natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
Baggrundseksponering af bly via luft i Danmark
Background exposure of lead via air in Denmark
Iflg. rapporten ”The Danish Air Quality Monitoring Programme” fra 2006 (udarbejdet af National Environmental Research Institute) (Kemp et al., 2007) var den højest målte gennemsnitlige værdi for indhold af bly i luften i Danmark 9,1 ng/m³ (værdien blev målt i København, på gaden H.C. Andersens Boulevard).
According to the report “The Danish Air Quality Monitoring Programme” from 2006 (performed by the National Environmental Research Institute) (Kemp et al., 2007) the highest measured average value for content of lead in the air in Denmark was 9.1 ng/ m³ (value measured in Copenhagen, on the street “H.C. Andersen's Boulevard”).
For at vælge en konservativ tilgang anvendes denne værdi til at estimere hvilken mængde bly mennesker i Danmark antages at indtage via luften.
In order to choose a conservative approach this value is used to estimate the amount of lead, that humans in Denmark are assumed to inhale through the air.
Omregnet til per kilo legemsvægt (60 kg) giver det 0,003 µg/kg lgv/dag.
Converted into per kilo bodyweight (60 kg) the number is 0.003 µg/kg bw/dag.
Da TDI værdien, som tidligere nævnt, repræsenterer den mængde stof, som man maksimalt må få per dag (hele livet) uden, at der opstår sundhedsskadelige effekter, fratrækkes TDI værdien de ovennævnte tal for baggrundseksponering.
Since the TDI value, as mentioned earlier, represents the maximum amount of substance a person can take in per day (through their entire life) without causing health related effects, the TDI value is deducted the above mentioned values for background exposure.
Denne værdi sammenlignes i risikovurderingen med, hvad mennesker udsættes for ved at bære eller sutte på de smykker, der er undersøgt i dette projekt.
During the risk assessment this value is compared with what humans are exposed to by wearing or sucking the jewelleries, which are examined in this project.
Såfremt eksponeringen overskrider denne ”margen til TDI værdi”, vil der være en sundhedsmæssig risiko ved at bære og/eller sutte på smykkerne.
If the exposure exceeds this “Margin to TDI value” there will be a health related risk by wearing and/or sucking the jewelleries.
NB: 95-percentilen relaterer sig til tallene for baggrundseksponering via føde og drikke.
NB: The 95-percentile relates to the numbers representing background exposure via food and beverages (including tap water).
* Værdien hørende til luft er en gennemsnitlig værdi fra den målestation i Danmark, der har vist det højeste gennemsnit i 2006.
* The value represents an average value from the monitoring station in Denmark, which showed the highest average in 2006.
Hvis personer lever i omgivelser, hvor de udsættes for en højere baggrundseksponering end den ovenfor beskrevne, vil sundhedsrisikoen ved at bruge de undersøgte smykker i dette projekt være undervurderet.
If people live in surroundings where they are exposed to higher background levels than the ones mentioned above, the health risk by using the examined jewelleries in this project will be underestimated.
Cadmium er et blødt sølv-hvidt metal, der findes naturligt i jordens overflade.
Cadmium is a soft silver-white metal that occurs naturally in the surface of the earth.
Det findes ofte i form af cadmiumoxid, cadmiumsulfid og cadmiumcarbonat i zink-, bly- og kobbermineralårer.
It is often found as cadmium oxide, cadmium sulphite and cadmium carbonate in zinc, lead and copper mineral veins.
Derudover findes cadmium som cadmiumchlorid og cadmiumsulfat forbindelser.
Furthermore, cadmium is found as cadmium chloride and cadmium sulphite compounds.
De to sidstnævnte er letopløselige i vand (ATSDR, 1999).
Both of them are water-soluble (ATSDR, 1999).
Cadmium, cadmiumlegeringer samt cadmiumforbindelser bruges på verdensplan i en lang række produkter.
Cadmium, cadmium alloys and cadmium compounds are used worldwide in a long range of products.
