Shen Kuo Shen Kuo or Shen Gua ( ) ( 1031 – 1095 ) , Cunzhong ( 存中 ) and pseudonym Mengqi ( now usually given as Mengxi ) Weng ( 夢溪翁 ) , was a polymath ic Chinese scientist and statesman of the Song Dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . Excelling in many fields of study and statecraft , he was a mathematician , astronomer , meteorologist , geologist , zoologist , botanist , pharmacologist , agronomist , archaeologist , ethnographer , cartographer , encyclopedist , general , diplomat , hydraulic engineer , inventor , academy chancellor , finance minister , governmental state inspector , poet , and musician . He was the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy in the Song court , as well as an Assistant Minister of Imperial Hospitality . At court his political allegiance was to the Reformist faction known as the New Policies Group , headed by Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) . In his " Dream Pool Essays " ( ; " Mengxi Bitan " ) of 1088 , Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle compass , which would be used for navigation ( first described in Europe by Alexander Neckam in 1187 ) . Shen discovered the concept of true north in terms of magnetic declination towards the north pole , with experimentation of suspended magnetic needles and " the improved meridian determined by Shen ' s [ astronomical ] measurement of the distance between the polestar and true north " . This was the decisive step in human history to make compasses more useful for navigation , and may have been a concept unknown in Europe for another four hundred years ( evidence of German sundials made circa 1450 show markings similar to Chinese geomancer compasses in regards to declination ) . Alongside his colleague Wei Pu , Shen planned to map the orbital paths of the Moon and the planets in an intensive five - year project involving daily observations , yet this was thwarted by political opponents at court . To aid his work in astronomy , Shen Kuo made improved designs of the armillary sphere , gnomon , sighting tube , and invented a new type of inflow water clock . Shen Kuo devised a geological hypothesis for land formation ( geomorphology ) , based upon findings of inland marine fossils , knowledge of soil erosion , and the deposition of silt . He also proposed a hypothesis of gradual climate change , after observing ancient petrified bamboos that were preserved underground in a dry northern habitat that would not support bamboo growth in his time . He was the first literary figure in China to mention the use of the drydock to repair boats suspended out of water , and also wrote of the effectiveness of the relatively new invention of the canal pound lock . Although Ibn al - Haytham ( 965 – 1039 ) was the first to describe camera obscura , Shen was the first in China to do so , several decades later . Shen wrote extensively about movable type printing invented by Bi Sheng ( 990 – 1051 ) , and because of his written works the legacy of Bi Sheng and the modern understanding of the earliest movable type has been handed down to later generations . Following an old tradition in China , Shen created a raised - relief map while inspecting borderlands . His description of an ancient crossbow mechanism which he himself unearthed proved to be a Jacob ' s staff , a surveying tool which wasn ' t known in Europe until described by Levi ben Gerson in 1321 . Shen Kuo wrote several other books besides the " Dream Pool Essays " , yet much of the writing in his other books has not survived . Some of Shen ' s poetry was preserved in posthumous written works . Although much of his focus was on technical and scientific issues , he had an interest in divination and the supernatural , the latter including his vivid description of unidentified flying objects from eyewitness testimony . He also wrote commentary on ancient Daoist and Confucian texts . Life . Birth and youth . Shen Kuo was born in Qiantang ( modern - day Hangzhou ) in the year 1031 . His father Shen Zhou ( ; 978 – 1052 ) was a somewhat lower - class gentry figure serving in official posts on the provincial level ; his mother was from a family of equal status in Suzhou , with her maiden name being Xu ( ) . Shen Kuo received his initial childhood education from his mother , which was a common practice in China during this period . She was very educated herself , teaching Kuo and his brother Pi ( ) the military doctrines of her own elder brother Xu Tang ( ; 975 – 1016 ) . Since Shen was unable to boast of a prominent familial clan history like many of his elite peers born in the north , he was forced to rely on his superior intelligence and stern determination to achieve in his studies , subsequently passing the Imperial Exams of the Emperor of China , and enter the challenging and sophisticated life of an exam - drafted state bureaucrat . From about 1040 , Shen ' s family moved around Sichuan province and finally to the international seaport at Xiamen , where Shen ' s father accepted minor provincial posts in each new location . Shen Zhou also served several years in the prestigious capital judiciary , the equivalent of a federal supreme court . Shen Kuo took notice of the various towns and rural features of China as his family traveled , while he became interested during his youth in the diverse topography of the land . He also observed the intriguing aspects of his father ' s engagement in administrative governance and the managerial problems involved ; these experiences had a deep impact on him as he later became a government official . Since he often became ill as a child , Shen Kuo also developed a natural curiosity about medicine and pharmaceutics . Shen Zhou died in the late winter of 1051 ( or early 1052 ) , when his son Shen Kuo was 21 years old . Shen Kuo grieved for his father , and following Confucian ethics , remained inactive in a state of mourning for three years until 1054 ( or early 1055 ) . As of 1054 , Shen began serving in minor local governmental posts . However , his natural abilities to plan , organize , and design were proven early in life ; one example is his design and supervision of the hydraulic drainage of an embankment system , which converted some one hundred thousand acres ( 400 km² ) of swampland into prime farmland . Shen Kuo noted that the success of the silt fertilization method relied upon the effective operation of sluice gates of irrigation canals . Official career . In 1063 Shen Kuo successfully passed the Imperial examinations , the difficult national - level standard test that every high official was required to pass in order to enter the governmental system . He not only passed the exam however , but was placed into the higher category of the best and brightest students . While serving at Yangzhou , Shen ' s brilliance and dutiful character caught the attention of Zhang Chu ( ; 1015 – 1080 ) , the Fiscal Intendant of the region . Shen made a lasting impression upon Zhang , who recommended Shen for a court appointment in the financial administration of the central court . Shen would also eventually marry Zhang ' s daughter , who became his second wife . In his career as a scholar - official for the central government , Shen Kuo was also an ambassador to the Western Xia Dynasty and Liao Dynasty , a military commander , a director of hydraulic works , and the leading chancellor