natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
I 1994 var 14,5% af kvinderne uden andre uddannelseskvalifikationer end den obligatoriske skolegang arbejdsløse, mens det kun var godt 7,5% af kvinderne med universitetsuddannelse eller tilsvarende. De tilsvarende tal for mændene var henholdsvis 12% og under 5,5%,
Within this category, however, a much lower proportion of women than men are employed as managers (or legislators).
Uddannelse er således ikke nok til at overvinde den tilsyneladende for skelsbehandling, men den hjælper.
872% of men, while just under 16% of women worked as technicians as against just under 12% of men and a slightly higher proportion of women than men were classed as professionals.
Mens den seneste stigning i andelen afunge, som forbliver under ud dannelse efter den obligatoriske skolegang, er i tråd med den frem herskende politik i hele EU, er det et stort spørgsmål, hvorvidt det i praksis først og fremmest skyldes manglende jobmuligheder.
Women for the past 20 years or more have accounted for the entire growth of the Union's work force and are likely to continue to do so in future years.
Såfremt det er tilfældet, kan andelen afunge under uddannelse efter den obligatoriske skolegang vise sig at falde eller stige langsommere i de kom mende år i takt med, at det økono miske opsving tager fart, og der tilbydes flere job.
The future productive potential of the economies of Member States, therefore, is linked to a major extent to the skill levels of women.
Effekten af disse tendenser vil dog afhænge af, i hvilken alder de unge normalt forlader skolen i de forskellige EU-lande.
In the light of this as well as for reasons of equity, it is important that women have equal access to education and initial training and to continuing training throughout their working careers (for details of policy in Member States, see Part II, Section 1).
Alligevel gælder det i næsten alle EU-landene, at den andel af kvin der mellem 15 og 24 år, der er under uddannelse, er den samme som for mændenes vedkommende, selv om generelt færre studerer naturvidenskabelige fag, ingeniørfag og teknologirelaterede fag.
Moreover, it remains the case, des pite government efforts, that the proportion of teenagers who are, in this sense, fully inactive varies markedly across the Union.
Med hensyn til de grundlæggende uddannelseskvalifikationer er der således enten allerede gennemført ligestilling, el ler også er processen i fuld gang, men kvinderne har stadig ikke samme adgang som mændene til de job, der svarer til deres kvalifikationsniveau.
Despite tending to come down, it remains highest in the four Southern Member States together with Denmark and the UK, at 5% of those in this age group.
De kvinder, der forlader ar bejdsmarkedet, når de får børn, er særligt vanskeligt stillet, når de vender tilbage.
In the other Member States, by contrast, the figure is only around 2%.
Den øgede vægt på livslang uddannelse, der opfordres til, kunne være en hjælp, fordi det ville sætte kvinderne i stand til at ajourføre og forbedre deres færdigheder, hvilket forudsætter, at disse uddannelsestilbud er til rådighed både for dem, der står uden for ar bejdsmarkedet, og for dem, der alle rede er på arbejdsmarkedet.
Over the Union as a whole, the same relationship between the chances of being unemployed and educational attainment levels is as evident for women as for the work force as a whole, although unemployment rates are still higher for women than for men with similar educational attainment levels. In
Inden for denne kategori er der dog langt færre kvinder end mænd i lederstillinger (eller stillinger med beslutningskompetence).
One in ten, therefore, were nonparticipants in either the labour force or education. In Greece and Italy, the figure was around one in six, in the UK, one in eight as
EU-landenes fremtidige produktive potentiale afhænger derfor i høj grad af kvindernes
1994, 1472% of women with no qualifications beyond basic
Det samme gælder de aktive ar bejdsmarkedsforanstaltninger, som i visse lande i højere grad
Overall, therefore, proportionately more women than men are employed in jobs likely to require relatively high levels of skills and qualifications.
Resumé og konklusioner : Tendenser og strategier organisationerne, fagbevægelsen og den enkelte selv.
Summary and conclusions: trends and strategies
det gør man dels ved at føre kontrol med uddannelseskvaliteten, dels ved at forsøge at foregribe fremtidige behov.
Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that both access to continuing train ing and its focus are closely related to educational attainment levels, so that the least qualified and those most vulnerable to changing skill needs are the least likely to receive it.
