natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Inkvisitionen kastede sig over ethvert tegn på afvigende meninger, og man ville for enhver pris holde kvinderne, hvor de var. Det samfund, der fordømte disse kvinder og stemplede dem som kættere, kunne ikke forstå, at de var et resultat af samfundets mentalitet og det mest direkte produkt deraf.
This certified authorization had to remain in the possession of the man who was required to show it whenever requested by the authorities in America.
Deres eneste brøde var en overdreven rettroenhed i en tid med yderliggående mystiske tilbøjeligheder og overordentlig dyb inderlighed, som næredes af læsning, billeder og traditioner.
In fact, husbands who set out as "explorers" tended to have their family rejoin them only when they had accumulated a little nest-egg.
Det var ikke tilfældigt, at der dukkede helgeninder og såkaldte "alumbradas" (oplyste) op.
These women were virtually abandoned, even if they were not sentimentally forlorn.
Mens Rosa de Santa Maria blev tilbedt ved altrene, og Bartholomé Muri I lo udødeliggjorde hende i sin berømte afbildning af helgenindens ekstase, måtte hendes nærmeste veninder lide under inkvisitionen, der dømte mange af dem til døden.
Moreover, this kind of separation could in practise result in pure and simple desertion, as shown by the fear expressed by the women themselves.
Her kommer lovgivningen ind som et værdifuldt middel til at studere samfundets idealforestillinger om den rolle, som kvinden skulle spille.
As a case in point, a colonizer in Mexico who had left his wife in Seville without obtaining due legal authorization wrote to her in desperation:
Kvindernes situation i Spanien i det 16. og 17. århundrede reguleredes i spansk ret af en række generelle lovbestemmelser, som var blevet samlet i tidens løb, nemlig "Siete partidas" (1265), forfattet af kong Alfons X af Casti I ien og dekreterne fra Alcalá (1386), Casti I ien (1484) og "Leyes de Toro" (1505).
I had already made up my mind to go back to Spain to fetch you (and to return to America together), when I was arrested, accused of being married (without my wife), imprisoned and humiliated (...)
De heri indeholdte love regulerede kvindernes retsstilling.
I managed to obtain a special authorization (...)
Traditionelt opfattedes kvinden pá den tid som et skrøbeligt væsen, der havde behov for beskyttelse, enten fra familiens side eller fra institutioner som kirken.
I beseech you (...) for the love of God, let nothing prevent you from coming here to rejoin me, because my salvation and yours depend on this...6
Når kvinderne betragtedes som mindre fuldendte væsener end mændene, fulgte logisk, at de ansås for ufornuftige.
Women and their involvement in emigration
Det seksuelle aspekt står i åbenlys modstrid med denne opfattelse af kvinden som mindre fornuftig end manden.
Emigration to America is traditionally considered essentially as a male phenomenon.
Den "fornuftige" mand har jo nemlig i det skjulte - uden at det siges rent ud - fra naturens hånd en utøjlelig kønsdrift, der for så vidt indgår I definitionen på mandighed, selv om den plejer at blive holdt diskret
However, although this tendency was predominant during the first years of conquest, research has clearly demonstrated the previously unsuspected extent of feminine involvement in emigration from the end of the XV century onwards.
Inden for samfundsmæssigt acceptable grænser.
He estimates that this figure represents around 20% of the total number of emigrants - whether legal or clandestine - for the period in question.
Kvinden har udelukkende ret til sex Inden for ægteskabet, og den kvindelige seksualitet betragtes som regel som far lig.
Far from being absent from this sample, the number of women involved was quite considerable and increased steadily as the conquest was followed by colonization (see table).
For familiens ære bliver jo dermed afhængig af - og på sin vis legemliggjort i - den, der i moralsk henseende er svagest og ufornuftigst, og som så nemt bliver offer for fristelser. Med sin moralske adfærd bør kvinden derfor beskytte denne ære.
In the initial stages, the legislation would appear to have been rather permissive and, in 1511, a royal decree of Ferdinand the Catholic authorized anyone to set out for America who so desired.
Disse forhold får talrige fornemme familier til at skjule deres døtre fra verden ved at låse dem inde i klostre, indtil de kan få dem gift. Cristobal Gutierrez
This certificate was needed to secure the "license to travel", the authorization to go America which was personal, non transferable and valid for only two years.
Muñoz skriver f.eks. i 1634 til sin fætter og fortæller ham, at han har:
These authorizations to travel have been preserved to this day in the Contratación section of the General Archives of the Indies in Seville.
"En meget smuk datter på 17 år (...).
