African military systems after 1900 As the 20th century began , most of Africa , with the exception of Ethiopia and Liberia , was under colonial rule . By the 1980s , most nations were independent . Military systems reflect this evolution in several ways : For events prior to 1800 , see African military systems to 1800 . For events between 1800 and 1900 , see African military systems ( 1800 – 1900 ) . For an overall view of the military history of Africa by region , see Military History of Africa . Below are the major activities and events that shaped African military systems into the 20th and 21st century . Rebellions , resistance and " mop up " operations . By 1900 , the imperial powers had won most of the initial major battles against indigenous powers , or had occupied strategic areas such as coastlines , to secure their dominance . Colonies were established or expanded across the landscape - sometimes eagerly , as in the case of major mineral finds - or sometimes forced on the imperial center by the outlying actions of grasping or ambitious settlers , merchants , military officers , and bureaucrats . The complexity of African responses to the new order defies a simple narrative of good versus evil . In some cases the intruders were welcomed as useful allies , saviours or counterweights in local disputes . In other cases , they were bitterly resisted . In some areas , the colonial regimes brought massive land confiscations , violence and what some see as genocide . In others they brought education , better security , new products and skills , and improved standards of infrastructure and living . The historical record shows destructive operations by both indigenous hegemony and foreign intruders . Some of the methods used by the colonial powers are also reflected in armed European conflicts . Murdered peasants , livestock and grain seizures , arbitrary quartering of troops , and massive theft and looting by roaming armies for example , are common occurrences in various eras of European military history . Napoleon ' s brutal occupation of Spain is but one example . Nor did the colonial era see a complete cessation of purely internal disputes and wars . These were much reduced from the 19th century due to the colonial conquests , but still occurred in some areas with varying levels of intensity . Some limited areas of North Africa , such as Libya , were still under the sway of non - European powers like the Ottomans , adding to the complexity of the colonial situation . Whatever the balance sheet in different areas , it is clear that consolidation and exploitation of the new territories involved a large measure of coercion , and this often provoked a military reply . The exact form of such coercion varied - it could be land seizures , forced labor , hut taxes , interference in local quarrels , monopolism of trade , small - scale punitive expeditions , or outright warfare of genocidal intensity as that waged by the Germans against the Herero and Namaqua ( or " Nama " ) in southwest Africa . African military responses in this " mop up " or " pacification " period of the century ' s first decades were diverse - ranging from minor rebellions and revolts , sustained guerilla warfare , and full scale clashes . Only a few of these varying responses are considered here in terms of African military systems . Twilight of the mounted man . West Africa ' s largest single state during the 19th century , the Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria moved into the 20th century with its military system intact - the traditional mix of infantry and cavalry . New powers and technologies however were appearing on the scene . Some cavalry - strong states like the Tukolor , made sporadic attempts to incorporate weapons like artillery but integration was poor . Sokoto largely stuck to the old ways , and met its end in 1903 at the hands of imperial Britain . Sokoto ' s soldiers , whether horse or foot , had very few guns . The Caliphate ' s tactics were to attack in a series of set - piece battles , with thundering cavalry charges leading the way , followed by infantry armed with bow , sword and spear . As the fighting men surged forward into combat , their movements were accompanied by loud music and drums These however were not enough , and assaults were quickly routed by the modern weaponry of virtually invulnerable British squares . Traditional fortified cities and forts also made a poor showing and were usually rapidly breached by British artillery . Thus ended the heyday of the centuries - old West African cavalry - infantry combination . In Southern Africa the mounted men of the Boer forces also saw defeat in 1902 , as imperial troops implemented a blockade and scorched earth policy against their mobile tactics . This outcome paralleled general developments on the battlefield , as mounted forces gradually lost their relevance under modern firepower . Guerilla warfare in Southwest