Postgraduate education Post - graduate education ( or graduate education in North America ) involves learning and studying for degrees or other qualifications for which a first or Bachelor ' s degree generally is required , and is normally considered to be part of higher education . In North America , this level is generally referred to as graduate school . The organization and structure of postgraduate education varies in different countries , and also in different institutions within countries . This article sets out the basic types of course and of teaching and examination methods , with some explanation of their history . In some programs in the traditional German system and the traditional Dutch system , there is no legal distinction between " undergraduate " and " postgraduate " . In such programs , all education aims towards the Master ' s degree , whether introductory ( Bachelor ' s level ) or advanced ( Master ' s level ) . The aim of the Bologna process is to abolish this system . Types of postgraduate qualification . There are two main types of qualification studied for at the postgraduate level : academic and vocational degrees . Degrees . The term " degree " in this context means the moving from one stage or level to another ( from French " degré " , from Latin " dē - " + " gradus " ) , and first appeared in the 13th century . History . Although systems of higher education go back to ancient Greece , China , the Indian subcontinent and Africa , the concept of " postgraduate " education depends upon the system of awarding degrees at different levels of study , and can be traced to the workings of European medieval universities . University studies took six years for a Bachelor degree and up to twelve additional years for a master ' s degree or doctorate . The first six years taught the faculty of the arts , which was the study of the seven liberal arts : arithmetic , geometry , astronomy , music theory , grammar , logic , and rhetoric . The main emphasis was on logic . Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained , the student could choose one of three faculties — law , medicine , or theology — in which to pursue master ' s or doctor ' s degrees . Theology was the most prestigious area of study , and considered to be the most difficult . The degrees of master ( " magister " ) and doctor were for some time equivalent , " the former being more in favour at Paris and the universities modeled after it , and the latter at Bologna and its derivative universities . At Oxford and Cambridge a distinction came to be drawn between the Faculties of Law , Medicine , and Theology and the Faculty of Arts in this respect , the title of Doctor being used for the former , and that of Master for the latter . " Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects , the doctorate came to be thought of as higher than the master ' s . The main significance of the higher , postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach ( " doctor " comes from the Latin " " docere " " , meaning " teach " ; " " magister " " is Latin for " master " , and often " schoolmaster " , and is also the root of " magistrate " ) . Definition . In most countries , the hierarchy of post - graduate degrees is as follows : In the UK and countries whose education systems were founded on the British model , such as the U . S . , the master ' s degree was for a long time the only postgraduate degree normally awarded , while in most European countries apart from the UK , the master ' s degree almost disappeared . In the second half of the 19th century , however , U . S . universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates , and this practice spread to the UK . Conversely , most European universities now offer master ' s degrees parallelling or replacing their regular system , so as to offer their students better chances to compete in an international market dominated by the American model . In UK an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ 5 or QCF 8 . http : / / www . ofqual . gov . uk / qualification - and - assessment - framework / 89 - articles / 250 - explaining - the - national - qualifications - framework Honorary degrees . Most universities award honorary degrees , usually at the postgraduate level . These are awarded to a wide variety of people , such as artists , musicians , writers , politicians , businesspeople , etc . , in recognition of their achievements in their various fields . ( Recipients of such degrees do not normally use the associated titles or letters , such as " Dr " . ) Non - degree qualifications . Postgraduate education can involve studying for qualifications such as postgraduate certificate s and postgraduate diploma s . They are sometimes used as steps on the route to a degree , or as part of training for a specific career , or as a qualification in an area of study too narrow to warrant a full degree course . Argentina . Admission . In Argentina , the admission to a Postgraduate program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of a Licenciado or Ingeniero degree . Non - Argentine Bachelor ' s titles are generally accepted into a Master ' s and Ph . D . programs when the degree comes from a recognized university . Funding . While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state - run institutions , international institutions , such as the Fullbright Program and the Organization of American States ( OAS ) , have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing . Degree requirements . Upon completion of at least two years ' research and course work as a postgraduate student , a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence . The Master and Doctoral candidate ' s work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director , and reviewed by a postgraduate Committee . This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program , and at least one of them should also be external to the institution . Australia . Admission . Generally , the Australian higher education system follows that of its British counterpart ( with a few notable exceptions ) . Programmes are divided into coursework - based and research - based degrees , and entrance