of the Hanlin Academy . By 1072 , Shen was appointed as the head official of the Bureau of Astronomy . With his leadership position in the bureau , Shen was responsible for projects in improving calendrical science , and proposed many reforms to the Chinese calendar alongside the work of his colleague Wei Pu . With his impressive skills and aptitude for matters of economy and finance , Shen was appointed as the Finance Commissioner at the central court . As written by Li Zhiyi , a man married to Hu Wenrou ( granddaughter of Hu Su , a famous minister of the Song Dynasty ) , Shen Kuo was Li ' s mentor while Shen served as an official . According to Li ' s epitaph for his wife , Shen would sometimes relay questions via Li to Hu when he needed clarification for his mathematical work , as Hu Wenrou was esteemed by Shen as a remarkable female mathematician . Shen lamented : " if only she were a man , Wenrou would be my friend . " While employed by the central government , Shen Kuo was also sent out with others to inspect the granary system of the empire , investigating problems of illegal collections , negligence , ineffective disaster relief , and inadequate water - conservancy projects . While Shen was appointed as the regional inspector of Zhejiang in 1073 , the Emperor requested that Shen pay a visit to the famous poet Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , then an administrator in Hangzhou . Shen took advantage of this meeting to copy some of Su ' s poetry , which he presented to the Emperor indicating that it expressed " abusive and hateful " speech against the Song court ; these poems were later politicized by Li Ding and Shu Dan in order to level a court case against Su . With his demonstrations of loyalty and ability , Shen Kuo was awarded the honorary title of a State Foundation Viscount by Emperor Shenzong of Song ( r . 1067 – 1085 ) , who placed a great amount of trust in Shen Kuo . He was even made ' companion to the heir apparent ' ( 太子中允 ; ' Taizi zhongyun ' ) . At court Shen was a political favorite of the Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) , who was the leader of the political faction of Reformers , also known as the New Policies Group ( , Xin Fa ) . Shen Kuo had a previous history with Wang Anshi , since it was Wang who had composed the funerary epitaph for Shen ' s father , Zhou . Shen Kuo soon impressed Wang Anshi with his skills and abilities as an administrator and government agent . In 1072 , Shen was sent to supervise Wang ' s program of surveying the building of silt deposits in the Bian Canal outside the capital city . Using an original technique , Shen successfully dredged the canal and demonstrated the formidable value of the silt gathered as a fertilizer . He gained further reputation at court once he was dispatched as an envoy to the Khitan Liao Dynasty in the summer of 1075 . The Khitans had made several aggressive negotiations of pushing their borders south , while manipulating several incompetent Chinese ambassadors who conceded to the Liao Kingdom ' s demands . In a brilliant display of diplomacy , Shen Kuo came to the camp of the Khitan monarch at Mt . Yongan ( near modern Pingquan , Hebei ) , armed with copies of previously archived diplomatic negotiations between the Song and Liao dynasties . Shen Kuo refuted Emperor Daozong ' s bluffs point for point , while the Song reestablished their rightful border line . In regards to the Lý Dynasty of Đại Việt ( in modern northern Vietnam ) , Shen demonstrated in his " Dream Pool Essays " that he was familiar with the key players ( on the Vietnamese side ) in the prelude to the Sino - Vietnamese War of 1075 – 1077 . With his reputable achievements , Shen became a trusted member of Wang Anshi ' s elite circle of eighteen unofficial core political loyalists to the New Policies Group . Although much of Wang Anshi ' s reforms outlined in the New Policies centered around state finance , land tax reform , and the Imperial examinations , there were also military concerns . This included policies of raising militia s to lessen the expense of upholding a million soldiers , putting government monopolies on saltpetre and sulphur production and distribution in 1076 ( to ensure that gunpowder solutions would not fall into the hands of enemies ) , and aggressive military policy towards China ' s northern rivals of the Western Xia and Liao dynasties . A few years after Song Dynasty military forces had made victorious territorial gains against the Tangut s of the Western Xia , in 1080 Shen Kuo was entrusted as a military officer in defense of Yanzhou ( modern - day Yan ' an , Shaanxi province ) . During the autumn months of 1081 , Shen was successful in defending Song Dynasty territory while capturing several fortified towns of the Western Xia . The Emperor Shenzong of Song rewarded Shen with numerous titles for his merit in these battles , and in the sixteen months of Shen ' s military campaign , he received 273 letters from the Emperor . However , Emperor Shenzong trusted an arrogant military officer who disobeyed the emperor and Shen ' s proposal for strategic fortifications , instead fortifying what Shen considered useless strategic locations . Furthermore , this officer expelled Shen from his commanding post at the main citadel , so as to deny him any glory in chance of victory . The result of this was nearly catastrophic , as the forces of the arrogant officer were decimated ; Xinzhong Yao states that the death toll was 60 , 000 . Nonetheless , Shen was successful in defending his fortifications and the only possible Tangut invasion - route to Yanzhou . Impeachment and later life . The new Chancellor Cai Que ( ; 1036 – 1093 ) held Shen responsible for the disaster and loss of life . Along with abandoning the territory which Shen Kuo had fought for , Cai ousted Shen from his seat of office . Shen ' s life was now forever changed , as he lost his once reputable career in state governance and the military . Shen was then put under probation in a fixed residence for the next six years . However , as he was isolated from governance , he decided to pick up the ink brush and dedicate himself to intensive scholarly studies . After completing two geographical atlases for a state - sponsored program , Shen was rewarded by having his sentence of probation lifted , allowing him to live in a place of his choice . Shen was also pardoned by the court for any previous faults or crimes that were claimed against him . In his more idle years removed from court affairs , Shen Kuo enjoyed pastimes of the Chinese gentry and literati that would indicate his intellectual level and cultural taste to others . As described in his " Dream Pool Essays " , Shen Kuo enjoyed the company of the " nine guests " ( " jiuke " ) , a figure of speech for the Chinese zither , the older 17x17 line variant of weiqi ( known today as go ) , Zen Buddhist meditation , ink ( calligraphy and painting ) , tea drinking , alchemy , chanting poetry , conversation , and drinking wine . These nine activities were an extension to the older so - called Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar . According to Zhu Yu ' s book " Pingzhou Table Talks " ( ; " Pingzhou Ketan " ) of 1119 , Shen Kuo had two marriages ; the second wife was the daughter of Zhang Chu ( ) , who came from Huainan . Lady Zhang was said to be overbearing and fierce , often abusive to Shen Kuo , even attempting at one time to pull off his beard . Shen Kuo ' s children were often upset over this , and prostrated themselves to Lady Zhang to quit this behavior . Despite this , Lady Zhang went as far as to drive out Shen Kuo ' s son from his first marriage , expelling him from the household . However , after Lady Zhang died , Shen Kuo fell into a deep depression and even attempted to jump into the Yangtze River to drown himself . Although this suicide attempt failed , he would die a year later . In the 1070s , Shen had purchased a lavish garden estate on the outskirts of modern - day Zhenjiang , Jiangsu province , a place of great beauty which he named " Dream Brook " ( " Mengxi " ) after he visited it for the first time in 1086 . Shen Kuo permanently moved to the Dream Brook Estate in 1088 , and in that same year he completed his life ' s written work of the " Dream Pool Essays " , naming the book after his garden - estate property . It was there that Shen Kuo spent the last several years of his life in leisure , isolation , and illness , until his death in 1095 . Scholarly achievements . Shen Kuo wrote extensively on a wide range of different subjects . His written work included two geographical atlases , a treatise on music with mathematical harmonics , governmental administration , mathematical astronomy , astronomical instruments , martial defensive tactics and fortification s , painting , tea , medicine , and much poetry . His scientific writings have been praised by sinologist s such as Joseph Needham and Nathan Sivin , and he has been compared by Sivin to polymaths such as his contemporary Su Song , as well as Gottfried Leibniz and Mikhail Lomonosov . Raised - relief map . If the account of Sima Qian ( c . 145 – 86 BC ) in his " Records of the Grand Historian " is proven correct upon the unearthing of Qin Shi Huang ' s ( r . 221 – 210 BC ) tomb , the raised - relief map has existed since the Qin Dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) . Robert Temple and Joseph Needham suggest that certain pottery vessels of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) showing artificial mountains as lid decorations may have influenced the raised - relief map . The Han Dynasty general Ma Yuan ( 14 BC – 49 AD ) made a raised - relief map of valleys and mountains in a rice - constructed model of 32 AD . Such rice models were expounded on by the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) author Jiang Fang in his " Essay on the Art of Constructing Mountains with Rice " ( c . 845 AD ) . A raised - relief map made of wood representing all the provinces of the empire and put together like a giant 0 . 93 m ( 10 ft ) jigsaw puzzle was invented by Xie Zhuang ( 421 – 466 AD ) during the Liu Song Dynasty ( 420 – 479 ) . Shen ' s largest atlas included twenty three maps of China and foreign regions that were drawn at a uniform scale of 1 : 900 , 000 . Shen also created a raised - relief map using sawdust , wood , beeswax , and wheat paste . Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) was inspired by the raised - relief map of Huang Shang and so made his own portable map made of wood and clay which could be folded up from eight hinged pieces . Pharmacology . For pharmacology , Shen wrote of the difficulties of adequate diagnosis and therapy , as well as the proper selection , preparation , and administration of drugs . He held great concern for detail and philological accuracy in identification , use and cultivation of different types of medicinal herbs , such as in which months medicinal plants should be gathered , their exact ripening times , which parts should be used for therapy ; for domesticated herbs he wrote about planting times , fertilization , and other matters of horticulture . In the realms of botany , zoology , and mineralogy , Shen Kuo documented and systematically described hundreds of different plants , agricultural crops , rare vegetation , animals , and minerals found in China . For example , Shen noted that the mineral orpiment was used to quickly erase writing errors on paper . Civil engineering . The writing of Shen Kuo is the only source for the date when the drydock was first used in China . Shen Kuo wrote that during the Xi - Ning reign ( 1068 – 1077 ) , the court official Huang Huaixin devised a plan for repairing 60 m ( 200 ft ) long palatial boats that were a century old ; essentially , Huang Huaixin devised the first Chinese drydock for suspending boats out of water . These boats were then placed in a roof - covered dock warehouse to protect them from weathering . Shen also wrote about the effectiveness of the new invention ( i . e . by the 10th century engineer Qiao Weiyo ) of the pound lock to replace the old flash lock design used in canals . He wrote that it saved the work of five hundred annual labors , annual costs of up to 1 , 250 , 000 strings of cash , and increased the size limit of boats accommodated from 21 tons / 21000 kg to 113 tons / 115000 kg . If it were not for Shen Kuo ' s analysis and quoting in his " Dream Pool Essays " of the writings of the architect Yu Hao ( fl . 970 ) , the latter ' s work would have been lost to history . Yu designed a famous wooden pagoda that burned down in 1044 and was replaced in 1049 by a brick pagoda ( the ' Iron Pagoda ' ) of similar height , but not of his design . From Shen ' s quotation — or perhaps Shen ' s own paraphrasing of Yu Hao ' s " Timberwork Manual " ( 木經 ; " Mujing " ) — shows that already in the 10th century there was a graded system of building unit proportions , a system which Shen states had become more precise in his time but stating no one could possibly reproduce such a sound work . However , he did not anticipate the more complex and matured system of unit proportions embodied in the extensive written work by scholar - official Li Jie ( 1065 – 1110 ) , the " Treatise on Architectural Methods " ( 營造法式 ; " Yingzao Fashi " ) of 1103 . Klaas Ruitenbeek states that the version of the " Timberwork Manual " quoted by Shen is most likely Shen ' s summarization of Yu ' s work or a corrupted passage of the original by Yu Hao , as Shen writes : " According to some , the work was written by Yu Hao . " Anatomy . The Chinese had long taken an interest in examining the human body . For example , in 16 AD the Xin Dynasty usurper Wang Mang called for the dissection of an executed man , to examine his arteries and viscera in order to discover cures for illnesses . Shen also took interest in human anatomy , dispelling the long - held Chinese theory that the throat contained three valves , writing , " When liquid and solid are imbibed together , how can it be that in one ' s mouth they sort themselves into two throat channels ? " Shen maintained that the larynx was the beginning of a system that distributed vital " qi " from the air throughout the body , and that the esophagus was a simple tube that dropped food into the stomach . Following Shen ' s reasoning and correcting the findings of the dissection of executed bandits in 1045 , an early 12th - century Chinese account of a bodily dissection finally supported Shen ' s belief in two throat valves , not three . Also , the later Song Dynasty judge and early forensic expert Song Ci ( 1186 – 1249 ) would promote the use of autopsy in order to solve homicide cases , as written in his " Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified " . Mathematics and optics . In the broad field of mathematics , Shen Kuo mastered many practical mathematical problems , including many complex formulas for geometry , circle packing , and chords and arcs problems employing trigonometry . Shen addressed problems of writing out very large numbers , as large as 10 . Shen ' s " technique of small increments " laid the foundation in Chinese mathematics for packing problems involving equal difference series . Sal Restivo writes that Shen used summation of higher series to ascertain the number of kegs which could be piled in layers in a space shaped like the frustum of a rectangular pyramid . In his formula " technique of intersecting circles " , he created an approximation of the arc of a circle " s " given the diameter " d " , sagita " v " , and length of the chord " c " subtending the arc , the length of which he approximated as " s " = " c " + 2v / d . Restivo writes that Shen ' s work in the lengths of arcs of circles provided the basis for spherical trigonometry developed in the 13th century by Guo Shoujing ( 1231 – 1316 ) . He also simplified the counting rods technique by outlining short cuts in algorithm procedures used on the counting board , an idea expanded on by the mathematician Yang Hui ( 1238 – 1298 ) . Victor J . Katz asserts that Shen ' s method of " dividing by 9 , increase by 1 ; dividing by 8 , increase by 2 , " was a direct forerunner to the rhyme scheme method of repeated addition " 9 , 1 , bottom add 1 ; 9 , 2 , bottom add 2 " . Shen wrote extensively about what he had learned while working for the state treasury , including mathematical problems posed by computing land tax , estimating requirements , currency issues , metrology , and so forth . Shen once computed the amount of terrain space required for battle formations in military strategy , and also computed the longest possible military campaign given the limits of human carriers who would bring their own food and food for other soldiers . Shen wrote about the earlier Yi Xing ( 672 – 717 ) , a Buddhist monk who applied an early escapement mechanism to a water - powered celestial globe . By using mathematical permutation s , Shen described Yi Xing ' s calculation of possible positions on a " go " board game . Shen calculated the total number for this using up to five rows and twenty five game pieces , which yielded the number 847 , 288 , 609 , 443 . Shen Kuo experimented with the pinhole camera and burning mirror as the ancient Chinese Mohist s had done in the 4th century BC . Although the Iraqi Muslim scientist Ibn al - Haytham ( 965 – 1039 ) was the first to experiment with camera obscura , Shen Kuo was the first to attribute geometrical and quantitative properties to the camera obscura , just several decades after Ibn al - Haytham ' s death . Using a fitting metaphor , Shen compared optical image inversion to an oarlock and waisted drum . He also discussed focal point s and noted that the image in a concave mirror is inverted . Shen , who never asserted that he was the first to experiment with camera obscura , hints in his writing that camera obscura was dealt with in the " Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang " written by Duan Chengshi ( d . 863 ) during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , in regards to the inverted image of a Chinese pagoda by a seashore . Magnetic needle compass . Since the time of the engineer and inventor Ma Jun ( c . 200 – 265 ) , the Chinese had used the South Pointing Chariot , which did not employ magnetism , as a compass . In 1044 the " Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques " ( ; " Wujing Zongyao " ) recorded that fish - shaped objects cut from sheet iron , magnetized by thermoremanence ( essentially , heating that produced weak magnetic force ) , and placed in a water - filled bowl enclosed by a box were used for directional pathfinding alongside the South Pointing Chariot . However , it was not until the time of Shen Kuo that the earliest magnetic compass es would be used for navigation . In his written work , Shen Kuo made the first known explicit reference to the magnetic compass - needle and the concept of true north . He wrote that steel needles were magnetized once they were rubbed with lodestone , and that they were put in floating position or in mountings ; he described the suspended compass as the best form to be used , and noted that the magnetic needle of compasses pointed either south or north . Shen Kuo asserted that the needle will point south but with a deviation , stating " [ the magnetic needles ] are always displaced slightly east rather than pointing due south . " Shen Kuo wrote that it was preferable to use the twenty - four - point rose instead of the old eight compass cardinal points — and the former was recorded in use for navigation shortly after Shen ' s death . The preference of use for the twenty - four - point - rose compass may have arisen from Shen ' s finding of a more accurate astronomical meridian , determined by his measurement between the polestar and true north ; however , it could also have been inspired by geomantic beliefs and practices . The book of the author Zhu Yu , the " Pingzhou Table Talks " published in 1119 ( written from 1111 to 1117 ) , was the first record of use of a compass for seafaring navigation . However , Zhu Yu ' s book recounts events back to 1086 , when Shen Kuo was writing the " Dream Pool Essays " ; this meant that in Shen ' s time the compass might have already been in navigational use . In any case , Shen Kuo ' s writing on magnetic compasses has proved invaluable for understanding China ' s earliest use of the compass for seafaring navigation . Archaeology . Many of Shen Kuo ' s contemporaries were interested in antiquarian pursuits of collecting old artworks . They were also interested in archaeological pursuits , although for rather different reasons than why Shen Kuo held an interest in archaeology . While Shen ' s educated Confucian contemporaries were interested in obtaining ancient relics and antiques in order to revive their use in rituals , Shen was more concerned with how items from archeological finds were originally manufactured and what their functionality would have been , based on empirical evidence . Shen Kuo criticized those in his day who reconstructed ancient ritual objects using only their imagination and not the tangible evidence from archeological digs or finds . Shen also disdained the notion of others that these objects were products of the " sages " or the aristocratic class of antiquity , rightfully crediting the items ' manufacture and production to the common working people and artisans of previous eras . Fraser and Haber write that Shen Kuo " advocated the use of an interdisciplinary approach to archaeology and practiced such an approach himself through his work in metallurgy , optics , and geometry in the study of ancient measures . " While working in the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo ' s interest in archaeology and old relics led him to reconstruct an armillary sphere from existing models as well as from ancient texts that could provide additional information . Shen used ancient mirrors while conducting his optics experiments . He observed ancient weaponry , describing the scaled sight devices on ancient