Emigrants 1493-16008
16. og
Women
Der sondredes klart mellem medgiften og den formue, som erhvervedes under ægteskabet (af hvilken halvdelen tilfaldt kvinden ved ægtemandens død).
Married men could not obtain this licence without first securing the authorization of their wives.
I øvrigt gav den kommende ægtemand meget ofte sin kommende hustru en sum penge - kaldet "caparra" (hándpenge) - der straks indgik i medgiften.
Unaccompanied single women could not normally obtain the authorization, a part from "washerwomen", a title which was certainly a euphemism...
Betalingen af dette beløb skete i praksis på tidspunktet for modtagelsen af medgiften.
The simplest way to emigrate for a single woman was to therefore travel as the "servant" of some other person.
Såvel manden som kvinden havde hver dermed ejendomsret til formuen samt ret til at disponere frit over den.
In 1603, for example, the "licenciado" (scholar) Fernando Talaverano, who was leaving to occupy a seat on the colonial administration board in America, obtained a license to travel from the Casa de la Contratación in Seville.
Da arveordningen var tosidig, arvede børnene sideløbende fra faderen og moderen.
This license however, was valid for 21 persons: the "licenciado" himself, his wife, four sons, eight servants, four serving-women and three slaves9.
På denne måde arvede enken ved ægtefællens død halvdelen af det under ægteskabet erhvervede; desuden sin medgift og de eventuelle besiddelser, hun måtte have erhvervet.
A colonizer in Mexico, for example, wrote to his brother who had remained in Spain because he could not obtain the license to travel.
Loven gav kvinden en vis økonomisk forret i forhold til børnenes potentielle rettigheder.
The colonizer expressed astonishment at his being unable to secure a license because all it took was "to have a word with the captain of a ship and, in exchange for a little money, anyone who wanted could come..."10.
Man kan forestille sig den betydning, en enke fik, når hun, som det ofte skete, blev eksekutor for sin mands testamente.
The flow of clandestine travellers would appear to have been significant but it is difficult to evaluate.
Hun kunne så sælge og købe gods og betale sin ægtemands gæld. Hun blev centralt placeret i forvaltningen og bevarelsen af familieformuen.
In 1634, a member of the Finance Council, Manuel de Hinojosa, wrote that he had witnessed the departure of the last armada to South America, and that almost 12,000 people had gone on board, most of whom had no authorization.
Selv om denne situation var særegen for middelstanden og de velstående (der var i stand til at give deres egne døtre medgift), var den også af betydning for de mindre velaflagte, hvis de havde besiddelser (hus, forretning, jord osv.).
Furthermore, from 1604 onwards, a royal decree condemned the fact that over 600 women had left for Americas with the last fleet headed for New Spain11, although the crown had issued only 50 authorizations ...
Lovgivningen om kvinder og udvandring
In all probability, the figures for female emigration are underestimates.
Den lovgivning, der vedrørte udvandrerne til Amerika, skal ses ,i sammenhæng med den retsorden, man ville beskytte.
However, they do give us an approximate idea of the situation or, at least, they indicate the general trend.
Det forklarer, hvorfor det til at begynde med var forbudt ugifte kvinder uden ledsagere at udvandre.
Most of those who left came from the south: of the 8,893 women who left Spain between 1540 and 1600, 55.7% were Andalusian, 13.7% came from Estremadura and 16.3% came from New Castile...
Denne attesterede tilladelse skulle være i mandens besiddelse, og han havde pligt til at fremvise den, såfremt myndighederne i Amerika ønskede det.
In the initial stages, most female emigrants headed for the island of Santo Domingo, which was considered more civilized and therefore more suitable for women.
Når kongehuset forpligtede sig i denne sag, skyldtes det de talrige efterladte kvinder, som forblev i Casti I¡en, mens deres mænd tog ud for at "søge lykken i Arnerika"(3).
From 1521 onwards, with the conquest of Mexico, Mexico City and the other cities in the region (especially Puebla de Los Angeles) which had recently been founded became the preferred focus of the flow of emigrants.
Ægtemanden, der drog af sted som "opdagelsesrejsende", sendte nemlig først bud efter familien, nar han havde sparet nogle penge op.
The discovery of Peru had the same impact, and Peru thus became the destination chosen by most of the sample described above.
En kolonist fra det 15. århundredes Mexico skrev til sin kone, der var blevet i Casti I¡en, og som han ikke havde set i flere år:
Throughout the XVI and XVII centuries, Mexico and Peru were no doubt the two main poles of attraction for Spanish emigrants.