is decided by merit ( entrance to coursework - based programmes is usually not as strict ) ; most universities usually require a " Credit " average ( equivalent to the British B - ) as entry to their taught programmes in a field related to their previous undergraduate . On average , however , a strong " Credit " or " Distinction " average is the norm for accepted students . Ph . D . entrance requirements in the higher ranked schools typically require a student to have postgraduate research honours or a master ' s degree by research , or a master ' s with a significant research component . Entry requirements depend on the subject studied and the individual university . The minimum duration of a Ph . D . programme is two years , but completing within this time span is unusual , with Ph . D . s usually taking an average of three to four years to be completed . Most of the confusion with Australian postgraduate programmes occurs with the research - based programmes , particularly scientific programmes . Research degrees generally require candidates to have a minimum of a second - class four - year honours undergraduate degree to be considered for admission to a Ph . D . programme ( M . Phil are an uncommon route ) . In science , a British first class honours ( 3 years ) is not equivalent to an Australian first class honours ( 1 year research postgraduate programme that requires a completed an undergraduate ( pass ) degree with a high grade - point average ) . In scientific research , it is commonly accepted that an Australian postgraduate honours is equivalent to a British Master ' s degree ( in research ) . There has been some debate over the acceptance of a three - year honours degree ( as in the case of graduates from British universities ) as equivalent entry requirement to graduate research programmes ( M . Phil . , Ph . D . ) in Australian universities . The letters of Honours programmes also added to the confusion . For example : B . Sc . ( Hons ) are the letters gained for postgraduate research honours at the University of Queensland . B . Sc ( Hons ) does not indicate that this honours is postgraduate qualification . Difficultly also arises between different universities in Australia - some universities have followed the UK system . Professional programs . There are many professional programs such as medical and dental school require a previous bachelors for admission and are considered graduate or Graduate Entry programs even though they culminate in a bachelors degree . Example , the Bachelor of Medicine ( MBBS ) or Bachelor of Dentistry ( BDent ) . There has also been some confusion over the conversion of the different marking schemes between British , U . S . , and Australian systems for the purpose of assessment for entry to graduate programmes . The Australian grades are divided into four categories : High Distinction , Distinction , Credit , and Pass ( though many institutions have idiosyncratic grading systems ) . Assessment and evaluation based on the Australian system is not equivalent to British or U . S . schemes because of the " low - marking " scheme used by Australian universities . For example , a British student who achieves 70 + will receive an A grade , whereas an Australian student with 70 + will receive a Distinction which is not the highest grade in the marking scheme . Hence , there have been many instances where Australian university admission officers have incorrectly assessed foreign grade marks as equivalent to their own . Funding . The Australian government usually offer full funding ( fees and a monthly stipend ) to its citizens and permanent residents who are pursuing research - based higher degrees . There are also highly competitive scholarships for international candidates who intend to pursue research - based programmes . Taught - degree scholarships ( certain masters ' degrees , Grad . Dip . , Grad . Cert . , D . Eng . , D . B . A . ) are almost non - existent for international students , so they are usually required to be self - funded . Degree requirements . Requirements for the successful completion of a taught master ' s programme are that the student pass all the required modules . Some universities require eight taught modules for a one - year programme , twelve modules for a one - and - a - half - year programme , and twelve taught modules plus a thesis or dissertation for a two - year programme . The academic year for an Australian postgraduate programme is typically two semesters ( eight months of study ) . Requirements for research - based programmes vary among universities . Generally , however , a student is not required to take taught modules as part of their candidacy . It is now common that first - year Ph . D . candidates are not regarded as permanent Ph . D . students for fear that they may not be sufficiently prepared to undertake independent research . In such cases , an alternative degree will be awarded for their previous work , usually an M . Phil . or M . Sc . by research . Brazil . Admission . In Brazil , a Bachelor ' s , Licenciate or " Technologist " degree is required in order to enter a graduate program , called " pós - graduação " . Funding . The competition for public universities is very large , as they are the most prestigious and respected universities in Brazil . Public universities do not charge fees for any level / course . Funding , similar to wages , is available but is usually granted by public agencies linked to the University in question ( i . e . FAPESP , CAPES , CNPq , etc . ) . Degree requirements . There are two types of postgraduate ; " lato sensu " ( latin for " in broad sense " ) , which generally means an specialization course in one area of study , mostly addressed to profesional practice , and " stricto sensu " ( latin for " in narrow sense " ) , which means a Master of Science or Doctorate , encompassing broader and profound activities of scientific research . Canada . Admission . Admission to a master ' s program generally requires a bachelor ' s degree in a related field , with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B + and higher ( note that different schools have different letter grade conventions , and this