natgillin/translations-raw huggingface dataset:
It noted that some of these problems are more likely the result of lack of resources, training and appropriate harmonisation of customs rules than of intentional barriers to trade.
It noted that some of these problems are more likely the result of lack of resources, training and appropriate harmonisation of customs rules than of intentional barriers to trade.
However, serious concerns remain.
However, serious concerns remain.
For many EU businesses, the principal point of frustration is China's lack of enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs), particularly now that China is a substantial market for branded goods as well as for the recording industry.
For many EU businesses, the principal point of frustration is China's lack of enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs), particularly now that China is a substantial market for branded goods as well as for the recording industry.
China was required to implement the TRIPS Agreement in full from the date of accession.
China was required to implement the TRIPS Agreement in full from the date of accession.
Although the situation has improved since 2001, many still believe the authorities have not sufficiently tackled counterfeiting.
Although the situation has improved since 2001, many still believe the authorities have not sufficiently tackled counterfeiting.
For the recording industry piracy accounts for 85% of all units sold.
For the recording industry piracy accounts for 85% of all units sold.
Those responsible rarely face criminal sanctions.
Those responsible rarely face criminal sanctions.
From a Chinese perspective, however, the TRIPS Agreement poses other threats, particularly in the field of pharmaceuticals.
From a Chinese perspective, however, the TRIPS Agreement poses other threats, particularly in the field of pharmaceuticals.
Groups working on public health inequalities in China are rightly concerned that, since prices of patented drugs are typically much higher than for generic versions, any price inflation will hurt the poorest hardest.
Groups working on public health inequalities in China are rightly concerned that, since prices of patented drugs are typically much higher than for generic versions, any price inflation will hurt the poorest hardest.
Other areas of concern noted by European industry include problems in the construction industry, banking, and the automobile sector.
Other areas of concern noted by European industry include problems in the construction industry, banking, and the automobile sector.
The economic viability of some European industries also risks being undermined by China’s policy on raw materials, including the drop of Chinese exports of cokes.
The economic viability of some European industries also risks being undermined by China’s policy on raw materials, including the drop of Chinese exports of cokes.
As far as the Doha Round is concerned, China has important role to play.
As far as the Doha Round is concerned, China has important role to play.
At Cancun, China worked closely with others in the G-20 to challenge the dominance of the WTO’s traditional leaders – the EU and the US.
At Cancun, China worked closely with others in the G-20 to challenge the dominance of the WTO’s traditional leaders – the EU and the US.
China's membership of the G-20 may be more an expression of solidarity with developing countries' interests than with its intrinsic trade interests, but nonetheless this alliance looks set to remain influential at the WTO.
China's membership of the G-20 may be more an expression of solidarity with developing countries' interests than with its intrinsic trade interests, but nonetheless this alliance looks set to remain influential at the WTO.
Textiles and Clothing
Textiles and Clothing
Of all the sectors of Chinese growth, the area that poses greatest immediate challenges to the EU is textiles and clothing.
Of all the sectors of Chinese growth, the area that poses greatest immediate challenges to the EU is textiles and clothing.
On 1 January 2005, all remaining quotas under the WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) disappeared.
On 1 January 2005, all remaining quotas under the WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) disappeared.
As a result, the World Bank and WTO predict China's share of world trade and textiles and clothing will rise from 17% in 2003 to over 50% by 2010.
As a result, the World Bank and WTO predict China's share of world trade and textiles and clothing will rise from 17% in 2003 to over 50% by 2010.
China is the EU's largest supplier of textiles and clothing products, representing 18% of all T & C imports (quota and non-quota) in 2003.
China is the EU's largest supplier of textiles and clothing products, representing 18% of all T & C imports (quota and non-quota) in 2003.
However, it accounted for 43% of the liberalised, quota-free segment, and its quota-free imports under the third stage of the ATC almost doubled over the 2001-03 period.
However, it accounted for 43% of the liberalised, quota-free segment, and its quota-free imports under the third stage of the ATC almost doubled over the 2001-03 period.
Some argue that China's imports have mostly grown at the expense of imports from third countries, which have seen their share of the EU market decrease.
Some argue that China's imports have mostly grown at the expense of imports from third countries, which have seen their share of the EU market decrease.
However, the EU's T & C industry is also already experiencing significant pressure.
However, the EU's T & C industry is also already experiencing significant pressure.
According to the European Apparel and Textile Organisation, which has called for the introduction of quantitative restrictions, exports to the EU 15 of pullovers and jerseys have grown in the first two months of this year by 893%, trousers by 201% and tights and pantyhose by 1,940%, and the sector risks losing 1000 jobs per day, and 1,000,000 jobs before the end of 2006.