"I skal vide, at det mere er for eders skyld end for min, at jeg er taget herover (til Amerika) for at blive rig ...(4)".
Indeed, at the end of the XVI century, the population of Mexico City and Lima had reached between 50 and 60,000 inhabitants.
Mange ægtepar korresponderede tværs over Atlanterhavet, men adskillelsen blev af den grund ikke mindre hård for kvinderne. Mange kvinder blev efterladt uden midler i Casti I ien. Det var måske grunden til de mange enker i det gamle
Similarly, the city of Potosi (in present-day Bolivia), which was a dependency of colonial Peru, had attracted a population of over 120,000 inhabitants.
"Jeg havde allerede besluttet at komme for at opsøge eder I Spanien (for sammen at vende tilbage til Amerika), da jeg blev arresteret og anklaget for at være gift (uden hustru), og de kastede mig i fængsel og ydmygede mig (...).
In many cases, what started out as internal migration (from a small city on the Castilian plain to the great cities of Seville) could on occasion develop into transatlantic migration.
Det er lykkedes mig at få en særlig tilladelse (...) det beder Jeg eder om (...)
Indeed, transatlantic migration is part of a more widespread movement, which was prevalent at that time in Spain, of movement from north to south of populations on the peninsula.
Gud give, at intet hindrer eder i at nå over til mig, da både min og eders frelse afhænger af det ...(6)."
America therefore appeared as a new possibility offered to these migrants.
Udvandringen af kvinder
Where men go, books surely follow.
I en nu klassisk undersøgelse(7) har den amerikanske sprogforsker Peter Boyd-
It was the mother who was entrusted with this task, which consisted mostly of pious literature.
Bowman fulgt næsten 55 000 spanske udvandreres skæbne i Amerika mellem 1493 og
Several sectors involved in commerce or in handicrafts13 and, to an extent, rural sectors would acquire in this way new territories and lands which opened up perspectives which had been unsuspected until then.
Kvinderne glimrede ikke ved deres fravær, men udgjorde en stadig større procentdel, efterhånden som man gik over fra erobring til kolonisering (se tabellen).
Whether read or recounted to all the members of the family, such letters or the news which they contained circulated throughout the locality and thus gave a concrete and tangible form to the hopes and aspirations which had until then been mere fantasies.
Den eneste administrative handling, de skulle udføre, var at opgive deres for- og efternavn. Fra 1518 blev der imidlertid truffet en række foranstaltninger til regulering af udvandringen, og det endte med, at der
Instead, they spend their time sitting chatting with friends who drop in to see them14...
I alt inder
The crossing
Gifte mænd kunne ikke få sådanne beviser uden deres respektive hustruers tilladelse.
The number of passengers able to embark with each ship changed significantly during the XVI and XVII centuries.
Ugifte kvinder uden ledsagere kunne normalt ikke få tilladelse bortset fra "vaskekoner", utvivlsomt en eufemisme.
Between 1506 and 1560 each boat transported an average of 15 to 20 passengers.
For en ugift kvinde var det derfor nemmest at udvandre ved at rejse som "tjenestepige".
However, from the end of the XVI century onwards, this average rose to 30-40 passengers.
Dels var der den fordel derved, at man omgik forbuddet mod, at ugifte kvinder rejste alene, dels kunne man også undgå de administrative formaliteter i forbindelse med opnåelse af t i I ladelse.
The "common" passengers travelled in collective compartments, which explains the insistence in private letters and in other sources on the potential dangers for the honour of ladies travelling be sea.
I 1603 fik magister Fernando Talaverano, der skulle ansættes i kolonistyrelsen i Amerika, rejsetilladelse fra "Casa de la Contratación" i Sevilla.
The allusions made to the disregard of seamen for the virtue of women justifies this leitmotif of the need for women to be accompanied on their journey.
Tilladelsen gjaldt imidlertid 21 personer: magisteren selv, hans kone, fire børn, otte tjenere, fire tjenestepiger og tre slaver(9).
At the same time, we find here all the ideology which surrounded women, those fragile creatures who needed to be protected from other people... and from themselves:
Strømmen af ulovlige tilrejsende synes at have været betydelig, men det er vanskeligt at vurdere.
Ladies of your condition find themselves in great danger when sailing to the Indies, unless you show great prudence.15
I 1634 skriver et medlem af Finansrådet, Manuel de Hinojosa, at ved den sidste armadas afrejse til Sydamerika, som han selv var
People who could afford it could take a private compartment, thus avoiding cohabitation with other passengers.
