Huldrych Zwingli Huldrych ( or Ulrich / Ulricht ) Zwingli ( 1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531 ) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland . Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system , he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel , a scholarly centre of humanism . He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln , where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus . In 1518 , Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church . In his first public controversy in 1522 , he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent . In his publications , he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy , promoted clerical marriage , and attacked the use of images in places of worship . In 1525 , Zwingli introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the Mass . Zwingli also clashed with the Anabaptists , which resulted in their persecution . The Reformation spread to other parts of the Swiss Confederation , but several cantons resisted , preferring to remain Catholic . Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines . In 1529 , a war between the two sides was averted at the last moment . Meanwhile , Zwingli ' s ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers . They met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine , they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist . In 1531 Zwingli ' s alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons . The cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zurich was badly prepared . Zwingli was killed in battle at the age of 47 . His legacy lives on in the confessions , liturgy , and church orders of the Reformed churches of today . Historical context . The Swiss Confederation in Huldrych Zwingli ' s time consisted of thirteen states ( cantons ) as well as affiliated states and common lordships . Unlike the current modern state of Switzerland , which operates under a federal government , the thirteen states were nearly independent , conducting their own domestic and foreign affairs . Each state formed its own alliances within and without the Confederation . This relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various states divided between different confessional camps . Military ambitions were given an additional impetus with the competition to acquire new territory and resources , as seen for example in the Old Zurich War . The political environment in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile . For centuries the foreign policies of the Confederation were determined by its relationship with its powerful neighbour , France . Nominally , the Confederation was under the control of the Holy Roman Empire . However , through a succession of wars culminating in the Swabian War , the Confederation had become " de facto " independent . As the two continental powers and minor states such as the Duchy of Milan , Duchy of Savoy , and the Papal States competed and fought against each other , there were far - reaching political , economic , and social consequences for the Confederation . It was during this time that the mercenary pension system became a subject of disagreement . The religious factions of Zwingli ' s time debated vociferously regarding the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for the enrichment of the cantonal authorities . These internal and external factors contributed to the rise of a Confederation national consciousness , in which the term " fatherland " ( " patria " ) began to take on meaning beyond an individual canton . At the same time , Renaissance humanism , with its universal values and emphasis on scholarship ( as exemplified by Erasmus , the " prince of humanism " ) , had taken root in the country . It was within this environment , defined by the confluence of Swiss patriotism and humanism , that Zwingli was born . Life . Early years ( 1484 – 1518 ) . Huldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus , in the Toggenburg valley of Switzerland , to a family of farmers , the third child of nine . His father , Ulrich , played a leading role in the administration of the community ( " Amtmann " or chief local magistrate ) . Zwingli ' s primary schooling was provided by his uncle , Bartholomew , a cleric in Weesen . At ten years old , Zwingli was sent to Basel to obtain his secondary education where he learned Latin under Magistrate Gregory Bünzli . After three years in Basel , he stayed a short time in Bern with the humanist , Henry Wölfflin . The Dominicans in Bern tried to persuade Zwingli to join their order and it is possible that he was received as a novice . However , his father and uncle disapproved of such a course and he left Bern without completing his Latin studies . He enrolled in the University of Vienna in the winter semester of 1498 but was expelled , according to the university ' s records . However , it is not certain that Zwingli was indeed expelled , and he re - enrolled in the summer semester of 1500 ; his activities in 1499 are unknown . Zwingli continued his studies in Vienna until 1502 , after which he transferred to the University of Basel where he received the Master of Arts degree ( " Magister " ) in 1506 . Zwingli was ordained in Constance , the seat of the local diocese , and he celebrated his first mass in his hometown , Wildhaus , on 29 September 1506 . As a young priest he had studied little theology , but this was not considered unusual at the time . His first ecclesiastical post was the pastorate of the town of Glarus , where he stayed for ten years . It was in Glarus , whose soldiers were used as mercenaries in Europe , that Zwingli became involved in politics . The Swiss Confederation was embroiled in various campaigns with its neighbours : the French , the Habsburgs , and the Papal States . Zwingli placed himself solidly on the side of the Roman See . In return , Pope Julius II honoured Zwingli by providing him