Wars of Alexander the Great The Wars of Alexander the Great were fought by King Alexander III of Macedon ( " The Great " ) , first against the Achaemenid Persian Empire , under its " King of Kings " Darius III , and then against local chieftains and warlords as far east as Punjab , India . Alexander the Great was one of the most successful military commanders of all time . He was undefeated in battle . By the time of his death , he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks . Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedon following the death of his father Philip II , who had unified most of the city - states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony in a federation called the League of Corinth . After reconfirming Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion of southern Greek city - states and staging a short but bloody excursion against Macedon ' s northern neighbors , Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid Persian Empire , under its " King of Kings " ( the title all Achaemenid kings went by ) , Darius III , which he defeated and overthrew . His conquests included Anatolia , Syria , Phoenicia , Judea , Gaza , Egypt , Bactria and Mesopotamia , and he extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as Punjab , India . Alexander had already made more plans prior to his death for military and mercantile expansions into the Arabian peninsula , after which he was to turn his armies to the west ( Carthage , Rome and the Iberian Peninsula ) . However , Alexander ' s diadochi quietly abandoned these grandiose plans after his death . Instead , within a few years of Alexander ' s death , the diadochi began fighting with each other , dividing up the Empire between themselves , and triggering 40 years of warfare . Background . Philip II was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguard , Pausanias . Philip ' s son , and previously designated heir , Alexander was proclaimed king by the Macedonian noblemen and army . News of Philip ' s death roused many states that into revolt including Thebes , Athens , Thessaly and the Thracian tribes to the north of Macedon . When news of the revolt reached Alexander he responded quickly . Though his advisers advised him to use diplomacy , Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3 , 000 men and rode south towards Thessaly , Macedon ' s immediate neighbor to the south . When he found the Thessalonian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa , he had the men ride through Mount Ossa and , when the Thessalonians awoke , they found Alexander at their rear . The Thessalonians surrendered and added their cavalry to Alexander ' s force as he rode down towards the Peloponnese . Alexander stopped at Thermopylae , where he was recognized as the leader of the Sacred League before heading south to Corinth . Athens sued for peace and Alexander received the envoy and pardoned anyone involved with the uprising . At Corinth , he was given the title ' Hegemon ' of the Greek forces against the Persians . While at Corinth , he heard the news of the Thracian rising to the north . Balkan campaign . Before crossing to Asia , Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders and , in the spring of 335 BC , he advanced into Thrace to deal with the revolt , which was led by the Illyrians and Triballi . At Mount Haemus , the Macedonian army attacked and defeated a Thracian garrison manning the heights . The Macedonians were then attacked in the rear by the Triballi , who were crushed in turn . Alexander then advanced on to the Danube , encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore . The Getae army retreated after the first cavalry skirmish , leaving their town to the Macedonian army . News then reached Alexander that Cleitus , King of Illyria , and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against Macedonian authority . Alexander defeated each in turn , forcing Cleitus and Glaukias to flee with their armies , leaving Alexander ' s northern frontier secure . While he was triumphantly campaigning north , the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once more . Alexander reacted immediately , but , while the other cities once again hesitated , Thebes decided to resist with the utmost vigor . This resistance was useless , however , as the city was razed to the ground amid great bloodshed and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities . The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission , leaving all of Greece at least outwardly at peace with Alexander . Asia Minor . Persia . In 335 BC , Alexander crossed the Hellespont into Asia . It took over one hundred triremes ( boats with oars ) to transport the entire Macedonian army , but the Persians decided to ignore the movement . In these early months , Darius still refused to take Alexander seriously or mount a serious challenge to Alexander ' s movements . Memnon of Rhodes , the Greek mercenary who aligned himself with the Persians , advocated a scorched Earth strategy . He wanted the Persians to destroy the land in front of Alexander , which he hoped would force Alexander ' s army to starve , and then to turn back . Eventually , with Alexander advancing deeper into Persian territory , Darius put Memnon in control of an army , and told him to finally confront Alexander . Battle of the Granicus River . The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was fought in Northwestern Asia Minor ( modern - day Turkey ) , near the site of Troy . After crossing the Hellespont , Alexander advanced up the road to the capital of the Satrapy of Phrygia . The various satraps of the Persian empire gathered with their forces at the town of Zelea and offered battle on the banks of the Granicus River . Alexander ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank . By doing so , he was able to minimize the advantage the Persians had in numbers . In addition , the deadly Persian chariots were useless on a cramped , muddy river bank . Arrian , Diodorus , and Plutarch all mention the battle , with Arrian providing the most detail . The Persians placed their cavalry in front of their infantry , and drew up on the right ( east ) bank of the river . The Macedonian line was arrayed with the heavy Phalanx es in the middle , and cavalry on either side . The Persians expected the main assault to come from Alexander ' s position and moved units from their center to that flank . Alexander ' s second - in - command , Parmenion , suggested crossing the river upstream and attacking at dawn the next day , but Alexander attacked immediately . This tactic caught the Persians off guard . The battle started with a cavalry and light infantry attack from the Macedonian left , so the Persians heavily reinforced that side . However , by this point , Alexander led the horse companions in their classic wedge - shaped charge , and smashed into the center of the Persian line . Several high - ranking Persian nobles were killed by Alexander himself or his bodyguards , although Alexander was stunned by an axe - blow from a Persian nobleman named Spithridates . Before the noble could deal a death - blow , however , he was himself killed by Cleitus the Black . Alexander ' s horse was killed , although he was not at the time riding his beloved Bucephalus , either because Bucephalus was lame or because Alexander believed this battle to be too dangerous for Bucephalus . The Macedonian cavalry opened a hole in the Persian line , and the Macedonian infantry charged through to engage the poor quality Persian infantry in the rear . At this , and with many of their leaders already dead , both flanks of the Persian cavalry retreated , and the infantry was cut down as it fled . Alexander consolidates his support in Asia Minor . After the battle , Alexander buried the dead ( Macedonians , Greeks and Persians ) , and sent the captured Greek mercenaries back to Greece to work in the mines , as an object lesson for any Greek who decided to fight for the Persians . He sent some of the spoils back to Greece , including three hundred panoplies ( complete Persian suits of armor ) back to Athens to be dedicated in the Parthenon with the inscription “ Alexander , son of Philip and the Greeks , Lacedaemonians ( Spartans ) excepted , these spoils from the barbarians who dwell in Asia ” . Antipater , whom Alexander had left in charge of Macedon in his absence , had been given a free hand to install dictators and tyrants wherever he saw fit in order to minimize the risk of a rebellion . As he moved deeper into Persia , however , the threat of trouble seemed to grow . Many of these towns had been ruled for generations by heavy handed tyrants , so in these Persian towns , he did the opposite of what he did in Greece . Wanting to appear to be a liberator , he freed the population and allowed self - government . As he continued marching into Persia , he saw that his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one . Town after town seemed to surrender to him . The satrap at Sardis , as well as his garrison , was among the first of many satraps to capitulate . As these satraps gave up , Alexander appointed new ones to replace them , and claimed to distrust the accumulation of absolute power into anyone ’ s hands . There appeared to be little change from the old system . Alexander , however , appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the satrapies , which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government . The true effect , however , was to separate the civil from the financial function of these satrapies , thus ensuring that these governments , while technically independent of him , never truly were . Otherwise , he allowed the inhabitants of these towns to continue as they always had , and made no attempt to impose Greek customs on them . Meanwhile , ambassadors from other Greek cities in Asia Minor came to Alexander , offering submission if he allowed their ' democracies ' to continue . Alexander granted their wish , and allowed them to stop paying taxes to Persia , but only if they joined the League of Corinth . By doing so , they promised to provide monetary support to Alexander . Siege of Halicarnassus . The Siege of Halicarnassus was undertaken in 334 BC . Alexander , who had no navy , was constantly being threatened by the Persian navy . It continuously attempted to provoke an engagement with Alexander , who would have none of it . Eventually , the Persian fleet sailed to Halicarnassus , in order to establish a new defense . Ada of Caria , the former queen of Halicarnassus , had been driven from her throne by her usurping brother . When he died , Darius had appointed Orontobates satrap of Caria , which included Halicarnassus in its jurisdiction . On the approach of Alexander in 334 BC , Ada , who was in possession of the fortress of Alinda , surrendered the fortress to him . Alexander and Ada appear to have formed an emotional connection . He called her " mother " , finding her more amicable than his megalomania cal snake - worshiping mother Olympias . In return for his support , Ada gave Alexander gifts , and even sent him some of the best cooks in Asia Minor , realizing that Alexander had a sweet tooth . In the past , Alexander had referred to his biological father , Philip , as his " so - called " father , and preferred to think of the deity Amon Zeus as his actual father . Thus , he had finally managed to divorce himself from both of his biological parents . Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus . Alexander had sent spies to meet with dissidents inside the city , who had promised to open the gates and allow Alexander to enter . When his spies arrived , however , the dissidents were nowhere to be found . A small battle resulted , and Alexander ' s army managed to break through the city walls . Memnon , however , now deployed his catapults , and Alexander ' s army fell back . Memnon then deployed his infantry , and shortly before Alexander would have received his first ( and only ) defeat , his infantry managed to break through the city walls , surprising the Persian forces and killing Orontobates . Memnon , realizing the city was lost , set fire to it and withdrew with his army . A strong wind caused the fire to destroy much of the city . Alexander then committed the government of Caria to Ada ; and she , in turn , formally adopted Alexander as her son , ensuring that the rule of Caria passed unconditionally to him upon her eventual death . Syria . Shortly after the battle , Memnon died . His replacement was an Athenian named Karademas . Darius ' s generals wanted Darius to personally command the army during a major battle against Alexander . Karademas , who thought that this would be too reckless , got into an argument with Darius ' s generals . He implied that he should lead the army because , as a Greek , he was a better general than any of the Persians . An argument resulted , Karademas made some uncomplimentary comments about Persian culture , and Darius ordered Karademas executed . Shortly thereafter , Darius realized that he had made a mistake , because he had just executed the only competent general he had left . He decided to take his army , and leave Babylon in order to intercept Alexander . Alexander marched his army east through Cappadocia , where , for a stretch of nearly , there was no water . As his army approached Mount Taurus , they found only one route through which to pass , which was a narrow defile called " The Gates " . The defile was very narrow , and could have been easily defended . However , the Persian satrap of Cappadocia had an inflated view of his own abilities . He had been at the Battle of the Granicus River , and had believed that Memnon ' s scorched Earth strategy would work here . He didn ' t realize that the different circumstances of the terrain made that strategy useless . Had he mounted a credible defense of the defile , Alexander would have been easily repulsed . He left only a small contingent to guard the defile , and took his entire army to destroy the plain that lay ahead of Alexander ' s army . The Persian contingent that was supposed to guard the defile soon abandoned it , and Alexander passed through without any problems . Alexander supposedly said after this incident that he had never been so lucky in his entire career . After reaching Mount Taurus , Alexander ' s army found a stream that flowed from the mountain with water that was ice cold . Not thinking , Alexander jumped into the stream , suffered a cramp and then a convulsion , and was pulled out nearly dead . He quickly developed pneumonia , but none of his physicians would treat him , because they feared that , if he died , they would be held responsible . One physician named Philip , who had treated Alexander since he was a child , agreed to treat him . Although he soon fell into a coma , he eventually recovered . Battle of Issus . After Alexander ' s forces successfully defeated the Persians at the Battle of the Granicus , Darius took personal charge of his army , gathered a large army from the depths of the empire , and maneuvered to cut the Greek line of supply , requiring Alexander to countermarch his forces , setting the stage for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River and south of the village of Issus . Darius was apparently unaware that , by deciding to stage the battle on a river bank , he was minimizing the numerical advantage his army had over Alexander ' s . Initially , Alexander chose what was apparently unfavorable ground . This surprised Darius who mistakenly elected to hold the wrong position while Alexander instructed his infantry to take up a defensive posture . Alexander personally led the more elite Greek Companion cavalry against the Persian left up against the hills , and cut up the enemy on the less encumbering terrain and thereby generating a quick rout . After achieving a breakthrough , Alexander demonstrated he could do the difficult and held the cavalry successfully in check after it broke the Persian right . Alexander then mounted his beloved horse Bucephalus , took his place at the head of his Companion cavalry , and led