Vækst i produktion og beskæftigelse i EU henvender sig til dem, der er registreret som arbejdsløse, end dem, som måske ikke er "officielt" ar bejdsløse, men som alligevel er in teresseret i at få arbejde.
At the same time, there is a growing emphasis in many Member States on individuals taking a greater responsibility themselves for identifying and meeting their own training needs.
I flere lande er uddannelsesprogrammer og programmer med tilbud om ar bejdserfaring dog blevet udvidet til også at omfatte kvinder, der vender tilbage til arbejdsmarkedet, uanset om de er registreret som arbejdsløse eller ej, og i visse tilfælde er der indført specielle programmer for kvinder. Der er dog lang vej endnu.
Moreover, advantage has been widely taken of new technologies and more flexible forms of learning (using, for example, a variety of different media) in order to reduce learning time and improve access.
Overvejelserne på dette område har også medført øget vægt, ikke kun på de unges almene og erhvervsfaglige grunduddannelse, men også på be hovet for vedvarende uddannelse hele vejen igennem den enkeltes er hvervskarriere.
Nevertheless, in almost all countries in the Union, participation rates of women of 15 to 24 in education and training are similar to those of men, though, in general, fewer study science, engineering and technology-related subjects.
Det støttes i nogle EU-lande gennem en lovfæstet ret til uddannelsesorlov (f.eks. i Belgien og Danmark), i de fleste tilfælde på grundlag af kollektive overens komster mellem arbejdsmarkedets parter.
Equality in the acquisition of initial educational qualifications has, therefore, either already been achieved or is in process of so being. Equality for women in securing access to jobs commensurate with their skill levels remains.
Desuden er der mange ste der mulighed for økonomiske incitamenter i form af skattefradrag for udgifter til uddannelse, som til dels finansieres via særlige arbejdsmarkedsbidrag. kedsbidrag.
The emphasis on lifelong learning which has been called for could help insofar as it enabled women to up date and improve their skills, which implies that it is important for such learning opportunities to be available for those outside the labour market as well as those inside.
Der er dog noget, der tyder på, at både adgangen til efter- og videre uddannelse og disse uddannelsers indhold hænger nøje sammen med uddannelsesniveauet, således at det er de mindst kvalificerede og dem, der er mest sårbare over for ændringer i kvalifikationsbehovene, der har de ringeste chancer for at få den nødvendige efter- og vide reuddannelse.
This seems also to be the case for those employed in small companies, which account for 70% of employ ment in the Union and which are the main source of new job creation, because of the relative lack of re sources, both human and financial, to provide adequate training.
Over tid har væksten i beskæftigelsen i EU nøje afspejlet væksten i BNP.
In a number of Member States, there fore, such workers are included in priority groups for publiclyfunded provision.
En stigning i BNP-væksten er normalt blevet efterfulgt af en til svarende stigning i beskæftigelsen nogen tid senere, idet det tager nogle år, før den fulde virkning kan registreres.
This illustrates the common tendency for lifelong learning to be a shared responsibility be tween government, business and employers' organisations, trade unions and individuals.
Der har kunnet registreres en ens artet tendens i EU-landene til at forsøge i højere grad at tilpasse uddannelsestilbuddene til lokale og individuelle behov.
Accelerating changes in technology and the intensification of international competition have together increased the pace of structural change in the economy and the need for the work force to learn new skills.
Det har været forbundet med en udbredt de centralisering af uddannelsesformidlingen til det regionale og lokale plan tillige med øget inddragelse af erhvervslivet dels med henblik på rådgivning om kursernes ind hold, dels med henblik på at få erhvervslivet til at deltage mere aktivt i selve uddannelsesformidlingen.
As a result, there is increasing concern in Member States to ensure that the training provided is relevant to changing labour market requirements both through monitoring quality and through trying to forecast new demands.
Samtidig lægges der i mange EU-lande øget vægt på, at den enkelte selv påtager sig et større ansvar for at få afdækket og opfyldt sine uddannelsesbehov.
The same is the case for active labour market measures which tend to concentrate, in some countries, on those registered as unemployed rather than on those who might not be registered but who are still interested in seeking work.
Desuden har man i vidt omfang udnyttet nye teknologier og mere fleksible undervisningsformer (ved f.eks. at anvende flere forskellige medier) for at reducere undervisningstiden og give flere adgang til uddannelse. nelse.