with an annual pension . He took the role of chaplain in several campaigns in Italy , including the Battle of Novara in 1513 . However , the decisive defeat of the Swiss in the Battle of Marignano caused a shift in mood in Glarus in favour of the French rather than the pope . Zwingli , the papal partisan , found himself in a difficult position and he decided to retreat to Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz . By this time , he had become convinced that mercenary service was immoral and that Swiss unity was indispensable for any future achievements . Some of his earliest extant writings , such as " The Ox " ( 1510 ) and " The Labyrinth " ( 1516 ) , attacked the mercenary system using allegory and satire . His countrymen were presented as virtuous people within a French , imperial , and papal triangle . Zwingli stayed in Einsiedeln for two years during which he withdrew completely from politics in favour of ecclesiastical activities and personal studies . Zwingli ' s time as the pastor of Glarus and Einsiedeln was characterized by inner growth and development . He perfected his Greek and he took up the study of Hebrew . His library contained over three hundred volumes from which he was able to draw upon classical , patristic , and scholastic works . He exchanged scholarly letters with a circle of Swiss humanists and began to study the writings of Erasmus . Zwingli took the opportunity to meet him while Erasmus was in Basel between August 1514 and May 1516 . Zwingli ' s turn to relative pacifism and his focus on preaching can be traced to the influence of Erasmus . In late 1518 , the post of the " Leutpriestertum " ( people ' s priest ) of the Grossmünster at Zurich became vacant . The canons of the foundation that administered the Grossmünster recognised Zwingli ' s reputation as a fine preacher and writer . His connection with humanists was a decisive factor as several canons were sympathetic to Erasmian reform . In addition , his opposition to the French and to mercenary service was welcomed by Zurich politicians . On 11 December 1518 , the canons elected Zwingli to become the stipendiary priest and on 27 December he moved permanently to Zurich . Zurich ministry begins ( 1519 – 1521 ) . On 1 January 1519 , Zwingli gave his first sermon in Zurich . Deviating from the prevalent practice of basing a sermon on the Gospel lesson of a particular Sunday , Zwingli , using Erasmus ' New Testament as a guide , began to read through the Gospel of Matthew , giving his interpretation during the sermon , known as the method of " lectio continua " . He continued to read and interpret the book on subsequent Sundays until he reached the end and then proceeded in the same manner with the Acts of the Apostles , the New Testament epistles , and finally the Old Testament . His motives for doing this are not clear , but in his sermons he used exhortation to achieve moral and ecclesiastical improvement which were goals comparable with Erasmian reform . Sometime after 1520 , Zwingli ' s theological model began to evolve into an idiosyncratic form that was neither Erasmian nor Lutheran . Scholars do not agree on the process of how he developed his own unique model . One view is that Zwingli was trained as an Erasmian humanist and Luther played a decisive role in changing his theology . Another view is that Zwingli did not pay much attention to Luther ' s theology and in fact he considered it as part of the humanist reform movement . A third view is that Zwingli was not a complete follower of Erasmus , but had diverged from him as early as 1516 and that he independently developed his theology . Zwingli ' s theological stance was gradually revealed through his sermons . He attacked moral corruption and in the process he named individuals who were the targets of his denunciations . Monks were accused of indolence and high living . In 1519 , Zwingli specifically rejected the veneration of saints and called for the need to distinguish between their true and fictional accounts . He cast doubts on hellfire , asserted that unbaptised children were not damned , and questioned the power of excommunication . His attack on the claim that tithing was a divine institution , however , had the greatest theological and social impact . This contradicted the immediate economic interests of the foundation . One of the elderly canons who had supported Zwingli ' s election , Konrad Hofmann , complained about his sermons in a letter . Some canons supported Hofmann , but the opposition never grew very large . Zwingli insisted that he was not an innovator and that the sole basis of his teachings was Scripture . Within the diocese of Constance , Bernhardin Sanson was offering a special indulgence for contributors to the building of St Peter ' s in Rome . When Sanson arrived at the gates of Zurich at the end of January 1519 , parishioners prompted Zwingli with questions . He responded with displeasure that the people were not being properly informed about the conditions of the indulgence and were being induced to part with their money on false pretences . This was over a year after Martin Luther published his Ninety - five theses ( 31 October 1517 ) . The council of Zurich refused Sanson entry into the city . As the authorities in Rome were anxious to contain the fire started by Luther , the Bishop of Constance denied any support of Sanson and he was recalled . In August 1519 , Zurich was struck by an outbreak of the plague during which at least one in four persons died . All of those who could afford it left the city , but Zwingli remained and continued his pastoral duties . In September , he caught the disease and nearly died . He described his preparation for death in a poem , Zwingli ' s " Pestlied " , consisting of three parts : the onset of the illness , the closeness to death , and the joy of recovery . The final verses of the first part read : In the years following his recovery , Zwingli ' s opponents remained in the minority . When a vacancy occurred among the canons of the Grossmünster , Zwingli was elected to fulfill that vacancy on 29 April 1521 . In becoming a canon , he became a full citizen of Zurich . He also retained his post as the people ' s priest of the Grossmünster . First rifts ( 1522 – 1524 ) . The first public controversy regarding Zwingli ' s preaching broke out during the season of Lent in 1522 . On the first fasting Sunday , 9 March , Zwingli and about a dozen other participants consciously transgressed the fasting rule by cutting and distributing two smoked sausages ( the " Wurstessen " in Christoph Froschauer ' s workshop ) . Zwingli defended this act in a sermon which was published on 16 April , under the title " Von Erkiesen und Freiheit der Speisen " ( Regarding the Choice and Freedom of Foods ) . He noted that no general valid rule on food can be derived from the Bible and that to transgress such a rule is not a sin . The event , which came to be referred to as the Affair of the Sausages , is considered to be the start of the Reformation in Switzerland . Even before the publication of this treatise , the diocese of Constance reacted by sending a delegation to Zurich . The city council condemned the fasting violation , but assumed responsibility over ecclesiastical matters and requested the religious authorities clarify the issue . The bishop responded on 24 May by admonishing the Grossmünster and city council and repeating the traditional position . Following this event , Zwingli and other humanist friends petitioned the bishop on 2 July to abolish the requirement of celibacy on the clergy . Two weeks later the petition was reprinted for the public in German as " Eine freundliche Bitte und Ermahnung an die Eidgenossen " ( A Friendly Petition and Admonition to the Confederates ) . The issue was not just an abstract problem for Zwingli , as he had secretly married a widow , Anna Reinhard , earlier in the year . Their cohabitation was well - known and their public wedding took place on 2 April 1524 , three months before the birth of their first child . They would eventually have four children : Regula , William , Huldrych , and Anna . As the petition was addressed to the secular authorities , the bishop responded at the same level by notifying the Zurich government to maintain the ecclesiastical order . Other Swiss clergyman joined in Zwingli ' s cause which encouraged him to make his first major statement of faith , " Apolgeticus Archeteles " ( The First and Last Word ) . He defended himself against charges of inciting unrest and heresy . He denied the ecclesiastical hierarchy any right to judge on matters of church order because of its corrupted state . Zurich disputations ( 1523 ) . The events of 1522 brought no clarification on the issues . Not only did the unrest between Zurich and the bishop continue , tensions were growing among Zurich ' s Confederation partners in the Swiss Diet . On 22 December , the Diet recommended that its members prohibit the new teachings , a strong indictment directed at Zurich . The city council felt obliged to take the initiative and to find its own solution . First Disputation . On 3 January 1523 , the Zurich city council invited the clergy of the city and outlying region to a meeting to allow the factions to present their opinions . The bishop was invited to attend or to send a representative . The council would render a decision on who would be allowed to continue to proclaim their views . This meeting , the first Zurich disputation , took place on 29 January 1523 . The meeting attracted a large crowd of approximately six hundred participants . The bishop sent a delegation led by his vicar general , Johannes Fabri . Zwingli summarised his position in the " Schlussreden " ( Concluding Statements or the Sixty - seven Articles ) . Fabri , who had not envisaged an academic disputation in the manner Zwingli had prepared for , was forbidden to discuss high theology before laymen , and simply insisted on the necessity of the ecclesiastical authority . The decision of the council was that Zwingli would be allowed to continue his preaching and that all other preachers should teach only in accordance with Scripture . Second Disputation . In September 1523 , Leo Jud , Zwingli ' s closest friend and colleague and pastor of St . Peterskirche , publicly called for the removal of statues of saints and other icons . This led to demonstrations and iconoclastic activities . The city council decided to work out the matter of images in a second disputation . The essence of the mass and its sacrificial character was also included as a subject of discussion . Supporters of the mass claimed that the eucharist was a true sacrifice , while Zwingli claimed that it was a commemorative meal . As in the first disputation , an invitation was sent out to the Zurich clergy and the bishop of Constance . This time , however , the lay people of Zurich , the dioceses of Chur and Basel , the University of Basel , and the twelve members of the Confederation were also invited . About nine hundred persons attended this meeting , but neither the bishop nor the Confederation sent representatives . The disputation started on 26 October 1523 and lasted two days . Zwingli again took the lead in the disputation . His opponent was the aforementioned canon , Konrad Hofmann , who had initially supported Zwingli ' s election . Also taking part was a group of young men demanding a much faster pace of reformation , who among other things pleaded for replacing infant baptism with adult baptism . This group was led by Conrad Grebel , one of the initiators of the Anabaptist movement . During the first three days of dispute , although the controversy of images and the mass were discussed , the arguments led to the question of whether the city council or the ecclesiastical government had the authority to decide on these issues . At this point , Konrad Schmid , a priest from Aargau and follower of Zwingli , made a