En undersøgelse af i alt 1 909 spanske indvandrere til Amerika, der foretog overfarten mellem 1595 og 1598(12), giver et bedre begreb om, hvilken type udvandrere der var tale om.
Women were present in all sectors of colonial society, despite the deep-rooted idea which held that Spanish women in America were "of necessity" part of the elite.
35,3% af dem var kvinder, de fleste gifte kvinder, der rejste med deres mænd eller skulle genforenes med ham i Amerika. I mindre udstrækning var der også enker, som sluttede sig til familiemedlemmer, og ugifte kvinder, der rejste som "tjenestepiger".
In this respect, women shared the same fate as men. During the initial period of conquest, the colonial "booty" had been shared out unevenly among the conquistadors and the first colonizers, thus creating several different levels within the group of Europeans.
Kun 14 kvinder ud af de 675 udvandrere rejste alene uden ledsager.
Women had been present in America from the very outset.
Vi må således forestille os den gennemsnitlige familie som en gift kvinde på ca. 32 år, der rejser med sin mand og to små børn.
As a result, they were also present in expeditions undertaken to discover and colonize territories.
Bestemmelsesstedet i Amerika er forskelligt, alt efter hvilken periode vi beskæftiger os med. Til at begynde med rejste de fleste kvindelige udvandrere til øen Santo Domingo, der betragtedes som mere civiliseret og derfor bedre egnet for kvinderne.
A letter addressed from Isabel de Guevara to the regent of Castile, dona Juana, in 1556, attests to this female participation in the conquest of new territories.
Fra 1521, med erobringen af Mexico, gik strømmen først og fremmest mod Mexico City og andre byer i det område (sær Puebla de los Angeles), der blev grundlagt kort efter.
She tells of how the women who had come with the first governor of the River Plate (present-day Argentina) had saved the army thanks to their constant care.
Opdagelsen af Peru havde samme virkning og blev det foretrukne bestemmelsessted for den omtalte gruppe. I hele det 16. og
In this episode, the women provided the benefit of their traditional role as providers of food and, in the words of Isabel de Guevara herself, added the "advantages" inherent in their feminine "nature":
Bolivia), der var et lydområde under kolonitidens Peru, tiltrak en befolkning pá over 120 000 indbyggere.
Even if this letter, written as it was with the purpose of obtaining a royal favour, is exaggerating the facts, doña Isabel is not wrong to say that "without the women, we would all have perished from one day to the next".
Ofte bliver en flytning, der oprindeligt skulle have været fra en landsdel til en anden (fra en lille by pá den castilianske højslette til den store by
Another element which is often neglected, probably because the sources are particularly silent in this respect, concerns military garrisons, where there can be no doubt that soldiers lived with their wives17.
Sevilla) til udvandring over Atlanterhavet.
We know how life was organized in these garrisons, thanks to "military" sources.
Dette skal ses som et led i en trang til mere plads, der er særegen for Spanien, og som kom til udtryk ved, at den tids befolkning vandrede fra nord til syd.
This is certainly one of the reasons why references to women are exceptional and such references are generally found in documents where they are mentioned incidentally.
Amerika var derfor en yderligere mulighed for de pågældende.
Similarly, the documents on soldiers dispatched to war, which is a source from which we may expect women to be excluded by definition, can sometimes contain surprises.
Nu ved vi, og det er Ikke uden forbindelse med ovenstående, at de områder, hvor der er en bedre kommunikationsinfrastruktur, i reglen er mere åbne for det skrevne ords Indflydelse.
An episode which took place during the war between the Spanish and the Araucani Indians in the south of Chile once again depicts women as participating in the same way as described in the letter from Isabel de Guevara.
Kvinderne havde kun mulighed for at lære noget ved læsning, størstedelen af tiden i familiens skød, hvor mødrene tog sig af denne opgave, især læsning af religiøse skrifter.
This implies that the women had to defend themselves alone if attached by the Indians, which actually did happen.18Although women are rarely mentioned in accounts and chronicals, because they are usually absent from battles and military clashes, a number of documents like this one demonstrate that women did play a part in activities from which they are traditionally excluded.
Nogle mennesker, der normalt beskæftigede sig med handel, håndværk(13) og måske landbrug, kan på denne måde have fået kendskab til nye verdener og lande, som åbnede hidtil uanede perspektiver.
In the cases cited above, the women have an active role, more or less the same as that of the men and which, in certain circumstances, is connected with the conquest of American territories.
Efter at have læst op eller genfortalt for alle familiemedlemmerne gik de eller de nyheder, de indeholdt, fra nabo til nabo, så de forhåbninger, der hidtil kun havde været næret i fantasien, var konkrete og håndgribelige.
