Frederick Townsend Ward Frederick Townsend Ward ( 29 November 1831 – 21 September 1862 ) was an American sailor and soldier of fortune famous for his military victories for Imperial China during the Taiping Rebellion . Early life . Frederick Townsend Ward was born in Salem , Massachusetts on November 29 , 1831 . Ward was rebellious in his youth , so his father removed Ward from school in 1847 and found him a position as second mate on the " Hamilton " , a clipper ship commanded by a family friend . Another version is that Ward demanded to leave school . Life at sea was tough . Ward was given authority over many “ old salts ” . He was thrown overboard after complaints that he gave too many orders for a youth . Captain William Allen recalled that Ward possessed traits of “ reckless daring ” , but was on the whole a valuable officer . On the Hamilton , Ward sailed from New York to Hong Kong in 1847 , but probably saw little beyond the port city because the Qing Dynasty forbade foreigners from venturing inland ( Hong Kong Island had become a British Crown Colony in 1842 , at the end of the First Opium War ) . In 1849 Ward enrolled at the “ American Literary , Scientific and Military Academy ” , now Norwich University , in Vermont , where the curriculum included military tactics , strategy , drill , and ceremonies . He attended for only a few months , before he left school and never returned . In 1850 he shipped out as first mate of the clipper ship " Russell Clover " . His father was the captain . Frederick Townsend Ward in the 1850s Filibustering . Aside from working as a sailor during the 1850s , Ward found employment , as a “ filibuster ” . “ Filibustering ” is “ raising private mercenary armies and leading them into other countries to advance either [ one ' s own ] schemes or those of wealthy sponsors ” . Ward worked for the infamous “ King of the Filibusters ” , William Walker ] ] , in Mexico , where he learned how to recruit , train , and command mercenary troops . [ [ File : Walker . jpg | thumb | 120px | William Walker Ward also learned to avoid some of Walker ' s practices and behaviors . Walker has a reputation for being “ excessively vain , weak minded and ambitious … his weakness renders him cruel … ” During Ward ' s later time in China , he displayed respect and concern for the Western and Chinese troops under his command , whom he referred to as “ my people ” . Ward learned about practical warfare during his “ filibusteresque ” experience in 1854 and when he served as a lieutenant with the French Army in the [ [ Crimean War ] ] . He learned about weapons , tactics , using riflemen in mobile platoons rather than in fixed firing lines and siege techniques . Ward also learned that the frontal assault was of limited value against disciplined long range firepower , and he gained experience under fire . He did not serve throughout the entire war , because he was ' allowed ' to resign after being insubordinate to a superior officer . In 1857 , Ward sought work as a mercenary , but when he didn ' t secure such work , he served as the first mate on a coastal steamship in dangerous waters . He worked as a shipping agent in his father ' s New York City office alongside his brother in 1859 . At the end of the 1850s , Ward ' s life bears some similarity to the life of [ [ Ulysses Simpson Grant | U . S . Grant ] ] ' s . Both were former soldiers with uncertain prospects , who worked in offices for their fathers , with their brothers . It is unlikely that they knew each other . However , Grant said that he did not anticipate his role in the Civil War , while Ward was saving money , and planning military activity , this time for Imperial China . Shanghai newcomer . According to a contemporary account written in early 1862 , Ward and his brother arrived in Shanghai , China in 1860 for the purpose of trading , perhaps as an extension of their father ' s New York office . This may be true , but given Ward ' s activities in the 1850s it is almost certain that Ward had ulterior motives for his return . We can be sure he had little respect for the Shanghai business practices , which he dismissed as “ lying , swindling and smuggling ” . Their arrival coincided with a buildup of Taiping forces in the area . While Ward ' s brother set up a trading business in Shanghai , Ward himself took up customary employment as the executive officer on the " Confucius " , an armed riverboat commanded by an American , employed by the “ Shanghai Pirate Suppression Bureau ” . The Bureau was organized by Xue Huan and Wu Xu , Shanghai governmental