pragmatic suggestion . As images were not yet considered to be valueless by everyone , he suggested that pastors preach on this subject under threat of punishment . He believed the opinions of the people would gradually change and the voluntary removal of images would follow . Hence , Schmid rejected the radicals and their iconoclasm , but supported Zwingli ' s position . In November the council passed ordinances in support of Schmid ' s motion . Zwingli wrote a booklet on the evangelical duties of a minister , " Kurze , christliche Einleitung " ( Short Christian Introduction ) , and the council sent it out to the clergy and the members of the Confederation . Reformation progresses in Zurich ( 1524 – 1525 ) . In December 1523 , the council set a deadline of Pentecost in 1524 for a solution to the elimination of the mass and images . Zwingli gave a formal opinion in " Vorschlag wegen der Bilder und der Messe " ( Proposal Concerning Images and the Mass ) . He did not urge an immediate , general abolition . The council decided on the orderly removal of images within Zurich , but rural congregations were granted the right to remove them based on majority vote . The decision on the mass was postponed . Evidence of the effect of the Reformation was seen in early 1524 . Candlemas was not celebrated , processions of robed clergy ceased , worshippers did not go with palms or relics on Palm Sunday to the Lindenhof , and triptych s remained covered and closed after Lent . Opposition to the changes came from Konrad Hofmann and his followers , but the council decided in favour of keeping the government mandates . When Hofmann left the city , opposition from pastors hostile to the Reformation broke down . The bishop of Constance tried to intervene in defending the mass and the veneration of images . Zwingli wrote an official response for the council and the result was the severance of all ties between the city and the diocese . Although the council had hesitated in abolishing the mass , the decrease in the exercise of traditional piety allowed pastors to be unofficially released from the requirement of celebrating mass . As individual pastors altered their practices as each saw fit , Zwingli was prompted to address this disorganised situation by designing a communion liturgy in the German language . This was published in " Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmahls " ( Act or Custom of the Supper ) . Shortly before Easter , Zwingli and his closest associates requested the council to cancel the mass and to introduce the new public order of worship . On Maundy Thursday , 13 April 1525 , Zwingli celebrated communion under his new liturgy . Wooden cups and plates were used to avoid any outward displays of formality . The congregation sat at set tables to emphasise the meal aspect of the sacrament . The sermon was the focal point of the service and there was no organ music or singing . The importance of the sermon in the worship service was underlined by Zwingli ' s proposal to limit the celebration of communion to four times a year . For some time Zwingli had accused mendicant orders of hypocrisy and demanded their abolition in order to support the truly poor . He suggested the monasteries be changed into hospitals and welfare institutions and incorporate their wealth into a welfare fund . This was done by reorganising the foundations of the Grossmünster and Fraumünster and pensioning off remaining nuns and monks . The council secularised the church properties and established new welfare programs for the poor . Zwingli requested permission to establish a Latin school , the " Prophezei " ( Prophecy ) , at the Grossmünster . The council agreed and it was officially opened on 19 June 1525 with Zwingli and Jud as teachers . It served to retrain and re - educate the clergy . The Zurich Bible translation , traditionally attributed to Zwingli and printed by Christoph Froschauer , bears the mark of teamwork from the Prophecy school . Scholars have not yet attempted to clarify Zwingli ' s share of the work based on external and stylistic evidence . Conflict with the Anabaptists ( 1525 – 1527 ) . Shortly after the second Zurich disputation , many in the radical wing of the Reformation became convinced that Zwingli was making too many concessions to the Zurich council . They rejected the role of civil government and demanded the immediate establishment of a congregation of the faithful . Conrad Grebel , the leader of the radicals and the emerging Anabaptist movement , spoke disparagingly of Zwingli in private . On 15 August 1524 the council insisted on the obligation to baptise all newborn infants . Zwingli secretly conferred with Grebel ' s group and late in 1524 , the council called for official discussions . When talks were broken off , Zwingli published " Wer Ursache gebe zu Aufruhr " ( Whoever Causes Unrest ) clarifying the opposing points - of - view . On 17 January 1525 a public debate was held and the council decided in favour of Zwingli . Anyone refusing to have their children baptised was required to leave Zurich . The radicals ignored these measures and on 21 January , they met at the house of the mother of another radical leader , Felix Manz . Grebel and a third leader , George Blaurock , performed the first recorded Anabaptist adult baptisms . On February 2 , the council repeated the requirement on the baptism of all babies and some who failed to comply were arrested and fined , Manz and Blaurock among them . Zwingli and Jud interviewed them and more debates were held before the Zurich council . Meanwhile , the new teachings continued to spread to other parts of the Confederation as well as a number of Swabian towns . On 6 – 8 November , the last debate on the subject of baptism took place in the Grossmünster . Grebel , Manz , and Blaurock defended their cause before Zwingli , Jud , and other reformers . There was no serious exchange of views as each side would not move from their positions and the