natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Andre negative virkninger kan tilskrives vanskeligheder ved tilførsel af råstoffer, således som det har været tilfældet for papirfremstilling. Desuden påvirkes konkurrencens intensitet og konkurrenceevnen af en række endogene faktorer således, som det f.eks. er tilfældet i rensemiddelindustrien.
Thus,competition intensity and competitiveness are generally affected by any national rules and regulations that encourage the participating of markets, by thebehaviour of certain public monopolies that give preferential treatment to na-
Disse faktorer er grundigt analyseret i »Rapport om Det europæiske Fællesskabs konkurrenceevne«. Dokument fra EF-Kommissionen — november 1971.
On the problems involved in assessing competitiveness, see 'The competitiveness of Community industries', Commission document, March 1982.A detailed analysis of these factors is given in the 'Rapport sur la capacity concurrentielle de la Communautd Europe'enne', Commission document, November 1971.
KONCENTRATIONS- OG KONKURRENCEUDVIKLINGEN
Thisis particularly evident in the studies covering the telecommunications industryand the motor vehicle industry.
Prispolitik, en del af virksomhedernes strategi
Pricing policy as a factor in business strategy
I de foregående Beretninger om konkurrencepolitikken er der fremlagt en række analyser af forbrugerprisernes struktur inden for Fællesskabet.
Previous Reports on Competition Policy included analyses of the structure of consumer prices in the Community.
Disse analyser har vist, at der er betydelige prisforskelle landene imellem, hvilket kan tilskrives en lang række faktorer, herunder forskelle mellem skattesystemerne, variationer i valutakurserne, divergerende konjunktursituationer eller inflationsrater, forbrugerpræferencer samt forskelle i købekraften fra medlemsstat til medlemsstat.
These showed that there were significant price differences between Member States caused by a large number offactors, including differences in tax systems, exchange rate variations, differences in the business cycle or in rates of inflation, differences in consumer preferences and national purchasing power disparities.
Analysen i denne beretning tager sigte på et andet aspekt af prisstrukturen i Fælles skabet, idet formålet er at undersøge, i hvilket omfang priserne indgår i virksomheder nes strategi som konkurrenceelement.
The analysis given in this Report focuses on another aspect of the structure ofprices in the Community by examining to what extent prices are included as acompetitive element in the strategy of firms.
Det er derfor nødvendigt at undersøge de mekanismer, som ligger til grund for prisdannelsen på produktions- og distributionsprocessens forskellige stadier.
This approach thus calls for anexamination of the mechanisms for price formation at the various stages of theproduction and distribution process.
Den følgende undersøgelse vedrører to brancher med vidt forskellige karakteristika: automobilindustri og forlagsvirksomhed.
The following examination relates to two sectors having very differentcharacteristics, namely the motor vehicle industry and book publishing.
Automobilmarkedet, der ikke kun er åbent over for europæisk, men også over for verdensomspændende konkurrence, er et marked, hvor priserne ikke reguleres systematisk.
The motor vehicle industry has a European or world-wide market, in whichprices are not systematically regulated.
Selv moderate prisforskelle mellem medlemsstaterne kan som følge af produktets enhedsværdi udløse parallelimport fra forbrugerens side.
Because of the unit value of cars, evenmoderate price differences may give rise to parallel imports by consumers between Member States where such differences persist.
Markedet kendetegnes yderligere af den kendsgerning, at den frie omsætning af biler i visse tilfælde forhindres af, at der er forskelle mellem de enkelte meldemsstaters tekniske normer. Ganske vist er der siden 1970 gjort store fremskridt på dette område ved vedtagelse af en lang række direktiver.
Another special feature ofthe market is the fact that the free movement of cars is in some cases impededby differences in the technical standards applicable in Member States.Considerable progress has been achieved here since 1970 through the adoption
Situationen på det europæiske marked
The situation on the European market
Det fremgår af tabel 9, at prisforskellene var mindre udtalte i 1975, men fremtrådte klart i 1980.
Table 9 shows that price differences were less pronounced in 1975 but becamequite marked in 1980.
I de tre seneste år har priserne inden for alle cylinderklasser ligget højest i Det forenede Kongerige og lavest i Danmark.
In the last three years covered, and in all the enginecapacity categories, prices were highest in the United Kingdom and lowest in Denmark.
