naist-nlp/zeshel huggingface dataset:
Co - belligerence Co - belligerence is the waging of a war in cooperation against a common enemy without a formal treaty of military alliance . " Co - belligerence " is a broader and less precise status of wartime partnership than a formal military alliance . Co - belligerents may support each other materially , exchange intelligence and have limited operational coordination . The aims of war in which co - belligerents participate may differ considerably . The term " co - belligerence " indicates remoteness between the co - belligerent parties , cultural , religious , ideological or otherwise , whereas " alliance " indicates a corresponding closeness . Examples . The Allies as co - belligerents with former enemies . The term was used in 1943 - 45 during the latter stages of World War II to define the status of former German allies and associates ( chiefly Italy , but also from 1944 Romania , Bulgaria , Hungary and Finland ) , after they joined the Allied war against Germany . Finland as co - belligerent with Germany in World War II . Co - belligerence is also the term used by Finland for her military co - operation with Germany in the Continuation War of 1941 - 44 , when both countries had the Soviet Union as a common enemy . The Continuation War was a direct consequence of Germany ' s attack on the Soviet Union , Operation Barbarossa . Until then the German and Soviet governments had been allies , as during the Winter War ( 1940 ) against Finland . While the Allied propaganda from 1941 often referred to Finland as one of the Axis Power s , Finland was never a signatory to the German - Italian - Japanese Tripartite Pact of September 1940 . The Allies , in turn , pointed to the fact that Finland , like Japan and Italy , as well as a number of countries including neutral Spain , belonged to Hitler ' s Anti - Comintern Pact . Remaining sympathy among the western Allies , from the turn of the century Russification of Finland , to the later Finnish Civil War and Finnish cooperation with Franco - British interventions in the Russian Civil War , and again enhanced during the Winter War , may have contributed to an Allied assessment of Finland that , despite the state of war , was more understanding than in the cases of Hungary and Romania . Adolf Hitler declared Germany to be " im Bunde " ( in league ) with the Finns , but Finland ' s government declared their intention to remain first a non - belligerent country , then co - belligerent after the Soviets started bombing Finnish cities all over the country , not the least due to a remaining neutralist public opinion . The truth was somewhere in - between :
Attacks on Australia during World War II Due to Australia ' s geographic position there were relatively few attacks on Australia during World War II . Axis surface raiders and submarines periodically attacked shipping in Australian waters from 1940 to early 1945 and Japanese aircraft bombed towns and airfields in Northern Australia on 97 occasions during 1942 and 1943 . Naval attacks . Six German surface raiders operated in Australian waters at different times between 1940 and 1943 . These ships sank a small number of merchant ships and the Australian light cruiser HMAS " Sydney " . The German submarine " U - 862 " also carried out attacks in Australian waters in late 1944 and early 1945 . Japanese submarines operated in Australian waters from January 1942 until July 1944 . Major submarine offensives were carried out against shipping off the Australian east coast from May to July 1942 and January to July 1943 . A small Japanese reconnaissance party also briefly landed in the Kimberley region of Western Australia in January 1944 . On the evening of the 31st May / morning of the 1st June 1942 , Sydney harbour came under direct attack from Japanese midget submarines . HMAS " Kuttabul " , a converted ferry being used as a troop sleeper , was hit and sunk . 22 sailors were killed , 19 Australians and 2 members of the Royal Navy . Air attacks . The first air raid on Australia occurred on 19 February 1942 when Darwin was attacked by 242 Japanese aircraft . Occasional attacks on northern Australian towns and airfields continued until November 1943 .
USS Pinellas ( AK - 202 ) USS " Pinellas " ( AK - 202 ) was an " Alamosa " - class cargo ship that was constructed for the U . S . Navy during the closing period of World War II . By the time she was scheduled for commissioning , the war ’ s end caused her to be declared “ excess to needs ” and she was returned to the U . S . Government and struck by the Navy . Career . " Pinellas " ( AK – 202 ) was laid down under Maritime Commission contract by Globe Shipbuilding Co . , Superior , Wisconsin . She was transferred to the Navy in March 1945 . " Pinellas " was scheduled for commissioning . However , because of the Allied victory in the Pacific Ocean theatre of operations , her commissioning was cancelled . " Pinellas " was ordered returned to the U . S . Maritime Commission for disposal . She was subsequently renamed " Coastal Competition " . Her subsequent fate is not known .