De fem hovedkategorier er nikkel-cadmium batterier, pigmenter primært til brug i plastik, keramik og glas, stabilisatorer i PVC, overfladebelægning på stål, enkelte ikke-jern metaller, samt komponenter i diverse legeringer (ATSDR, 1999).
Five main categories are nickel-cadmium batteries, pigments primarily used in plastic, ceramics and glass, stabiliser in PVC, surface cover on steel, few non-iron metals and components in various alloys (ATSDR, 1999).
Herudover anvendes cadmium ofte til loddemetaller, idet indhold af cadmium fremmer loddeegenskaberne - loddemetallet flyder godt og let ind i mindre sprækker, når der er cadmium i.
Furthermore, cadmium is often used as solder metals because the content of cadmium promotes the solder properties - the solder metal floats well and easily into the small cracks when there is a content of cadmium.
Derudover kan cadmium være et naturligt medfølgende metal ved udvinding af sølv, hvorfor det traditionelt/historisk forekommer i sølvlegeringer fra visse egne i verden.
Furthermore cadmium can be a naturally found metal when silver is extracted and this is why it traditionally/historically occurs in silver alloys from some parts of the world.
Således har smykker af såkaldt ”indisk sølv” ofte et højt indhold af cadmium.
Because of this jewelleries made of so-called ”Indian silver” often have a high content of cadmium.
Cadmium er desuden billigere end ædle metaller.
Cadmium is also cheaper than precious metals.
Forbruget af cadmium i Danmark i 1996 blev anslået til 43-71 tons (Miljøprojekt nr. 557, 2000).
The use of cadmium in Denmark in 1996 was estimated to be 43-71 tons (Environmental project no. 557, 2000).
Et forsøg med optagelse af cadmium via mad (formentlig enkel dosis) viste et optag på 6% efter 20 dage.
An experiment with absorption of cadmium through food (presumably single dosages) showed an absorption of 6% after 20 days.
Forsøget blev udført på 5 voksne (Rahola et al., 1973 i ATSDR, 1999).
The experiment was performed on 5 adults (Rahola et al., 1973 in ATSDR, 1999).
Lignende resultater blev opnået ved et forsøg med 14 voksne, som optog i gennemsnit 4,6% cadmium fra en cadmiumchloridopløsning givet sammen med mad efter 1-2 uger, hvor en fækal markør var udskilt (McLellan et al., 1978 i ATSDR, 1999).
Similar results were achieved in an experiment with 14 adults who absorbed 4.6% cadmium in average from a cadmium chloride solution (administered together with food) after 1-2 weeks where a faecal marker was extracted (McLellan et al., 1978 in ATSDR, 1999).
Ifølge WHO (2004) er der rapporteret et forsøg (fra 1987), hvor 3-7% cadmium er blevet optaget i sunde voksne, mens 15-20% blev optaget i mennesker, der led af jernmangel.
According to WHO (2004) an experiment has been reported (from 1987), where 3-7% cadmium has been absorbed in healthy adults while 15-20% was absorbed in humans suffering from iron deficiency.
Som forsøget ovenfor indikerede, påvirker kroppens indhold af jern optagelsen af cadmium.
As the experiment above indicates the content of iron in the body affects the absorption of cadmium.
Forsøg med mennesker med lave jerndepoter har vist en optagelse på 8,9%, mens mennesker med tilstrækkelige jerndepoter havde en optagelse på 2,3% (Flanagen et al., 1978 i ATSDR, 1999).
Experiments using humans with low iron deposits have shown an absorption of 8.9% while humans with adequate iron deposits had an absorption of 2.3% (Flanagen et al., 1978 in ATSDR, 1999).
EU's risikovurdering af cadmium fra 2007 konkluderer, at den orale absorption af CdO/Cd metal generelt er lavere end 5%, men kun gældende, når jerndepoter er tilstrækkelige.
The EU risk assessment of cadmium from 2007 concludes that the oral absorption of CdO/Cd metal generally is lower than 5%, but only when iron deposits are adequate.
Når jerndepoter er lave (gælder typisk for kvinder, herunder gravide kvinder), kan den orale optagelse stige til 5-10%.