a direct assault against Darius . The horses that were pulling Darius ' chariot were injured , and began tossing at the yoke . Darius , about to fall off his chariot , instead jumped off . He threw his royal diadem away , mounted a horse , and fled the scene . The Persian troops , realizing they had lost , either surrendered or fled with their hapless king . The Macedonian cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light . As with most ancient battles , significant carnage occurred after the battle as pursuing Macedonians slaughtered their crowded , disorganized foe . The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia , in November 333 BC . The invading troops led by Alexander were outnumbered more than 2 : 1 , yet they defeated the army personally led by Darius III of Achaemenid Persia . The battle was a decisive Macedonian victory and it marked the beginning of the end of Persian power . It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with the King present on the field . Darius left his wife and an enormous amount of treasure behind as his army fled . The greed of the Macedonians helped to persuade them to keep going , as did the large number of Persian concubines and prostitutes they picked up in the battle . Darius , now fearing for both his throne and his life , sent a letter to Alexander in which he promised to pay a substantial ransom in exchange for the prisoners of war , and agreeing to a treaty of alliance with and the forfeiture of half of his empire to Alexander . Darius received a response which began " King Alexander to Darius " . In the letter , Alexander blamed Darius for his father ' s death and claimed Darius was but a vulgar usurper , who planned to take Macedonia . He agreed to return the prisoners without ransom , but told Darius that he and Alexander were not equals , and that Darius was to henceforth address Alexander as " King of all Asia " . Darius was also curtly informed that , if he wanted to dispute Alexander ' s claim to the Achaemenid throne , that he would have to stand and fight , and that if he instead fled , Alexander would pursue and kill him . By this , Alexander revealed for the first time that his plan was to conquer the entire Persian Empire . Siege of Tyre . The Siege of Tyre occurred in 332 BC when Alexander set out to conquer Tyre , a strategic coastal base . Tyre was the site of the only remaining Persian port that did not capitulate to Alexander . Even by this point in the war , the Persian navy still posed a major threat to Alexander . Tyre , the largest and most important city - state of Phoenicia , was located both on the Mediterranean coast as well as a nearby Island with two natural harbors on the landward side . At the time of the siege , the city held approximately 40 , 000 people , though the women and children were evacuated to Carthage , an ancient Phoenician colony . Alexander sent an envoy to Tyre , proposing a peace treaty , and asked to visit their city and offer sacrifices to their God Melqart . The Tyrians politely told Alexander that their town was neutral in the war , and that allowing him to offer sacrifices to Melqart would be tantamount to recognizing him as their king . Alexander considered building a causeway that would allow his army to take the town by force . His engineers didn ' t believe it would be possible to successfully build such a massive structure , and so Alexander sent peace envoys once more to propose an alliance . The Tyrians believed this to be a sign of weakness , and so they killed the envoys and threw their bodies over the city wall . The dissent against Alexander ' s plans to take the city by force disappeared , and his engineers began to design the structure . Alexander began with an engineering feat that shows the true extent of his brilliance ; as he could not attack the city from sea , he built a kilometer - long causeway stretching out to the island on a natural land bridge no more than two meters deep . Alexander then constructed two towers 150 feet high and moved them to the end of the causeway . The Tyrians , however , quickly devised a counterattack . They used an old horse transport ship , filling it with dried branches , pitch , sulfur , and various other combustibles . They then lit it on fire , creating what we might call a primitive form of napalm , and ran it up onto the causeway . The fire spread quickly , engulfing both towers and other siege equipment that had been brought up . This convinced Alexander that he would be unable to take Tyre without a navy . Fate would soon provide him with one . Presently , the Persian navy returned to find their home cities under Alexander ’ s control . Since their allegiance was to their city , they were therefore Alexander ’ s . He now had eighty ships . This coincided with the arrival of another hundred and twenty from Cyprus , which had heard of his victories and wished to join him . Alexander then sailed on Tyre and quickly blockaded both ports with his superior numbers . He had several of the slower galleys , and a few barges , refit with battering rams , the only known case of battering rams being used on ships . Alexander started testing the wall at various points with his rams , until he made a small breach in the south end of the island . He then coordinated an attack across the breach with a bombardment from all sides by his navy . Once his troops forced