debates degenerated into an uproar , each side shouting abuse at the other . The Zurich council decided that no compromise was possible . On 7 March 1526 it released the notorious mandate that no one shall rebaptise another under the penalty of death . Although Zwingli , technically , had nothing to do with the mandate , there is no indication that he disapproved . Felix Manz , who had sworn to leave Zurich and not to baptise any more , had deliberately returned and continued the practice . After he was arrested and tried , he was executed on 5 January 1527 by being drowned in the Limmat river . He was the first Anabaptist martyr ; three more were to follow , after which all others either fled or were expelled from Zurich . Reformation in the Confederation ( 1526 – 1528 ) . On 8 April 1524 , five cantons , Lucerne , Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , and Zug , formed an alliance , " die fünf Orte " ( the Five States ) to defend themselves from Zwingli ' s Reformation . They contacted the opponents of Martin Luther including John Eck , who had debated Luther in the Leipzig Disputation of 1519 . Eck offered to dispute Zwingli and he accepted . However , they could not agree on the selection of the judging authority , the location of the debate , and the use of the Swiss Diet as a court . Because of the disagreements , Zwingli decided to boycott the disputation . On 19 May 1526 , all the cantons sent delegates to Baden . Although Zurich ' s representatives were present , they did not participate in the sessions . Eck led the Catholic party while the reformers were represented by Johannes Oecolampadius of Basel , a theologian from Württemberg who had carried on an extensive and friendly correspondence with Zwingli . While the debate proceeded , Zwingli was kept informed of the proceedings and printed pamphlets giving his opinions . It was of little use as the Diet decided against Zwingli . He was to be banned and his writings were no longer to be distributed . Of the thirteen Confederation members , Glarus , Solothurn , Fribourg , and Appenzell as well as the Five States voted against Zwingli . Bern , Basel , Schaffhausen , and Zurich supported him . The Baden disputation exposed a deep rift in the Confederation on matters of religion . The Reformation was now emerging in other states . The city of St Gallen , an affiliated state to the Confederation , was led by a reformed mayor , Joachim Vadian , and the city abolished the mass in 1527 , just two years after Zurich . In Basel , although Zwingli had a close relationship with Oecolampadius , the government did not officially sanction any reformatory changes until 1 April 1529 when the mass was prohibited . Schaffhausen , which had closely followed Zurich ' s example , formally adopted the Reformation in September 1529 . In the case of Bern , Berchtold Haller , the priest at St Vincent Münster , and Niklaus Manuel , the poet , painter , and politician , had campaigned for the reformed cause . But it was only after another disputation that Bern counted itself as a canton of the Reformation . Four hundred and fifty persons participated , including pastors from Bern and other cantons as well as theologians from outside the Confederation such as Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito from Strasbourg , Ambrosius Blarer from Constance , and Andreas Althamer from Nuremberg . Eck and Fabri refused to attend and the Catholic cantons did not send representatives . The meeting started on 6 January 1528 and lasted nearly three weeks . Zwingli assumed the main burden of defending the Reformation and he preached twice in the Münster . On 7 February 1528 the council decreed that the Reformation be established in Bern . First Kappel War ( 1529 ) . Even before the Bern disputation , Zwingli was canvassing for an alliance of reformed cities . Once Bern officially accepted the Reformation , a new alliance , " das Christliche Burgrecht " ( the Christian Civic Union ) was created . The first meetings were held in Bern between representatives of Bern , Constance , and Zurich on 5 – 6 January 1528 . Other cities , including Basel , Biel , Mülhausen , Schaffhausen , and St Gallen , eventually joined the alliance . The Five ( Catholic ) States felt encircled and isolated , so they searched for outside allies . After two months of negotiations , the Five States formed " die Christliche Vereinigung " ( the Christian Alliance ) with Ferdinand of Austria on 22 April 1529 . Soon after the Austrian treaty was signed , a reformed preacher , Jacob Kaiser , was captured in Uznach and executed in Schwyz . This triggered a strong reaction from Zwingli ; he drafted " Ratschlag über den Krieg " ( Advice About the War ) for the government . He outlined justifications for an attack on the Catholic states and other measures to be taken . Before Zurich could implement his plans , a delegation from Bern that included Niklaus Manuel arrived in Zurich . The delegation called on Zurich to settle the matter peacefully . Manuel added that an attack would expose Bern to further dangers as Catholic Valais and the Duchy of Savoy bordered its southern flank . He then noted , " You cannot really bring faith by means of spears and halberds . " Zurich , however , decided that it would act alone , knowing that Bern would be obliged to acquiesce . War was declared on 8 June 1529 . Zurich was able to raise an army of 30 , 000 men . The Five States were abandoned by Austria and could raise only 9 , 000 men . The two forces met near Kappel , but war was averted due to the intervention of Hans Aebli , a relative of Zwingli , who pleaded for an armistice . Zwingli was obliged to state the terms of the armistice . He demanded the dissolution of the Christian Alliance ; unhindered preaching by reformers in the Catholic states ; prohibition of the pension system ; payment of war reparations ; and compensation to the children of Jacob Kaiser . Manuel was involved in the negotiations . Bern was not prepared to insist on the unhindered preaching or the prohibition of the pension system . Zurich and Bern could not agree and the Five ( Catholic ) States pledged only to dissolve their alliance with Austria . This was a bitter disappointment for Zwingli and it marked his decline in political influence . The first Land Peace of Kappel , " der erste Landfriede " , ended the war on 24 June . Marburg Colloquy ( 1529 ) . While Zwingli carried on the political work of the Swiss Reformation , he developed his theological views with his colleagues . The famous disagreement between Luther and Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist originated when Andreas Karlstadt , Luther ' s former colleague from Wittenberg , published three pamphlets on the Lord ' s Supper in which Karlstadt rejected the idea of a real presence in the elements . These pamphlets , published in Basel in 1524 , received the approval of Oecolampadius and Zwingli . Luther rejected Karlstadt ' s arguments and considered Zwingli primarily to be a partisan of Karlstadt . Zwingli began to express his thoughts on the eucharist in several publications including " de Eucharistia " ( On the Eucharist ) . He attacked the idea of the real presence and argued that the word " is " in the words of the institution — " This is my body , this is my blood " — means " signifies " . Hence , the words are understood as a metaphor and Zwingli claimed that there was no real presence during the eucharist . In effect , the meal was symbolic of the Last Supper . By spring 1527 , Luther reacted strongly to Zwingli ' s views in the treatise " Dass Diese Worte Christi " Das ist mein Leib etc . " noch fest stehen wider die Schwarmgeister " ( That These Words of Christ " This is My Body etc . " Still Stand Firm Against the Fanatics ) . The controversy continued until 1528 when efforts to build bridges between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian views began . Martin Bucer tried to mediate while Philip of Hesse , who wanted to form a political coalition of all Protestant forces , invited the two parties to Marburg to discuss their differences . This event became known as the Marburg Colloquy . Zwingli accepted Philip ' s invitation fully believing that he would be able to convince Luther . By contrast , Luther did not expect anything to come out of the meeting and had to be urged by Philip to attend . Zwingli , accompanied by Oecolampadius , arrived on 28 September 1529 with Luther and Philipp Melanchthon arriving shortly thereafter . Other theologians also participated including Martin Bucer , Andreas Osiander , Johannes Brenz , and Justus Jonas . The debates were held from 1 – 3 October and the results were published in the fifteen " Marburg Articles " . The participants were able to agree on fourteen of the articles , but the fifteenth article established the differences in their views on the presence of Christ in the eucharist . Afterwards , each side was convinced that they were the victors , but in fact the controversy was not resolved and the final result was the formation of two different Protestant confessions . Politics , confessions , the Kappel Wars , and death ( 1529 – 1531 ) . With the failure of the Marburg Colloquy and the split of the Confederation , Zwingli set his goal on an alliance with Philip of Hesse . He kept a lively correspondence with Philip . Bern refused to participate , but after a long process , Zurich , Basel , and Strasbourg signed a mutual defence treaty with Philip in November 1530 . Zwingli also personally negotiated with France ' s diplomatic representative , but the two sides were too far apart . France wanted to maintain good relations with the Five States . Approaches to Venice and Milan also failed . As Zwingli was working on establishing these political alliances , Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , invited Protestants to the Augsburg Diet to present their views so that he could make a verdict on the issue of faith . The Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession . Under the leadership of Martin Bucer , the cities of Strasbourg , Constance , Memmingen , and Lindau produced the Tetrapolitan Confession . This document attempted to take a middle position between the Lutherans and Zwinglians . It was too late for the " Burgrecht " cities to produce a confession of their own . Zwingli then produced his own private confession , " Fidei ratio " ( Account of Faith ) in which he explained his faith in twelve articles conforming to the articles of the Apostles ' Creed . The tone was strongly anti - Catholic as well as anti - Lutheran . The Lutherans did not react officially , but criticised it privately . Zwingli ' s and Luther ' s old opponent , John Eck , counter - attacked with a publication , " Refutation of the Articles Zwingli Submitted to the Emperor " . When Philip of Hesse formed the Schmalkaldic League at the end of 1530 , the four cities of the Tetrapolitan Confession joined on the basis of a Lutheran interpretation of that confession . Given the flexibility of the league ' s entrance requirements , Zurich , Basel , and Bern also considered joining . However , Zwingli could not reconcile the Tetrapolitan Confession with his own beliefs and wrote a harsh refusal to Bucer and Capito . This offended Philip to the point where relations with the League were severed . The " Burgrecht " cities now had no external allies to help deal with internal Confederation religious conflicts . The peace treaty of the First Kappel War did not define the right of unhindered preaching in the Catholic states . Zwingli interpreted this to mean that preaching should be permitted , but the Five States suppressed any attempts to reform . The " Burgrecht " cities considered different means of applying pressure to the Five States . Basel and Schaffhausen preferred quiet diplomacy while Zurich wanted armed conflict . Zwingli and Jud unequivocally advocated an attack on the