According to the European Apparel and Textile Organisation, which has called for the introduction of quantitative restrictions, exports to the EU 15 of pullovers and jerseys have grown in the first two months of this year by 893%, trousers by 201% and tights and pantyhose by 1,940%, and the sector risks losing 1000 jobs per day, and 1,000,000 jobs before the end of 2006.
Although the European Commission has begun to try to address this problem, there is growing frustration that it is not acting more quickly to introduce safeguards.
Although the European Commission has begun to try to address this problem, there is growing frustration that it is not acting more quickly to introduce safeguards.
On 24 April, Commissioner Mandelson finally announced he was launching investigations into nine categories of textile exports, where import volumes from China have risen above the 'alert levels'.
On 24 April, Commissioner Mandelson finally announced he was launching investigations into nine categories of textile exports, where import volumes from China have risen above the 'alert levels'.
China's own instrument for limiting its producers' impact - an export tax on garments - has been set so low that manufacturers say it has almost no effect.
China's own instrument for limiting its producers' impact - an export tax on garments - has been set so low that manufacturers say it has almost no effect.
But if the impact in the EU will be severe, in many least developed, and small developing countries, it will be devastating.
But if the impact in the EU will be severe, in many least developed, and small developing countries, it will be devastating.
Since the 1980s, largely as a result of the quota system of the MFA, many have built a huge dependency on the sector.
Since the 1980s, largely as a result of the quota system of the MFA, many have built a huge dependency on the sector.
In 2000, it accounted for 95% of all Bangladesh's industrial goods exports, in Laos 93%, Cambodia 83%, Pakistan 73%, Sri Lanka 71%, and Nepal 61%.
In 2000, it accounted for 95% of all Bangladesh's industrial goods exports, in Laos 93%, Cambodia 83%, Pakistan 73%, Sri Lanka 71%, and Nepal 61%.
The sector employs over 1.8 million workers in Bangladesh, 1.4 million in Pakistan, and 250,000 in Sri Lanka.
The sector employs over 1.8 million workers in Bangladesh, 1.4 million in Pakistan, and 250,000 in Sri Lanka.
Little wonder, then, that several dozen countries made an 11th-hour appeal to the WTO to save their textile industries – it fell, however, on deaf ears.
Little wonder, then, that several dozen countries made an 11th-hour appeal to the WTO to save their textile industries – it fell, however, on deaf ears.
It seems clear that China's deflationary pressures will further drive down wages, pushing global suppliers to reduce their workers rights and conditions in a bid to remain competitive – first in the textiles sector, but increasingly in other sectors as well.
It seems clear that China's deflationary pressures will further drive down wages, pushing global suppliers to reduce their workers rights and conditions in a bid to remain competitive – first in the textiles sector, but increasingly in other sectors as well.
With regard to T & C, the negative effects are already beginning to be felt: in the Philippines, the government has ruled that its minimum wage law would no longer apply to the clothing industry, while the Bangladeshi government recently announced that it would increase authorised overtime hours and reduce the restrictions on women's night work.
With regard to T & C, the negative effects are already beginning to be felt: in the Philippines, the government has ruled that its minimum wage law would no longer apply to the clothing industry, while the Bangladeshi government recently announced that it would increase authorised overtime hours and reduce the restrictions on women's night work.
The Commission's response has been to urge European manufacturers to produce higher-value garments rather than competing with China on basics.
The Commission's response has been to urge European manufacturers to produce higher-value garments rather than competing with China on basics.
Yet China's rapid ability to climb the value-added ladder across most sectors shows what unhelpful counsel this is, not just for the EU, but also for countries like Bangladesh.
Yet China's rapid ability to climb the value-added ladder across most sectors shows what unhelpful counsel this is, not just for the EU, but also for countries like Bangladesh.
China is also fast developing competitive advantage not only in footwear, machine components, and automobiles, but also in higher tech goods.
China is also fast developing competitive advantage not only in footwear, machine components, and automobiles, but also in higher tech goods.
This is a systemic challenge, not a one-off sectoral one.
This is a systemic challenge, not a one-off sectoral one.
Shaking up Trade Theory
Shaking up Trade Theory
Harvard economist Richard B.
Harvard economist Richard B. Freeman has observed, "what is stunning about China is that for the first time we have a huge, poor country that can compete both with very low wages and in high tech.
Freeman has observed, "what is stunning about China is that for the first time we have a huge, poor country that can compete both with very low wages and in high tech. Combine the two, and America has a problem."
Combine the two, and America has a problem."
Quoted in Business Week, December 6, 2004 .
Quoted in Business Week, December 6, 2004 .
This report argues that the EU has a problem, too.
This report argues that the EU has a problem, too.
Proponents of globalisation argue that, although some EU jobs are lost, either to imports or because factories move to cheap labour countries like China or India, on balance everyone benefits.
