natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Det er slående at konstatere, at der ved traktaterne som kontrollerende modvægt er oprettet et dømmende organ, som de berørte borgere og virksomheder ikke har fået adgang til at gå direkte til.
Given constitutional traditions of several of the founding States, it is astonishing to find that the judicial authority which the Treaties established as a counterbalance was one which did not recognize the individuals and undertakings concerned as having the right to bring a direct action before it.
De eneste undtagelser, som fortjener omtale i så henseende findes i EKSFT artikel 33, 35 og 40.
The only exceptions worthy of mention appear in Articles 33, 35 and 40 ECSC.
Ved EKSFT artikel 33 tillægges der praktisk talt borgerne næsten fri adgang til at gå til Domstolen og rejse klage over. at EKSF's retsakter, herunder dets almengyldige retsakter, strider mod traktaten.
Under Article 33 ECSC individuals had a virtually unconditional right to bring an action before the Court on the ground that an act of the ECSC, including a binding legal instrument, did not comply with the Treaty.
Det eneste, der skal påvises, er, at der foreligger en ugyldighedsgrund.
All that had to be proved was the existence of grounds for annulment.
Domstolen har imidlertid fortolket begrebet »magtfordrejning« som ugyldighedsgrund så bredt, at den aldrig har lagt en sagsøger, der har søgt dens beskyttelse mod Den Høje Myndigheds almengyldige retsakter, større hindringer i vejen.
However, the Court placed such a wide interpretation on 'misuse of powers' that very little stood in the way of an applicant seeking the protection of the Court against the regulations of the High Authority.
Samtidig indførte man i artikel 35 adgang for fysiske eller juridiske personer til at rejse passivitetssøgsmål mod Den Høje Myndighed, og i denne henseende anerkendte Domstolen i sagen Gezamenlijke Steenkolenmijnen in Limburg2), at denne form for søgsmål også kunne benyttes i tilfælde, hvor klagen støttedes på, at Den Høje Myndighed ulovligt havde undladt at indlede sag mod en medlemsstat i anledning af dennes overtrædelse af traktaten.
At the same time, a provision was included in Article 35 ECSC under which natural or legal persons could bring an action for failure to fulfil an obligation against the High Authority and in Gezamenlijke Steenkolenmijnen in Limburg2the Court ruled that this right of action could be exercised also in cases where the action was founded on the
2) Dom af 23.2.1961. sag 30/59. Sml. 195464. s. 211.
Case 30/59 [1961] ECR 1.
Det er klart, at traktatforfatterne med hensyn til domsmyndigheden i Fællesskaberne foretrak at lade sig inspirere af en model, der ikke havde sit udspring i andre forsøg på politisk-økonomisk integration på kontinentalt og multinationalt plan ).
In 1958, the establishment of two new Communities opened the way for a strengthening of economic and social integration in terms of both extent and depth.
Selv om man sandsynligvis har haft et godt kendskab fra f.eks.
However, coinci­dentally, restrictions are placed on the right of individuals to bring direct actions before the Court.
USA's forfatning til et vidtgående føderalistisk domstolssystem, besluttede man sig inden for Fællesskaberne til at oprette domstolsorganet på forskellige og mere løse præmisser. Man har sikkert fundet både inspiration og en lang række konkrete elementer til dette organs struktur i den franske rettergangsmåde og fransk forfatningsret. EKSFT artikel 33.
In so doing, the draftsmen clearly preferred to base the Community judicial authority on a model which was not drawn from other examples of political and economic integration on a continental or multi­national scale.3Although, in all probability, familiar with the pattern of a thoroughgoing federal judicial system, such as that in the federal constitution of the United States, they decided to construct a judicial authority for the Communities along different and weaker institutional lines.
I EØFT artikel 177 synes bestemmelserne om den præjudicielle procedure nærmest inspireret af præjudicielle procedurer i Italien og Forbundsrepublikken Tyskland i spørgsmål om retsakters overensstemmelse med forfatningen.
The provisions of Article 177 EEC relating to the procedure for a preliminary ruling appear, on the other hand, to have been based on the preliminary ruling procedures of Italy or Germany for testing constitutional validity.
Det er fra dette synspunkt interessant at mærke sig to særegne træk. Det første er, at de, der oprettede forfatningsdomstolene i Tyskland og Italien, i vidt omfang kunne finde inspiration i amerikanske erfaringer.
In this connection, two points are worth noting.