German submarine U - 488 German submarine " U - 488 " was a Type XIV supply and replenishment U - boat ( " " Milchkuh " " ) of the Nazi German " Kriegsmarine " during World War II . Her keel was laid down on 3 January 1942 by Germaniawerft in Kiel as ' werk ' 557 . She was launched on 17 October 1942 and commissioned on 1 February 1943 , with " Leutnant zur See " Erwin Bartke in command . Bartke was promoted to " Oberleutnant zur See " by February 1944 ; he was relieved by " Oblt " . Bruno Studt . The boat ' s service began with training under the 4th U - boat Flotilla and culminated with the 12th flotilla for operations . Operational career . " U - 488 " conducted three patrols . As a supply boat , she avoided combat . 1st patrol . " U - 488 " s first patrol commenced when she left Kiel on 18 May 1943 . She cleared the British Isles , sailing through the gap between the Faeroe Islands and Iceland and out into the central Atlantic . On the return journey , she passed to the northwest of the Azores and reached Bordeaux in occupied France on 10 July 1943 . 2nd patrol . She was attacked on her second patrol on 12 October 1943 by two Avenger s from the escort carrier USS " Card " . The aircraft claimed a sinking , but " U - 488 " was able to continue her mission . On 15 October , " Maschinenmaat " Karl Bergmann died of an illness . On 25 November , " Matrosenobergefreiter " Heinz Heinlein fell overboard . He was rescued , but died of heart failure shortly afterwards . The U - boat returned to Bordeaux on 12 December 1943 . 3rd patrol and loss . The boat departed Bordeaux for the last time on 22 April 1944 . " U - 488 " was sunk with all hands ( 64 dead ) on the 26th in the mid - Atlantic west of Cape Verde by depth charges from the American destroyer escort s USS " Frost , " Huse " , " Barber " and " Snowden " .
945th Military Airlift Group The 945th Military Airlift Group is an inactive United States Air Force Reserve unit . It was last active with the 452d Military Airlift Wing , based at Hill AFB , Utah . It was inactivated on 1 January 1973 History . Following the mobilizations in 1961 and 1962 for the Berlin Crisis and the Cuban Missile Crisis , Continental Air Command ( ConAC ) realized that it was unwieldy to mobilize an entire wing unless absolutely necessary . Their original Table of Organization for each Wing was a wing headquarters , a troop carrier group , an Air Base Group , a maintenance and supply group , and a medical group . In 1957 , the troop carrier group and maintenance and supply groups were inactivated , with their squadrons reassigned directly to the wing headquarters - despite the fact that many wings had squadrons spread out over several bases due to the Detached Squadron Concept dispersing Reserve units over centers of population . To resolve this , in late 1962 and early 1963 , ConAC reorganized the structure of its reserve Troop Carrier Wings by establishing fully deployable Troop Carrier Groups and inserting them into the chain of command between the Wing and its squadrons at every base that held a ConAC troop carrier squadron . At each base , the group was composed of a material squadron , a troop carrier squadron , a tactical hospital or dispensary , and a combat support squadron . Each troop carrier wing consisted of 3 or 4 of these groups . By doing so , ConAC could facilitate the mobilization of either aircraft and aircrews alone , aircraft and minimum support personnel ( one troop carrier group ) , or the entire troop carrier wing . This also gave ConAC the flexibility to expand each Wing by attaching additional squadrons , if necessary from other Reserve wings to the deployable groups for deployments . As a result , the 945th Troop Carrier Group was established with a mission to organize , recruit and train Air Force Reserve personnel in the tactical airlift of airborne forces , their equipment and supplies and delivery of these forces and materials by airdrop , landing or cargo extraction systems . The group was equipped with C - 119 Flying Boxcar s for Tactical Air Command airlift operations . The 945th TCG was one of four C - 119 groups assigned to the 452d TCW in 1963 , the others being the 942d , 943d , and the 944th Troop Carrier Group , at March AFB , California . The group flew overseas missions , particularly to the Far East and Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War . In 1971 , the group began phasing out the C - 124 and was inactivated on 1 January 1973 along with the 733d MAS .