Five States . Bern took a middle position which eventually prevailed . In May 1531 , Zurich reluctantly agreed to impose a food blockade . It failed to have any effect and in October , Bern decided to withdraw the blockade . Zurich urged its continuation and the " Burgrecht " cities began to quarrel among themselves . On July 26 , 1531 , disillusioned about the Great Council ' s lack of support for his goals , Zwingli submitted his resignation . He told the Council , " Eleven years have I preached to you the gospel , and faithfully warned you against the dangers which threaten the confederacy if the Five Cantons — that is , those who hate the gospel and live on foreign pensions — are allowed to gain the mastery . But you do not heed my voice , and continue to elect members who sympathize with the enemies of the gospel . And yet ye make me responsible for all this misfortune . Well , I herewith resign , and shall elsewhere seek my support . " But the Council did not accept his resignation , and he withdrew it within three days . On 9 October 1531 , in a surprise move , the Five States declared war on Zurich . Zurich ' s mobilisation was slow due to internal squabbling and on 11 October , 3500 poorly deployed men encountered a Five States force nearly double their size near Kappel on 11 October . Many pastors , including Zwingli , were among the soldiers . The battle lasted less than one hour and Zwingli was among the 500 casualties in the Zurich army . Zwingli ' s successor Heinrich Bullinger gives an account of the battle and of Zwingli ' s death in his " Chronicle " . According to Bullinger , Zwingli was found by his enemies wounded , but still alive , lying face downward under a pear - tree . " They turned him round , and asked him to confess . he repeatedly shook his head , by way of denial . ' Die , then , stiff - necked heretic ! " cried Captain Vokinger of Unterwalden , giving him his death - blow . " His body was quartered and burned , and his ashes thrown to the wind . His helmet was taken to Lucerne as a trophy ( now kept in the Swiss National Museum together with his sword and his battle - axe ) . On the Catholic side , there were various rivalling claims as to who had killed Zwingli in the battle . On the Zurich side , reports according to which Zwingli had been captured due to an act of treason circulated soon after the battle , but these cannot be substantiated as historical . Theology . According to Zwingli , the cornerstone of theology is the Bible . Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in his writings . He placed its authority above other sources such as the ecumenical councils or the Church Fathers , although he did not hesitate to use other sources to support his arguments . The principles that guide Zwingli ' s interpretations are derived from his rationalist humanist education and his Reformed understanding of the Bible . He rejected literalist interpretations of a passage , such as those of the Anabaptists , and used synecdoche and analogies , methods he describes in " A Friendly Exegesis " ( 1527 ) . Two analogies that he used quite effectively were between baptism and circumcision and between the eucharist and Passover . He also paid attention to the immediate context and attempted to understand the purpose behind it , comparing passages of scripture with each other . Zwingli rejected the word " sacrament " in the popular usage of his time . For ordinary people , the word meant some kind of holy action of which there is inherent power to free the conscience from sin . For Zwingli , a sacrament was an initiatory ceremony or a pledge , pointing out that the word was derived from " sacramentum " meaning an oath . ( However , the word is also translated " mystery . " ) In his early writings on baptism , he noted that baptism was an example of such a pledge . He challenged Catholics by accusing them of superstition when they ascribed the water of baptism a certain power to wash away sin . Later , in his conflict with the Anabaptists , he defended the practice of infant baptism , noting that there is no law forbidding the practice . He argued that baptism was a sign of a covenant with God , thereby replacing circumcision in the Old Testament . Zwingli approached the eucharist in a similar manner to baptism . During the first Zurich disputation in 1523 , he denied that an actual sacrifice occurred during the mass , arguing that Christ made the sacrifice only once and for all eternity . Hence , the eucharist was " a memorial of the sacrifice " . Following this argument , he further developed his view , coming to the conclusion of the " signifies " interpretation for the words of the institution . He used various passages of scripture to argue against transubstantiation as well as Luther ' s views , the key text being John 6 : 63 , " It is the Spirit who gives life , the flesh is of no avail " . Zwingli ' s rational approach and use of scripture to understand the meaning of the eucharist was one reason he could not reach a consensus with Luther . The impact of Luther on Zwingli ' s theological development has long been a source of interest and discussion among Zwinglian scholars . Zwingli himself asserted vigorously his independence of Luther . The most recent studies have lent credibility to this claim , although some scholars still claim his theology was dependent upon Luther ' s . Zwingli appears to have read Luther ' s books in search of confirmation from Luther for his own views . Zwingli did , however , admire Luther greatly for the stand he took against the pope . This , more than Luther ' s theology , was a key influence on Zwingli ' s convictions as a reformer . What Zwingli considered Luther ' s courageous stance at the Leipzig Disputation had a decisive impact on Zwingli during his earliest years as a priest , and during this time Zwingli praised and promoted Luther ' s writings to support his own similar ideas . Like Luther , Zwingli was also a student and admirer of Augustine . His later writings continued to show characteristic differences from Luther such as the inclusion of non - Christians in heaven as described in " An Exposition of the Faith " . Music . Zwingli enjoyed music and could play several instruments , including the violin , harp , flute , dulcimer and hunting horn . He would sometimes amuse the children of his congregation on his lute and was so well known for his playing that his enemies mocked him as " the evangelical lute - player and fifer " . Three of Zwingli ' s " Lied er " or hymns have been preserved : the " Pestlied " mentioned above , an adaptation of Psalm 65 ( c . 