Africa . Guerilla warfare was a common military response in many areas of Africa during the early colonial era . The bitter 1904 – 1907 war between imperial Germany and the Herero tribe in today ' s Namibia is an illustration of this pattern , with tragic consequences for the indigenous resistance , including concentration camp s , forced labor and a scorched earth extermination policy that even some contemporary Germans found repugnant . In August 1904 , German colonial troops under commander Lothar von Trotha , carried out a ruthless cleansing campaign against the recalcitrant Herero and Nama tribes , who had risen in revolt against increasing white demands for land , labor and cattle . Several white farmers were killed in the rising and thousands of cattle were collected . General von Trotha counterattacked with well equipped modern troops , and refused Herero offers to negotiate surrender . His extermination proclamation , issued on October 2 , 1904 read in part : " " Every Herero found within German borders , with or without guns , with or without livestock , will be shot . I will not give shelter to any Herero women or children . . " " An estimated 75 , 000 Herero and Nama were slaughtered . Thousands were killed in battle and in the aftermath , victorious German forces chased the survivors into the waterless Omaheke Desert , physically preventing any from returning . Thousands of men , women and children died of thirst and starvation . Many of those Herero and Nama that survived this slaughter were sent to specially erected concentration camps or to forced employment on German commercial farms . Hundreds of civilians died due to the inhumane conditions in the camps and on the farms . The liquidation of the blacks opened the way for the seizure of land and cattle and consolidated European control over the territory . The Rif Wars . The Rif wars are relatively obscure compared to the well known Ethiopian victory at Adowa or that of the Zulu at Isandhlwana . Nevertheless it was a significant demonstration of large scale warfare by indigenous troops , and fighters of the Moroccan Rif and J ' bala tribes dealt several defeats to Spanish forces in Morocco over their course . It took a massive collaboration by French and Spanish forces to finally liquidate resistance in 1925 . Early defeats of the Spanish . The Rif War of 1920 , also called the Second Moroccan War , was fought between Spain ( later assisted by France ) and the Moroccan Rif and J ' bala tribes . Spain moved to conquer the lands around Melilla and Ceuta and the eastern territory from the Jibala tribes during the 1920s . In 1921 Spanish troops suffered a momentous defeat — known in Spain as the disaster of Annual — by the forces of Abd el - Krim , the leader of the Rif tribes . The Spanish were pushed back and during the following five years , occasional battles were fought between the two . In a bid to break the stalemate , the Spanish military turned to the use of chemical weapon s against the Riffians . The Berber tribesmen had a long tradition of fierce fighting skills , combined with high standards of fieldcraft and marksmanship . They were capably led by Abd el - Krim who showed both military and political expertise . The elite of the Riffian forces formed regular units which according to Abd el - Krim , quoted by the Spanish General Manual Goded , numbered 6 – 7 , 000 . The remaining Riffians were tribal militia selected by their Caids and not liable to serve away from their homes and farms for more than fifteen consecutive days . General Goded estimates that at their peak the Riffian forces numbered about 80 , 000 men . Spanish troops in Morocco were initially mainly Metropolitan conscripts . While capable of enduring much hardship they were poorly trained and supplied , with widespread corruption reported amongst the officer corps . Accordingly much reliance was placed on the limited number of professional units comprising the Spanish " Army of Africa " . Since 1911 these had included regiments of Moorish Regulares . A Spanish equivalent of the French Foreign Legion , the Tercio de Extranjeros ( " Regiment of Foreigners " ) , was also formed in 1920 . The regiment ' s second commander was General Francisco Franco . Entry of France into the war and collaboration between France and Spain . In May 1924 , the French Army had established a line of posts north of the Ouregha River in disputed tribal territory . On 13 April 1925 , an estimated 8 , 000 Rifs attacked this line and in two weeks 39 of 66 French posts had been stormed or abandoned . The French accordingly intervened on the side of Spain , employing up to 300 , 000 well trained and equipped troops from Metropolitan , North African , Senegalese and Foreign Legion units . French deaths in what had now become a major war are estimated at about 12 , 000 . Superior manpower and technology soon resolved the course of the war in favour of France and Spain . The