Hoplite Hoplites were citizen - soldiers of Ancient Greek city - states who were primarily armed with spear s and shield s . Their main tactic was the phalanx formation . They were primarily free citizens — propertied farmers and artisans — who were able to afford the bronze armor suit and weapons ( estimated at a third to a half of its able - bodied adult male population ) . Hoplites generally received basic military training . In 700 BC , a military innovation called the phalanx formation was introduced . This new tactic proved to be a success during the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC and the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC , when the Greeks defeated the Persians . The Persian archers and light troops who had fought in the Battle of Marathon failed when their bows were too weak and incapable of penetrating the Greek shields and armour , and their own armour and shields could not stand up to the longer spears and swords of the Greeks . The word " " hoplite " " ( Greek : " hoplitēs " ; pl . " hoplitai " ) derives from " " hoplon " " ( , plural " hopla " ) , the type of the shield used by the soldiers , although , as a word , " hopla " could also denote the weapons held or even full armament . In later usage , the term " hoplite " is used to denote any armored infantry such as the Swiss mercenaries during the Burgundian Wars ( 1474 – 1477 ) . History . Ancient Greece . The exact time when hoplitic warfare was developed is uncertain , the prevalent theory being that it was established sometime during the 8th or 7th century BC , when the " heroic age was abandoned and a far more disciplined system introduced " and the Argive shield became popular . Peter Krentz argues that " the ideology of hoplitic warfare as a ritualized contest developed not in the 7th century , but only after 480 , when non - hoplite arms began to be excluded from the phalanx " . Anagnostis Agelarakis based on recent archaeo - anthropological discoveries of the earliest monumental polyandrion ( communal burial of male warriors ) at Paros Island in Greece , unveils a last quarter of the 8th century BC date for a hoplitic phalangeal military organization . The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was tied to the rise and fall of the city - state . As discussed above , hoplites were a solution to the armed clashes between independent city - states . As Greek civilization found itself confronted by the world at large , particularly the Persians , the emphasis in warfare shifted . Confronted by huge numbers of enemy troops , individual city - states could not realistically fight alone . During the Greco - Persian Wars ( 499 – 448 BC ) , alliances between groups of cities ( whose composition varied over time ) fought against the Persians . This drastically altered the scale of warfare and the numbers of troops involved . The hoplite phalanx proved itself far superior to the Persian infantry at such conflicts as the Battle of Marathon , Thermopylae , and the Battle of Plataea . During this period , Athens and Sparta rose to a position of political eminence in Greece , and their rivalry in the aftermath of the Persian wars brought Greece into renewed internal conflict . However , the Peloponnesian War was on a scale unlike conflicts before . Fought between leagues of cities , dominated by Athens and Sparta respectively , the pooled manpower and financial resources allowed a diversification of warfare . Hoplite warfare was in decline ; there were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War , and none proved decisive . Instead there was increased reliance on navies , skirmishers , mercenaries , city walls , siege engines , and non - set piece tactics . These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the number of casualties . In the Persian war , hoplites faced large numbers of skirmishers and missile - armed troops , and such troops ( e . g . , Peltast s ) became much more commonly used by the Greeks during the Peloponnesian War . As a result , hoplites began wearing less armour , carrying shorter swords , and in general adapting for greater mobility ; this led to the development of the ekdromoi light hoplite . Many famous personalities , philosophers , artists , and poets fought as hoplites . Sparta . Sparta is the most famous city - state which had a unique position in ancient Greece . Contrary to other city states , the free citizens of Sparta served as hoplites their entire life , training and exercising also in peacetime , which gave Sparta a professional standing army . Although small , numbering no more than 1 , 500 - 2 , 000 men , divided into 6 Mora or batallion s , the Spartan army was feared for its discipline and ferocity . Military service was the primary duty of Spartan men , and Spartan society was organized around its army . Young boys were sent to military school at the age of 7 until the age of 21 when they became full soldiers and moved into their own barracks . These boys who made it endured physical , mental , and spiritual training throughout their education . It is said they were often instructed by their teachers to fight one another . Since the Spartan diet was meager and not very tasty , stealing food was a necessity , and when caught , the boy would be punished for being captured rather than for stealing . Their graduation included having to live in the wild for a week and killing a slave . Military service for Hoplites lasted until the age of 40 , and sometimes even until 60 years of age , depending on a man ' s physical ability to perform in the battlefield . Macedonia . Later on in the hoplite era , more sophisticated tactics were developed , in particular by the Theban general Epaminondas . These tactics inspired the future king Philip II of Macedon , who was at the time a hostage in Thebes , and also inspired the development of new kind of infantry , the Macedonian Phalanx . After the Macedonian conquests of the 4th century BC , the hoplite was slowly abandoned in favour of the phalangite , armed in the Macedonian fashion , in the armies of the southern Greek states . Although clearly a development of the hoplite , the Macedonian phalanx was tactically more versatile , especially used in the combined arms tactics favoured by the Macedonians . These forces defeated the last major hoplite army , at the Battle of Chaeronea ( 338 BC ) , after which Athens and its allies joined the Macedonian empire . Warfare . The fragmentary nature of Ancient Greece , with many competing city - states , increased the frequency of conflict , but conversely limited the scale of warfare . Limited manpower did not allow most Greek city - states to form large armies which could operate for long periods , especially in the case of light troops like the psiloi , who were recruited from the lower citizen classes , and as such , they were mainly farmers , workers , even slaves . They were expected to take part in any military campaign when they would be called for duty . The Lacedaemonian citizens of Sparta were renowned for their lifelong combat training and almost mythical military prowess , while their greatest adversaries , the Athenians , were exempted from service only after the 60th year of their lives . This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns , as a large portion of any Greek army would need to return to their own professions as farmers and artisans . Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer . Armies marched directly to their target , the battlefield having possibly already been agreed on by the contestants . If battle was refused by the defender , they would generally retreat to their city , in which case the attackers generally had to content themselves with ravaging the surrounding countryside , since siege craft was not efficient , at least until the 5th century BC . When battles occurred , they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive . The battlefield would be flat and open to facilitate phalanx warfare . These battles were usually short and required a high degree of discipline . At least in the early classical period , cavalry was usually used to protect the flanks , when present at all , and cover a possible retreat . Light infantry and missile troops took part in the battle , but their role was of a lower importance . The military structure created by the Spartans was a rectangular phalanx formation . The formation was organized from eight to ten rows deep , stretching down for about a quarter of a mile or more with well heavily armed fighters fighting in a unit . The phalanxes would approach each other in a steady , slow march to keep cohesion or rarely at a run , if the enemy was prone to panic , or if they fought against enemies equipped with bows , as was the case with the Persians at the Battle of Marathon . The two lines would remain at a small distance to be able to effectively use their spears , while the psiloi threw stones and javelins from behind their lines . If the " doratismos " ( " spear combat " ) was not decisive , then the lines would close and swords would be drawn . The shields would clash and the first lines ( protostates ) would stab at their opponents , at the same time trying to keep in position . The ranks behind them would support them with their own spears and the mass of their shields gently pushing them , not to force them into the enemy formation but to keep them steady and in place . At certain points , a command would be given to the phalanx or a part thereof to collectively take a certain number of steps forward ( ranging from half to multiple steps ) . This was the famed " " othismos " " . At this point , the phalanx would put its collective weight to push back the enemy line and thus create fear and panic among its ranks . There could be multiple such instances of attempts to push , but it seems from the accounts of the ancients that these were perfectly orchestrated and attempted organized en masse . Battles rarely lasted more than an hour . Once one of the lines broke , the troops would generally flee from the field , sometimes chased by psiloi , peltast s , or light cavalry . If a hoplite escaped , he would sometimes be forced to drop his cumbersome aspis , thereby disgracing himself to his friends and family ( becoming a " " ripsaspis " " , one who threw his shield ) . To lessen the amount of casualties inflicted by the enemy during battles , soldiers were positioned to stand shoulder to shoulder with their hoplon . Casualties were slight compared to later battles , rarely amounting to more than 5 % of the losing side , but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front . Thus , the whole war could be decided by a single field battle ; victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated , called the " Custom of the Greeks " . Individual hoplites carried their shields on their left arm , protecting not only themselves but also the soldier to the left . This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half - protected . In battle , opposing phalanxes would exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy ' s right flank . It also meant that , in battle , a phalanx would tend to drift to the right ( as hoplites sought to remain behind the shield of their neighbour ) . The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx , to counteract these problems . According to Plutarch ' s " " Saying of the Spartans " " , " a man carried a shield for the sake of the whole line " . The " phalanx " is an example of a military formation in which single combat and other individualistic forms of battle were suppressed for the good of the whole . In earlier Homeric combat , the words and deeds of supremely powerful heroes turned the tide of battle . With his friends jostling and pushing on both sides and behind , and his enemies forming a solid wall in front of him , the hoplite had little opportunity for feats of technique and weapon skill , but great need for commitment and mental toughness . By forming a human wall to provide a powerful defensive armor , the Hoplites became invincible in the battlefield . The Hoplites were elite soldiers with much disciplined and taught to be loyal and trustworthy . They had to trust their neighbours for mutual protection , so a phalanx was only as strong as its weakest elements . Its effectiveness depended on how well the hoplites could maintain this formation while in combat , and how well they could stand their ground , especially when engaged against another phalanx . The more disciplined and courageous the army , the more likely it was to win — often engagements between the various city - states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing before the battle . The Greek word " dynamis " , " will " or " ability to fight " , was used to express the drive that kept hoplites in formation . Equipment . Each hoplite provided his own equipment . Thus , only those who could afford such weaponry fought as hoplites ; as with the Roman Republic an army it was the middle classes who formed the bulk of the infantry . Equipment was not standardised , although there were doubtless trends in general designs