Den anden er. at man ser. at adskillige af de forbilleder, som lagdes til grund ved udformningen af klageadgangen til Domstolen, er hentet fra domstolsorganisationen i enkelte stater. Eller med andre ord : hvorfor skulle f.eks.
The second is that, none the less, several of the methods adopted to provide a means of redress before the Community court are modelled after the judicial structures which are typical for unitary States.
Ikke desto mindre har Domstolen, i hvert fald siden 1958 og særligt efter afsigelsen af dommene i sagerne Van Gend en Loos 4) og Costa mod ENEL5) i 1964. adskillige træk af en forfatningsdomstol, der mere minder om Canada's i dag og USA's (i 'the formative years') end om Tysklands.
Nevertheless, at least since 1958 and especially since the judgments in van Gend en Loos4 in 1963 and Costa ν ENEL5 in 1964, the constitution of the Community has possessed many features which have more in common with present­day Canada and with the United States (in the formative years) than with Germany.
Italiens og Frankrig i 50erne.
Italy or France of the 1950s.
Hvis man går ud fra det princip, at institutionerne i et samfund skal oprettes under behørig hensyntagen til de problemer, som de antageligvis vil komme ud for. og disses karakter, kan sidstnævnte iagttagelse alt i alt kun vække forbavselse.
This is surprising if only on the assumption that the institutions of a society must, as regards their functions and structures, make due provision for its foreseeable problems and for their nature.
Måske har visse udviklinger, der er gennemført på fortolkningsområdet af Domstolen med henblik på at danne basis for beskyttelse af dens opgaver, som vi skal se nedenfor, netop deres rødder i, at man oprettede Fællesskabet og dets Domstol som udprægede eksperimenter i føderalistisk retning, medens de modeller, der blev valgt, hentedes fra enkeltstater.
Perhaps have even certain interpretative developments (to be ver­ified later) which the Court of Justice has accomplished in order to enhance its ability satisfactorily to discharge its functions and duties, their root in the circumstance that, while the Community was established as an experiment in federalism, the Court and many of its powers were drafted with models drawn from unitary States in mind.
Da det kan være interesssant på denne baggrund at danne sig en klar opfattelse af den forholdsvis svage og udviskede stilling, som Domstolen indtager i Fællesskabets institutionelle system, og gøre dette ved at undersøge adgangen til at rejse klager for den og dens organisation i lyset af de erfaringer, som er gjort af andre domstole, kan man foretage nedenstående korte sammenligning med USA's Højesteret.
Against this background, it may be of interest to give an indication of the relative weakness and modesty in terms of its institutional weight, which the Court, in the Treaties' initial
1954 er blevet opfattet som et bestillingsværk brug ved forhandlingerne om EF-traktatcrnc (omfatter over 800 sider). )
1954, by Bowie and C.J. Friedrich, was conceived as a work specialh commissioned in readiness for the negotiations on the European Community Treaties (more than 800 pages!).
Dom af 5.2.1963. sag 26/62. Sml. 195464. s. 375. )
Case 26/62 [1963] ECR 1.
Dom af 15.7.1964, sag 6/64, Sml. 195464. s. 531.
Case 6/64 [1964] ECR 585.
føderale forfatning.
design, represents within the Community's system.
Supreme Court bestemmer dog i praksis selv, efter et skøn, om den vil optage en appelsag på sin retsliste for senere at afsige dom i den.
As this can be done by comparing its methods of redress and its structure with those which have been tried out elsewhere, a brief comparison with the Federal Supreme Court of the United States will be given.
Den amerikanske forfatning bemyndiger udtrykkeligt Supreme Court til at pådømme spørgsmål, om en delstatslovgivning bestemmer noget, der er ulovligt ifølge forbundsforfatningen.
An appeal against the court's decision can be brought before the United States Supreme Court both from the State and Federal District Courts and from the Federal Appeal Courts, but only on issues relating to the application or interpretation of federal law or, of course, the federal constitution.
Der skulle derimod en forfatningskamp til, førend Supreme Court fik magt til at kontrollere, om kongressen i sine lovgivningsakter overholder forfatningen6).
In practice, the Supreme Court itself decides whether it will entertain an application, before passing judgment upon the merits.
Indtil 1937 blev denne magt derefter benyttet flittigt.
On the other hand, a constitutional battle had to be fought before the Supreme Court was vested with power to review the constitutional validity of legislation adopted by the federal Congress.6Since 1937, frequent use has been made of this power.
Supreme Court holdt sig ofte ikke til spørgsmålet om den juridiske forfatningsmæssighed. Den tog tillige stilling til, om lovene var i harmoni med forbundsforfatningen.
