Nevada - class battleship The " Nevada " - class battleships were the United States Navy ' s first battleship design equipped with triple gun turrets ( the would be the last to carry twin turrets , armed with dual - mounted 16 - inch guns ) , as well as introducing the " all or nothing " armor scheme in American capital ship design , in which protection of vital areas was optimized against heavy caliber guns , leaving other parts of the ship essentially unprotected . The " Nevada " s also introduced completely oil - fired propulsion . In armament , armor , and propulsion the " Nevada " class represented a considerable evolution in battleship design and , in being designed specifically to fight at extreme gunnery ranges , was actually well ahead of its time . They would be followed by the s . The " Nevada " s were the first Standard - type battleship s produced by the U . S . Navy Along with the , , and classes , the standard type offered a battle line of vessels homogeneous in long - range gunnery , speed , tactical radius and damage control . The essential characteristics of the standard type were oil fuel , " all or nothing " armor , the arrangement of the main battery into four turrets , and significant deck armor providing protection against shells fired from long range . This combination of features made the " Nevada " s the prototype of the modern battleship . For example , the protection of the standard class battleships was not significantly revised after the Battle of Jutland , while other Navies tended to have different pre - and post - Jutland designs . Active in the Atlantic Ocean before and during World War I , the " Nevada " s were deployed to protect Allied supply lines in the European war zone in 1918 . Their service continued after the " Great War " , though by the early 1920s they were the oldest of the main Battle Fleet units . Both were extensively modernized between 1927 and 1929 . " Oklahoma " was sunk during the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 and was a total loss . " Nevada " beached herself during this raid to prevent blocking the harbor entrance after receiving damage , and was salvaged and modernized . She provided gunfire support for amphibious operations in the European and Pacific theaters , which included shelling German shore batteries on D - Day along with and . Considered too old at the end of World War II to be kept in active service , " Nevada " was used as a target ship for nuclear and conventional weapons from 1946 to 1948 , proving that her protection scheme was sound as she remained afloat for further target use after nuclear weapons test s in Operation Crossroads . Design . With these ships the U . S . Navy developed a template known as the Standard - type battleship that it would use until the Washington Naval Treaty brought an end to dreadnought construction in 1922 . Its essentials were consistent size and speed , oil fuel instead of coal , and a reversion to the superfiring mounting of heavy guns in four turrets that was used in the to keep the citadel compact . The decision to mount triple gun turrets proved controversial . Naval officers and engineers warned of " putting too many eggs in one basket " ; that a lucky hit could disable more of the main guns than if they were carried in twin turrets and leave a ship at a disadvantage in battle . Shipbuilders warned that triple turrets could affect a ship ' s stability adversely because of their greater weight , especially when raised in a superfiring mounting . However , the Navy ' s Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) , which designed the " Nevada " s , considered triple turrets necessary to save space and weight , keep the citadel at a reasonable size , and maximize the armor protection accordingly . It also eliminated the challenges of steam lines running through main gun magazines and ineffective placement of heavy guns , as occurred with midships turrets in previous classes . The Navy would use triple turrets in almost all of its subsequent battleship designs . The " Nevada " s were also the first U . S . battleships to use the " all or nothing " principle of armor protection , also known as " raft body " armor . Previous battleships had armor of varying thickness depending on the importance of the area it was protecting . On the " Nevada " s , armored surfaces were limited to a minimum but were given the maximum thickness possible to give the most protection to critical areas such as magazines , engines and command areas and to ensure the maintenance of buoyancy . The ship ' s overall design , especially the triple turrets , was to reduce the length of the protected portion of the ship . Heavy deck armor was emphasized to guard against plunging fire . Citadel armor was omitted entirely in the thought that medium - heavy armor could actually be a detriment , since it could no longer afford protection against a direct hit and potentially cause enemy shells to explode and cause further damage . In short , the " Nevadas " were designed specifically to fight at the extreme ranges expected by gunnery experts . In that sense , they were well ahead of their time , as the Battle of Jutland in 1916 would show . While other navies distinguished between their pre - and post - Jutland capital ship designs , the U . S . Navy did not feel so compelled . General characteristics . " Nevada " and " Oklahoma " were long overall , with a beam at the waterline of . They displaced at normal load and at deep load and had a draft of at normal load and at full load . Like preceding classes of American and foreign dreadnought s , they were designed with a ram bow . From the Battle of Lissa in 1866 until shortly before World War I , ramming