over time , and between city - states . Hoplites had customized armour , the shield was decorated with family or clan emblems , although in later years these were replaced by symbols or monogrammes of the city states . The equipment might well be passed down in families , since it would have been expensive to manufacture . The Hoplite army consisted of heavily armored infantrymen . Their armor , also called panoply , was made of full bronze , weighing nearly . The average farmer - peasant hoplite typically wore no armour , carrying only a shield , a spear , and perhaps a helmet plus a secondary weapon . Some hoplite spears were . A more well - to - do hoplite would have linothorax ( sometimes called a cuirass ) , armour composed of stitched / laminated linen fabrics that was sometimes reinforced with animal skins and / or bronze scales . The linothorax was the most popular type armour worn by the hoplites , since it was cost - effective and provided decent protection . The richer upper - class hoplites typically had a bronze cuirass of either the bell or muscled variety , a bronze helmet with cheekplates , as well as greave s and other armour . The design of the helmets used varied through time . The Corinthian helmet was at first standardised and was a very successful design . Later variants included the Chalcidian helmet , a lightened version of the Corinthian helmet , and the very simple Pilos helmet worn by the later hoplites . Often the helmet was decorated with one , sometimes more horsehair crests , and / or bronze animal horns and - ears . Helmets were often painted as well . The Thracian helmet had a large visor to further increase protection . In later periods , linen breastplates called " " linothorax " " were used , as they were tougher and cheaper to make . The linen was thick . Hoplites carried a large concave shield called an " aspis " ( often referred to as a " hoplon " ) made from wood and covered in bronze , measuring roughly 1 metre in diameter and weighing about 16 pounds . This large shield was made possible partly by its shape , which allowed it to be supported on the shoulder . The revolutionary part of the shield was , in fact , the grip . Known as an Argive grip , it placed the handle at the edge of the shield , and was supported by a leather fastening ( for the forearm ) at the centre . This allowed the hoplite soldier more mobility with the shield , as well as the ability to capitalize on its offensive capabilities and better support the Phalanx . It rested on a man ' s shoulders , stretching down the knees . These large shields were designed for pushing ahead and was the most essential equipment for the Hoplites . The main offensive weapon used was an 8 to 15 foot long and an inch in diameter spear called a " doru , or dory " . It was held with the right hand , the other hand holding the hoplite ' s shield . Soldiers usually held their spears in an underhand position when approaching but once they came into close contact with their opponents , they were held in an overhand position ready to strike . The spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape , while the rear of the spear had a spike called a " sauroter " ( " lizard - killer " ) which was used to stand the spear in the ground ( hence the name ) . It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped , or for the rear ranks to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them . In addition to being used as a secondary weapon , the sauroter also doubled to balance the spear , but not for throwing purposes . It is a matter of contention , among historians , whether the hoplite used the spear overarm or underarm . Held underarm , the thrusts would have been less powerful but under more control , and vice versa . It seems likely that both motions were used , depending on the situation . If attack was called for , an overarm motion was more likely to break through an opponent ' s defence . The upward thrust is more easily deflected by armour due to its lesser leverage . However , when defending , an underarm carry absorbed more shock and could be ' couched ' under the shoulder for maximum stability . It should also be said that an overarm motion would allow more effective combination of the " aspis " and " doru " if the shield wall had broken down , while the underarm motion would be more effective when the shield had to be interlocked with those of one ' s neighbours in the battle - line . Hoplites in the rows behind the lead would almost certainly have made overarm thrusts . The rear ranks held their spears underarm , and raised their shields upwards at increasing angles . This was an effective defence against missiles , deflecting their force . Hoplites also carried a sword , mostly a short sword called a " xiphos " , but later also longer and heavier types . The short sword was a secondary weapon , used if or when their spears were broken or lost , or if the phalanx broke rank . The xiphos usually had a blade around long , however those used by the Spartans were often only 12 – 18 inches long . This very short xiphos would be very advantageous in the press that occurred when two lines of hoplites met , capable of being thrust through gaps in the shieldwall into an enemy ' s unprotected groin or throat , while there was no room to swing a longer sword . Such a small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites had started to abandon body armour during the Peloponnesian War . Hoplites could also alternatively carry the kopis , a heavy knife with a forward - curving blade . By contrast with hoplites , other contemporary infantry ( e . g . , Persian ) tended to wear relatively light armour , use wicker shields , and were armed with shorter spears , javelin s , and bows . The most famous are the Peltasts , light - armed troops who wore no armour and were armed with a light shield , javelins and a short sword . The Athenian general Iphicrates developed a new type of armour and arms for his mercenary army , which included light linen armour , smaller shields and longer spears , whilst arming his peltasts with larger shields , helmets and a longer spear , thus enabling them to defend themselves easier against enemy hoplites . With this new type of army he defeated a Spartan army in 392 BC . Nevertheless , most hoplites stuck to the traditional arms and armour . In popular culture . Hoplite warfare has been portrayed ( with varying accuracy ) in several films including " Troy " , " The 300 Spartans " , and " 300 " . Several strategy games feature infantry units called " Hoplites " or " Phalanx " .