When iron deposits are low (typically for women including pregnant women), the oral absorption can rise to 5-10%.
På baggrund af ovenstående oplysninger vælges en oral optagelse af cadmium at ligge på 8,9%.
Based on the information above an oral absorption of cadmium for use in this project is set at 8.9%.
Denne værdi er valgt, idet det ikke kan udelukkes, at en del af den danske befolkning lider af jernmangel, her især kvinder (som jo ofte er dem, der bærer smykker).
This value has been chosen because it cannot be ruled out that a part of the Danish population suffers from iron deficiency, among these especially women (who often are those wearing jewellery).
Værdien på 8,9% er valgt i modsætning til de 10% der nævnes som maksimal optagelse i EU risikovurderingen, idet forsøgene, der ligger til grund for de 10% ikke er beskrevet nærmere.
The value of 8.9% has been chosen as opposed to the 10% mentioned as maximum absorption in the EU risk assessment, because the experiments that the 10% are based on are not described in details.
Hertil kommer, at værdien på de 8,9% repræsenterer et forsøg udført med cadmiumchlorid, som vurderes relevant for dette projekt.
In addition, the value of 8.9% represents an experiment performed with cadmium chloride, which is seen as relevant for this project.
Et studie (Wester et al., 1992) undersøgte dermal absorption af cadmium ved brug af in vitro hudceller fra mennesker.
A study (Wester et al., 1992) investigated dermal absorption of cadmium by using in vitro skin cells from humans.
Et tilsvarende forsøg med en hårløs mus, som blev behandlet med CdCl2 på huden med en 2% salve (indeholdende 0,61 mg Cd), viste et optag af cadmium i nyrer og lever på mellem 0,2 og 0,87% (ATSDR, 1999).
A similar experiment with a hairless mouse, which was treated with CdCl2 on the skin using a 2% ointment (containing 0.61 mg Cd) showed an absorption of cadmium in kidneys and liver of between 0.2 and 0.87% (ATSDR, 1999).
Et studie beskrevet i EU's risikovurdering af cadmium fra 2007, viser et dermalt optag af cadmium gennem hud fra mennesker på 0,6% (optag i plasma).
A study described in EU's risk assessment of cadmium from 2007 shows a dermal absorption of cadmium through human skin of 0.6% (absorption into plasma).
Dette studie beskriver den umiddelbart højest målte værdi for dermalt optag gennem menneskehud og vælges derfor som gældende for dermalt optag af cadmium i dette projekt.
This study describes the highest measured value for dermal absorption through human skin (sofar identified in this project) and is therefore chosen as valid for dermal absorption of cadmium in this project.
Det meste af det cadmium, som optages, ender i lever og nyrer og forbliver der i flere år.
Most of the absorbed cadmium ends up in liver and kidneys and stays there for several years.
En lille mængde af det cadmium, som optages, vil dog forlade kroppen langsomt via urinen og afføringen (ATSDR, 1999).
A small amount of the absorbed cadmium will, though, leave the body slowly through the urine and faeces (ATSDR, 1999).
Måden cadmium optages på har ikke nævneværdig betydning i forhold til, hvordan det distribueres i kroppen.
The way cadmium is absorbed does not influence the distribution in the body in a degree worth mentioning.
Absorberet cadmium bliver via blodet transporteret til andre dele af kroppen.
Absorbed cadmium is transported to other parts of the body through the blood.
Efter re-absorbtionen brydes bindingen til metallothionein, og den frigivne cadmium stimulerer derefter produktionen af metallothionein, som igen binder cadmium i nyrecellerne - og derved forhindrer den toksiske effekt af den frie cadmium-ion.
After the re-absorption the bonding to metal-lothioneine is broken and the free cadmium stimulates the production of metal-lothioneine, which again bind cadmium in the kidney cells - thereby preventing the toxic effect related to the free cadmium ion.
Hvis produktionen af methallothionein ikke kan følge med, sker der skade på nyrecellerne, hvilket kan ses ved en øget udskillelse i urinen af proteiner med lav molekylevægt (Friberg et al., 1986 i WHO, 2004).