was thought to be an important tactic and most large warships were designed with this in mind . Ram bows and maximum dead - ahead firepower were emphasized , especially in the design of HMS Dreadnought and her immediate successors . When the design of the " Nevada " s was circulated through the Atlantic Fleet in the fall of 1911 , many hoped that C & R would replace it with either a straight stem or a clipper bow to make the ships dryer in rough weather . Strong concerns were raised about the placement of the secondary battery in the hull . In preceding ships , which had been designed to essentially pre - dreadnought standards , these stations were extremely wet and could become untenable even in moderate weather . Although Captain Hood of the battleship USS " Delaware " lobbied the General Board to alleviate this potential defect in the " Nevada " s , the Board ' s response was lukewarm at best and the placement of secondary weapons retained by default . The guns near the ends of the ship were eventually removed during World War I . Propulsion . The " Nevada " s were the Navy ' s first battleships to have oil as their primary fuel and the last to use twin - screw propulsion ( all subsequent battleships would use four screws ) . Oil boasted greater thermal efficiency , allowed greater range per ton of fuel carried ( something that would come in handy for Pacific operations , with their logistical supply challenges ) , and could be taken on while underway ( although the technique was not perfected until after World War II ) , while coal - burning ships could not be refueled except in port , or ( with great difficulty ) at a dead stop . Oil made it far easier to raise steam , eliminated waste caused by " burning down fires " in port after docking , and did not leave any solid waste that needed to be frequently manually cleared away as coal did . Smaller boilers could be used , while forced draft and sealed fire rooms , with their corresponding drain of auxiliary power through the use of numerous ventilators , could be eliminated entirely . The subsequent weight and space savings allowed the entire propulsion plant to be combined amidships in a compartment almost the entire inside width of the ship but only long . The reduced length presented a smaller target area for enemy gunners . Oil also allowed these ships to manage with only one funnel , and reduced the number of stokers by 50 percent . Also , the backbreaking work of constant manual coal shoveling was eliminated . The savings in weight were used for extra armor protection . Side bunkers were omitted completely ; fuel was stored in tanks located in the double bottom . Flood control in the event of underwater hits was also improved since there were no coal scuttle doors to spring open and thus compromise watertight integrity . The " Nevada " s were virtually identical except in their propulsion machinery . " Nevada " and her sister were fitted with different engines to compare them ' head - to - head ' : " Oklahoma " received older vertical triple - expansion engine s ( she would be the last U . S . capital ship to use reciprocating machinery ) , while " Nevada " received geared Curtis steam turbines . " Oklahoma " ' s equipment made her less reliable and more vibration - prone , making her a ship the Navy wished to re - engine . In 1925 , the Navy considered conversion to four double - acting two - stroke diesel engines . Because of the excessive weight of the diesels of the time , this idea was rejected . " Nevada " was the first US capital ship to combine steam turbines with reduction gearing , which allowed the turbines to operate in their efficient speed range , much faster than the propeller shafts , and thus overcome the high fuel consumption of direct drive turbines . Geared turbines were fitted in most subsequent US battleships , except those with turbo - electric propulsion . Armament . Main guns . The " Nevada " s were equipped with ten 14 in ( 356 mm ) / 45 caliber guns . While these guns were carried over from the " New Yorks " , triple turrets were introduced for the lower fore and aft pair positions . This was due in part to the General Board ' s " disgust with the awkward five - and six - turret arrangements of the previous classes , " with the corresponding confusion of fitting magazines between power plant compartments , reduction of the middle turrets ' effective arcs of fire and the potential for weakening the ship ' s structure by the large number of deck openings required . These guns fired a " relatively light " armor - piercing ( AP ) shell at a muzzle velocity of at a rate that ranged between 1 . 25 and 1 . 75 rounds per minute . Ballistics on this gun were based on the German doctrine of light shell and high velocity , a combination " not a good recipe for accurate shooting at the maximum range " in the view of some Navy gunnery circles . With elevation limited to 15 degrees , the maximum range was . Twin guns were individually sleeved but triples were not ; the latter were placed on a common mounting to save space and weight , a design decision that was strongly criticized but considered necessary by C & R . Similar hoists supplied ammunition to the ships ' twin and triple turrets . Two shell and three powder hoists supplied each triple turret , with the left shell hoist supplying the center gun . The powder hoists ran directly to the gun house , where the charges were transferred to enclosed powder trays . The Navy rebuilt these guns during the ships ' modernization in the late 1920s , with their chamber volumes enlarged to allow larger charges and boost muzzle velocity . Rebuilt Marks 1 , 3 and 5 were reclassified as Marks 8 , 9 and 10 , respectively . A further