The Supreme Court has not hereby confined itself to any kind of strict constructionism on legalism; it has also freely ruled on the question of whether a law conforms with the spirit of the federal constitution.
Svarene herpå kom naturligvis ikke sjældent til at afhænge af, hvorledes et flertal af dommerne personligt opfattede denne ånd.
The reply to these questions has frequently depended on the indiv­idual views of the majority of the members of the Court as to what this spirit consists of.
I praksis blev det til en omfattende kontrol med kongressens politik, snarere end med dens forfatningsfortolkning.
In the event, this gave the Supreme Court the valuable right to review the policy of Congress rather than the way Congress gave effect to the constitution.
Det amerikanske system af domstole og reglerne om søgsmålsadgangen er i stand til at give den enkelte borger en højt kvalificeret retsbeskyttelse mod myndighedsmisbrug.
With its rules on the means of redress, the American judicature is able to ensure that every individual receives the fullest protection by the courts against any abuses of power.
Imidlertid har de føderale domstole, og navnlig Supreme Court, tillige bevist, at de, stillet overfor et valg mellem at støtte delstaternes eller forbundsregeringens aspirationer efter mere politisk og økonomisk magt og indflydelse, regelmæssigt kastet deres lod i vægtskålen til fordel for forbundsregeringen.
Nevertheless, the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court, have demonstrated that, when called upon to decide between the aspirations of the states and those of the federal government to greater political and economic influence and power, they have fairly con­sistently thrown their weight into the balance in favour of the federal government.
Det kan have spillet ind med vægt i traktatforfatternes overvejelser om Fællesskabets dømmende myndighed, at de ville undgå institutionelle paralleller, der alt andet lige måtte øge risikoen for, at en tilsvarende udvikling mod stærkere og stærkere koncentration af magt i centralregeringens hænder tog fart.
The draftsmen of the Treaties, it is submitted, wished to avoid laying the founda­tion for an institutional parallelism which, all things being equal, would enhance the likelihood of a similar evolution, generated by EC judicial fiat, towards a rapid and increasing concentration of power in the hands of the central government.
Det er i hvert fald tydeligt, at traktatforfatterne ikke vedtog en domstolsordning for Fællesskabet, der i institutionel legitimitet eller effektive magtmidler kommer den amerikanske nær.
Admittedly, wc shall not be able to prove that these were the sort of considerations which markedly influenced their conception of the judicial organ which would best serve the Community.
Såfremt Domstolen i et sådant system havde fået magt til at annullere ikke blot Fællesskabets retsakter, men tillige medlemsstaternes traktatstridige lovgivningsakter, ville graden af retslig beskyttelse af borgernes retspositioner stadigt have været bemærkelsesværdig høj. En ordning, der fulgte disse retningslinier, ville have været beslægtet med domstolsordningerne i Forbundsrepublikken Tyskland i henhold til Bonn-forfatningen af 1949.
What wc know, however, is that they did not adopt a judicial system which, in terms of institutional legitimacy or the means of creating an effective judicial authority, bears much resemblance to the American system.
Domstolsordningen efter EKSF-traktaten er det tætteste, man endnu har nænnet sig til disse føderale og konføderale modeller.
Without setting up an exclusively Community court hierarchy, the draftsmen of the Treaties could have provided judicial protection for those coming within its jurisdiction by leaving the courts of the Member States to safeguard Community law, subject to a right of appeal to the Court of Justice in matters involving that law.
Det skal dog hertil føjes, at Den Høje Myndigheds almengyldige retsakter i formel henseende nærmere mindede om administrativt fastsatte bestemmelser end om love.
If, under such a system, the Court of Justice had been empowered to annul both the acts of the
Ved oprettelsen af EØF i 1958 skiftede visse akter inden for den afledte fællesskabsret karakter.
When the EEC was established in 1958 the character of some Community legislation changed.
Særligt frembyder en række rådsforordninger i dag en bemærkelsesværdig lighed med en (dansk) lov, ikke blot i materiel, men tillige i formel henseende.
In particular, a number of the Council's regulations now bear a remarkable functional resemblance to a (Danish) law, in terms of content and especially of form.
Domstolen fortsatte imidlertid med at udøve de beføjelser, som den havde fået tillagt inden for rammerne af EKSFT.
Nevertheless, as the Court of Justice was inherited from the ECSC, one could hardly entirely withhold the jurisdiction to exercise judicial review conferred upon it within the framework of that Treaty.