Nevertheless, in several countries, eligibility for training and work experience programmes has been extended to women returners whether registered as un employed or not and in some cases special programmes targeted at women have been introduced. Much, however, remains to be done.
Det skyldes den relative mangel på såvel menneskelige som økonomi ske ressourcer til at kunne tilbyde den fornødne erhvervsuddannelse.
These same concerns have led to growing emphasis not only on the education and initial training of young people but also on the need for continuing training throughout an individual's working career.
I en række EU-lande indgår de an satte i små virksomheder derfor i de grupper, for hvilke der gennemføres særlige foranstaltninger i forbindelse med offentligt finansierede ud dannelsestilbud.
This is encouraged in some Member States through statutory entitlement to training or study leave (in Belgium and Denmark, for example), in most through collective agreements between the social partners.
Det er udtryk for en generel tendens til, at livslang uddannelse betragtes som en opgave, der er fælles for det offentlige, erhvervslivet, arbejdsgiver
In addition, financial in centives in the form of tax relief on expenditure are widely available, funded in part by levies on firms.
Den stadigt hurtigere teknologiske udvikling og skærpelsen af den in ternationale konkurrence har øget tempoet i de strukturbetingede ændringer i økonomien og arbejdsstyrkens behov for at tilegne sig nye færdigheder.
Over time, the growth of employ ment in the Union has closely mirrored the growth of GDP. A rise in GDP growth has usually been followed by an increase in employment some time later, the full effect taking a number of years to come through fully.
Følgen er, at man i EU-landene i stigende grad bestræber sig på at sikre, at den uddannel se, der formidles, er relevant for de ændrede krav på arbejdsmarkedet;
Though the response of em ployment to a change in the growth rate varies between Member States, the relationship between the two at the Union level — and in most Member States — has remained fairly constant over the past 15 years, with annual GDP growth in the Union as a whole exceeding annual
I de fire år mellem 1990 og 1994 var stigningen i arbejdskraftens produktivitet stort set den samme.
A common tendency in Member States has been to try to make train ing provision more responsive to local and individual needs.
Resumé og konklusioner : Tendenser og strategier den meget begrænsede stigning i produktionen.
Summary and conclusions : trends and strategies and 1994. While GDP remained virtually constant, the number in employment increased slightly and unemployment was held down.
udgående opgangsperiode.
not a sufficient condition for main taining a high level of employment.
I Japan til gengæld, hvor arbejdskraftens produktivitet i fremstillingsindustrien steg med over 6% om året mellem 1987 og 1990, faldt den ganske meget til kun ca. 1,5% om året under recessionen.
On the other hand, no country in the Union has succeeded in this aim over this period without achieving a certain minimum rate of economic growth. In the second half of the 1980s, no Member State increased employment by significantly more than 1% a year without average growth of around 3% a year or more.
om året for overhovedet at opnå nogen stigning i beskæftigelsen; Dan mark, Spanien, Italien og Sverige skulle op på en vækst i BNP på 2,5%, i Belgien, Tyskland, Finland og Storbritannien var det ca. 2%, medens beskæftigelsen i Luxembourg og Nederlandene steg nogen lunde i samme takt som BNP.
In the latter part of the 1980s, during the period of high net job creation, labour productivity growth averaged slightly under 2% a year across the Union as a whole, lower than during earlier periods of economy recovery and helping to increase the numbers in work.
Dette indtryk af markante forskelle i den produktive vækst i 1990'erne ændres ikke meget, selv om man i ste det benytter et andet mål for beskæftigelsen — og produktiviteten. ten.
In the four years between 1990 and 1994, the rate of labour productivity growth was much the same. Employers, in other words, appear to have adjusted their work forces downwards in line with the depressed rate of output growth.
Dette står i modsætning til, hvad der kunne registreres i USA og Japan.
The difference in experience be tween Europe and these two countries was particularly marked for nonmanufacturing sectors where most of the job growth occurred.
I USA har stigningen i arbejdskraftens produktivitet hele tiden været mindre end i EU i de sidste 20 år, nemlig gennemsnitligt kun godt 0,5% om året.
In the US, especially, labour productivity growth in manufacturing — where a relatively high proportion of output is traded internationally and where accordingly the maintenance of competitiveness is of particular importance — was similar during the 1980s, at around 3% a year, to the average in the European Union and fell only slightly in the recent recession.