their way into the city , they easily overtook the garrison , and quickly captured the city . Those citizens that took shelter in the temple of Heracles were pardoned by Alexander . It is said that Alexander was so enraged at the Tyrians ' defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half the city . Alexander granted pardon to the king and his family , whilst 30 , 000 residents and foreigners taken were sold into slavery . There was a family , though , that Alexander gave a very high position in his government , but the only contact he ever had with them was when he spent the night with the wife of the household . Egypt . Siege of Gaza . The stronghold at Gaza was built on a hill and was heavily fortified . The inhabitants of Gaza and their Nabataean allies did not want to lose the lucrative trade which was controlled by Gaza . Batis , the commander of the fortress of Gaza , refused to surrender to Alexander . Though a eunuch , Batis was physically imposing and ruthless . After three unsuccessful assaults , the stronghold was finally taken by force , but not before Alexander received a serious shoulder wound . When Gaza was taken , the male population was put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery . According to the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus , Batis was killed by Alexander in imitation of Achilles ' treatment of the fallen Hector . A rope was forced through Batis ' s ankles , probably between the ankle bone and the Achilles tendon , and Batis was dragged alive by chariot beneath the walls of the city . Alexander , who admired courage in his enemies and might have been inclined to show mercy to the brave Persian general , was infuriated at Batis ' s refusal to kneel and by the enemy commander ' s haughty silence and contemptuous manner . With Gaza taken , Alexander marched into Egypt . The Egyptians hated the Persians , in part because Persia considered Egypt as nothing more than one big bread basket . They welcomed Alexander as their king , placed him on the throne of the Pharaohs , giving him the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt , and named him the incarnation of Ra and Osiris . He set in motion plans to build Alexandria , and , though future tax revenues would be channeled to him , he left Egypt under the management of Egyptians , which helped to win him their support . Battle of Gaugamela . The Battle of Gaugamela took place in 331 BC in what is now northern Iraq , possibly near Mosul , and resulted in a decisive victory for the Macedonians . After the Siege of Gaza , Alexander advanced from Syria towards the heart of the Persian empire , crossing both the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers without any opposition . Darius was building up a massive army , drawing men from the far reaches of his empire , and planned to use sheer numbers to crush Alexander . Though Alexander had conquered part of the Persian empire , it was still vast in area and in manpower reserves , and Darius could recruit more men than Alexander could dream of . Also present in the Persian army , a sign that the Persians were still very powerful , were the feared war elephants . While Darius had a significant advantage in number of soldiers , most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander ' s . The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield . Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his eastern satrapies . Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry as was the tradition among Persian kings . The Macedonians were divided into two , with the right side of the army falling under the direct command of Alexander , and the left to Parmenion . Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line . Darius now launched his chariots , which were intercepted by the Agrianians , and quickly rendered useless . Alexander , while leading the charge , formed his units into a giant wedge , which quickly smashed right into the weakened Persian center . Darius ' charioteer was killed by a spear , and chaos rang out as everyone ( incorrectly ) thought it was Darius who had been killed . The Persian line then collapsed , and Darius fled . Darius escaped with a small core of his forces remaining intact , although the Bactrian cavalry and Bessus soon caught up with him . The remaining Persian resistance was quickly put down . In all , the Battle of Gaugamela was a disastrous defeat for the Persians , and possibly one of Alexander ' s finest victories . End of the Achaemenid Persian Empire . After the battle , Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his own bodyguard chased after Darius in hopes of catching up . Substantial amounts of loot were gained following the battle , with 4 , 000 talents captured , as well as the King ' s personal chariot and bow . Darius planned to head further east , and raise another army to face Alexander while he and the Macedonians headed to one of the Persian capitals , Babylon , and then to another , Susa . There , Alexander found wealth that even he had never imagined possible . He paid his troops , and sent a sum of money six times the annual income of Athens to Greece , in order to put down a Spartan rebellion . Darius , meanwhile , dispatched letters to his eastern satrapies asking them to remain loyal . The satrapies , however , had other intentions , and quickly capitulated to