Automobiipriser ekskl. afgifter (%) inden for Fællesskabet for tre cylinderklasser (Indeks UK = 100 for hvert år)
Motor vehicle before tax prices in the Community in three engine capacity categories(UK index = 100 for each year)
100 100 100 (100) a < 1 000 cc; b I 000 - I 500 cc; c > 1 500 cc; d = gennemsnit. Kilder: for 1975 og 1980: Eurostat-undersøgelse; for 1981 og 1982: BEUC-undersøgelse.
Transport costs have only a negligible effect on the level of prices: forexample, motor vehicles manufactured in the United Kingdom are sold at alower price in Italy than in their country of origin.
Beregninger foretaget af EF-Kommissionen.
It is evident, on the contrary, that the main factor in the formation of prices on the European market is the competitive situation.
Priserne i national valuta er omregnet til ECU.
At the same time, the various non-tariffbarriers do not have any decisive influence.
Den anvendte stikprøve omfatter ca. 15 modeller i deres standardudgave for hvert land uden justering for forskelle i standardudstyret.
Conversely, in other Member States where the market is dominated by national manufacturers, importersalign their prices on the national manufacturers's prices, endeavouring to maximize their profits.
I praksis er ingen af disse faktorer i sig selv tilstrækkelige til at forklare de konstaterede prisforskelles omfang. I ekstreme tilfælde som f.eks.
The example of the United Kingdom market provides an illustration ofthe partitioning of the European market referred to above.
Danmark, hvor automobilafgifterne kan nå op på næsten 180% af prisen ekskl. afgifter, ser det dog ud til, at beskatningen har temmelig stor indflydelse på fastsættelsen af basisprisen.
Table 9 has alreadyshown the size of the price differentials between the United Kingdom marketand markets in the other Member States.
Dette kan foranledige producenterne til at tage meget lave priser for at undgå, at efterspørgslen falder til et niveau, som gør det urentabelt at opretholde et distributionssystem på markedet.
So as to bring out the special featuresof the United Kingdom market, a comparison was made with the Belgian market (Table 10 and Graph 2), since the Belgian market may be the source ofconsiderable parallel imports into the United Kingdom market.
De forskelligartede inflationsrater kan heller ikke forklare prisforskellene, som en sammenligning af situationen på det tyske og det italienske marked viser; det samme gælder valutakurssvingningerne, som drøftes nedenfor. Transportomkostningerne har kun ubetydelig indflydelse på prisniveauet, eftersom automobiler fremstillet i Det forenede Kongerige f.eks. sælges billigere i Italien end i oprindelseslandet.
Up to 1976, the price differential between Belgium and the United Kingdomvaried on average between 9% and 14%; in 1979, the gap began to widen,reaching over 40% by 1982.x There are a number of reasons for this situation.At least one United Kingdom manufacturer has relatively high production costsand limited competitiveness.
En undtagelse er dog Danmark, hvor basismodellerne er overordentlig skrabede på grund af den kraftige beskatning, der er baseret på bilernes salgspris.
The appreciation of sterling added to this handicap.
Endelig synes indførelsen af priskontrol ikke at kunne begrunde de konstaterede prisforskelle: priskontrollen i f.eks. Belgien forhindrer ikke, at importørerne forhøjer prisen, når markedet ser ud til at gøre det muligt.
This cost trend was reflected in the national manufacturers' prices which,calculated in ECU, increased more than continental manufacturers' prices.
Tilsyneladende synes konkurrencesituationen at være den vigtigste faktor til forklaring af prisdannelsen på det europæiske marked.
Inaddition, price inertia probably meant that prices expressed in national currency only partially reflected international price variations attributable to theexchange rate.
Denne situation afhænger først og fremmest af, om der findes nationale producenter, som frem for alt råder over et generelt mere udbredt forhandlersystem end importørerne.
Such price rigidity also seems to have been one of the reasons for the low levelof prices in Denmark, although the Danish currency was devalued severaltimes.
Hvis der ikke findes nationale producenter, kan der konstateres kraftig konkurrence mellem importørerne, som det f.eks. er tilfældet i Benelux-landene og Danmark.
National manufacturers in the United Kingdom continue to act as price leaders,even though their market share has fallen significantly from 85% in 1970 to42% in 1982.
I den forbindelse har de forskellige ikke-toldmæssige hindringer ingen afgørende betydning.
It can thus be seen that the rise in sterling, which could in theory have resultedin a decline in import prices, did not in practice have this effect.
I de øvrige medlemsstater, hvor markedet domineres af nationale producenter, tilpasser importørerne sig derimod efter de priser, disse tager, og tilstræber således profitmaksimering.