requirement may be significantly higher in some faculties ) , and recommendations from professors . Some schools require samples of the student ' s writing as well as a research proposal . At English - speaking universities , applicants from countries where English is not the primary language are required to submit scores from the Test of English as a Foreign Language ( TOEFL ) . Nevertheless , some French speaking universities , like HEC Montreal , also requires candidates to submit TOEFL score or to pass their own English test . Admission to a doctoral program typically requires a master ' s degree in a related field , sufficiently high grades , recommendations , samples of writing , a research proposal , and typically an interview with a prospective supervisor . Requirements are often set higher than those for a master ' s program . In exceptional cases , a student holding an honours BA with sufficiently high grades and proven writing and research abilities may be admitted directly to a Ph . D . program without the requirement to first complete a master ' s . Many Canadian graduate programs allow students who start in a master ' s to " reclassify " into a Ph . D . program after satisfactory performance in the first year , bypassing the master ' s degree . Graduate students must usually declare their research goal or submit a research proposal upon entering grad school ; in the case of master ' s degrees , there will be some flexibility ( that is , one is not held to one ' s research proposal , although major changes , for example from premodern to modern history , are discouraged ) . In the case of Ph . D . s , the research direction is usually known as it will typically follow the direction of the master ' s research . Master ' s degrees can possibly be completed in one year but normally take at least two ; they typically do not exceed five years . Doctoral degrees require a minimum of two years but frequently take much longer , not usually exceeding six years . Funding . Graduate students may take out student loans , but instead they often work as teaching or research assistant s . Students often agree , as a condition of acceptance to a programme , not to devote more than twelve hours per week to work or outside interests . Funding is available to first - year masters students whose transcripts reflect exceptionally high grades ; this funding is normally given in the second year . Funding for Ph . D . students comes from a variety of sources , and many universities waive tuition fees for doctoral candidates . Funding is available in the form of scholarships , bursaries and other awards , both private and public . Degree requirements . Both master ' s and doctoral programs may be done by coursework or research or a combination of the two , depending on the subject and faculty . Most faculties require both , with the emphasis on research , and with coursework being directly related to the field of research . Master ' s candidates undertaking research are typically required to complete a thesis comprising some original research and ranging from seventy to two - hundred pages . Some fields may require candidates to study at least one foreign language if they have not already earned sufficient foreign - language credits . Some faculties require candidates to defend their thesis , but many do not . Those that do not often have a requirement of taking two additional courses , minimum , in lieu of preparing a thesis . Ph . D . candidates undertaking research must typically complete a thesis , or dissertation , consisting of original research representing a significant contribution to their field , and ranging from two - hundred to five - hundred pages . Most Ph . D . candidates will be required to sit comprehensive examination s — examinations testing general knowledge in their field of specialization — in their second or third year as a prerequisite to continuing their studies , and must defend their thesis as a final requirement . Some faculties require candidates to earn sufficient credits in a third or fourth foreign language ; for example , most candidates in modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English , Japanese , and Mandarin , while candidates in pre - modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English , Japanese , Classical Chinese , and Classical Japanese . At English - speaking Canadian universities , both master ' s and Ph . D . theses may be presented in English or in the language of the subject ( German for German literature , for example ) , but if this is the case an extensive abstract must be also presented in English . In exceptional circumstances , a thesis may be presented in French . The exception to this rule is McGill University , where all work can be submitted in either English or French , unless the purpose of the course of study is acquisition of a language . French - speaking universities have varying sets of rules ; some ( e . g . HEC Montreal ) will accept students with little knowledge of French if they can communicate with their supervisors ( usually in English ) . France . Admission . There are 87 public universities in France , and they are based upon the European education ladder including bachelors , Masters , and PhDs . You gain each degree though the successful completion of a predetermined number of years in education . You use these years to gain credits via the European Credit Transfer System ( ECTS ) . There are over 300 doctoral programs , which collaborate with 1200 research laboratories and centers . Each degree has a certain set of national diplomas that are all of equal value , irrespective of where they were issued . There are also other diplomas that are exclusive to France and are very hard to attain . Possibilities for different specialties . France is a good place to study if you are interested in technological innovation or scientific courses . They teach very good courses in electronics , aerospace , transportation , chemistry , telecommunication , health and biotechnology . France also has 240 engineering schools , which have similar characteristics relating to teaching quality , all of which is closely regulated . They have