French troops pushed through from the south while the Spanish fleet secured Alhucemas Bay by an amphibious landing , and began attacking from the north . After one year of bitter resistance , Abd el - Krim , the leader of both the tribes , surrendered to French authorities , and in 1926 Spanish Morocco was finally retaken . Impact of World War I and World War II . The massive conflicts of World War I and World War II were to have important effects on African military development . Hundreds of thousands of African troops served in Europe and the Pacific and gained new military skills via their exposure to new forms of organization , handling of advanced weaponry , and intense modern combat . The exposure to a wider world during the two conflicts opened up a sense of new possibilities , and opportunities . These were eventually to be reflected in demands for greater freedom in homeland colonies . The success of peoples like the Japanese also demonstrated that European forces were not invincible , and post - war weakening of many former imperial powers provided new scope in challenging the colonial order . World War I . Unlike the African troops of Britain , who saw very little action on European battfields during World War I or World War II , France deployed hundreds of thousands of African fighting men to aid its cause , including some 300 , 000 North Africans , some 250 , 000 West Africans and thousands more from other regions . Over 140 , 000 African soldiers for example , fought on the Western Front during World War I and thousands of others fought at Gallipoli and in the Balkans . French West African troops fought and died in all the major battles of the Western Front , from Verdun ( where they were instrumental in recapturing a fort ) to the Armistice . Some writers ( Lunn 1999 ) argue that towards the end of World War I , the black soldiers were increasingly been used as shock troops , and were absorbing three times as many casualties as white French troops . The French did offer such incentives as citizenship for those who fought , and French leader Clemeanceau pushed for continued recruitment of West Africans to fight for France , maintaining that it was better blacks were killed than long - suffering white Frenchmen . One in five West African combat soldiers who fought in WWI died in the war , compared to less than 17 % for the French . Colonial troops such as Indian regiments in British employ suffered less . During the conflict , African soldiers were not simply local enforcers of colonial hegemony , but also served as a major combat reserve for use in European conflicts . The case of the British Indian Army , including its elite Gurkha regiments is well known in this role , but the Senegalese and other African regiments of France demonstrate a similar pattern from Africa . Based on a variety of contemporary accounts , the performance of many African units was excellent , and both their German enemies and American allies accord them respect in a wide range of commentary , particularly fighting units from Morocco and regiments of " Tirailleurs Senegalais " from France ' s " Armee coloniale . " One French commander , commander of the 58th Regiment on the Western Front favored the dmployment of blacks as shock troops to save white lives : " " finally and above all superb attack troops permitting the saving of the lives of whites , who behind them exploit their success and organize the positions they conquer . " " The impact of the European war was substantial in Senegal and other French African colonies . Many of the soldiers had volunteered , but the French also resorted to extensive conscription in its territories . Many of the African soldiers found army life in Europe comparatively more egalitarian than civilian life under the colonial regimes of their homelands . The mixing of African troops with troops and civilians from other races however often made colonial regimes nervous . In 1918 for example , South Africa , forced to earlier deploy armed Africans to cover manpower shortages , removed its black troops from France , because " blacks in the French front were contaminated with foreign notions about race relations and other social grievances . " Unlike the British , the French employed a number of high ranking black soldiers , such as Sosthene Mortenol , Commander of the Air Defenses of Paris . The exigencies and shared dangers of war also seemed to have created , in measure , more mutual understanding and freer communication between Africans and Europeans , although this did not translate immediately into a more just order in their homeland territories . Ironically , the last troops to surrender in World War I were the black soldiers fighting for Germany in East Africa . The British made use of Africans primarily as labor and transport troops . Almost all of one such group of Africans , the South African Native Labour Corps ( SANLC ) , met a sudden end in a famous 