Bushido , literally " the way of the warrior " , is a Japanese word for the way of the samurai life , loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry . The Bushido originates from the samurai moral code stressing frugality , loyalty , martial arts mastery , and honor unto death . Born from Neo - Confucianism during times of peace in Tokugawa Japan and following Confucian texts , Bushido was also influenced by Shinto and Zen Buddhism , allowing the violent existence of the samurai to be tempered by wisdom and serenity . Bushidō developed between the 9th and 20th centuries and numerous translated documents dating from the 12th to 16th centuries demonstrate its wide influence across the whole of Japan , although some scholars have noted " the term " bushidō " itself is rarely attested in premodern literature . " Under the Tokugawa Shogunate , aspects of bushidō became formalized into Japanese feudal law . The word was first used in Japan during the 17th century . It came into common usage in Japan and the West after the 1899 publication of Nitobe Inazō ' s " " . In " Bushido " ( 1899 ) , Inazō wrote : Nitobe was not the first person to document Japanese chivalry in this way . In his text " Feudal and Modern Japan " ( 1896 ) , historian Arthur May Knapp wrote : " The samurai of thirty years ago had behind him a thousand years of training in the law of honor , obedience , duty , and self - sacrifice . . . It was not needed to create or establish them . As a child he had but to be instructed , as indeed he was from his earliest years , in the etiquette of self - immolation . " Historical development . Early history to 12th century . The " Kojiki " is Japan ' s oldest extant book . Written in 721 , it contains passages about Yamato Takeru , the son of the Emperor Keiko . It provides an early indication of the values and literary self - image of the Bushidō ideal , including references to the use and admiration of the sword by Japanese warriors . This early concept is further found in the " Shoku Nihongi " , an early history of Japan written in 797 . The chapter covering the year 721 is notable for an early use of the term and a reference to the educated warrior - poet ideal . The Chinese term " bushi " had entered the Japanese vocabulary with the general introduction of Chinese literature , supplementing the indigenous terms " tsuwamono " and " mononofu " . It is also the usage for public placement exams . An early reference to " saburau " — a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person of high rank — appears in " Kokin Wakashū " , the first imperial anthology of poems , ( early 10th century ) . By the end of the 12th century , " saburai " ( " retainer " ) had become largely synonymous with " bushi " , and closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class . Although many of the early literary works of Japan contain the image of the warrior , the term " " bushidō " " does not appear in early texts like the " Kojiki " . Warrior ideals and conduct may be illustrated , but the term did not appear in text until the Sengoku period , towards the end of the Muromachi era ( 1336 – 1573 ) . 13th to 16th centuries . From the literature of the 13th to 16th centuries , there exists an abundance of references to the ideals of Bushidō . Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th and 14th century writings ( " gunki monogatari " ) " portrayed the bushi in their natural element , war , eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery , fierce family pride , and selfless , at times senseless devotion of master and man . " Compiled in 1371 , the " Heike Monogatari " chronicles the struggle between the Minamoto and Taira clans for control of Japan at the end of the 12th century — a conflict known as the Gempei War . Clearly depicted throughout the " Heike Monogatari " is the ideal of the cultivated warrior . The warriors in the " Heike Monogatari " served as models for the educated warriors of later generations , and the ideals depicted by them were not assumed to be beyond reach . Rather , these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms . By the time of Imagawa Ryoshun ' s " Regulations " at the beginning of the 15th century , the Bushidō ideal was fairly clear , and the term itself came into widespread use . Other examples of the evolution in the Bushidō literature of the 13th to 16th centuries included : The sayings of Sengoku - period retainers and warlords such as Kato Kiyomasa and Nabeshima Naoshige were generally recorded or passed down to posterity around the turn of the 16th century when Japan had entered a period of relative peace . In a handbook addressed to " all samurai , regardless of rank , " Kato states : Kato was a ferocious warrior who banned even recitation of poetry , stating : Naoshige says similarly , that it is shameful for any man to die without having risked his life in battle , regardless of rank , and that " Bushidō is in being crazy to die . Fifty or more could not kill one such a man . " However , Naoshige also suggests that " everyone should personally know exertion as it is known in the lower classes . " 17th to 19th centuries . Japan enjoyed a period of relative peace during the " Sakoku " period from 1600 to the mid - 19th century , also called the " Pax Tokugawa " . During this period , the samurai class played a central role in the policing and administration of the country under the Tokugawa shogunate . The bushidō literature of this time contains much thought relevant to a warrior class seeking more general application of martial principles and experience in peacetime , as well as reflection on the land ' s long history of war . The literature of this time includes : The " Hagakure " contains many of the sayings of Sengoku - period retainer Nabeshima Naoshige ( 1537 – 1619 ) regarding Bushidō related philosophy early in the 18th century by Yamamoto Tsunetomo ( 1659 – 1719 ) , a former retainer to Naoshige ' s grandson , Nabeshima Mitsushige . The Hagakure was compiled in the early 18th century , but was kept as a kind of " secret teaching " of the Nabeshima clan until was the end of the Tokugawa era ( 1867 ) . His saying " I have found the way of the warrior is death " was a summation of the willingness to sacrifice that bushido codified . Tokugawa - era rōnin scholar and strategist Yamaga Sokō ( 1622 – 1685 ) wrote extensively on matters relating to bushidō , bukyō ( a " warrior ' s creed " ) , and a more general shido , a " way of gentlemen " intended for application to all stations of society . Sokō attempts to codify a kind of " universal bushidō " with a special emphasis on " pure " Confucian values , ( rejecting the mystical influences of Tao and Buddhism in Neo - Confucian orthodoxy ) , while at the same time calling for recognition of the singular and divine nature of Japan and Japanese culture . These radical concepts — including ultimate devotion to the Emperor , regardless of rank or clan — put him at odds with the reigning shogunate . He was exiled to the Akō domain , ( the future setting of the 47 Rōnin incident ) , and his works were not widely read until the rise of nationalism in the early 20th century . The aging Tsunetomo ' s interpretation of bushidō is perhaps more illustrative of the philosophy refined by his unique station and experience , at once dutiful and defiant , ultimately incompatible with the mores and laws of an emerging civil society . Of the 47 Rōnin — to this day , generally regarded as exemplars of bushido — Tsunetomo felt they were remiss in hatching such a wily , delayed plot for revenge , and had been over - concerned with the success of their undertaking . Instead , Tsunetomo felt true samurai should act without hesitation to fulfill their duties , without regard for success or failure . This romantic sentiment is of course expressed by warriors down through history , though it may run counter to the art of war itself . This ambivalence is found in the heart of bushidō , and perhaps all such " warrior code s " . Some combination of traditional bushidō ' s organic contradictions and more " universal " or " progressive " formulations , ( like those of Yamaga Soko ) , would inform Japan ' s disastrous military ambitions in the 20th century . 19th and 20th centuries . Recent scholarship in both Japan and abroad has focused on differences between the samurai class and the bushidō theories that developed in modern Japan . Bushidō in the prewar period was often emperor - centered and placed much greater value on the virtues of loyalty and self - sacrifice than did many Tokugawa - era interpretations . Bushidō was used as a propaganda tool by the government and military , who doctored it to suit their needs . Scholars of Japanese history agree that the bushidō that spread throughout modern Japan was not simply a continuation of earlier traditions . More recently , it has been argued that modern bushidō discourse originated in the 1880s as a response to foreign stimuli , such as the English concept of " gentlemanship , " by Japanese with considerable exposure to Western culture . Nitobe Inazo ' s bushidō interpretations followed a similar trajectory , although he was following earlier trends . This relatively pacifistic bushidō was then hijacked and adapted by militarists and the government from the early 1900s onward as nationalism increased around the time of the Russo - Japanese War . The " junshi " suicide of General Nogi Maresuke and his wife on the death of Emperor Meiji occasioned both praise , as an example to the decaying morals of Japan , and criticism , explicitly declaring that the spirit of " bushido " thus exemplified should not be revived . During pre - World War II and World War II Shōwa Japan , " bushido " was pressed into use for militarism , to present war as purifying , and death a duty . This was presented as revitalizing traditional values and " transcending the modern . " " Bushido " would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end . As the war turned , the spirit of " bushido " was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation . When the Battle of Attu was lost , attempts were made to make the more than two thousand Japanese deaths an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation . Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf , involving all Japanese ships , would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed , were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to " bloom as flowers of death . " The first proposals of organized suicide attacks met resistance because while " bushido " called for a warrior to be always aware of death , but not to view it as the sole end , but the desperate straits brought about acceptance . Such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of " bushido " . Denials of mistreatment of prisoners of war declared that they were being well - treated by virtue of " bushido " generosity . Broadcast interviews with prisoners were also described as being not propaganda but out of sympathy with the enemy , such sympathy as only " bushido " could inspire . Yukio Mishima , the famous writer , was outspoken in his by - then anachronistic commitment to " bushido " in the 1960s , until his ritual suicide by " seppuku " after a failed " coup d ' état " in November 1970 . Tenets . Bushidō expanded and formalized the earlier code of the samurai , and stressed frugality , loyalty , mastery of martial arts , and honor to the death . Under the bushidō ideal , if a samurai failed to uphold his honor he could only regain it by performing seppuku ( ritual suicide ) . In an excerpt from his book " Samurai : The World of the Warrior " , historian Stephen Turnbull describes the role of seppuku in feudal Japan : In the world of the warrior , seppuku was a deed of bravery that was admirable in a samurai who knew he was defeated , disgraced , or mortally wounded . It meant that he could end his days with his transgressions wiped away and with his reputation not merely intact but actually enhanced . The cutting of the abdomen released the samurai ’ s spirit in the most dramatic fashion , but it was an extremely painful and unpleasant way to die , and sometimes the samurai who was performing the act asked a loyal comrade to cut off his head at the moment of agony . Bushidō was widely practiced , varying little over time , and across the geographic and socio - economic backgrounds of the samurai , who at one time represented up to 10 % of the Japanese population . The first Meiji era census at the end of the 19th century counted 1 , 282 , 000 members of the " high samurai " , allowed to ride a horse , and 492 , 000 members of the " low samurai " , allowed to wear two swords but not to ride a horse , in a country of about 25 million . Bushidō includes compassion for those of lower station , and for the preservation of one ' s name . Early bushidō literature further enforces the requirement to conduct oneself with calmness , fairness , justice , and propriety . The relationship between learning and the way of the warrior is clearly articulated , one being a natural partner to the other . Other parts of the bushidō philosophy cover methods of raising children , appearance , and grooming , but all of this may be seen as part of one ' s constant preparation for death — to die a good death with one ' s honor intact , the ultimate aim in a life lived according to bushidō . Indeed , a " good death " is its own reward , and by no means assurance of " future rewards " in the afterlife . Notable samurai , though certainly not all ( e . g . Amakusa Shiro ) , have throughout history held such aims or beliefs in disdain , or expressed the awareness that their station — as it involves killing — precludes such reward , especially in Buddhism . On the contrary , the soul of a noble warrior suffering in hell or as a lingering spirit is a common motif in Japanese art and literature . Bushidō , while exhibiting the influence of Dao through Zen Buddhism , is a philosophy in contradistinction to religious belief , with a deep commitment to propriety in this world for propriety ' s sake . Seven virtues of Bushidō . The Bushidō code is typified by seven virtue s : Modern translations . Modern Western translation of documents related to Bushidō began in the 1970s with Carl Steenstrup , who performed research into the ethical codes of famous Samurai clans including Hōjō Sōun and Imagawa Sadayo . Primary research into Bushidō was later conducted by William Scott Wilson in his 1982 text " Ideals of the Samurai : Writings of Japanese Warriors " . The writings span hundreds of years , family lineage , geography , social class and writing style — yet share a common set of values . Wilson ' s work also examined the earliest Japanese writings in the 8th century : the Kojiki , Shoku Nihongi , the Kokin Wakashū , Konjaku Monogatari , and the Heike Monogatari , as well as the Chinese Classics ( the Analects , the Great Learning , the Doctrine of the Mean , and the Mencius ) . In May 2008 , Thomas Cleary translated a collection of 22 writings on Bushido " by warriors , scholars , political advisers , and educators " . The comprehensive collection provides a historically rich view of samurai life and philosophy . The book , " Training the Samurai Mind : A Bushido Sourcebook , " gives an insider ' s view of the samurai world : " the moral and psychological development of the warrior , the ethical standards they were meant to uphold , their training in both martial arts and strategy , and the enormous role that the traditions of Shintoism , Buddhism , Confucianism , and Taoism had in influencing samurai ideals . " The translations , in 22 chapters , span nearly 500 years from the 14th to the 19th centuries .