advanced degree qualifications in engineering , with national diplomas that allow admission into doctoral programs . The masters degrees for business and management that are earned in certain French universities are the envy of the world . Many revolve around international exchanges and internships . As you may imagine there are a few universities that are very apt for those wanting to study art . They have 20 schools dedicated to architecture , which allow students to take advanced architecture degrees . Two of the art schools are very prestigious and offer 3 - 5 year courses that may lead onto national diplomas at the bachelor or masters level . United Kingdom . Admission . Admission to undertake a research degree in the UK typically requires a good bachelor ' s degree , or Scottish M . A . , ( at least lower second , but usually an upper second or first class ) . Students may or may not already have a Master ' s degree . In some institutions , Doctoral candidates are initially admitted to a Masters in Research Philosophy ( M . Phil . or MRes ) , then later transfer to a Ph . D . if they can show satisfactory progress in their first 8 – 12 months of study . Funding . Funding for postgraduate study in the UK is awarded competitively , and usually is disseminated by institution ( in the form of a certain allocation of studentships for a given year ) rather than directly to individuals . There are a number of scholarships for Master ' s courses , but these are relatively rare and dependent on the course and class of undergraduate degree obtained ( usually requiring at least a lower second ) . Most Master ' s students are self - funded . Funding is available for some Ph . D . courses . As at the Master ' s level , there is more funding available to those in the sciences than in other disciplines . Such funding generally comes from Research Council s such as the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council ( EPSRC ) , Arts and Humanities Research Council ( AHRC ) , Medical Research Council ( MRC ) and others . For overseas students , most major funding applications are due as early as twelve months or more before the intended graduate course will begin . This funding is also often highly competitive . The most widely available , and thus important , award for overseas students is the Overseas Research Student ( ORS ) Award , which pays the difference in university fees between an overseas student and a British or EU resident . However , a student can only for one university apply for the OSR Award , often before he or she knows whether they have been accepted . As of the 2009 / 2010 academic year , the HEFCE has cancelled the Overseas Research Student Award scheme for English and Welsh universities . The state of the scheme for Scottish and Northern Irish universities is currently unclear . Students studying part - time for a Master ' s degree can apply for income - based Jobseeker ' s Allowance provided their timetabled hours are fewer than 16 hours per week . This also entitles the student to housing benefit provided by their local council . Full - time students ( of any type ) are not normally eligible for state benefits , including during vacation time . United States . Degree requirements . Graduate students often declare their intended degree ( master ' s or doctorate ) in their applications . In some cases , master ' s programs allow successful students to continue toward the doctorate degree . Students may also , at many universities , use Directed Individual Studies classes from their undergraduate work to satisfy some course requirements for a master ' s degree . Additionally , doctoral students who have advanced to candidacy but not filed a dissertation ( " ABD , " for " all but dissertation " ) often receive master ' s degrees and an additional master ' s called a Master of Philosophy , or MPhil , or C . Phil . " Candidate in Philosophy " degree . The master ' s component of a doctorate program often requires one or two years , and some students , because doctoral programs are better - funded , apply for doctoral programs while only intending to attain a master ' s degree . This is generally not accepted and , if a student ' s advisor learns of the student ' s plans , can result in early termination . Many graduate programs require students to pass one or several examinations in order to demonstrate their competence as scholars . In some departments , a comprehensive examination is often required in the first year of doctoral study , and is designed to test a student ' s background undergraduate - level knowledge . Examinations of this type are more common in the sciences and some social sciences , and relatively unknown in most humanities disciplines . Most graduate students perform teaching duties , often serving as graders and tutors . In some departments , they can be promoted to Lecturer status , a position that comes with more responsibility . Doctoral students generally spend roughly their first two to three years taking coursework , and begin research by their second year if not before . Many master ' s and all specialist students will perform research culminating in a paper , presentation , and defense of their research . This is called the master ' s thesis ( or , for Educational Specialist students , the specialist paper ) . However , many US master ' s degree programs do not require a master ' s thesis , focusing instead primarily on course work or on " practicals " or " workshops " . Such " real - world " experience may typically require a candidate work on a project alone or in a team as a consultant , or consultants , for an outside entity approved or selected by the academic institution , and under faculty supervision . In the second and third years of study , doctoral programs often require students to pass more examinations . Programs often require a Qualifying Examination ( " Quals " ) , a PhD Candidacy Examination ( " Candidacy " ) , or a General Examination ( " Generals " ) , designed to students ' grasp of a broad sample of their discipline , and / or one or several Special Field Examinations ( " Specials " ) , which test students in their narrower selected areas of