If the production of metal lothioneine cannot follow the result is damage on the kidney cells, which can be detected by an increased release of proteins (with a low molecular weight) in the urine (Friberg et al., 1986 in WHO, 2004).
I mennesker er den gennemsnitlige cadmiumkoncentration i lever og nyrer lig nul ved fødslen, men stiger jævnt til omkring 40-50 mg/kg (w/w) i nyrerne ved alderen 50-60 år, og 1-2 mg/kg (w/w) i leveren ved 20-25 års alderen (Baars et al., 2001).
In humans the average cadmium concentration in liver and kidneys is equal to nil at birth but increases gradually to around 40-50 mg/kg (w/w) in the kidneys at the age of 50-60 and 1-2 mg/kg (w/w) in the liver at the age of 20-25 (Baars et al., 2001).
Efter ”normal” eksponering af cadmium fra baggrundsniveauer vil ca. 50% af kroppens totale mængde cadmium befinde sig i nyrerne, ca. 15% i leveren og omkring 20% i musklerne.
After ”normal” exposure of cadmium from background levels approximately 50% of the body's total amount of cadmium is found in the kidneys, approximately 15% in the liver and around 20% in the muscles.
Det er her vigtigt at tage højde for den mængde cadmium, som hvert individ i forvejen indtager via luft, rygning, mad og vand.
One of the reasons why copper is used in jewelleries is that copper is the only other metal except from gold which naturally gives a red or yellow colour in alloys.
Kobber er et meget anvendt metal, primært pga. dets egenskaber som et holdbart, smidigt, letbearbejdeligt metal, der kan lede elektricitet og varme.
Therefore, it is important to take into account the amount of copper which each individual already takes in via air, food and water.
Det er primært brugt som metal i legeringer (som bronze og messing).
Background exposure of copper via food and beverages in Denmark
En af årsagerne til, at kobber bruges i smykker er, at kobber er det eneste andet metal bortset fra guld, der naturligt giver en rød eller gul farve i legeringer.
Thereby a number is reached (”Margin to TDI value”) representing the ”extra amount” of copper that a human can take in on a daily basis (besides what a human is exposed to through food, beverages and air) without experiencing health damaging effects.
Margen til TDI værdien (140 - total baggrundseksponering)
Margin to the TDI value (140 - total background exposure)
NB: * Værdien hørende til luft er en gennemsnitlig værdi fra den målestation i Danmark, der har vist det højeste gennemsnit.
NB: * The value related to air is an average value from the monitoring station in Denmark which has shown the highest average.
** Værdien for kobberindtagelse fra føde og drikke hos børn, er baseret på hvad 2-årige (15 kg) indtager.
** The value for copper consumption from food and beverages in children is based on the intake by 2 year old children (15 kg).
Hvis personer lever i omgivelser, hvor de udsættes for en højere baggrundseksponering end de ovenfor beskrevne, vil sundhedsrisikoen ved at bruge de undersøgte smykker i dette projekt være undervurderet.
If people live in areas where they are exposed to a higher background concentration than the one mentioned above, the health risk by using the examined jewelleries in this project will be underestimated.
I naturen findes nikkel primært som oxid eller sulfidforbindelser.
Nickel occurs in nature primarily as oxide or sulphide compounds.
Jordens kerne består af 6% nikkel, men nikkel findes også i meteoritter og på havbunden i form af mineraler (ATSDR, 2005a).
The earths crust consists of 6% nickel, but nickel is also found in meteorites and on the sea bed as minerals (ATSDR, 2005a).
Rent nikkel er et hårdt, sølv-hvidt metal, der er nemt at bearbejde.
Pure nickel is a hard, silver-white metal, which is easy to mould.
Derudover er det ferromagnetisk og en god leder af varme og elektricitet.
Furthermore it is ferromagnetic and a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Nikkel anvendes ofte i legeringer med jern, kobber, chrom eller zink.
Nickel is often used in alloys with iron, copper, chromium or zinc.
De forskellige legeringer bruges i forskellige sammenhænge.
The different alloys are used in different situations.