I Japan, hvor arbejdskraftens produktivitet i 1980'erne hele tiden steg mere end i EU, nemlig med over 3% om året, faldt den i recessionsårene mellem 1992 og 1994.
Growth of labour productivity in the Union in manufacturing during the recession was much the same as during the preceding period of upturn.
Mens BNP forblev stort set uændret, steg antallet af personer i beskæftigelse en smule, og arbejdsløsheden blev således holdt nede.
In Japan, on the other hand, where labour productivity in manufacturing increased by more than 6% a year between 1987 and 1990, it fell
Hvordan gøres væksten mere beskæftigelsesskabende?
This contrasts with the experience in the US and Japan.
Udviklingen i EU-landene
2 substantially to only around 172% a year during the recession.
Alle EU-landene har stået over for det dilemma, at forsøg på at gøre væksten mere beskæftigelsesskabende kan komme i konflikt med den lige så vigtige målsætning om at forsøge at opnå stor stigning i produktiviteten for at fastholde og forbedre konkurrenceevnen og der med skabe grundlag for produktionsstigninger og oprettelse af nye arbejdspladser.
In Japan, where labour productivity in the 1980s grew by consistently more than in the Union at an average of over 3% a year, it declined in the years of recession between 1992
En mulig løsning på dette dilemma er at koncentrere bestræbelserne om at øge beskæfti gelsen i de sektorer i økonomien, som traditionelt er stærkt arbejdskraftforbrugende. kraftforbrugende.
By contrast, in non-manufacturing, labour productivity growth in the US has averaged under 7,% a year since 1980, well below the annual average
Forskellen mellem Europa og disse to lande var særligt udtalt i sektorerne uden for fremstillingsindustrien, hvor størsteparten af væksten i beskæftigelsen fandt sted.
At the same time, there were significant differences between countries in the employmentintensity of the growth which was achieved or, in other words, in the rate of increase in labour productivity.
Specielt i USA var stigningen i arbejdskraftens produktivitet i fremstillingsindustrien — hvor en forholdsvis stor del af produktionen afsættes internationalt, og hvor det derfor er særligt vigtigt at fastholde konkurrenceevnen — i 1980'erne på niveau med gennemsnittet i EU, nemlig ca. 3% om året, og faldt kun ganske lidt under den seneste recession.
According to the data used here, during the years of recession be tween 1990 and 1994, in Ireland, GDP growth of 4% a year was re quired to achieve any increase at all in employment, in Denmark, Spain, Italy and Sweden, 27,%, in Belgium, Germany, Finland and the UK, around 2%, while in Luxembourg and the Netherlands, employment rose at much the same rate as GDP.
Stigningen i arbejdskraftens produktivitet i EU i fremstillingsindustrien var under recessionen stort set den samme som i den for-
This picture of marked differences in productive growth in the 1990s is little altered if a different measure of employment — and productivity — is used instead.
Ændringer i BNP og beskæftigelse, 1980-94
Changes in GDP and employment, 1980-94
Årlig variation {%)
Annual change(%)
Erfaringerne fra de sidste 15 år vi ser, at høj vækst i BNP ikke er en tilstrækkelig forudsætning for at kunne opretholde et højt beskæfti gelsesniveau.
The means to increased employmentintensity employmentintensity of growth in these sectors where most of the out put is not traded internationally has, therefore, been considerably higher in the former than the latter.
På den anden side har intet land i EU i denne periode kunnet fastholde en høj beskæfti gelse uden at nå op på et vist minimum af økonomisk vækst.
In Japan, as recession has hit, productivity growth has declined to zero or below, so maintaining levels of em ployment.
—Beskæftigelsen
The experience in Member States
I alle de tre nye EU-lande var stigningen i arbejdskraftens produktivitet i fremstillingsindustrien langt større end i sektorerne uden for fremstillingsindustrien i perioden fra 1990 til 1994 — og også langt større end i de fem foregående år.
All countries in the Union have confronted the dilemma that attempting to raise the employmentintensity of growth may conflict with the equally important aim of trying to achieve high rates of productivity increase in order to maintain and improve competitiveness and thereby boost output growth and the rate of job creation.