This pricingstrategy was made possible only by the limited volume of parallel imports, duefirstly to technical and administrative factors (notably the basic obstacle ofright-hand drive and specification standards) and secondly to dissuasive practices by European manufactuers (such as the refusal to sell right-hand drive carsin continental countries, the alignment of prices for right-hand drive cars on thecontinent with those charged in the United Kingdom, and very long deliverydates).
Prisforskellene mellem disse lande begrænses imidlertid af, at parallelimporten kan antage betydelige dimensioner.
However, there has been a recent tendency for United Kingdom manufacturers' prices to fall in absolute terms. This new trend may be partly due to the
Konkurrencesituationen er helt speciel i landene med venstrekørsel, hvor markedet domineres af de britiske producenter, og hvor
These differentials may sometimes be reduced through the discounts granted by some distributors.
181 importørerne lægger sig på linje med de priser, disse tager.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCENTRATION 181
Sammenligning af automobilpriserne eksl. afgifter i Belgien og Det forenede Kongerige (Indeks U.K. = 100 for hvert år)
Comparison of motor vehicle before tax prices in Belgium and the United Kingdom(UK index = 100 for each year)
DIAGRAM 2 Udviklingen i de i tabel 1 angivne automobilpriser, ekskl. afgifter
Movement of motor vehicle prices before tax according to Table 10.
183 pagne fra de britiske forbrugersammenslutningers side, som har ført til, at forbrugernes parallelimporter er taget kraftigt til.
182 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCENTRATION information campaign conducted by the United Kingdom consumers' associations, the effect of which has been to increase sharply the flow of parallel imports by final consumers.
Desuden kan Kommissionens indgriben i adskillige tilfælde, hvor parallelimporten til Det forenede Kongerige er blevet hindret, ligeledes have bidraget til at trykke prisen på det britiske marked.
In addition, the measures taken by the Commission ina number of cases where parallel imports into the United Kingdom were beingimpeded may also have contributed to the downward pressure on prices in the United Kingdom market.
Denne tendens er yderligere blevet forstærket af den seneste depreciering af pund sterling samt faldet i inflationsraten og i rentesatserne. Sammen med de udfoldede rationaliseringsbestræbelser har disse faktorer forbedret de britiske producenters konkurrenceevne. kurrenceevne.
This has been further reinforced by the recent depreciation of sterling and bythe fall in inflation and interest rates, which, together with the rationalizationmeasures taken, have improved the competitiveness of United Kingdom manufacturers.
Økonomiske faktorer, som bestemmer bogpriserne
Economic factors determining book prices
Den gennemførte undersøgelse omfatter bogmarkedet i 3 sprogområder inden for Fællesskabet: engelsktalende områder (Det forenede Kongerige og Irland), fransk talende områder (Frankrig og den fransktalende del af Belgien) og nederlandsktalende områder (Nederlandene og den nederlansktalende del af Belgien).
The analysis carried out relates to the book market in three linguisticareas of the Community, namely the English-speaking areas (United Kingdomand Ireland), the French-speaking areas (France and the French-speaking partof Belgium) and the Dutchspeaking areas (the Netherlands and the Dutchspeaking part of Belgium).
Bogmarkedet er som påvist nedenfor forskelligt organiseret fra medlemsstat til med lemsstat, særlig hvad angår regulering af priserne.
While the organization of the book market, notably where price control is concerned, differs from one Member State to another (as will be seen below), thebook market does none the less have common economic characteristics specificto the publishing industry.
Inden for forlagsbranchen er der dog en række fælles økonomiske karakteristika.
The following are some of the key features which to a large extent determinethe nature and degree of competition on the book market:
Det er hensigtsmæssigt at fremhæve en række hovedtræk, som i vid udstrækning bestemmer konkurrencens art og omfang på bogmarkedet: — bøgerne er overordentlig heterogene produkter, som kun er indbyrdes substituerbare i individuelle kategorier og inden for meget snævre grænser; det er vanskeligt at se en substitutionsefterspørgsel på dette marked; — sammenlignet med andre brancher forhindres adgangen til bogproduktionen ikke af store tekniske eller økonomiske barrierer mod indtrængen udefra; — forlagsbranchen er henvist til trykkeribranchen i produktionskædens tidligere led og til bogdistributionen i kædens efterfølgende led; trods denne afhængighed er den vertikale integration i forlagsbranchen varierende, men ofte moderat.