1917 incident , that sparked sympathy throughout South Africa . Their transport , the SS Mendi was struck by another ship , the Darro , which was sailing without warning lights or signals , and made no attempt to pick up the survivors . Their chaplain , Reverend Isaac Dyobha , is reported to have rallied the doomed black troops on deck for one final muster , referencing old warrior traditions as the waves closed in : The Second Italian - Ethiopian War : 1935 – 36 . The Italo - Ethiopian War ( 1935 – 36 ) , saw Ethiopia ' s defeat by the Italian armies of Benito Mussolini . Ethiopia ( Abyssinia ) , which Italy had unsuccessfully tried to conquer in the 1890s , was in 1934 one of the few independent states in a European - dominated Africa . A border incident between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland that December gave Benito Mussolini an excuse to intervene . Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I pulled all forces back from the border so as not to give the " Duce " any reason for aggression , but to no avail . Rejecting all arbitration offers , the Italians invaded Ethiopia on October 3 , 1935 . The Ethiopians were poorly armed with antiquated artillery , obsolete firearms , little armor , and some 20 outmoded planes . The Italians had over 200 , 000 troops in place , well equipped with modern arms for air and ground fighting . Under Generals Rodolfo Graziani and Pietro Badoglio , the invading forces steadily pushed back the ill - armed and poorly trained Ethiopian army , winning a major victory near Lake Ascianghi ( Ashangi ) on April 9 , 1936 , and taking the capital , Addis Ababa , on May 5 . Italian operations included the use of hundreds of tons of mustard gas , banned previously by the geneva Convention . The nation ' s leader , Emperor Haile Selassie , went into exile . In Rome , Mussolini proclaimed Italy ' s king Victor Emmanuel III emperor of Ethiopia and appointed Badoglio to rule as viceroy . In response to Ethiopian appeals , the League of Nations had condemned the Italian invasion in 1935 and voted to impose economic sanctions on the aggressor . The sanctions remained ineffective because of general lack of support , and because they excluded key war - making material - iron , coal , steel and most critically , oil . Strangely , aluminum , a metal that Italy had in plenty , and even exported , was on the list of sanctions that supposedly punished Italy . Although Mussolini ' s aggression was viewed with disfavour by the British , who had a stake in East Africa , the other major powers had no real interest in opposing him . One historian notes that Britain could have starved the Italian war machine to a halt simply by closing the Suez Canal to the Duce , but while issuing public statements condemning Italy , Britain took no real action . Indeed senior British and French officials hatched the cynical Hoare - Laval pact to carve up the country - handing three - fifths of Ethiopia to the Italians without Ethiopia ' s consent . Press leaks created public outrage that canceled the deal . Less that a year after the Italian invasion , the League voted to remove sanctions against Italy . The war ultimately gave substance to Italian imperialist claims , and contributed to international tensions between the fascist states and the Western democracies . It also sounded the death knell of the League Of Nations as a credible institution according to some historians . These outcomes were to eventually culminate in World War II . World War II . Numerous Africans participated in World War II with black troops from France ' s colonial domains making up the bulk of the non - Europeans . Senegalese ( sometimes a generic name for black troops from French colonies ) put up a stiff fighting resistance against he during the great German Blitzkrieg into France . These , African troops were also to form a large part of the Free French Forces that maintained French resistance under Charles de Gaulle , outside the continent . In Africa , Felix Eboue , a black colonial administrator , was instrumental in rallying the territory of Chad for the Free French , adding thousands of fighting troops and masses of equipment to de Gaulle ' s cause . Other colonial formations were made up of troops from north Africa . As the Germans were beaten back , African troops made up the bulk of the initial forces that participated in the liberation of France during 1944 , including supporting the French crossing of the Rhine . The British colonies deployed fewer numbers of black African troops . Thousands of white South Africans and Rhodesians saw service in the Middle East and the Mediterranean , while black soldiers generally were assigned to logistics formations . Some black regiments however did see combat , such as the King ' s African Rifles in the conquest of Madagascar from Vichy France in 1942 , and the thousands of men of two West African divisions that fought with the British 14th Army against the Japanese in Burma . World War II was to have a profound effect on attitudes and developments in the African colonies . As various colonial reports note : This dissatisfaction was to have significant effects as the de - colonization / liberation era approached . Decolonization . Warfare in Southern Africa . The mid - 1960s saw the beginning of a series of conflicts across southern Africa between white governments and various military and political movements for black majority rule . Coups and counter - coups . 