Proponents of globalisation argue that, although some EU jobs are lost, either to imports or because factories move to cheap labour countries like China or India, on balance everyone benefits.
The bulk of this work is labour-intensive and lower skilled and can be done more efficiently by countries that have an abundance of less-educated workers.
The bulk of this work is labour-intensive and lower skilled and can be done more efficiently by countries that have an abundance of less-educated workers.
In return, those countries buy more of our higher-valued goods made by skilled workers - for which we have a comparative advantage.
In return, those countries buy more of our higher-valued goods made by skilled workers - for which we have a comparative advantage.
In theory, the lost jobs and lower wages in the EU and US are more than offset, leading to more robust exports and lower prices on imported goods.
In theory, the lost jobs and lower wages in the EU and US are more than offset, leading to more robust exports and lower prices on imported goods.
But this long-held consensus is now beginning to crack.
But this long-held consensus is now beginning to crack.
With both China and India now graduating more college students than the US every year, economists are increasingly uncertain about just where the EU and US have comparative advantage any more - or whether the standard framework for understanding globalisation still applies in the face of so-called white-collar off shoring.
With both China and India now graduating more college students than the US every year, economists are increasingly uncertain about just where the EU and US have comparative advantage any more - or whether the standard framework for understanding globalisation still applies in the face of so-called white-collar off shoring.
The China Price
The China Price
‘“The China Price”.
‘“The China Price”.
They are the three scariest words in US industry.
They are the three scariest words in US industry.
In general it means 30% to 50% less than what you can possibly make something for in the US.
In general it means 30% to 50% less than what you can possibly make something for in the US.
In the worst cases, it means below your cost of materials.”
In the worst cases, it means below your cost of materials.”
So the December 6 2004 issue of Business Week opens its special report on China.
So the December 6 2004 issue of Business Week opens its special report on China.
Extrapolating to the EU, there are good reasons for European manufacturers to worry even though they have weathered decades of competition from Japan and Korea.
Extrapolating to the EU, there are good reasons for European manufacturers to worry even though they have weathered decades of competition from Japan and Korea.
China is different in a number of ways:
China is different in a number of ways:
· Speed : Earlier rivals usually took years to build up a presence.
· Speed : Earlier rivals usually took years to build up a presence.
Chinese competition often seizes share rapidly with unbeatable prices, leaving little time for domestic companies to adjust
Chinese competition often seizes share rapidly with unbeatable prices, leaving little time for domestic companies to adjust
· Breadth: Other Asian nations shed labour-intensive work as they industrialised, but China is gaining share in low-tech at the same time as advancing into higher-value areas such as digital electronics
· Breadth: Other Asian nations shed labour-intensive work as they industrialised, but China is gaining share in low-tech at the same time as advancing into higher-value areas such as digital electronics
· Competition: Japan and Korea are limited players in many industries.
· Competition: Japan and Korea are limited players in many industries.
But in China, dozens of manufacturers battle for share in the domestic markets for appliances, cell phones, cars, keeping everyone more competitive
But in China, dozens of manufacturers battle for share in the domestic markets for appliances, cell phones, cars, keeping everyone more competitive
· Alliances: Unlike Japan or Korea, China welcomes foreign investment in key industries.
· Alliances: Unlike Japan or Korea, China welcomes foreign investment in key industries.
Foreign ventures account for 60% of exports and a big share of local sales
Foreign ventures account for 60% of exports and a big share of local sales
· Size: China is both an export power and is itself becoming the world’s biggest market for cars, appliances, cell phones and more, giving China unparalleled economies of scale.
· Size: China is both an export power and is itself becoming the world’s biggest market for cars, appliances, cell phones and more, giving China unparalleled economies of scale.
Clearly, the traditional assumption that the US and EU will keep leading in knowledge-intensive industries while developing nations focus on lower-skill sectors is open to serious debate.
Clearly, the traditional assumption that the US and EU will keep leading in knowledge-intensive industries while developing nations focus on lower-skill sectors is open to serious debate.
China is emerging as the most competitive manufacturing platform ever.
China is emerging as the most competitive manufacturing platform ever.
Chief among its formidable assets is its cheap labour, from $120/month production workers to $2000/month chip designers.
Chief among its formidable assets is its cheap labour, from $120/month production workers to $2000/month chip designers.
Even in sophisticated electronics industries, where direct labour is less than 10% of costs, China’s low wages are reflected in the entire supply chain, from components and office workers to cargo handlers.
Even in sophisticated electronics industries, where direct labour is less than 10% of costs, China’s low wages are reflected in the entire supply chain, from components and office workers to cargo handlers.
China is also propelled by an enormous domestic market that brings economies of scale, strong local competition that keeps prices low, an army of engineers that is growing by 350,000 annually, young workers and managers willing to put in 12-hour days and work weekends, an unparalleled component and material base in electronics and light industry, and an entrepreneurial zeal to do whatever it takes to please big retailers.