Samtidig fandtes der i de seks medlemsstater en vis traditionel modvilje mod at give dommerne beføjelser til at kontrollere loves forfatnings mæssighed.
At the same time there was, in the six Member States, a traditional aversion to empowering the courts to determine the constitutional validity of laws.
Man løste dette problem på acceptabel vis ved at bevare Domstolen og sætte meget snævre grænser for borgernes og virksomhedernes muligheder for at indbringe spørgsmål om forordningers gyldighed for Domstolen (se EØFT artikel 173. stk. 2. og nr. 49 ndf.).
The difficulty was satisfactorily resolved by retaining the Court of Justice while placing very severe limitations on the right of natural or legal persons to bring an action before the Court in order to test the legality of regulations (Article 173(2) EEC) (see point 49 below).
Ordningen af domstolskontrollen i henhold til EØFT blev således sui generis.
Thus the system of monitoring the EEC Treaty by the Court became sui generis.
Som konklusion kan man sige, at traktatfædrene øjensynligt medvirkede ved oprettelsen af et retssystem med regler om domstolskontrol af »forfatningsmæssighed« og »lovmæssighed«, der navnlig skulle beskytte medlemsstaternes interesser, idet retsplejen blev centreret omkring medlemsstaternes søgsmålsadgang.
To conclude, it is fair to state that the draftsmen of the Treaties seem to have striven to establish a judicial system founded on rules relating to judicial determination of'constitutional validity' and 'legality' which, under a procedure based on the right of the Member States to bring an action before the Court, would protect their interests in particular.
Fællesskabets institutioner fik også ganske vide beføjelser til at drage Domstolen ind i diskussionen om forfatningsmæssighed.
However, the Community institutions were also endowed with very wide powers to involve the Court of Justice in any dispute concerning constitutional validity.
Søgsmålet om foreneligheden af medlemsstaternes lovgivninger med traktaterne fik dog alt i alt en svag stilling.
Actions relating to the compatibility with the Treaties of legislation by the Member States would, though, in this system of checks and balances enjoy a low status.
For denne bedømmelse taler navnlig risikoen for en i det store og hele lemfældig kontrol med medlemsstaternes overholdelse af deres forpligtelser, der forventeligt ville komme ud af Kommissionens skønsmæssige adgang til at forfølge traktatbrud med retssager.
This conclusion is suggested by the possibility that a tolerant view might be taken of the way in which Member States observe their obligations, a not unforeseeable consequence of any system under which it was left to the Commission's discretion whether to bring infringements of the Treaty before the Court.
Den beskedne rolle, der blev tillagt private retssubjekter som sagsøgere, springer en i øjnene.
This applies no less in the context of review of legality involving the Community (Articles 173. 175.
Hermed er forsøget på at beskrive den tidlige Domstol, traktatforfatternes Domstol, slut.
This concludes the account of the Court of Justice as it was in the early years of the Community, and as it was conceived by those who drafted the Treaties.
Efter en kort fremstilling af Domstolens organisation (afsnit II) og procedure (afsnit' III), vil jeg i den derpå følgende fremstilling på denne baggrund belyse, hvorledes Domstolen har udviklet grundlaget for sine magtbeføjelser (afsnit IV).
After an outline of the organization of the Court (in Section II) and its procedure (Section III), an explanation will be given, against this background, of how the Court of Justice has widened the basis of its jurisdiction (Section IV).
Afsnit II — Domstolens sammensætning og organisation
Section II — The composition and organization of the Court of Justice
Reglerne om Domstolens sammensætning, om betingelsen for udnævnelsen af dens medlemmer og om dens kompetence findes i de tre grundlæggende traktater samt i protokollerne vedrørende Domstolens statut.
The rules on the composition of the Court of Justice, the conditions under which its members arc appointed and its jurisdiction are set out in the three Treaties and in the Protocol on the Statute of the Court annexed to the Treaties.
Denne findes i et tillæg til traktaterne. Heri bestemmes Domstolens organisation, dommernes og generaladvokaternes retsstilling og principperne for proceduren.
The Statute of the Court contains provisions relating to the organization of the Court, the legal status of the judges and of the advocatesgeneral and the procedure.
Procesmåden er fastsat ved procesreglementet, som Domstolen med Rådets godkendelse udstedte i 1959.
The latter is covered in detail in the Rules of Procedure which, with the consent of the Council, the Court adopted in 1959.