1525 ) , and the " Kappeler Lied " , which is believed to have been composed during the campaign of the first war of Kappel ( 1529 ) . These songs were not meant to be sung during worship services and are not identified as hymns of the Reformation , though they were published in some 16th - century hymnals . Zwingli criticised the practice of priestly chanting and monastic choirs . The criticism dates from 1523 when he attacked certain worship practices . He associated music with images and vestments , all of which he felt diverted people ' s attention from true spiritual worship . It is not known what he thought of the musical practices in early Lutheran churches . Zwingli , however eliminated instrumental music from worship in the church , stating that God had not commanded it in worship . The organist of the People ' s Church in Zurich is recorded as weeping upon seeing the great organ broken up . Although Zwingli did not express an opinion on congregational singing , he made no effort to encourage it . Nevertheless , scholars have found that Zwingli was supportive of a role for music in the church . Gottfried W . Locher writes , " The old assertion ' Zwingli was against church singing ' holds good no longer . . . Zwingli ' s polemic is concerned exclusively with the medieval Latin choral and priestly chanting and not with the hymns of evangelical congregations or choirs " . Locher goes on to say that " Zwingli freely allowed vernacular psalm or choral singing . In addition , he even seems to have striven for lively , antiphonal , unison recitative " . Locher then summarizes his comments on Zwingli ' s view of church music as follows : " The chief thought in his conception of worship was always ' conscious attendance and understanding ' — ' devotion ' , yet with the lively participation of all concerned " . Legacy . Zwingli was a humanist and a scholar with many devoted friends and disciples . He communicated as easily with the ordinary people of his congregation as with rulers such as Philip of Hesse . His reputation as a stern , stolid reformer is counterbalanced by the fact that he had an excellent sense of humour and used satiric fables , spoofing , and puns in his writings . He was more conscious of social obligations than Luther and he genuinely believed that the masses would accept a government guided by God ' s word . He tirelessly promoted assistance to the poor , whom he believed should be cared for by a truly Christian community . In December 1531 , the Zurich council selected Heinrich Bullinger as his successor . He immediately removed any doubts about Zwingli ' s orthodoxy and defended him as a prophet and a martyr . During Bullinger ' s rule , the confessional divisions of the Confederation were stabilised . He rallied the reformed cities and cantons and helped them to recover from the defeat at Kappel . Zwingli had instituted fundamental reforms , while Bullinger consolidated and refined them . Scholars have found assessing Zwingli ' s historical impact to be difficult , for several reasons . There is no consensus on the definition of " Zwinglianism " ; by any definition , Zwinglianism evolved under his successor , Heinrich Bullinger ; and research into Zwingli ' s influence on Bullinger and John Calvin is still rudimentary . Bullinger adopted most of Zwingli ' s points of doctrine . Like Zwingli , he summarised his theology several times , the best - known being the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566 . Meanwhile , Calvin had taken over the Reformation in Geneva . Calvin differed with Zwingli on the eucharist and criticised him for regarding it as simply a metaphorical event . In 1549 , however , Bullinger and Calvin succeeded in overcoming the differences in doctrine and produced the " Consensus Tigurinus " ( Zurich Consensus ) . They declared that the eucharist was not just symbolic of the meal , but they also rejected the Lutheran position that the body and blood of Christ is in union with the elements . With this rapprochement , Calvin established his role in the Swiss Reformed Church es and eventually in the wider world . Outside of Switzerland , no church counts Zwingli as its founder . Scholars speculate as to why Zwinglianism has not diffused more widely , even though Zwingli ' s theology is considered the first expression of Reformed theology . Although his name is not widely recognised , Zwingli ' s legacy lives on in the basic confessions of the Reformed churches of today . He is often called , after Martin Luther and John Calvin , the " Third Man of the Reformation " . List of works . Zwingli ' s collected works are expected to fill 21 volumes . A collection of selected works was published in 1995 by the " Zwingliverein " in collaboration with the " Theologischer Verlag Zürich " This four - volume collection contains the following works : The complete 21 - volume edition is being undertaken by the " Zwingliverein " in collaboration with the " Institut für schweizerische Reformationsgeschichte " , and is projected to be organised as follows : Vols . XIII and XIV have been published , vols . XV and XVI are under preparation . Vols . XVII to XXI are planned to cover the New Testament . Older German / Latin editions available online include : See also the following English translations of selected works by Zwingli :