(i) books are particularly heterogeneous products which are not substitutableone with another except in terms of categories and then within very narrowlimits; it is very difficult on this market to identify any replacement demand;
Det er desuden karakteristisk for bogmarkedet, at distributionssystemerne spiller en meget stor rolle hvad angår reklamen for og udbredelsen af produkterne.
(ii) compared with other industries, there are no major technical or economicbarriers to entry in book publishing;
I de seneste ti år er de traditionelle distributionssystemer blevet mødt med konkurrence fra nyopdukkede distributionsvirksomheder: bogklubber, kædeforretninger, supermarkeder.
(iii) publishing is largely dependent upon the printing industry upstream andon book distribution downstream; despite this dependence, vertical integration in publishing is variable, but often moderate.
De traditionelle boghandlere tegner sig nu kun for omkring 50% af detailomsætningen i Frankrig og Nederlandene, lidt mindre i Belgien (omkring 50% på det fransktalende marked og 41% på det nederlandsktalende marked) og endnu mindre i Det forenede Kongerige (ca. 32%).
Another feature of the book market is the role played by distribution networksin the promotion and marketing of the products.
Denne udvikling har særlig stor betydning, fordi distributionsomkostningerne kan anslås til omkring 45-60% af den endelige salgspris for en bog.
During the last 10 years, thetraditional distribution networks have been meeting competition through the
Det kan f.eks. på det fransktalende bogmarked konstateres, at fremstillingsomkostningerne for en bog udgør 18-20% af salgsprisen ekskl. afgifter, generalomkostningerne 20-22%, ophavsretter 10% og distributionsomkostningerne omkring 50%.
As a result, traditional bookshops nowaccount for only some 50% of the volume of retail sales in France and the Netherlands, a little less in Belgium (some 50% on the French-speaking marketand 41% on the Dutchspeaking market) and still less in the United Kingdom(some 31%).
I alle de analyserede medlemsstater er bogmarkedets organisation netop centreret om prisreguleringen.
In all the Member States concerned, the organization of the book market isfirmly based on price control.
Prissystemet for bøger
The pricing systems applicable to books
I samtlige udvalgte lande bestemmes detailprisen på bøger ikke af udbud og efterspørgsel, men af særlige regler, som her kort skal gengives. — i Det forenede Kongerige udgør prissystemet for bøger en undtagelse fra det generelle forbud mod fastsættelse af mindstepriser i detailledet.
In each of the countries examined, the retail price of books is not determined by market forces, but is subject to specific rules which are summarizedbelow:
Selv om hvert enkelt forlag har mulighed for at bestemme, om en bog skal udgives på de i »Net Book Agreement« fastsatte vilkår, fastsættes priserne på langt de fleste af de bøger, som sælges i Det forenede Kongerige, i overensstemmelse med denne faglige aftale, som garanterer, at en mindstepris i detailleddet ikke underbydes i en 12-måneders periode.
(i) In the United Kingdom, the pricing system applicable to books is an exception to the general ban on resale price maintenance; although eachpublisher is free to decide whether or not a book will be published underthe terms laid down by the Net Book Agreement, the prices of the vastmajority of books sold in the United Kingdom are established in accordance with that agreement, under which a minimum retail price is set for atwelve-month period.
Alle detailhandlere har pligt til at overholde mindsteprisen, hvis et forlag har besluttet, at en bog skal udgives »netto«.
If a publisher has decided that a book is to be a 'net' book, the minimumprice must be observed by all retailers.
Derimod har detailhandlerne mulighed for at tage en højere pris.
On the other hand, retailers remainfree to charge a higher price.
Således fastsættes bogprisen i Det forenede Kongerige i princippet med en mindstepris, som gælder i 12 måneder.
(ii) In Ireland, where the book trade is largely dominated by imports from the United Kingdom, the Net Book Agreement also applies, and minimumprices are accordingly set.
Der findes imidlertid en række undtagelser.
However, application of the Net Book Agree-
De mest fremtrædende vedrører offentlige biblioteker (hvor der tillades en rabat på 10%), skolebøger og visse religiøse bøger.
184 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCENTRATION ment has been complicated by exchange rate variations between sterlingand the Irish pound and by the problem which these fluctuations pose insetting the retail prices of the books.
Efter udløbet af ovennævnte 12-måneders periode kan usolgte bøger endvidere sælges til nedsat pris på de årlige bogudsalg.
Although Irish retailers are required,on the basis of a conversion rate notified to them each week, to determinethe prices of books imported from the United Kingdom at the time whenthey are received, application of this principle comes up against difficultiesin practice.