1952 1960 1961 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1969 1970s - warfare in southern Africa 1971 1972 1974 1975 1976 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1987 1990 1992 1994 1999 2003 2004 2005 2006 2008 The post - Cold War era . Rise of asymmetric warfare and the " technicals " generation . With the exception of a handful of nations such as Egypt , South Africa , and Sudan , most national armies in Africa are comparatively small and lightly armed , although many have a limited number of heavy weapons such as tanks . The post - colonial era however has also seen the emergence of numerous non - state military forces , such as terrorists , rebel guerilla organizations , ethnic gangs , and local warlords with various political platforms . Such non - state actors add to the instability of the African situation , and the growth of " asymmetric " warfare and terrorism makes the military challenges in Africa more acute . The military landscape that these asymmetric forces operate in has been shaped by political instability and the massive introduction of inexpensive arms , such as the Chinese and Russian variants of the AK - 47 , RPG ( antitank grenade launchers ) , light mortars , and rocket - type weapons . The traditional mobility of the horse and camel is diminished from earlier times , but the rise of the technical , a pickup truck fitted with a machine gun , RPG , or light mortar has brought a comparative degree of mobility and firepower to fighting organizations within Africa , both state and non - state . While unable to match the major armies openly in intensity of firepower and armor , the technicals and the weapons described above can cause significant harm when local light infantrymen fight on interior lines , and can deter the sustained intervention of foreign forces . One illustration of the continued relevance of lightly armed Third - World forces operating on their own ground is the 1993 American intervention in Somalia . Local fighters shot down two US Black Hawk helicopters with RPGs and killed 18 elite Army Rangers . Although Somali losses in the encounter were huge ( some 1 , 000 men ) and the Rangers accomplished their assigned mission to snatch prisoners , the affair caused the American government to pull out of Somalia , ultimately leaving the field to the local militiamen . An even more dramatic demonstration of today ' s African mobility was demonstrated in the successful war of Chadian fighters ( see the Toyota War ) against Arab Libya ' s modern army of over 20 , 000 troops , numerous artillery pieces , 300 tanks , APCs and Mig and SU - 10 attack jets . As one military analyst notes of the Chadian performance : Guerilla organizations , paramilitaries and other asymmetric elements also continue to make an important impact in local areas — threatening to overthrow local regimes as well as generating widespread misery and economic dislocation in various areas . Such patterns are not unique to Africa and are also seen in places such as the Balkans . Major modern forces in Africa . Contrasting with the small scale , more fragmented pattern in many parts of the continent are the modern forces of such major powers as Egypt and South Africa . Well equipped for air and ground fighting , such regional powers represent a significant illustration of the growing capacities of Africa - based armies . The well - organized Canal Crossing of the Egyptians in the 1973 Yom Kippur War for example , is spoken of with respect by some Western military analysts and demonstrates the degree to which some continental forces have mastered modern technology . However , detailed open - source evaluations of Egyptian military effectiveness , remain skeptical of any great capability leaps , arguing at length that the same problems that held the Egyptians back in 1956 , 1967 , and 1973 remain . The initial success at Suez for example , was comprehensively beaten back by the Israelis , first in the Sinai and then in the Battle of the Chinese Farm , leading to the cutting off of the Egyptian Third Army . Compared to previous Egyptian performances however , the Suez crossing represented a step forward , and showed an increasing sophistication on the battlefield . Further south , Somalia in July 1977 initiated the Ogaden War with Barre ' s government trying to incorporate the predominantly Somali - inhabited Ogaden region in Ethiopia