conversion , the Mark 12 , added chromium plating to increase barrel life . These guns were supplied with AP shells ; with enlarged propellant charges , these could be fired without significant loss in muzzle velocity . In 1942 , " Nevada " was also supplied with high capacity ( HC ) shells , with no armor - piercing capability but a maximized bursting charge for shore bombardment . Maximum elevation for these guns was increased to 30 degrees , which lengthened maximum range with AP shells to . With HC shells , maximum range grew to Secondary guns . Twenty - one 5 in ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber Mark 15 guns were installed to defend against enemy destroyer s and torpedo boat s . This was reduced to twelve in 1918 due to the overly - wet bow and stern positions the other nine had been occupying . During the ships ' 1927 - 30 modernization , the 12 remaining guns were remounted in newly built unarmored casemates one deck higher to rectify this problem . The Mark 15 fired a shell at a velocity of to a maximum range of at 45 degrees at a rate of seven rounds per minute and was extremely accurate , with a danger space longer than the range to the target for distances less than . This gun ' s sole drawback was a short barrel life ; otherwise , the Navy considered this a highly successful weapon . In 1942 , the Mark 15 guns and the 5 - inch 25 caliber guns fitted in 1927 - 30 ( see Anti - Aircraft section ) were replaced with sixteen 5 - inch 38 caliber Mark 12 dual purpose gun s in twin enclosed mounts . This gun fired a shell to a maximum range of or a maximum altitude of at an elevation of 45 degrees . Because it was a standard weapon on nearly every major U . S . warship built between 1934 and 1945 , any challenges of logistical supply were effectively minimized . As with the previous 5 - inch 25 caliber guns , they were hand - loaded but power - rammed for a high rate of fire at any angle of elevation . The introduction of proximity fuse d anti - aircraft shells in 1943 made the 5 " / 38 even more potent in this capacity . Anti - aircraft guns . Two 3 inch / 50 caliber ( 76 mm ) guns were mounted for anti - aircraft ( AA ) defense when the " Nevadas " were commissioned . This was increased to eight guns in 1925 . These guns fired a 3 inch ( 76 mm ) shell at a muzzle velocity of to a maximum range of and ceiling of at an elevation of 45 . 3 degrees and a rate of between eight and nine rounds per minute . During the ships ' late - 1920s reconstruction , the eight 3 " / 50s were replaced with the same number of 5 inch 25 caliber guns ( 127 mm ) . The 5 " / 25 was the first Navy gun designed specifically for AA use and was fitted on most U . S . capital ships and cruisers built or modernized 1926 - 1940 . Like the later 5 inch 38 caliber gun that was derived from it , they had a high rate of fire due to being hand loaded and power rammed . They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of between 15 and 20 rounds per minute to a maximum range of at an elevation of 45 degrees and a ceiling of at a maximum elevation of 85 degrees . Gunnery officers on battleships considered the 5 " / 25 a dual purpose weapon when these weapons were fitted and often fired them in annual surface gunfire contests with impressive results . These guns were supplemented with eight 1 . 1 inch ( 28 mm ) machine cannons in two quadruple mounts in 1935 . As with the secondary weapons , all these guns were replaced on " Nevada " in 1942 . In their place , in addition to sixteen 5 " / 38s in twin mounts , she carried thirty - six Bofors 40 mm guns in quad mounts and up to thirty - eight Oerlikon 20 mm cannon s in single mounts . The quad 40mm Bofors fired a at a rate of 120 rounds per minute per barrel nominal , 140 to 160 rounds per minute when horizontal ( gravity assist ) , to a maximum range of at 45 degrees and a ceiling of . The 20mm Oerlikons fired a shell at an average muzzle velocity of and a practical rate of between 250 and 320 rounds per minute to a maximum range of at 45 degrees and a ceiling of . By 1944 , the Navy had found 20 mm shells too light to stop Japanese Kamikaze planes ; this plus the higher approach speeds of these planes made these manually controlled guns obsolete . They were consequently replaced by 40 mm Bofors wherever possible . Torpedo tubes . The " Nevadas " carried two 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tube s below the waterline until their conversion in the late 1920s , when they were removed . The Bliss - Leavitt 21 " ( 533 mm ) Mark 3 Model 1 torpedo designed for these tubes had an overall length of , a weight of and propelled an explosive charge of of TNT to a range of at a speed of Armor . The Navy arrived at the " Nevadas " ' " all or nothing " armor plan from a confluence of design choices rather than one overall scheme . Despite the fact that it evolved in a somewhat haphazard manner , all of its features interlocked perfectly not just for these ships but also to form a template for subsequent U . S . capital ship design . Questions had been raised about the traditional , more complex armor plan used in the . The growing range of heavier naval guns being mounted in the world ’ s newest dreadnought s , matched with the improved ranging and fire control capabilities , prompted U . S . naval designers to question whether that protective scheme was still effective . Also , because of the growing ranges becoming involved in naval gunnery battles , the greatly increased chance of plunging fire had to be accounted for in protecting main deck and turret tops . As the Battle of Jutland would prove , with turret roofs and decks on both sides pierced repeatedly and three British battlecruiser s blown