In fact, women sometimes participated as "soldiers", and Spanish women are sometimes mentioned in the various chronicals as spoils appropriated by the Indians. While for large numbers of Spanish men, capture meant death or slavery, Spanish women who were captured were divided among the worriers and became their "wives".
"Jeg beder eder pá mine vegne overtale fru Maria Salazar til at komme herover at bo.
This situation was a feature of the frontier territories where the Spanish forces had not yet succeeded in crushing Indian resistance.
Hun skal ikke være bange for hverken rejsen eller havet, for så snart hun er ankommet hertil, bliver hun overmåde lykkelig og skænker ikke længere Santa Olalla en tanke; det vil være, som om den landsby aldrig har eksisteret, for her væver og arbejder kvinderne ikke, og de laver absolut ikke mad og alt, hvad dertil hører, men tilbringer tiden med at sidde og snakke med de veninder, som kommer og besøger dem(14) ..."
Although this happened in only a minority of cases, it nonetheless reveals the specific role played by women, which may be considered in parallel with the fate of Indian women, that is, the women of the vanquished people in hispanicized territories.
Den slags breve, som der er talrige eksempler pá, bekræftede alle de historier, som folk havde læst eller hørt og medvirkede til, at stadig flere mænd - og endnu flere kvinder - drog ud for i den nye verden at søge de muligheder for en bedre tilværelse, de syntes afskåret fra i det 16. og 17. århundrede.
It was common for Spanish men to take Indians concubines, but this never - with a few rare exceptions - ended in marriage.
"Racerenhedsattesten" var således en kongelig tilladelse (cédula). Den og flere andre dokumenter skulle forelægges "Casa de Contratación" i Sevilla, der udstedte det endelige dokument, udrejsetilladelsen.
We have only dealt here with Spanish women.
Forordningerne af oktober 1564 begrænsede udrejsemulighederne til to om året med de to flåder.
The Spanish model was, of course, decisive in setting the standard, but the values of honour and virtue, which are intimately associated with women, underwent several new interpretations in this society in which the Spanish victors and the vanquished Indians lived in confrontation.
Flåden til Nueva España afrejste i slutningen af apri I/begynde I sen af maj, mens flåden til Nombre de Dios (Panama) og Cartagena (det nuværende
In general terms, it may be said that the traditional Spanish concept of women became even more dissociated from reality when transposed to America.
For at komme til Peru måtte man tværs igennem Panama og igen med skib til Callao, Limas havneby. Fra det 17. århundrede blev der mulighed for en direkte forbindelse mellem Spanien og havnebyen Rio de la Plata.
All the preconceived notions about the salacity and unchastity of Indian women, which were a constant theme in the mentality and literature of the time, are both a contributory factor and a justification for this state of affairs.
Antallet af passagerer, der kunne indskibe sig i hvert enkelt fartøj, øgedes betydeligt i løbet af det 16. og 17. århundrede.
In any case, this form of union may in certain cases have concealed something more than a simple sexual relationship.
Mellem 1506 og 1560 havde hvert skib i gennemsnit 1520 passagerer, men fra slutningen af det 16. århundrede steg dette gennemsnitstal til 30-40 passagerer.
Indeed, a Spanish man could establish a form of patronage with a high-ranking Indian and thus benefit from the influence of the latter over his subjects and take one of his daughters as his wife "after the Indian fashion", in a union which was therefore illegitimate according to the Catholic view.
Derfor understregedes i private breve og fra anden side den potentielle fare, som havrejsen udgjorde for kvindernes ære.
The same phenomenon was repeated on a smaller scale in other American territories in the initial stages of conquest.
Hentydningerne til det ringe hensyn, sømændene tog til kvindernes dyd, begrunder den udbredte opfattelse, at det er nødvendigt for kvinderne at rejse med ledsager.
Two companions of Pedro de Valdivia, the conquistador of Chile, partnered - in a union which was not recognized by the Church - two Cacique women, Doña Elvira, the Cacique of Talagante, and Doña Mariana Pichulién, the Cacique of Chacabuco.
Her genfinder vi opfattelsen af kvinden som et skrøbeligt væsen, der må beskyttes af andre ... og af sig se I ν :
The authority of these two women extended over several territories and small groups.
"Vore dages kvinder løber en stor risiko på overfarten til Amerika, medmindre de er yderst fornuftige(15)."
Can such cases be regarded as concubinage or cultural adaptation, insofar as the conquistadors adopted "the Indian fashion" of matrimony.