Bl.a. bruges kobber/nikkellegeringer til mønter, rørlægning, marint udstyr, petrokemisk udstyr, varmevekslere, pumper og elektroder for svejsning, mens nikkel/chromlegeringer typisk anvendes til varmeelementer.
Copper/nickel alloys are for instance used in coins, pipe laying, maritime equipments, petrochemical equipment, heat exchangers, pumps and electrodes for welding, while nickel/chromium alloys typically are used for heating elements.
Derudover bruges store mængder nikkel/jernlegeringer til at producere stållegeringer, rustfrit stål og støbejern (ATSDR, 2005a).
Furthermore, large amounts of nickel/iron alloys are used for producing steel alloys, corrosion-resistant steel and cast iron (ATSDR, 2005a).
Andre nikkelforbindelser inkluderer klor, svovl og oxygen.
Other nickel compounds include chlorine, sulphur and oxygen.
Endelig anvendes nikkel også i smykker.
Finally, nickel is used in jewelleries.
Nikkel anvendes i denne forbindelse hyppigt som underbelægning til guldoverflader, idet dette medfører mere skinnende guldbelægninger.
In this context nickel is frequently used as “sub-coating” for golden surfaces, since this results in a more shining gold coating.
Nikkel danner også såkaldte diffusionsbarrierer, som forhindrer at metaller fra grundmaterialet diffunderer op til overfladebelægningen og derved forringer udseendet af smykket.
Nickel also forms diffusions barriers which prevent the metal from the parent material to diffuse to the surface, and thereby deteriorates the look of the jewellery.
Miljøstyrelsen har i 2006 lavet en EU-risikovurdering af nikkel og nikkelforbindelser (Andersen, et al., 2006), hvori de konkluderer på baggrund af en lang række studier, at til brug i risikovurdering burde en værdi for oral optagelse på 30% anvendes.
The Danish Environmental and Protection Agency has in 2006 performed a risk assessment of nickel and nickel compounds (Andersen et al., 2006), in which they conclude that based on a number of studies, an oral absorption value of 30% should be used for risk assessments.
Denne værdi refererer til oral optagelse af følgende nikkelforbindelser: nikkelsulfat, nikkelchlorid, nikkelnitrat og nikkelcarbonat i fastende mennesker.
This value refers to oral absorption of the following nickel compounds: nickel sulphate, nickel chloride, nickel nitrate and nickel carbonate in fasting people.
For ikke-fastende mennesker anbefaler de en værdi på 5%.
For non-fasting people a value of 5% is recommended.
Et studie har vist, at biotilgængeligheden af nikkel nedsættes, når nikkel gives sammen med sødmælk, kaffe, the eller appelsinjuice (ATSDR, 2005a).
A study has shown that the bioavailability of nickel is reduced when nickel is given along with full-cream milk, coffee, tea or orange juice (ATSDR, 2005a).
Andre studier har vist et maksimalt nikkeloptag på mellem 11,07 og 37,42%.
Other studies have shown a maximum nickel uptake of between 11.07 and 37.42%.
Her var nikkel (12 µg Ni/kg) tildelt 4 timer efter indtagelse af røræg.
Here nickel (12 µg/kg) was administered 4 hours after ingestion of scrambled eggs.
Et andet studie indikerer, at nikkeloptagelse falder med alderen (Hindsen et al., 1994 i ATSDR, 2005a).
Another study indicates that nickel absorption reduces with age (Hindsen et al., 1994 in ATSDR, 2005a).
Dyreforsøg har vist, at de forskellige nikkelforbindelser optages forskelligt.
Animal studies have shown that different nickel compounds are absorbed differently.
Generelt var absorptionen højere for opløselige nikkelforbindelser (ATSDR, 2005a).
Generally, the absorption was higher for soluble nickel compounds (ATSDR, 2005a).
Det antages i dette projekt, at den orale optagelse for nikkel er 30%.
In this project it is assumed that the oral absorption of nickel is 30%.
Værdien er dog gældende for fastende mennesker, men for at antage worst case anvendes den alligevel.
The value is valid for fasting people, but in order to stick to a conservative approach the value is used anyway.