specialty within the discipline . If these examinations are held orally , they may be known colloquially as " orals " . For some social science and many humanities disciplines , where graduate students may or may not have studied the discipline at the undergraduate level , these exams will be the first set , and be based either on graduate coursework or specific preparatory reading ( sometimes up to a year ' s work in reading ) . In all cases , comprehensive exams are normally both stressful and time consuming , and must be passed to be allowed to proceed on to the thesis . Passing such examinations allows the student to stay , begin doctoral research , and rise to the status of a doctoral candidate , while failing usually results in the student leaving the program or re - taking the test after some time has passed ( usually a semester or a year ) . Some schools have an intermediate category , passing at the master ' s level , which allows the student to leave with a master ' s without having completed a master ' s thesis . For the next several years the doctoral candidate primarily performs his or her research . Usually this lasts three to eight years , though a few finish more quickly and some take substantially longer . In total , the typical doctoral degree takes between 4 and 8 years from entering the program to completion , though this time varies depending upon the department , thesis topic , and many other factors . For example , astronomy degrees take five to six years on average , but observational astronomy degrees take six to seven due to limiting factors of weather , while theoretical astronomy degrees take five . Though there is substantial variation among universities , departments , and individuals , humanities and social science doctorates on average take somewhat longer to complete than natural science doctorates . These differences are due to the differing nature of research between the humanities and some social sciences and the natural sciences , and to the differing expectations of the discipline in coursework , languages and length of thesis . However , time required to complete a doctorate also varies according to the candidate ' s abilities and choice of research . Some students may also choose to remain in a program if they fail to win an academic position , particularly in disciplines with a tight job market ; by remaining a student , they can retain access to libraries and university facilities , while also retaining an academic affiliation , which can be essential for conferences and job - searches . Traditionally , doctoral programs were only intended to last three to four years and , in some disciplines ( primarily the natural sciences ) , with a helpful advisor , and a light teaching load , it is possible for the degree to be completed in that amount of time . However , increasingly many disciplines , including most humanities , set their requirements for coursework , languages and the expected extent of thesis research by the assumption that students will take five years minimum or six to seven years on average ; competition for jobs within these fields also raises expectations on the length and quality of theses considerably . In some disciplines , doctoral programs can average seven to ten years . Archaeology , which requires long periods of research , tends towards the longer end of this spectrum . The increase in length of degree is a matter of great concern for both students and universities , though there is much disagreement on potential solutions to this problem . Funding . Many departments , especially those in which students have research or teaching responsibilities , offer tuition - forgiveness and a stipend that pays for most expenses . At some elite universities , there may be a minimum stipend established for all Ph . D . students , as well as a tuition waiver . The terms of these stipends vary greatly , and may consist of a scholarship or fellowship , followed by teaching responsibilities . At many elite universities , these stipends have been increasing , in response both to student pressure and especially to competition among the elite universities for graduate students . In some fields , research positions are more coveted than teaching positions because student researchers are typically paid to work on the dissertation they are required to complete anyway , while teaching is generally considered a distraction from one ' s work . Research positions are more typical of science disciplines ; they are relatively uncommon in humanities disciplines , and where they exist , rarely allow the student to work on their own research . Departments often have funds for limited discretionary funding to supplement minor expenses such as research trips and travel to conferences . A few students can attain outside fellowship s such as the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) and National Physical Science Consortium ( NPSC ) . Funding differs greatly by departments and universities ; some universities give five years of full funding to all Ph . D . students , though often with a teaching requirement attached ; other universities do not . Foreign students are typically funded the same way as domestic ( US ) students , although Federally subsidized student and parent loans and work - study assistance are generally limited to U . S . citizens and nationals , permanent residents , and approved refugees . Moreover , some funding sources ( such as many NSF fellowships ) may only be awarded to domestic students . International students often have worse financial difficulties than domestic students because higher cost of tuition and fees , higher cost of living , limitation required by law to work on campus only , and possible race or ethnic discrimination . Reasons include high costs to visit their families back home , support of a family not allowed to work due to immigration laws , tuition that is steep by world standards , and large fees : visa fees by U . S . Citizenship and Immigration Services , surveillance fees ( such as Student and Exchange Visitor Information Systems , or SEVIS ) by the United States Congress and the United States Department of Homeland Security .