crossbow s and the ancients ' production of swords with composite blades that had a midrib of wrought iron and low - carbon steel while having two sharp edges of high - carbon steel . Being a knowledgeable musician , Shen also suggested suspending an ancient bell by using a hollow handle . In his assessment of the carved reliefs of the ancient Zhuwei Tomb , Shen stated that the reliefs demonstrate genuine Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) era clothing . After unearthing an ancient crossbow device from a house ' s garden in Haichow , Jiangsu , Shen discovered that the cross - wire grid sighting device , marked in graduated measurements on the stock , could be used to calculate the height of a distant mountain in the same way that mathematicians could apply right - angle triangles to measure height . Needham asserts Shen had discovered the survey device known as Jacob ' s staff , which was not described elsewhere until the Provençal Jewish mathematician Levi ben Gerson ( 1288 – 1344 ) wrote of it in 1321 . Shen wrote that while viewing the whole of a mountain , the distance on the instrument was long , but while viewing a small part of the mountainside the distance was short due to the device ' s cross piece that had to be pushed further away from the observer ' s eye , with the graduation starting on the further end . He wrote that if one placed an arrow on the device and looked past its end , the degree of the mountain could be measured and thus its height could be calculated . Geology . The ancient Greek Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC ) wrote in his " Meteorology " of how the earth had the potential for physical change , including the belief that all rivers and seas at one time did not exist where they were , and were dry . The Greek writer Xenophanes ( 570 BC – 480 BC ) wrote of how inland marine fossils were evidence that massive periodic flooding had wiped out mankind several times in the past , but never wrote of land formation or shifting seashores . Du Yu ( 222 – 285 ) a Chinese Jin Dynasty officer , believed that the land of hills would eventually be leveled into valleys and valleys would gradually rise to form hills . The Daoist alchemist Ge Hong ( 284 – 364 ) wrote of the legendary immortal Ma Gu ; in a written dialogue by Ge , Ma Gu described how what was once the Eastern Sea ( i . e . East China Sea ) had transformed into solid land where mulberry trees grew , and would one day be filled with mountains and dry , dusty lands . The later Persian Muslim scholar Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī ( 973 – 1048 ) hypothesized that India was once covered by the Indian Ocean while observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers . It was Shen Kuo who formulated a hypothesis about the process of land formation ( geomorphology ) based upon several observations as evidence . This included his observation of fossil shells in a geological stratum of a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean . He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by erosion of the mountains , uplift , and the deposition of silt , after observing strange natural erosions of the Taihang Mountains and the Yandang Mountain near Wenzhou . He hypothesized that , with the inundation of silt , the land of the continent must have been formed over an enormous span of time . While visiting the Taihang Mountains in 1074 , Shen Kuo noticed strata of bivalve shells and ovoid rocks in a horizontal - running span through a cliff like a large belt . Shen proposed that the cliff was once the location of an ancient seashore that by his time had shifted hundreds of miles east . Shen wrote that in the Zhiping reign period ( 1064 – 1067 ) a man of Zezhou unearthed an object in his garden that looked like a serpent or dragon , and after examining it , concluded the dead animal had apparently turned to " stone " . The magistrate of Jincheng , Zheng Boshun , examined the creature as well , and noted the same scale - like markings that were seen on other marine animals . Shen Kuo likened this to the " stone crabs " found in China . Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a climatic area where they had never been known to be grown , the climate there must have shifted geographically over time . Around the year 1080 , Shen Kuo noted that a landslide on the bank of a large river near Yanzhou ( modern Yan ' an ) had revealed an open space several dozens of feet under the ground once the bank collapsed . This underground space contained hundreds of petrified bamboos still intact with roots and trunks , " all turned to stone " as Shen Kuo wrote . Shen Kuo noted that bamboos do not grow in Yanzhou , located in northern China , and he was puzzled during which previous dynasty the bamboos could have grown . Considering that damp and gloomy low places provide suitable conditions for the growth of bamboo , Shen deduced that the climate of Yanzhou must have fit that description in very ancient times . Although this would have intrigued many of his readers , the study of paleoclimatology in medieval China never developed into an established discipline . The philosopher Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) wrote of this curious natural phenomenon of fossils as well . He was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo . Shen ' s description of soil erosion and weathering predated that of Georgius Agricola in his book of 1546 , " De veteribus et novis metallis " . Furthermore , Shen ' s theory of sedimentary deposition predated that of James Hutton , who published his groundbreaking work in 1802 ( considered the foundation of modern geology ) . Historian Joseph Needham likened Shen ' s account to that of the Scottish scientist Roderick Murchison ( 1792 – 1871 ) , who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide . Meteorology . Early speculation and hypothesis pertaining to what is now known as meteorology had a long tradition in China before Shen Kuo . Shen wrote vivid descriptions of tornadoes — the first known description of them in East Asia . He also gave reasoning ( earlier proposed by Sun Sikong , 1015 – 1076 ) that rainbow s were formed by the shadow of the sun in rain , occurring when the sun would shine upon it . Paul Dong writes that Shen ' s explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of atmospheric refraction " is basically in accord with modern scientific principles . " In Europe , Roger Bacon ( 1214 – 1294 ) was the first to suggest that the colors of the rainbow were caused by the reflection and refraction of sunlight through rain drops . Shen hypothesized that rays of sunlight refract before reaching the surface of the earth , hence people on earth observing the sun are not viewing it in its exact position , in other words , the altitude of the apparent sun is higher than the actual altitude of the sun . Dong writes that " at the time , this discovery was remarkably original . " Ibn al - Haytham , in his " Book of Optics " ( 1021 ) , also discussed atmospheric refraction ( in regards to twilight ) . Astronomy and instruments . Being the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of medieval astronomy , and improved the designs of several astronomical instruments . Shen is credited with making improved designs of the gnomon , armillary sphere , and clepsydra clock . For