Alexander . Bessus fatally stabbed Darius , before fleeing eastwards . Darius was found by one of Alexander ' s scouts , moaning in pain . Darius , dying and chained to a baggage train being pulled by an ox , was laying next to a lone dog and royal robes covered in blood . He asked for water , and then , clutching the Macedonian soldier ' s hand , said that he was thankful that he would not die utterly alone and abandoned . Alexander , who may have felt genuinely saddened at Darius ' death , buried Darius next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full military funeral . Alexander claimed that , while dying , Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the Achaemenid throne and had asked Alexander to avenge his death , a striking irony since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death . The Achaemenid Persian Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius . Alexander , viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius , viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne , and eventually found and executed this ' usurper ' . The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander , and be allowed to keep their positions . Alexander ’ s troops now thought the war was over . Alexander was unsure how to deal with this , so he decided to scare them into submission . He gave a speech , arguing that their conquests were not secure , that the Persians did not want the Greeks to remain in their country , and that only the strength of Macedon could secure the country . The speech worked , and Alexander ' s troops agreed to remain with him . Alexander , now the Persian " King of Kings " , adopted Persian dress and mannerisms , which , in time , the Greeks began to view as decadent and autocratic . They began to fear that Alexander , the king they had hero - worshiped , was turning into an eastern despot , although a young eunuch was eventually introduced to Alexander , and helped to keep his decadence in check . Battle of the Persian Gate . In the winter of 330 BC , at the Battle of the Persian Gate northeast of today ' s Yasuj in Iran , the Persian satrap Ariobarzan es led a last stand of the Persian forces . After the Battle of Gaugamela , Alexander had advanced to Babylon and Susa . A Royal Road connected Susa with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis and Pasargadae in Persis ( the Persian Empire had several " capitals " ) , and was the natural venue for Alexander ' s continued campaign . After the conquest of Susa , Alexander split the Macedonian army into two parts . Alexander ' s general , Parmenion , took one half along the Royal Road , and Alexander himself took the route towards Persis . Passing into Persis required traversing the Persian Gates , a narrow mountain pass that lent itself easily to ambush . Believing that , after his victory over the Uxians , he would not encounter any more enemy forces during his march , Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his vanguard , and thus walked into Ariobarzanes ' ambush . Once the Macedonian army had advanced sufficiently into the narrow pass , the Persians rained down boulders on them from the northern slopes . From the southern slope , Persian archers and catapult s launched their projectiles . Alexander ' s army initially suffered heavy casualties , losing entire platoons at a time . Ariobarzanes had hoped that defeating Alexander at the Persian Gates would allow the Persians more time to field another army , and possibly stop the Macedonian invasion altogether . Ariobarzanes held the pass for a month , but Alexander succeeded in encircling the Persian army and broke through the Persian defenses . The defeat of Ariobarzanes ' s forces at the Persian Gate removed the last military obstacle between Alexander and Persepolis . Upon his arrival at the city of Persepolis , Alexander appointed a general named Phrasaortes as successor of Ariobarzanes . Four months later , Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis . A fire broke out and spread to the rest of the city . It is not clear if it had been a drunken accident , or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Greco - Persian War . Siege of the Sogdian Rock . After Alexander defeated the last of the Achaemenid Empire ' s forces 328 BC , he began a new campaign against the various Indian kings in 327 BC . He wanted to conquer the entire known world , which in Alexander ' s day , ended on the eastern end of India . Greeks of Alexander ' s day knew nothing of China , or any other lands east of India . The Siege of the Sogdian Rock , a fortress located north of Bactria in Sogdiana , occurred in 327 BC . Oxyartes of Bactria had sent his wife and daughters , one of whom was Roxana , to take refuge in the fortress , as it was thought to be impregnable , and was provisioned for a long siege . When Alexander asked the defenders to surrender , they refused , telling him that he would need " men with wings " to capture it . Alexander asked for volunteers , whom he would reward if they could climb the cliffs under the fortress . There were some 300 men who from previous sieges had gained experience in rock - climbing . Using tent - pegs and strong flax en lines , they climbed the cliff face at night , losing about 30 of their number during the ascent . In accordance with Alexander ' s orders , they signaled their success to the troops below by waving bits of linen , and Alexander sent a herald to shout the news to the enemy ' s advanced posts that they might now surrender without further delay . The defenders were so surprised and demoralized by this that they surrendered . Alexander fell in love with Roxana , whom ancient historians call the " most beautiful woman in the world " ( not an uncommon claim for an ancient queen ) on sight and eventually married her . The story of the siege is told by the Roman historian Arrian of Nicomedia , in Anabasis ( section 4 . 