officials who took pains to shield explicit imperial association with Western mercenaries and military , and primarily funded by Yang Fang , a prominent Ningbo banker and mercantilist . Ward ' s show of bravery and initiative on board the " Confucius " reflected great credit upon him , and the prominent men of Shanghai took notice . His exploits , previous military experience , ability to rise above racism and empathize with local populations , and his stated mercenary intentions , made him an attractive candidate to lead a force of foreign nationals in defense of Shanghai against encroaching Taiping forces . Wu Xu and Yang Fang both increasingly recognized that such a force was necessary , as Imperial forces , frequently staffed by Confucian scholars and conscripts , rather than experienced commanders and soldiers , had all too often proven unequal to the task of defeating Taiping forces . Through their contacts with the Western business community , and Ward ' s own relentless self - promotion , in the spring of 1860 Wu and Fang reached out to Ward and became his employers . Ward then began scouring the wharves of Shanghai for every Westerner , sober or otherwise , capable of firing a weapon . With this , the “ Shanghai Foreign Arms Corps ” was born , which in defeat , would form the nucleus for the “ [ [ Ever Victorious Army ] ] ” . Shanghai Foreign Arms Corps . It may be surprising to modern readers to learn that in 1860 , both Chinese and Westerners would place more faith in a small , motley group of mercenaries than readily available local citizenry , but one must realize that the average Chinese of the time had little understanding of marksmanship , nor much impetus to defend the Manchu throne . Further , with Taiping armies edging closer to Shanghai , there was no time to train native peasants in either conventional Chinese or Western warfare . On the Shanghai docks , however , Westerners with diverse military experience existed as “ discharged seamen , deserters , and other drifters who made Shanghai their temporary home , and even the gainfully employed could be tempted by the prospect of adventure , high pay , and loot . ” This weapon , already forged , was used by Ward against the Taipings , with the backing of local Shanghai ministers and merchants , in a highly charged political atmosphere in which the Manchu Imperial forces had no desire to show their reliance upon Western powers . By the same token , the diplomats and military men of the Western powers discouraged foreign involvement in domestic Chinese matters , even by Westerners in Chinese employ . The Western powers ’ concerns did not relate to principle – they were most concerned about the power of the Taipings to block trade downriver from the interior to Shanghai if neutrality were violated . By June 1860 , Ward had a polyglot force of 100 Westerners , trained in the best small arms ( including [ [ Colt ' s Manufacturing Company | Colt ] ] [ [ revolvers ] ] ) and rifles available for purchase in Shanghai . Protesting that his forces were not fully trained , Ward was forced by his Shanghai backers to take his men into action alongside Imperial forces probing Taiping advances , retaking two captured towns . They were then forced by circumstances ( and the urging of their Shanghai backers ) to assault the Taiping occupied and fortified city of Songjiang , without [ [ artillery ] ] – a near - impossible task . The attack failed , sending the thoroughly defeated force back to Shanghai . However , by mid - July , Ward had recruited additional Westerners and over 80 Filipino " Manilamen " , and purchased several artillery pieces , and once again , his forces assaulted Sung - Chiang ( 松江 ) . They were successful , but at enormous cost . Out of a force of roughly 250 men , 62 were killed , and 100 were wounded , including Ward himself . Ward and his forces now gained a notoriety that attracted new recruits ( for the pay was attractive , even if looting was discouraged by Ward ) , and enraged local Westerners who saw Ward as an inflammatory , filibustering element sure to force the Taipings to stop the flow of trade . More disconcertingly , the Taipings themselves were now aware of a new and potent force against them . On August 2 , 1860 , Ward led the Foreign Arms Corps against Chingpu ( 上海青浦 ) , the next town from Sung - chiang on the approaches to Shanghai , and this time the Taiping were prepared . As the Corps stormed a garrison wall , Taiping forces lying in ambush waited for the optimum moment and then delivered a withering barrage of close - range