the clepsydra he designed a new overflow - tank type , and argued for a more efficient higher - order interpolation instead of linear interpolation in calibrating the measure of time . Improving the 5th century model of the astronomical sighting tube , Shen Kuo widened its diameter so that the new calibration could observe the polestar indefinitely . This came about due to the position of the polestar shifting in position since the time of Zu Geng in the 5th century , hence Shen Kuo diligently observed the course of the polestar for three months , plotting the data of its course and coming to the conclusion that it had shifted slightly over three degrees . Apparently this astronomical finding had an impact upon the intellectual community in China at the time . Even Shen ' s political rival and contemporary astronomer Su Song featured Shen ' s corrected position of the polestar ( halfway between Tian shu , at −350 degrees , and the current Polaris ) in the fourth star map of his celestial atlas . The astronomical phenomena of the solar eclipse and lunar eclipse had been observed in the 4th century BC by astronomers Gan De and Shi Shen ; the latter gave instructions on predicting the eclipses based on the relative position of the Moon to the Sun . The philosopher Wang Chong argued against the ' radiating influence ' theory of Jing Fang ' s writing in the 1st century BC and that of Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 ) ; the latter two correctly hypothesized that the brightness of the Moon was merely light reflected from the Sun . Jing Fang had written in the 1st century BC of how it was long accepted in China that the Sun and Moon were spherical in shape ( ' like a crossbow bullet ' ) , not flat . Shen Kuo also wrote of solar and lunar eclipses in this manner , yet expanded upon this to explain why the celestial bodies were spherical , going against the ' flat earth ' theory for celestial bodies . However , there is no evidence to suggest that Shen Kuo supported a round earth theory , which was introduced into Chinese science by Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi in the 17th century . When the Director of the Astronomical Observatory asked Shen Kuo if the shapes of the Sun and Moon were round like balls or flat like fans , Shen Kuo explained that celestial bodies were spherical because of knowledge of waxing and waning of the Moon . Much like what Zhang Heng had said , Shen Kuo likened the Moon to a ball of silver , which does not produce light , but simply reflects light if provided from another source ( the Sun ) . He explained that when the Sun ' s light is slanting , the Moon appears full . He then explained if one were to cover any sort of sphere with white powder , and then viewed from the side it would appear to be a crescent , hence he reasoned that celestial bodies were spherical . He also wrote that , although the Sun and Moon were in conjunction and opposition with each other once a month , this did not mean the Sun would be eclipsed every time their paths met , because of the small obliquity of their orbital paths . Shen is also known for his cosmological hypotheses in explaining the variations of planetary motion s , including retrogradation . His colleague Wei Pu realized that the old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent Sun , since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion , and behind it in the retarded phase . Shen ' s hypotheses were similar to the concept of the epicycle in the Greco - Roman tradition , only Shen compared the side - section of orbit al paths of planets and variations of planetary speeds to points in the tips of a willow leaf . In a similar rudimentary physical analogy of celestial motions , as John B . Henderson describes it , Shen likened the relationship of the Moon ' s path to the ecliptic , the path of the Sun , " to the figure of a rope coiled about a tree . " Along with his colleague Wei Pu in the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo planned to plot out the exact coordinates of planetary and lunar movements by recording their astronomical observations three times a night for a continuum of five years . The Song astronomers of Shen ' s day still retained the lunar theory and coordinates of the earlier Yi Xing , which after 350 years had devolved into a state of considerable error . Shen criticized earlier Chinese astronomers for failing to describe celestial movement in spacial terms , yet he did not attempt to provide any reasoning for the motive power of the planets or other celestial movements . Shen and Wei began astronomical observations for the Moon and planets by plotting their locations three times a night for what should have been five successive years . The officials and astronomers at court were deeply opposed Wei and Shen ' s work , offended by their insistence that the coordinates of the renowned Yi Xing were inaccurate . They also slandered Wei Pu , out of resentment that a commoner had expertise exceeding theirs . When Wei and Shen made a public demonstration using the gnomon to prove the doubtful wrong , the other ministers reluctantly agreed to correct the lunar and solar errors . Despite this success , they eventually dismissed Wei and Shen ' s tables of planetary motions . Therefore , only the worst and most obvious planetary errors were corrected , and many inaccuracies remained . Movable type printing . Shen Kuo wrote that during the Qingli reign period ( 1041 – 1048 ) , under Emperor Renzong of Song ( 1022 – 1063 ) , an obscure commoner and artisan known as Bi Sheng ( 990 – 1051 ) invented ceramic movable type printing . Although the use of assembling individual characters to compose a piece of text had its origins in antiquity , Bi Sheng ' s methodical innovation was something completely revolutionary for his time . Shen Kuo noted that the process was tedious if one only wanted to print a few copies of a book , but if one desired to make hundreds or thousands of copies , the process was incredibly fast and efficient . Beyond Shen Kuo ' s writing , however , nothing is known of Bi Sheng ' s life or the influence of movable type in his lifetime . Although the details of Bi Sheng ' s life were scarcely known , Shen Kuo wrote : When Bi Sheng died , his fount of type passed into the possession of my followers ( i . e . one of Shen ' s nephews ) , among whom it has been kept as a precious possession until now . There are a few surviving examples of books printed in the late Song Dynasty using movable type printing . This includes Zhou Bida ' s " Notes of The Jade Hall " ( ) printed in 1193 using the method of baked - clay movable type characters outlined in the " Dream Pool Essays " . Yao Shu ( 1201 – 1278 ) , an advisor to Kublai Khan , once persuaded a disciple Yang Gu to print philological primers and Neo - Confucian texts by using what he termed the " movable type of Shen Kuo " . Wang Zhen ( fl . 