into a Pan - Somali Greater Somalia . The Somali national army invaded the Ogaden and was successful at first , capturing most of the territory . But the invasion reached an abrupt end with the Soviet Union ' s sudden shift of support to Ethiopia and was forced to retreat with almost the entire communist world siding with Ethiopia . Somalia ' s initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the fourth largest army in Africa . South Africa ' s forces likewise are the most powerful in sub - Saharan Africa , and represent another demonstration of how modern systems continue to evolve . Intermediate nations like Ethiopia increasingly grow more sophisticated , adding to dynamic patterns of change and transformation illustrated from the earliest times on the continent , to the present . 21st century military challenges . The military challenge in Africa is huge in the post - Cold War era . It is a continent covering some 22 % of the world ' s land area , has an estimated population of some 800 million , is governed by 53 different states , and is made up of hundreds of different ethnicities and languages . According to a 2007 Whitehall Report , ( " The African Military in the 21st Century , Tswalu Dialogue " ) , some issues affecting African militaries in the 21st century include : Future of African military systems . Theme of modernization . Some writers argue that military activities in Africa after 1950 resemble somewhat the concept of a " frontiersman " – that is , warriors from numerous small tribes , clans , polities , and ethnicities seeking to expand their " lebensraum " – " living space " or control of economic resources , at the expense of some " other . " Even the most powerful military below the Sahara , South Africa , it is argued , had its genesis in the notions of " lebensraum " , and the struggle of warriors from tribes and ethnicities seeking land , resources and dominance against some defined outsider . The plethora of ethnic and tribal military conflicts in Africa after the colonial period - from Rwanda , to Somalia , to the Congo , to the apartheid state , is held to reflect this basic pattern . Others maintain that ethnic and tribal struggles , and wars over economic resources are common in European history , and military conflicts and development that these struggles aid or hinder can be seen as a reflection of the process of modernization . Inspiration from the past in African military systems . Yet other writers call for a renewed study of the past as inspiration for future reforms . They maintain that there has been a decline in African military systems from their indigenous foundations of the pre - colonial era , and early post colonial phases . In these eras , it is argued , African military forces generally conducted themselves " with honor " but future decades were to see numerous horrors and infamy . Peoples like the Asante , Zulu etc . fought hard and sometimes viciously , but this was within the context of their cultural understanding , at their particular time and place . There were no mass campaigns of genocidal extermination against others . Encounters with such African military forces it is held , often generated the universal code of respect between opposing warriors who had seen combat - one fighting man to another . An example of this can be seen in British writings such as post - mortem accounts of enemy leadership at the battle of Amoaful against the Asante : According to R . Edgerton , historian of many African conflicts : Likewise indigenous freedom forces fighting for independence indulged in savage fighting and some atrocities , but there were no wholesale massacres of tens of thousands . Indeed some indigenous liberation forces went out of their way to spare combatants . It is claimed that this tradition of restraint and comparatively clean hands in the military sense , has been shattered and overshadowed by the bloody slaughters of civilians in numerous civil wars in Liberia or Sierra Leone , to mass genocidal slaughter of the latter 20th century in places like Rwanda and the Sudan . Added to these have been breaches of discipline seen in the large number of military coups , and assassinations afflicting the continent , military breaches that would have been unthinkable under fighting leaders of old like Shaka of the Zulu , or Opoku ware of the Asante . Too often it is argued , some of today ' s armies distinguish themselves by torture and murder of unarmed civilians , but show little appetite for real fighting against well - armed foes who can shoot back – a stark contrast with the warriors of olden time – like the Ethiopian , Zulu , Asante or Kongo hosts , who confronted credible opponents with much better technology , and still won . A challenge to African militaries of the future is to restore this tradition of discipline and honor , and transform themselves once more to " armies of the people " , according to some writers :