegne den som »tilbagestående«.
Until 1970 the Franco government's vo cational training policy focused on the employment system and specifically on the continuing vocational training and specialization of workers already in employment.
Erhvervsuddannelsesvæsenet uden for virksomhederne er dog - trods alle mangler - så vidt udviklet, og virksomhedernes direkte interesse i uddannelse er i gammel spansk tradition så ufuldstændig, at allerede alene af den grund et »dualt erhvervsuddannelsessystem« som i For bundsrepublikken ikke giver nogen målperspektiver.
With the introduction of 'regulated' vo cational training as part of the general education system, the importance attached to continuing vocational training (Formación Ocupacional = FO) initially waned.
Der kunne dog også ventes en foranstaltningspragmatisme, der ville brede sig - hvis der ikke fandtes et særligt spansk forhold, der på en måde også udtrykker en »tilbageblevenhed«, men kan blive til en frugtbar chance, der i sin betydning kan række ud over Spanien.
As a result of changes in the legal situation (Estatuto del Trabajador) and under the pressure of the high level of youth unemployment, there has again been a growing tendency since the early 1980s to make vocational training measures a more integral part of the employment system.
Er hvervsuddannelsesreformen i Spanien kan nemlig i sine dimensioner og i sin rækkevidde kun forstås i sammenhæng med den stort anlagte og omfattende strukturelle og curriculære reform af mellemuddannelserne.
Under the employment promotion schemes introduced by the Employment Ministry and the National Employment Institute (INEM, roughly equivalent to the Federal German Employment Office), which is attached to the Employment Ministry, employers are encouraged by tax incentives and government advisory activities to take on people with vocational training certificates for a limited trial period of work familiarization and young people for three months to three years of in-company training and work.
Erhvervsuddannelse og almen uddannelse: Reform af mellem uddannelserne
The numbers taking part in these schemes are (still) relatively small when compared to 'regulated' vocational training (some
Til afprøvning af denne første fase er den gennemført og evalueret en lang række modelforsøg; i øjeblikket forberedes almindelig indførelse ved lov.
The involvement of the two sides of industry in the reform of vocational training is also helping to make it a more integral part of the employment system. The Social Pact
Samtidig bliver imidlertid også risicierne ved en øget integration af erhvervsuddannelsen i beskæftigelsessystemet tydeligere og tydeligere.
The Spanish situation is thus very complicated and, in view of the many real short comings of the vocational training system, might even be described as 'backward'.
En dominans af beskæftigelsespolitiske synspunkter i erhvervsuddannelse under mottoet »fleksibilisering af arbejdsmarkederne og integration af de unge« fortrænger også den centrale betydning og funktion af erhvervsuddannelsen for den sociale chancelighed i et samfund og for formidlingen af brede basiskvalifikationer, som ressource for arbejds- og livsmu
On the other hand, a process of major change has been set in motion, triggered both by the criticism levelled at the isolation of 'regulated' vocational training centres from the employment system and by the measures taken to integrate young people and -much in line with our ideas on convergence with other European countries - generally geared to the striking of a fresh balance between non-company vocational training and in-company activities. However, the non-company vocational training system -
Tyngdepunktet i Francoregimets erhvervsuddannelsespolitik lå indtil 1970 i beskæftigelsessystemet, konkret i den erhvervsmæssige videreuddannelse og specialisering af allerede beskæftigede.
Consequently, the debate is at present centred on the organization of the second phase of secondary education: should it include specialization, which will restrict school-leavers to specific university courses and occupations, and how should the transition from the first phase of secondary education to the employment system and from the first to the second phase be accomplished?
Med indførelsen af den regulerede erhvervsuddannelse som del af det almene uddannelsessystem mistede den erhvervsmæssige videreuddannelse (Formación Ocupacional = FO) i første omgang betydning.
Should both phases of secondary education include in-company practical training, and if so, how?
Ved forandringen af retlige rammebetingelser (Estatuto del Trabajador) og under pres af den store ung domsarbejdsløshed viste der sig fra begyndelsen af 80erne igen tendenser til at optage erhvervsmæssige kvalificeringsforanstaltninger i større omfang i beskæftigelsessystemet.
Should the present FP II be absorbed by the specialized second phase or continue to exist in modified form?11Spain's present Social ist government sees the reform of secondary education as a gradual, experimental and participatory process.
De først nævnte skal formidle personer med er hvervskvalificerende afgangsbeviser til tids begrænsede prøve- og indarbejdnings-ar
It is very important to note that the work on the reform of vocational training has not simply stopped
■ Diskussion og ensartethed mellem er­hvervsområder og erhvervsgrene, der udgør beskæftigelsesstrukturen,
reforms outlined above and succeeds in finding acceptable solutions.
■ fastlæggelse af de videnskabeligt­tekno­logiske grundlag i alle erhvervsområder, der også skal formidle det normale uddannel­sessystem,
Opportunities and prospects for vocational training policy in Spain
■ definition af specialiseringerne, der skal føre til diversificering på de enkelte er­hvervsområder,
The barriers at present erected around the employment system and the traditional dominance of in­company labour markets are the most serious ob­stacles to effective and incisive measures in the education system.
■ bestemmelse af curricula og metoder for specialiseringsrammerne og ­niveauerne og endelig
On the other hand, the present situation of general change in Spain provides extensive opportunities f or the reform of the training system.
■ ensartethed med hensyn til titler og certifikater i erhvervene12).
call for the emphasis in the reform of vocational training to be placed on the following:
Det må afventes, om og hvorvidt »general­rådet for erhvervsuddannelse« tager de antydede problemkomplekser og reformop­gaver op og finder frem til bæredygtige løsninger.
■ discussion and standardization of the occupational fields and sectors of which the employment structure is composed,
Erhvervsuddannelsespolitikkens chancer og perspektiver i Spanien
■ definition of the specializations which should lead to diversification in the various occupational fields,