1290 – 1333 ) , who wrote the valuable agricultural , scientific , and technological treatise of the " Nong Shu " , mentioned an alternative method of baking earthenware type with earthenware frames in order to make whole blocks . Wang Zhen also improved its use by inventing wooden movable type in the years 1297 or 1298 , while he was a magistrate of Jingde , Anhui province . The earlier Bi Sheng had experimented with wooden movable type , but Wang ' s main contribution was improving the speed of typesetting with simple mechanical devices , along with the complex , systematic arrangement of wooden movable type involving the use of revolving tables . Although later metal movable type would be used in China , Wang Zhen experimented with tin metal movable type , but found its use to be inefficient . By the 15th century , metal movable type printing was developed in Ming Dynasty China ( and earlier in Joseon Korea , by the mid 13th century ) , and was widely applied in China by at least the 16th century . In Jiangsu and Fujian , wealthy Ming era families sponsored the use of metal type printing ( mostly using bronze ) . This included the printing works of Hua Sui ( 1439 – 1513 ) , who pioneered the first Chinese bronze - type movable printing in the year 1490 . In 1718 , during the mid Qing Dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , the scholar of Tai ' an known as Xu Zhiding developed movable type with enamelware instead of earthenware . There was also Zhai Jinsheng ( b . 1784 ) , a teacher of Jingxian , Anhui , who spent thirty years making a font of earthenware movable type , and by 1844 he had over 100 , 000 Chinese writing characters in five sizes . Despite these advances , movable type printing never gained the amount of widespread use in East Asia that woodblock printing had achieved since the Chinese Tang Dynasty in the 9th century . With written Chinese , the vast amount of written morpheme characters impeded movable type ' s acceptance and practical use , and was therefore seen as largely unsatisfactory . Furthermore , the European printing press , first invented by Johannes Gutenberg ( 1398 – 1468 ) , was eventually wholly adopted as the standard in China , yet the tradition of woodblock printing remains popular in East Asian countries still . Other achievements in science and technology . Shen Kuo described the phenomena of natural predator insects controlling the population of pests , the latter of which had the potential to wreak havoc upon the agricultural base of China . While visiting the iron producing district at Cizhou in 1075 , Shen described the " partial decarburization " method of reforging cast iron under a cold blast , which Hartwell , Needham , and Wertime state is the predecessor of the Bessemer process . Shen was worried about deforestation due to the needs of the iron industry and ink makers using pine soot in the production process , so he suggested for the latter an alternative of petroleum , which he believed was " produced inexhaustibly within the earth " . Shen used the soot from the smoke of burned petroleum fuel ( 石油 " Shíyóu " , " rock oil " as Shen called it ) to invent a new , more durable type of writing ink ; the Ming Dynasty pharmacologist Li Shizhen ( 1518 – 1593 ) wrote that Shen ' s ink was " lustrous like lacquer , and superior to that made from pinewood lamp - black , " or the soot from pinewood . Beliefs and philosophy . Shen Kuo was much in favor of philosophical Daoist notions which challenged the authority of empirical science in his day . Although much could be discerned through empirical observation and recorded study , Daoism asserted that the secrets of the universe were boundless , something that scientific investigation could merely express in fragments and partial understandings . Shen Kuo referred to the ancient Daoist " I Ching " in explaining the spiritual processes and attainment of foreknowledge that cannot be attained through " crude traces " , which he likens to mathematical astronomy . Nathan Sivin proposes that Shen was the first in history to " make a clear distinction between our unconnected experiences and the unitary causal world we postulate to explain them , " which Biderman and Scharfstein state is arguably inherent in the works of Heraclitus , Plato , and Democritus as well . Shen was a firm believer in destiny and prognostication , and made rational explanations for the relations between them . Shen held a special interest in fate , mystical divination , bizarre phenomena , yet warned against the tendency to believe that all matters in life were preordained . When describing an event where lightning had struck a house and all the wooden walls did not burn ( but simply turned black ) and lacquerware s inside were fine , yet metal objects had melted into liquid , Shen Kuo wrote : Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life , but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous . How insecure it is to investigate natural principles using only the light of common knowledge , and subjective ideas . In his commentary on the ancient Confucian philosopher Mencius ( 372 – 289 BC ) , Shen wrote of the importance of choosing to follow what one knew to be a true path , yet the heart and mind could not attain full knowledge of truth through mere sensory experience . In his own unique way but using terms influenced by the ideas of Mencius , Shen wrote of an autonomous inner authority that formed the basis for one ' s inclination towards moral choices , a concept linked to Shen ' s life experiences of surviving and obtaining success through self - reliance . Along with his commentary on the Chinese classic texts , Shen Kuo also wrote extensively on the topics of supernatural divination and Buddhist meditation . Art criticism . As an art critic , Shen criticized the paintings of Li Cheng ( 919 – 967 ) for failing to observe the principle of " " seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large " " in portraying buildings and the like . He praised the works of Dong Yuan ( c . 934 – c . 962 ) ; he noted that although a close - up view of Dong ' s work would create the impression that his brush techniques were cursory , seen from afar his landscape paintings would give the impression of grand , resplendent , and realistic scenery . In addition , Shen ' s writing on Dong ' s artworks represents the earliest known reference to the Jiangnan style of painting . In his " Song on Painting " and in his " Dream Pool Essays " , Shen praised the creative artworks of the Tang painter Wang Wei ( 701 – 761 ) ; Shen noted that Wang was unique in that he " penetrated into the mysterious reason and depth of creative activity , " but was criticized by others for not conforming his paintings to reality , such as his painting with a banana tree growing in a snowy , wintry landscape . Written works . Much of Shen Kuo ' s written work was probably purged under the leadership of minister Cai Jing ( 1046 – 1126 ) , who revived the New Policies of Wang Anshi , although he set out on a campaign of attrition to destroy or radically alter the written work of his predecessors and especially Conservative enemies . For example , only six of Shen ' s books remain , and four of these have been significantly altered since the time they were penned by the author . In modern times , the best attempt at a complete list and summary of Shen ' s writing was an appendix written by Hu Daojing in his standard edition of " Brush Talks " , written in 1956 . Dream Pool Essays . Shen Kuo ' s " Dream Pool Essays " consists of some 507 separate essays exploring a wide range of subjects . It was Shen ' s ultimate attempt to comprehend and describe a multitude of various aspects of nature , science , and reality , and all the practical and profound curiosities found in the