up , this emphasis on horizontal armor was actually warranted . Gunnery trials against the target ship USS " San Marcos " ( ex - ) confirmed the need for a better armor suite . In designing such a system , the " Nevada " ' s team was " almost alone , " without precedents from which to follow or refine . They first had to realize that belt and deck armor had to form one common " zone of immunity , " with the belt setting the inner edge of this zone and the deck , the outer edge . The " New Yorks " featured a deck thick enough to set off an armor - piercing shell over a thinner - armored deck to catch the splinter . To maximize protection , main and splinter decks were combined into one . The armored deck was raised one level to link it directly to the top edge of the belt armor . This reduced a weak spot previously covered by the mid grade casement armor , simplified construction and increased girder strength for the hull . As all U . S . battleships already had thick armor end bulkheads , this gave the magazines , machinery and control areas one continuous armored box . The side armor of reached almost as high above the design waterline as it extended below . Two armored decks protected against plunging fire . The upper armored deck , thick , rested flat on the upper edge of the belt armor . One level below it , a second armored deck thick on flat surfaces and thick on inclines that reached to the lowere edge of the belt , protected the lower decks . The bow and stern were generally not armored , although a narrower , weaker strip of side armor was extended aft to protect the steering gear compartment . Otherwise , their only protection by the lower armored deck , which extended as far as these areas . Although heavy , the weight of the armored decks was minimized by reducing the number of main turrets from five in the " New Yorks " to four ; this meant accepting triple mounts to minimize armored length . The " Nevada " s were also the Navy ' s first to eliminate bunker armor , replacing it with an inboard armored bulkhead ( strong enough to withstand about 100 lb ( 45 kg ) of TNT or 190 megajoule s of energy ) , the first use of underwater protection in the U . S . Navy . 1929 – 30 Modernization . In 1929 both ships went into drydock for modernization . Boiler capacity was reduced by 50 percent , with all the old boilers removed and new , more efficient ones installed . The weight saved was used to increase horizontal armor and augment the protective equipment with torpedo bulge s up to on both sides . This would increase the ships ' beam to , which with an increase in displacement to 28 , 500 tons meant they needed one percent more power to maintain the same speed they had previously ( 18 , 125 EHP instead of 17 , 874 ) . In addition , " Nevada " was re - engined using the turbines that had been installed in the USS " North Dakota " in 1917 and removed before she was scrapped . New , unarmored casemates were built on the main deck and the 5 " / 51 cal guns moved there to improve their tenability in rough weather . The torpedo tubes were removed , new anti - aircraft guns and gunnery control instruments installed . Bridge structures were modified and increased and tripod masts replaced the traditional lattice mast s . Longer , lighter ship ' s cranes were fitted and the simple derrick aft was replaced by a level luffing crane . Finally , two aircraft catapult s were fitted , one on the ships ' poop and the second atop C turret . Deployment . The " Nevada " s were active in the Atlantic Ocean before and during World War I , deploying to the European war zone in 1918 to help protect Allied supply lines . Their service continued after the " Great War " , though by the early 1920s they were the oldest of the main Battle Fleet units . Both were extensively modernized between 1927 and 1929 , receiving greater elevation for their new Mark 10 / 45 heavy guns , modern gunfire controls in new tripod masts , and two catapults for scouting and observation airplanes . Their 51 - caliber anti - destroyer guns were moved to drier locations in the superstructure and a battery of 5 - inch 25 - caliber anti - aircraft guns was added . Protection against shellfire , bombs , and torpedoes was improved , increasing their beam to nearly and battle displacement to about . " Nevada " ' s steam turbines , prematurely aging , were replaced with far better geared turbines from the decommissioned at this time ; " Oklahoma " was not re - engined , but both ships were equipped with modern medium - pressure boilers . At Pearl Harbor , " Oklahoma " was sunk and " Nevada " beached herself with light damage ( which climbed to moderate damage , after a large fire in number 2 { " B " } turret a day later ) to prevent blocking the harbor entrance . " Nevada " ’ s experience proved the torpedo defence system was very good , but watertight integrity on the upper decks of older warships was unlikely to be satisfactory . " Oklahoma " , hit by 9 torpedoes within a matter of a few minutes , capsized and was a total loss , but " Nevada " was salvaged and modernized again during 1942 , exchanging her old secondary battery for new 5 - inch 38 - caliber dual - purpose twin mounts , plus numerous 40 mm and 20 mm anti - aircraft autocannon s . Her superstructure was completely reconstructed in modern form , with a much - reduced conning tower . She served in both the European and Pacific theaters , providing gunfire support for amphibious operations . " Nevada " , along with and , shelled German shore batteries on D - Day . " Nevada " ’ s final mission was as a target for nuclear and conventional weapons from 1946 to 1948 . References . Bibliography . Print sources Online sources New York Times