Det blev i 1962 suppleret med et tillægsreglement. som særligt vedrører retshjælp og fri proces ved Domstolen. Der er flere senere ændringer.
In 1962 they were supplemented by additional articles dealing with letters rogatory and legal aid.
Endelig har flere afledte fællesskabsretsakter, navnlig Vedtægten for Fællesskabernes
Finally, the Court was vested with unlimited jurisdiction under secondary legislation,
) vedrørende iværksættelsen af konkur rencereglerne, tillagt Domstolen fuld dømmende myndighed.
8 specifically the Community Staff Regulations and Regulation No 17 of the Council implementing the rules of competition.
Beskikkelse af dommere ved Domstolen
The appointment of members of the Court of Justice
Ved udgangen af 1980 havde Domstolen 9 dommere og 4 generaladvokater.
At the end of 1980, the Court comprised nine judges and four advocates-general.
Før den første udvidelse af Fællesskabet havde den 7 dommere og 2 generaladvokater.
Before the Community was first enlarged, the Court comprised seven judges and two advocates-general.
Efter Grækenlands tiltrædelse skal den have yderligere mindst 1 dommer, der skal være græker (se nr. 20 ndf. angående problemet med hensyn til nationalitet).
On the accession of Greece, it must include at least one more judge, of Greek nationality (see point 20 below on the nationality problem and point 44 infine on the number of members of the Court after March 1981).
Ifølge EØFT artikel 167 skal dommere og generaladvokater være personer, hvis uafhængighed er uomtvistelig, og som i deres hjemland opfylder betingelserne for at indtage de højeste dommerembeder, eller er jurister, hvis faglige kvalifikationer er almindeligt anerkendt.
Article 167 EEC requires the judges and advocatesgeneral to be chosen from persons whose independence is beyond doubt and who possess the qualifications required for appointment to the highest judicial office in their respective countries or who are jurisconsults of recognized competence.
Vigtigere end at vide, hvem regeringerne kan udnævne, er det imidlertid at forstå, hvilke typer mænd og kvinder, der faktisk er blevet betroet dette høje embede.
More important than the question whom the governments can appoint is to know what types of men and women they have actually vested with such high responsibilities.
Det siger nemlig noget om, hvorledes Domstolens medlemmer forventeligt vil gribe den dømmende funktion an.
The answer to that question might give us an idea as to how the members of the Court will approach their judicial task.
Fortolkeren skaber fortolkningsstilen, navnlig i en ung institution, hvor ingen traditioner endnu tynger. En fremragende jurist med en relativ snæver synsvinkel og træning reagerer antagelig anderledes end en jurist, der har været politiker, minister eller statsmand.
The interpreter reveals the style of the interpretation, especially in a new institution where traditions have not acquired much weight or com pelling force; an outstanding lawyer, trained and used to working in a comparatively narrow field, will be likely to have a very different outlook from that of a lawyer who has had parliamentary, ministerial or Cabinet experience.
En simpel optælling foretaget ultimo 1980 viser for det første, at der på 30 år er foretaget 28 udnævnelser af dommere og 7 af generaladvokater.
By the end of 1980, 28 judges and seven advocatesgeneral had been appointed over a period of 30 years, all of them men.
antagelig fik den største betydning for Domstolens policy­orientering af sin fortolkning af traktaten i almindelighed, herunder naturligvis tillige af dennes bestemmelser om Domstolens beføjelser. ι
From what professional fields were they drawn? Barely one judge out of two. and one out of the seven advocates-general, had at any time served in a judicial capacity, and then, in most cases, only for a short time.
Lecourt blev medlem af Domstolen i 1962.
A further point is that about one judge in three was at one time an elected member of a parliament; some, in addition, were for a substantial period ministers in charge of a variety of departments.
I 1967 blev han dens fjerde præsident, ligesom John Mashall i 1801 blev US Supreme Court's fjerde Chief Justice.
Mr Lecourt became a member of the Court in 1962; in 1967. he became its fourth President just as John Marshall had. in 1801, been the fourth Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
Robert Lecourt kom herved i lighed med John Marshall i øvrigt til at præsidere over Domstolen i en periode, hvor mange af de grundlæggende forfatningsretlige problemer i realiteten endnu var uløste.
Like John Marshall, Robert Lecourt took over the Presidency of the Court at a time when a number of basic issues of constitutional law had yet to be resolved.
Ydermere havde han omkring sig. da han overtog præsidentskabet, et dommer­team bestående af udprægede men-of-affairs.
When he became President, he headed a team of judges who were above all men of affairs.