world . The literal translation of the title , " Dream Brook Brush Talks " , refers to his Dream Brook estate , where he spent the last years of his life . About the title , he is quoted as saying : " Because I had only my writing brush and ink slab to converse with , I call it Brush Talks . " The book was originally 30 chapters long , yet an unknown Chinese author ' s edition of 1166 edited and reorganized the work into 26 chapters . Other written works . Although the " Dream Pool Essays " is certainly his most extensive and important work , Shen Kuo wrote other books as well . In 1075 , Shen Kuo wrote the " Xining Fengyuan Li " ( ; " The Oblatory Epoch astronomical system of the Splendid Peace reign period " ) , which was lost , but listed in a 7th chapter of a Song Dynasty bibliography . This was the official report of Shen Kuo on his reforms of the Chinese calendar , which were only partially adopted by the Song court ' s official calendar system . During his years of retirement from governmental service , Shen Kuo compiled a formulary known as the " Liang Fang " ( ; " Good medicinal formulas " ) . Around the year 1126 it was combined with a similar collection by the famous Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , who was ironically a political opponent to Shen Kuo ' s faction of Reformers and New Policies supporters at court , yet it was known that Shen Kuo and Su Shi were nonetheless friends and associates . Shen wrote the " Mengqi Wanghuai Lu " ( ; " Record of longings forgotten at Dream Brook " ) , which was also compiled during Shen ' s retirement . This book was a treatise in the working since his youth on rural life and ethnographic accounts of living conditions in the isolated mountain regions of China . Only quotations of it survive in the " Shuo Fu " ( ) collection , which mostly describe the agricultural implements and tools used by rural people in high mountain regions . Shen Kuo also wrote the " Changxing Ji " ( ; " Collected Literary Works of [ the Viscount of ] Changxing " ) . However , this book was without much doubt a posthumous collection , including various poems , prose , and administrative documents written by Shen . By the 15th century ( during the Ming Dynasty ) , this book was reprinted , yet only the 19th chapter remained . This chapter was reprinted in 1718 , yet poorly edited . Finally , in the 1950s the author Hu Daojing supplemented this small yet valuable work with additions of other scattered poems written by Shen , in the former ' s " Collection of Shen Kua ' s Extant Poetry " ( Shanghai : Shang - hai Shu - tian , 1958 ) . In the tradition of the popular Song era literary category of ' travel record literature ' ( ' youji wenxue ' ) , Shen Kuo also wrote the " Register of What Not to Forget " , a traveler ' s guide to what type of carriage is suitable for a journey , the proper foods one should bring , the special clothing one should bring , and many other items . In his " Sequel to Numerous Things Revealed " , the Song author Cheng Dachang ( 1123 – 1195 ) noted that stanzas prepared by Shen Kuo for military victory celebrations were later written down and published by Shen . This includes a short poem " Song of Triumph " by Shen Kuo , who uses the musical instrument " mawei huqin " ( ' horse - tail barbarian stringed instrument ' or ' horse - tail fiddle ' ) of the northwestern Inner Asia n nomads as a metaphor for prisoners - of - war led by Song troops : Historian Jonathan Stock notes that the bent bow described in the poem above represents the arched bow used to play the " huqin " , while the sound of the instrument itself represented the discontent expressed by the prisoners - of - war with their defeated khan . Legacy . Praise , critique , and criticism . In the " Routledge Curzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism " , Xinzhong Yao states that Shen Kuo ' s legacy was tainted by his eager involvement in Wang Anshi ' s New Policies reforms , his actions criticized in the later traditional histories . However , Shen ' s reputation as a polymath has been well regarded . The British sinologist , historian , and biochemist Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) stated that Shen Kuo was " one of the greatest scientific minds in Chinese history . " The French sinologist Jacques Gernet is of the opinion that Shen possessed an " amazingly modern mind . " Yao states of Shen ' s thorough recording of natural sciences in his " Dream Pool Essays " : We must regard Shen Kuo ' s collection as an indispensable primary source attesting to the unmatched level of attainment achieved by Chinese science prior to the twelfth century . However , Toby E . Huff writes that Shen Kuo ' s " scattered set " of writings lacks clear - cut organization and " theoretical acuteness , " that is , scientific theory . Nathan Sivin wrote that Shen ' s originality stands " cheek by jowl with trivial didacticism , court anecdotes , and ephemeral curiosities " that provide little insight . Donald Holzman writes that Shen " has nowhere organized his observations into anything like a general theory . " Huff writes that this was a systemic problem of early Chinese science , which lacked systematic treatment that could be found in European works such as the " Concordance and Discordant Canons " by the lawyer Gratian of Bologna ( fl . 12th century ) . In regards to an overarching concept of science which could branch together all the various sciences studied by the Chinese , Sivin asserts that the writings of Shen Kuo " do not indicate that he achieved , or even sought , an integrated framework for his diverse knowledge ; the one common thread is the varied responsibilities of his career as a high civil servant . " Burial and posthumous honors . Upon his death , Shen Kuo was interred in a tomb in Yuhang District of Hangzhou , at the foot of the Taiping Hill . His tomb was eventually destroyed , yet Ming Dynasty records indicated its location , which was found in 1983 and protected by the government in 1986 . The remnants of the tomb ' s brick structure remained , along with Song Dynasty glasswares and coins . The Hangzhou Municipal Committee completed a restoration of Shen ' s tomb in September 2001 . In addition to his tomb , Shen Kuo ' s " Mengxi " garden estate , his former two acre ( 8 , 000 m² ) property in Zhenjiang , was restored by the government in 1985 . However , the renovated Mengxi Garden is only part of the original of Shen Kuo ' s time . A Qing Dynasty era hall built on the site is now used as the main admissions gate . In the Memorial Hall of the gardens , there is a large painting depicting the original garden of Shen Kuo ' s time , including wells , green bamboo groves , stone - paved paths , and decorated walls of the original halls . In this exhibition hall there stands a 1 . 4 m ( 4 . 6 ft ) tall statue of Shen Kuo sitting on a platform , along with centuries - old published copies of his " Dream Pool Essays " in glass cabinets , one of which is from Japan . At the garden estate there are also displayed marble banners , statues of Shen Kuo , and a model of an armillary sphere ; a small museum gallery depicts Shen ' s various achievements . The Chinese Mount Zijinshan Observatory discovered a new planetoid in 1964 ; in 1979 , the Chinese Academy of Sciences decided to honor Shen by listing " Shen Kuo " as one of its names .