18 . 4 - 19 . 6 ) . Invasion of India . After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana ( Roshanak in Bactrian ) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies , Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to the Indian subcontinent . Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara , in the north of what is now Pakistan , to come to him and submit to his authority . Omphis , ruler of Taxila , whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes , complied , but the chieftains of some hill clans , including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas ( known in Indian texts also as Ashvayana s and Ashvakayana s ) , refused to submit . In the winter of 327 / 326 BC , Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans ; the Aspasioi of Kunar valley s , the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley , and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys . A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight . Alexander then faced the Assakenoi , who fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander in the strongholds of Massaga , Ora and Aornos . The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle . According to Curtius , " Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga , but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles " . A similar slaughter then followed at Ora , another stronghold of the Assakenoi . In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora , numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos . Alexander followed close behind their heels and captured the strategic hill - fort after the fourth day of a bloody fight . This fight was the challenge Alexander was looking for , an army with huge elephants that were almost able to defeat Alexander . After reducing Aornos , Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against a local ruler Porus , who ruled a region in the Punjab , in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC . After the battle , Alexander was greatly impressed by Porus for his bravery in battle , and therefore made an alliance with him and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom , even adding some land he did not own before . Alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded , Bucephala , in honor of the horse who had brought him to India , who had died during the Battle of Hydaspes . East of Porus ' kingdom , near the Ganges River , was the powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal . Fearing the prospects of facing other powerful Indian armies and exhausted by years of campaigning , his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River , refusing to march further east . This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander ' s conquests . As for the Macedonians , however , their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India . For having done all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse , they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also , the width of which , as they learned , was thirty - two furlongs , its depth a hundred fathoms , while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men - at - arms and horsemen and elephants . For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen , two hundred thousand footmen , eight thousand chariots , and six thousand fighting elephants . Alexander spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India but Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return , the men , he said , " longed to again see their parents , their wives and children , their homeland " . Alexander , seeing the unwillingness of his men agreed and turned south . Along the way his army conquered the Malli clans ( in modern day Multan ) , reputed to be among the bravest and most warlike peoples in South Asia . Following this , the surviving Malli surrendered to Alexander ' s forces , and his beleaguered army moved on , conquering more Indian tribes along the way . In the territory of the Indus , he nominated his officer Peithon as a satrap , a position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC , and in the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army , at the side of the satrap Porus and Taxiles . Eudemus became ruler of a part of the Punjab after their death . Both rulers returned to the West in 316 BC with their armies . In 321 BC , Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in India and overthrew the Greek satraps . Return from India . Alexander now sent much of his army to Carmania ( modern southern Iran ) with his general Craterus , and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus , while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian Desert ( now part of southern Iran and Makran now part of Pakistan ) . External links . Primary sources Other