Efter sigende hænder det, at enkelte forhandlere nedsætter prisen inden den aftalte 12-måneders periodes udløb.
Consequently, in contrast to the situation in the United Kingdom, the Net Book Agreement does not result in the establishment of asingle price for each book sold in Ireland.
— I Irland, hvor handelen med bøger i vid udstrækning domineres af importen fra Det forenede Kongerige, gælder »Net Book Agreement« også, dvs., at der fastsættes en mindstepris.
Subsequently, book prices were established without any reference to a recommended price set by the publisher,with each retailer being left free to set the retail price of each book on sale(system known as the 'net price' system).
Anvendelsen af »Net Book Agreement« er imidlertid blevet vanskeliggjort af kursvariationerne mellem pund sterling og det irske pund og af det problem, som disse variationer rejser for fastsættelsen af detailpriserne for bøger.
The current system, which hasbeen in force since January 1982, is the imposed price system, under whichretailers may grant a discount of no more than 5% on the selling pricewhich the pubisher or importer sets for each book.
De irske detailhandlere skal — på grundlag af en omregningskurs, som meddeles dem hver uge — fastlægge prisen på bøger, som importeres fra Det forenede Kongerige, på det tidspunkt hvor de modtages. I praksis er der imidlertid store problemer forbundet med anvendelsen af dette princip.
(iv) In the Netherlands, the rules governing book prices, which were updatedin 1978 (Reglement voor het Handelsverkeer van Boeken in Nederland),stipulate that each publisher must set a selling price applicable in all salesto the final consumer.
Modsat situationen i Det forenede Kongerige bevirker »Net Book Agreement« derfor ikke, at der fastlægges en enhedspris for hver enkelt udgave, som sælges i Irland.
However, exceptions are allowed to this system, the main one being in the case of bookclubs, which have since 1978 been free to set their prices independently.The rules also stipulate that books may not be included in remainder salesbefore a two-year period has elapsed.
— Frankrig har siden 1975 haft tre forskellige prissystemer; først blev der anvendt et prissystem for bøger baseret på vejledende priser: den vejledende pris, som blev
(v) In the Dutchspeaking part of the Belgian market, the situation is in manyways similar to that in the Netherlands, and retailers belonging to the VBVB (Vereniging ter Bevordering van het Vlaamse Boekwezen) are required to charge the prices set by publishers.
KONCENTRATIONS- OG KONKURRENCEUDVIKLINGEN
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCENTRATION 185 members being required to charge the recommended price set by the publisher.
185 fastsat af forlaget, blev i praksis maksimalpris i de fleste tilfælde; derefter blev bogpriserne fastsat uden henvisning til en vejledende pris fastsat af forlaget, og hver enkelt detailhandler fik lov til selv at fastsætte detailprisen for hver enkelt udbudt bog (det såkaldte nettoprissystem); det nugældende system, som trådte i kraft i januar 1982, er et bruttosystem, hvor detailhandlerne har mulighed for at yde en rabat på maksimalt 5% af salgsprisen, som for hver enkelt udgave fastsættes af forlaget eller importøren.
Unlike the situaton in the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom orthe Federal Republic of Germany, book pricing in Belgium is not governed by laws, regulations or administrative provisions. Apart from anygeneral provision applying to prices, government intervention is confinedto the setting of the conversion rate for the prices of imported books,which means that the maximum prices of such books are determined onthe basis of the retail prices charged in the country of origin.
Bruttosystemet indebærer tillige, at direkte salg, salg via agenter samt korrespondancesalg i de ni første måneder efter udgivelsen skal foretages på de samme vilkår som i boghandelen; bogudsalg er kun tilladt for bøger, som er importeret eller udgivet for over to år siden, og som senest er leveret for over 6 måneder siden.
There are a number of significant exceptions to the book pricing arrangements in Belgium, the main one being that the prices set do not have to beobserved by book clubs or, as far as books in French are concerned, bysupermarkets, whether or not specialized, since supermarkets are not subject to the rules laid down by the booksellers' associations and can therefore grant discount to purchasers.
Desuden fremgår det af bestemmelserne, at der først kan afholdes bogudsalg efter udløbet af 2 år.
(i) What variations are there in the relative prices of books under the existingrules?
I den nederlandsktalende del af det belgiske marked ligner situationen på mange måder situationen i Nederlandene.
(ii) To what extent is the setting of minimum prices for books harmful tocompetition ?