Ifølge de data, der er anvendt i denne rapport, krævedes der i Irland i recessionsårene mellem 1990 og 1994 en vækst i BNP på 4%
The evidence of the last 15 years is that a high rate of GDP growth is
Resumé og konklusioner : Tendenser og strategier den sociale uro og de spændinger, det kan forårsage.
Summary and conclusions : trends and strategies to raise employment on sectors of the economy with traditionally high la bour intensity.
fremstillingsindustrien på ca. 2% om året.
may, either directly or indirectly, supply the sectors which are in volved.
udvikling af de stærkt produktive, konkurrencedygtige sektorer, som direkte giver flere arbejdspladser, og som — hvad der er endnu vigtigere — bidrager til at skabe beskæftigelse i andre sektorer gennem den indkomst, de genererer.
Equally, a growing number of service activities are becoming internationally traded which further narrows the scope for action, though in many of these sectors low costs per se tend not to be the main determinant of competitiveness.
Nedsættelse af arbejdstiden som et middel til at øge beskæftigelsen
prevailing tendency — and, there fore, to compensate for a reduction in labour productivity by a rise in capital productivity.
En anden strategi, som snarere er et supplement end et alternativ, be står i at forsøge at øge antallet af personer i beskæftigelse med et ar bejdskraftinput på et bestemt ni veau — det vil med andre ord sige at dele det disponible arbejde mel lem flere mennesker ved at reducere den gennemsnitstid, den enkelte arbejder.
At the same time, the effect on production costs in the traded-output sectors of higher than minimum costs in other parts of the economy will in many cases be very small.
Som nævnt i det følgende har flere EU-lande ført en sådan politik, selv om det i visse tilfælde kun har været i begrænset omfang, men der er, som det også vil fremgå, potentielle problemer i at forsøge at fastsætte arbejdstiden centralt.
Moreover, the possible alternative of having large numbers of people out of work will also affect an economy's competitiveness, not only because of the costs of supporting them but also because of the social unrest and tension which is likely to be caused.
I Finland og Sverige er beskæftigelsen dog faldet i 1990'erne, og arbejdsløsheden er vokset ganske betydeligt, men det skal ses i sammenhæng med en langt stærkere recession end i de fleste andre EU-lande (BNP faldt med 3,5% i Sverige mellem 1990 og 1994 og med over 10% i Finland).
In all three new Member States, labour productivity growth in manufacturing was much higher than in nonmanufacturing during the period 1990 to 1994, as over the preceding five years.
Problemet er, at opretholdelse af be skæftigelsen kan medvirke til at øge produktionsomkostningerne, som igen indvirker på konkurrence evnen.
All three, therefore, succeeded in combining relatively high employmentintensity of growth in the nonmanufacturing sector with relatively high productivity growth in manufacturing.
Selv om de pågældende sektorer ikke er direkte involveret i international handel, kan de enten være direkte eller indirekte leve randører til de sektorer, som er af hængige af international handel.
This was also the case in Luxembourg and the Netherlands, where despite labour productivity in the economy as a whole not increasing at all in the 1990s, in manufacturing, growth of around 2% a year has been achieved.
På samme måde bliver stadigt flere serviceaktiviteter handlet internationalt, hvilket yderligere indsnævrer aktionsmulighederne, selv om lave omkostninger i mange af disse sektorer ikke i sig selv synes at være den vigtigste afgørende faktor for konkurrenceevnen.
Nevertheless, the key to sustained employment growth in the longterm is the expansion of highly productive, competitive sectors, which create jobs directly but even more importantly underpin em ployment creation in other sectors of the economy through the income they generate.
Der er en generel, men dog meget gradvis tendens i hele EU til mere fleksible arbejdstidsordninger.
Reduced working time as a means of increasing employment
Selv om øget fleksibilitet ikke nødvendigvis fører til en nedsættelse af den gennemsnitlige arbejdstid og der med til at få flere mennesker i be skæftigelse for at opnå et bestemt produktionsniveau, har tendensen været ledsaget af en stigning i del tidsarbejdet, en nedsættelse af den normale ugentlige arbejdstid for fuldtidsbeskæftigede og i en række lande indførelse af muligheder for pauser i erhvervskarrieren.
A further approach, which is complementary rather than an alternative, is to seek to increase the number of people employed for a given level of labour input — in other words, to share the available work between more people by re ducing the average time that each person works.