USS Marpessa ( SP - 787 ) USS " Marpessa " ( SP - 787 ) was a United States Navy patrol vessel in commission from 1917 to 1919 . " Marpessa " was built in 1916 as a private , twin - engine wooden motorboat of the same name by the Mathis Yacht Building Company at Camden , New Jersey . On 18 August 1917 , the U . S . Navy acquired her from her owner , W . J . Matheson of Camden , for use as a section patrol boat during World War I . She was enrolled in the Naval Coast Defense Reserve on 8 September 1917 and commissioned as USS " Marpessa " ( SP - 787 ) on 1 October 1917 with Ensign H . W . Mathewson , USNRF , in command . Assigned to the 7th Naval District and based at Marathon , Florida , " Marpessa " patrolled the southern Atlantic coast of Florida for the rest of World War I . " Marpessa " was returned to Matheson on 7 January 1919 .
Battle of Kozludzha Battle of Kozludzha ( also known as the Battle of Kozluca ) fought on 20 June ( Old Style - June 9 ) 1774 near the village of Kozludzha ( now , Suvorovo ) was one of the final and decisive battles of the Russo - Turkish War ( 1768 – 74 ) . The Russians managed to rout the Ottoman Army , scoring a major victory . This battle , alongside several others in this campaign , is said to have established the reputation of Russian general Alexander Suvorov as a brilliant commander of his era . The Ottoman forces are estimated at about 40 , 000 . Russian numbers are said to have been inferior . The Ottoman forces were demoralized due to previous defeats and poor logistics ( including a year of withheld back pay ) . Russian army under Generals Alexander Suvorov and Mikhail Kamensky encountered the Ottoman Army of General Abdul - Rezak . After scouts reported to Suvorov , he immediately ordered the attack . The Russian army , divided into four squares , attacked the Ottomans . Ottoman cavalry charges were repulsed by the Russians . Russian cavalry attack from the rear resulted in the capture of all of the Ottoman artillery . Russian artillery fire is also said to have been highly devastating to the Ottoman forces . Casualties were reported as 3 , 000 for the Ottomans , and 209 for the Russians . The Russians captured the Ottoman camp with its supplies , while the Ottomans abandoned Kozludzha and retreated to Shumla ( Shumen , Kolarovgrad ) , where they were soon blockaded , suffering from further defeats and attrition . The Russian victory was one of the major reasons why a month later , on 21 July , the Ottomans were forced to sign the unfavorable Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca . References .
Victor Baptistin Sénès Victor Baptistin Sénès ( Toulon , 31 May 1857 - " Léon Gambetta " , 27 April 1915 ) was a French naval officer and admiral . Career . Sénès entered the École Navale in October 1874 . He reached the rank of " enseigne de vaisseau " 2nd class in August 1876 , and joined the battleship " Richelieu " . He reached the rank of " enseigne de vaisseau " first class the following year and was promoted in October 1879 to " Lieutenant de vaisseau " . He served as Maneuvering Officer on " Orne " from 1881 , and he participated in the campaign of Tunisia . Three years later , when in command of the ship ' s machine guns at Tonkin , he distinguished himself during operations in the River Claire ( Sông Lô River , also called the Lo River ) . Injured in February 1885 , he was promoted to " Lieutenant de vaisseau " in March of that same year . He then headed the " Secrétariat Général " majority in Toulon in 1886 , and later attended the School of Submarine Defence on the " Algésiras " . Commissioned as a destroyer commander , he was finally ordered in 1890 to Destroyer Squadron 127 in the Mediterranean and , in 1891 , took command of torpedo boat " Éclair " . In 1897 , he took part in the operations of the international squadron sent in Crete during the Greco - Turkish War . He was promoted to Frigate captain in 1898 , served as aid to the Ministry , and eventually rose to personal secretary of the Minister of War . He became chief of the first section of the General Staff in Toulon , and he was conspicuous in 1899 during the explosion of the powder magazine at Lagoubran near Toulon . Sénès became a Captain in 1905 and took command of the battleship " Charles Martel " , in the Mediterranean Squadron . He was promoted to Rear - Admiral in 1911 , and took command of the 2nd Division of the 1st Light Wing , on the armoured cruiser " Léon Gambetta " . At the beginning of the First World War , he took part in cruiser operations in the Mediterranean and Adriatic . On 27 April 1915 , the " Léon Gambetta " was torpedoed by the Austrian - Hungarian submarine off of Cape Santa Maria di Leuca . Sénès sank with his vessel . Sources . VICTOR BAPTISTIN SENES ( 1857 - 1915 )