China is also propelled by an enormous domestic market that brings economies of scale, strong local competition that keeps prices low, an army of engineers that is growing by 350,000 annually, young workers and managers willing to put in 12-hour days and work weekends, an unparalleled component and material base in electronics and light industry, and an entrepreneurial zeal to do whatever it takes to please big retailers.
These are enormous challenges that need to be taken far more seriously, both by the EU and by all China’s trading partners.
These are enormous challenges that need to be taken far more seriously, both by the EU and by all China’s trading partners.
The Commission’s response to date has been both tardy and complacent, resting on the assumption that diversifying into higher skilled, more specialised work will protect European jobs.
The Commission’s response to date has been both tardy and complacent, resting on the assumption that diversifying into higher skilled, more specialised work will protect European jobs.
In reality, however, advantages from these kind of micro-level specialities could be fleeting: there is no reason why China couldn’t develop advantage in those areas, too.
In reality, however, advantages from these kind of micro-level specialities could be fleeting: there is no reason why China couldn’t develop advantage in those areas, too.
Instead, the Commission should urgently investigate the extent to which “the China price” is already affecting EU industries, examine the level of existing off-shoring, and identify sectors that could be under threat in the future.
Instead, the Commission should urgently investigate the extent to which “the China price” is already affecting EU industries, examine the level of existing off-shoring, and identify sectors that could be under threat in the future.
At the same time, new ideas are emerging about how to respond in the longer term, including the concept of maximizing power at the local and national level, and of protecting and rebuilding local and national economies rather than gearing them to ruthlessly out-compete each other internationally.
At the same time, new ideas are emerging about how to respond in the longer term, including the concept of maximizing power at the local and national level, and of protecting and rebuilding local and national economies rather than gearing them to ruthlessly out-compete each other internationally.
Given the size of the Chinese domestic market, it would be a new world order that China would still thrive in – but no longer at the expense of so many others.
Given the size of the Chinese domestic market, it would be a new world order that China would still thrive in – but no longer at the expense of so many others.
Social Impacts
Social Impacts
There is much debate over whether China’s competitiveness is built on unfair trade practices, in particular its failure to respect minimum social and environmental standards.
There is much debate over whether China’s competitiveness is built on unfair trade practices, in particular its failure to respect minimum social and environmental standards.
This certainly seems to be at least partially the case.
This certainly seems to be at least partially the case.
For example, although China has very strict laws about the obligations of employers to protect their workers in dangerous environments, more than 100,000 people a year are estimated to die in work related accidents.
For example, although China has very strict laws about the obligations of employers to protect their workers in dangerous environments, more than 100,000 people a year are estimated to die in work related accidents.
The mining industry is most hazard-prone, with over 5000 Chinese miners are killed each year.
The mining industry is most hazard-prone, with over 5000 Chinese miners are killed each year.
Working under appalling safety conditions, they are sacrificed to fuel the factories that make China’ cheap goods for export.
Working under appalling safety conditions, they are sacrificed to fuel the factories that make China’ cheap goods for export.
Existing mine safety regulations must be rigorously implemented; mine owners and managers who knowingly put their workers’ lives at risk must be prosecuted, and the government must ratify the ILO Convention on Safety and Health in Mines.
Existing mine safety regulations must be rigorously implemented; mine owners and managers who knowingly put their workers’ lives at risk must be prosecuted, and the government must ratify the ILO Convention on Safety and Health in Mines.
More fundamentally, China’s miners – along with all its other workers – should be permitted to establish their own independent trade unions, so they can negotiate on working conditions, wages, health and safety, and other issues of vital concern to workers around the country.
More fundamentally, China’s miners – along with all its other workers – should be permitted to establish their own independent trade unions, so they can negotiate on working conditions, wages, health and safety, and other issues of vital concern to workers around the country.
Until that happens, the mass worker protests in many sectors of Chinese industry against excessive working hours, low pay, and frequent wage arrears look likely to continue – and, in the trade arena, the accusations from China’s trading partners of social dumping will increase.
Until that happens, the mass worker protests in many sectors of Chinese industry against excessive working hours, low pay, and frequent wage arrears look likely to continue – and, in the trade arena, the accusations from China’s trading partners of social dumping will increase.
Environmental Impacts
Environmental Impacts
China’s rapid economic growth is increasing pressures on its own resources as well as those of other nations.
China’s rapid economic growth is increasing pressures on its own resources as well as those of other nations.
It is already the world’s second largest consumer of oil and water, and trails only the US in emissions of carbon dioxide.
It is already the world’s second largest consumer of oil and water, and trails only the US in emissions of carbon dioxide.