Risikovurderingen af nikkel fra 2005 (Andersen et al., 2005a - draft) konkluderer, at absorption af nikkel gennem huden kan finde sted, men at en stor del af den tilførte dosis forbliver på huden.
The risk assessment of nickel from 2005 (Andersen et al., 2005a - draft) concludes that absorption of nickel through the skin can occur but that a large proportion of the added dose remains on the skin.
De hævder, at der er begrænset data tilgængelig vedrørende præcis hvilken fraktion, der absorberes, men anvender en værdi på 0,2% for dermal optagelse af nikkel i relation til risikovurdering.
They state that limited data is available regarding exactly which fraction that is absorbed, but apply a value of 0.2% regarding dermal absorption of nickel for use in risk assessments.
Andersen et al. (2006) konkluderer imidlertid, at til brug for risikovurdering anvendes en værdi for dermalt optag på 2% for absorption af nikkel som følge af eksponering af nikkelchlorid.
Andersen et al. (2006), however, concludes that for use in risk assessments a value of 2% should be applied, related to dermal absorption of nickel following exposure of nickel chloride.
Til brug i dette projekt anvendes en værdi på 2% for dermal optagelse af nikkelchlorid, idet denne metalforbindelse findes i sved, der har kontakt med smykker.
For use in this project a value of 2% is applied in terms of dermal absorption of nickel chloride, since this metal compound exists in sweat that is in contact with jewellery.
Nikkel bindes i blodet til serumproteiner og transporteres rundt i kroppen.
Nickel is bound to serum proteins in the blood and is transported around the body.
Nikkel koncentreres derefter i nyrer, lever og lunger samt lymfeknuder (Baars et al., 2001).
Nickel is subsequently concentrated in kidneys, liver and lungs as well as the lymph nodes (Baars et al., 2001).
En undersøgelse af individer, som ikke til daglig var udsat for nikkel gennem deres arbejde, viste, at den højeste nikkelkoncentration fandtes i lungerne, fulgt af skjoldbruskkirtlen, binyrerne, nyrerne, hjertet, leveren, hjernen, milten og bugspytkirtlen (ATSDR, 2005a).
A study examining individuals who were not on a daily basis exposed to nickel through work showed that the highest concentration of nickel was found in the lungs, followed by the thyroid gland, the suprarenal glands, the kidneys, the heart, the liver, the brain, the spleen and the pancreas (ATSDR, 2005a).
Et studie har desuden vist, at nikkel kan krydse placenta, hvilket bekræftes af stigende nikkelkoncentrationer i musefostre, hvor moderen var udsat for nikkel under svangerskabet (ATSDR, 2005a).
A study has furthermore showed that nickel can cross the placenta, which was confirmed by increasing concentrations of nickel in mice foetuses whose mothers have been exposed to nickel during the pregnancy (ATSDR, 2005a).
6.4.7 Allergi og lokal irritation
6.4.7 Local irritation and allergy
Nikkel kan forårsage hudallergi, og opfylder kriterierne for at klassificeres med risikosætningen R43: kan give overfølsomhed ved kontakt ved hud.
Nickel can cause skin allergy and fulfils the criteria for being classified with the following risk phrase: R43: May cause sensitization by skin contact.
Ifølge Andersen et al. (2006) er Ni2+ ionen ansvarlig for de immunologiske effekter af nikkel.
According to Andersen et al. (2006) it is the Ni2+ ion, which is responsible for the immunological effects of nickel.
Tilgængelige data viser at sålænge en migrationsrate på 0,5 µg Ni/cm²/uge ikke overskrides, så er der ingen fare for hudallergi hos ikke-følsomme individer i en stor del af populationen (som udsættes for kontakt gennem længere tid med nikkel og nikkellegeringer) (Andersen, et al. 2005a - draft).
Available data shows that as long as a migration rate of 0.5 µg Ni/cm²/uge is not exceeded, there is no risk of causing skin allergy in non-sensitive individuals in a large part of the population (who are exposed to nickel and nickel alloys for an extended period of time) (Andersen et al., 2005a - draft).