USS Cythera ( PY - 26 ) The USS " Cythera " ( SP - 575 / PY - 26 ) was a US Navy patrol yacht , originally laid down as the civilian yacht " Agawa " for William L . Harkness , that saw service in the Atlantic during both World War I and World War II . History . World War I . Originally constructed in Leith , Scotland and launched as the civilian yacht " Agawa " on 20 September 1906 , she was subsequently leased from William L . Harkness by the US Navy in 1917 and commissioned as the USS " Cythera " ( SP - 575 ) . Sailing from New York on 27 October 1917 , " Cythera " arrived at Newport the next day and was assigned to Patrol Force , Atlantic Fleet . She cleared Newport 1 November with her squadron , and escorted and towed submarine chasers to European waters , before arriving at Gibraltar on 29 December . Based out of Gibraltar , she patrolled and escorted convoys between her base and Mediterranean ports in France , Italy , and Africa . She was decommissioned 17 March 1919 , and returned to her owner two days later . World War II . After serving under civilian operation for more than two decades , " Cythera " was reacquired from William L . Harkness widow Edith by the US Navy on 31 December 1941 and given the designation PY - 26 . Her conversion into a patrol vessel was completed 28 February , and she was placed in service 3 March 1942 . On 2 May 1942 , while escorting the Russian tanker " Ashkabad " , she was torpedoed and sunk by the U - boat U - 402 off the coast of North Carolina . Of the 71 crew on board at the time , only two survived and were picked up by the attacking submarine as prisoners of war .
Jules C . Webber Jules C . Webber ( August 27 , 1838 – January 12 , 1872 ) was an American Union brevet brigadier general during the period of the American Civil War . He served with the 18th Illinois Infantry . He received his appointment as brevet brigadier general dated to March 13 , 1865 . He was the brother - in law of Major General Joseph J . Reynolds .
Richard Turton Captain Richard Turton was an officer of the 40th Regiment stationed at Sydney . He was selected to lead the first party of convicts in the re - establishment of the second convict settlement at Norfolk Island . The island had been abandoned since the first convict settlement was finally removed in 1814 . The new settlement was intended to be the most severe settlement , where the worst convicts would be sent , without hope of escape and offering , in Governor Darling ' s view , “ the extremest punishment short of death ” . With 34 soldiers , 57 convicts , and 12 soldiers ' wives and children , he landed on 6 June 1825 . Most of the convicts were tradesmen to clear the regrowth and prepare buildings . A treadmill was planned , but never sent . The convicts worked twelve hour days , and the rations of salt meat and maize - meal sound unappetising , but there are no reports of harsh treatment of this working party . Thirty - one more convicts arrived in December , along with more wives . In March 1826 , Turton was promoted to major , replaced by Captain Vance Young Donaldson of the 57th Regiment , and returned to Sydney .
114th Mahrattas The 114th Mahrattas were an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army . The regiment traces their origins to 1800 , when they were raised as the 2nd Battalion , 7th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry . During World War I they were attached to the 17th Indian Division for the Mesopotamia Campaign . They took part in the Action at Fat - ha Gorge on the Little Zab and the Battle of Sharqat , in October 1918 . After World War I the Indian government reformed the army moving from single battalion regiments to multi battalion regiments . In 1922 , the 114th Mahrattas became the 10th ( Training ) Battalion 5th Mahratta Light Infantry . After independence they were one of the regiments allocated to the Indian Army .
Alumni Hall ( Navy ) Alumni Hall is an indoor stadium at the United States Naval Academy , in Annapolis in the U . S . state of Maryland . Completed in 1991 , it seats 5 , 710 and serves as the primary assembly hall for the Brigade of Midshipmen . It is used for athletic contests — including basketball and wrestling — and is home for the Naval Academy women ' s and men ' s basketball team s , members of the Patriot League . Additionally , it is adaptable for lectures , assemblies , theatrical productions , concerts and official ceremonies and is home for the Bob Hope Performing Arts Center . It also plays host to numerous dinners and receptions through two first - class dining facilities . Building features . The hall has two exterior , landscaped memorial plazas donated by the classes of 1942 , ' 58 and ' 59 . Mounted on the interior wall facing the building ' s mail entrance are three large mural - sized paintings donated by the class of 1961 . The work of the prominent marine artist Tom Freeman , who created and executed the paintings under a commission from the class , they depict the major fighting arms of the US Navy during the 1960s when the greatest number of members of 1961 were on active duty . From left to right , they are titled " The Marines at the Hue Citadel " , " Dawn on Yankee Station " , and " Rescue by USS Barb " . Note that consideration is being given to having a separate entry on the paintings accompanied by pictures of each ; a link will be provided should the article be written . All seats in the facility are dedicated to the memory of individuals who have committed themselves to the cause of freedom . The approximately 40 rooms in the building have plaques dedicated to individuals and organizations who have supported our country and the Naval Academy . A wall is reserved by the Pearl Harbor Survivors Association to commemorate those who were killed during the attack on Pearl Harbor . One concourse is dedicated to Lt . Lloyd Garnett and his shipmates on the USS Samuel B . Roberts ( DE - 413 ) who earned their ship the reputation as the " destroyer escort that fought like a battleship " in the Battle of Leyte Gulf during World War II . A music room is named for Lt . Mark Lange , Class of 1979 , whose A - 6E Intruder ( flying from USS John F . Kennedy ) was shot down over Lebanon in December 1983 . Residents from Lange ' s hometown of Detroit and the surrounding areas funded the room .
Open city In war , in the event of the imminent capture of a city , the government / military structure of the nation that controls the city will sometimes declare it an open city , thus announcing that they have abandoned all defensive efforts . The attacking armies of the opposing military will then be expected not to bomb or otherwise attack the city , but simply to march in . The concept aims at protecting the historic landmarks and civilians who dwell in the city from an unnecessary battle . Attacking forces do not always respect the declaration of an " open city . " Defensive forces will use it as a political tactic as well . In some cases , the declaration of a city to be " open " is made by a side which is on the verge of defeat and surrender ; in other cases , those making such a declaration are willing and able to fight on , but prefer that the specific city be spared . Several cities were declared open during World War II : Open cities in postwar Japan . In 1977 , a far left group in Japan called the " National Open City Declaration Movement Network " began organizing activists to make cities preemptively declare themselves " defenseless " under the Geneva Convention , so that in the event of war , they would be legally forced to welcome any invasion . This is rejected by nearly all of Japan ' s political parties and the ruling government as inherently absurd , since Japan is not in a war , and in the event of war such a decision would be have to be approved by the national government . However , the Social Democratic Party which was in power from 1994 to 1996 supports it . Nevertheless , four wards of Tokyo and Kagoshima City , Japan ' s southernmost port , among many other cities , are considering legislation to be declared " open cities " .
Russian submarine B - 276 Kostroma B - 276 Kostroma is a Russian Sierra class submarine . She was launched in 1986 , commissioned in 1987 , and named K - 276 Crab until 1992 . The Kostroma was built at Gorky and later towed to Severodvinsk for completion . She is part of the Russian Northern Fleet . On February 11 , 1992 , the Kostroma - then still named " K - 276 Crab " - collided with the " USS Baton Rouge " ( some sources state it was " K - 239 Carp " that collided with the " Baton Rouge " ) . The " Baton Rouge " was damaged ( as was the " Crab " / " Kostroma " ) and was eventually deactivated in 1993 . The crew of the K - 276 painted the number " 1 " bordered by a star on the sail , as did Soviet submarines during World War II to indicate the number of their victories .
Cyril Falls Cyril Bentham Falls CBE ( Mar . 2 , 1888 - Apr 23 , 1971 ) was a military historian noted for his work on the First World War . He was born in Dublin and died in Walton - on - Thames , Surrey . Biography . Falls served in the First World War , reaching the rank of Captain in the British Army . He was on the General Staff for the 36th ( Ulster ) Division and 62nd ( 2nd West Riding ) Division . He received the French Croix de Guerre . After the war , he helped write several volumes of the British official " History of the Great War " . Later he wrote both detailed specialist histories as well as histories intended for the average reader . An expert on the history of the First World War , he was the Chichele Professor of Military History at All Souls , Oxford University from 1946 to 1953 .