musket fire . Within 10 minutes , the Foreign Arms Corps had suffered 50 % casualties , and Ward himself was shot in the left jaw , with an exit wound in the right cheek , scarring him for life and leaving him with a speech impediment . The force retreated and Ward returned to Shanghai for medical treatment and to attempt to recruit more forces and buy additional artillery . Within several days he and the remnants of the Foreign Arms Corps laid siege to Chingpu and bombarded it with artillery . By this time , the Taiping ' s best military leader [ [ Li Xiucheng ] ] ( 李秀成 ) , called Zhong Wang ( 忠王 ) or “ The Faithful King ” , dispatched 20 , 000 troops downriver to break the siege , sending the Foreign Arms Corps fleeing back to the Songjiang area , where Ward ' s second - in - command , [ [ Henry Andres Burgevine ] ] ( another American fortune seeker ) , held the Corps briefly together , but it soon " ceased to function as an organized entity " Ward returned to Shanghai for further treatment of his injury , and was there while the Zhong Wang ' s forces laid siege , and were beaten back by Western and Imperial forces within the City . Ward left Shanghai ( apparently secretly ) in late 1860 for further treatment of his facial wound , while the remnants of the Corps remained more or less under the command of Burgevine . [ After Ward ' s death , Burgevine briefly took command of the force , but could not get along with his Imperial Chinese superiors and struck Yang Fang , whereupon Burgevine was relieved of command ; he later went over to the Taiping rebels . In 1865 , Burgevine was arrested by Imperial officers and died in a drowning accident . ] It is unclear as to whether Yang was still funding the Corps in the late fall of 1860 , but upon Ward ' s return in the spring of 1861 , Ward was able to attract desired elements of the Corps back to his employ . After his return , Ward tenaciously began to recruit and train replacements for the Foreign Arms Corps , offering terms attractive enough to cause desertion among the many British warships in port . Ward , facing arrest and numerous political difficulties arising from the Western governments ’ desire to remain neutral , opted to become a Chinese subject , stymieing efforts by the British navy and other Western forces to stop him . In May 1861 , Ward once again led the Foreign Arms Corps into battle at Chingpu , and once again , the assault failed , with heavy casualties . This was the last major engagement of the Foreign Arms Corps in its “ primarily Western ” configuration . Judgments as to the effectiveness of the Foreign Army Corps vary depending upon the sympathies of the author . The most recent Ward biographer , [ [ Caleb Carr ] ] , seems fairly generous in his estimation of Ward ' s accomplishments in his 1992 work . However , perhaps the most authoritative judgment was rendered by Richard J . Smith , who stated : " “ Repeatedly sent into the field without adequate preparation by Ward ' s frantic sponsors , the poorly trained and ill - disciplined contingent stood virtually no chance of success against Li Xiucheng ' s seasoned troops . Sometimes drunk and always disorderly , the Foreign - Arms Corps depended primarily on the element of surprise and the superiority of Western weapons to obtain victory . ” " Ward clearly recognized the harsh truth of this statement . He soon embarked upon a new scheme , in which he would reform the more reliable elements of the Corps into the nucleus of an effective fighting force , composed primarily of local Chinese . Commander of the Ever Victorious Army . Credit for the concept of training Chinese in Western military tactics and arming them with the best available weaponry is sometimes given to Ward , other times to [ [ Li Hongzhang ] ] , a local Imperial commander “ ordered to cooperate with — and keep an eye on — Ward ' s unruly contingent ” and other times to Burgevine , who according to some began the training while Ward was recuperating , having been inspired by the sight of a Chinese gun crew acting under French direction . Perhaps another factor in the reconsideration of local Chinese troops was the changing mood of the local peasantry . Where before they had been unwilling to fight for Manchu primacy , they were now constantly threatened and in some cases occupied by Taiping forces that were , despite their “ heavenly ” origin , ruthless in their treatment of local populations . Indeed , in many cases informal militias were formed to drive Taiping forces out , and conduct guerilla operations . Regardless of the concept ' s true origin , Ward became its champion and after his untimely death , no other commander could quite repeat his success . Ward ' s decision to turn to local Chinese forces would ensure his place in history , and help to end the [ [ Taiping rebellion ] ] . By the summer of 1861 , a training camp was established by Xue Huan ' s “ right hand man ” [ [ Wu Xu ] ] ( 吳煦 ) at Song Chiang ( 松江 ) , where Ward set up operations . Working with the best of the survivors of the Foreign Arms Corp , and supported by a strong Headquarters staff , Ward trained an increasing number ( see below ) of Chinese in western small arms , gunnery , tactics , customs and drill and ceremonies . Particular care was taken to train the Chinese to hold their fire until their targets were within effective range . Chinese troops , both Taiping and Imperial , “ had a lingering faith … in the intimidating power of noise ” . He even trained them to respond to western bugle calls and verbal commands , and most strikingly , outfitted them in Western - style utility uniforms , color - coded for branch of arms ( [ [ Infantry ] ] or [ [ Artillery ] ] ) , with Indian “ [ [ Sepoy ] ] ” style turbans . This garb , at first distressing to the Chinese troops , earned them the nickname “ Imitation Foreign Devils ” among the local populace , as well as a fair share of mockery . In time , as the troops proved themselves the equal of their European counterparts , both on the parade ground and the battlefield , their distinct uniforms would become a point of pride . Another point of pride was their pay , which was both high and consistent by Chinese standards – a strong recruiting drive that triumphed over most discomfort with unfamiliar uniforms . The pay was high in part to attract new recruits to dangerous work , but also to compensate for the lack of “ looting ” opportunity . Ward strongly discouraged looting , as he knew the practice turned local populaces against their “ liberators ” . Other benefits offered to Ward ' s men included better rations , billets , and of course , better chance of survival in combat . By January 1862 , with about one thousand Chinese soldiers trained and ready , Ward stated that his unit was ready for the field – much to the relief of his Shanghai backers , particularly Yang Fang , who had significantly invested both government and private funds into the force ' s recruitment , arms and supplies . This was timely , as within the same month , the Chung Wang ' s forces reentered that region with over 120 , 000 troops , in an attempt to first cut off , and then enter and occupy Shanghai . Ward , ever hungry for glory and no doubt seeking redress for his facial injury , welcomed the conflict , and was absolutely confident in his troops ' ability to defend his Songjiang headquarters , while simultaneously operating as “ flying columns ” to be directed to strategic areas and Taiping vulnerabilities . He soon had several opportunities to test this confidence . In the middle of January , about 10 miles north of Shanghai in Wu - Sung , and over 25 snow - covered miles from their own headquarters , Ward lead his new army into action , under a banner carrying a Chinese rendering of his own name reading “ HUA ” ( 華 , 华 ) . His forces drove the Taipings from their entrenched positions , despite greater rebel numbers . A week later , after a return march , Ward ' s forces struck at the city of Guangfulin , occupied by over 20 , 000 Taiping troops , just five miles from Ward ' s own headquarters . Ward , at the head of five hundred men , attacked the city without artillery support . The defenders , seeing the strange attire , military skill and foreign leadership of their own countrymen , wavered and “ were filled with dismay and fled precipitately ” In February , again facing Taiping forces moving near his training area , Ward took five hundred troops and in joint operations with local Imperial commanders , drove the rebels from Yinchipeng , Chenshan , Tianmashan , and other areas around Songjiang . In the course of these actions against superior numbers , thousands of Taiping were killed or wounded , while Ward himself suffered five wounds , including the loss of a finger to a musket ball . Li Xiucheng , enraged at this foreign irritant , had a force of 20 , 000 attack Songjiang , defended only by Ward ' s force of about 1 , 500 men . Upon approach , rebel forces came under the fire of camouflaged artillery and lost over 2 , 000 men . Immediately thereafter infantry struck out of the city at the rebels , and cut off and captured another 800 , while capturing a large number of boats bearing Taiping supplies and arms . The Taipings beat a hasty retreat , rather than lay siege to such a hornet ' s nest . It was this moment , perhaps , that secured Ward ' s reputation among all the people of the Shanghai area ; Chinese , Western and Taiping alike . From this moment on , the key Western commanders and politicians would support him , funds for troops would flow relatively freely from Imperial coffers , and his decisions would no longer be second - guessed by his backers in Shanghai . By March 1862 , Ward ' s force would be officially named by the Qing government , and to history , as “ The [ [ Ever Victorious Army ] ] ” , and Ward himself would be made first a 4th - rank , and then a 3rd - rank [ [ Mandarin ( bureaucrat ) | mandarin ] ] , high honors from the Manchu court for a " barbarian " . Through the course of 1862 , “ The Ever Victorious Army ” ( 常勝軍 ) ; would essentially live up to its name , again and again defeating numerically superior opponents , often in entrenched positions . Further , its presence on the battlefield and example of effective Chinese soldiering served as a “ force multiplier ” for Imperial Anhui units commanded by Li Hongzhang , between whom and Ward mutual respect grew during joint operations . During the summer , Ward ' s “ [ [ infantry | duckfoot ] ] ” background found immediate application to the problems of land warfare . The Chung Wang ' s growing Taiping forces in the area led to multiple threats at multiple points across the region . Clearly , mobility was needed for Ward ' s limited forces , but the road system was inadequate . While another commander might have tried to solve the problem through additional wagons and horses , Ward saw the rivers and canals criss - crossing the region not as obstacles , but as passageways . He quickly secured the use of several river steamers , fitted them out as mobile artillery and troop transports , and increased his army ' s effectiveness several times over . Li Xiucheng himself later “ attributed his defeats in the Suzhou area to Western steamers . Taiping land forces could contend with " foreign devils " , he believed , but rebel water forces could not . ” Throughout this time , Ward ' s reputation continued to grow . Ward himself , outwardly caring little for public adulation , still sought to quench some inner need for further glory , and hoped to participate in an eventual strike against Nanjing , the Taiping capital , but this would not be . The Manchu court , suspicious of Ward from the beginning , grew even more concerned that as time passed , he refused to shave his forehead , wear a queue or even appear in his fine Mandarin robes . These and other comments regarding his ambitions led the court to limit the size of his unit far beneath his potential to recruit for it , and to give Ward far less rein than they would have to a commander with more Confucian leanings . By September , the Ever Victorious Army would number over 5 , 000 men , organized in four battalions as well as an artillery corps , with several riverboats used for transport and mobile artillery . Ward ' s army - troop strength over time . Sources – Carr , Smith , Spence Death in battle . [ [ File : Tombstone of Frederick Townsend Ward 2011 - 03 . JPG | thumb | right | 180px | Ward ' s tombstone in Taiping Kingdom History Museum ] ] Ward was mortally wounded in the [ [ Battle of Cixi ] ] , about 10 miles from [ [ Ningbo ] ] on September 21 , 1862 , when he was shot in the abdomen . One version is that he was wounded at the base of the city wall . Ward survived 14 previous battlefield injuries . Ward lingered for a day . During that time he dictated a will ensuring his brother , sister and Chinese wife would be cared for ; he expired on the morning of September 22 , 1862 . Ward died at the height of his fame , leaving an unusual , original army forged by an even more unusual commander . In modern memory . Just as the events of the American Civil War overshadowed Ward ' s accomplishments in China during his life , his reputation after his death was overshadowed by [ [ Charles George Gordon ] ] , aka " Chinese Gordon " , a British Army officer . After Ward ' s death , the command of the Ever - Victorious Army passed to his second in command , [ [ E . Forrester ] ] , [ [ Henry Andres Burgevine ] ] and later to Gordon . Gordon biographers diminish or disregard that Ward creation , the Ever Victorious Army , an original and unique military development which made Gordon ' s famed success in China possible . Today , Chinese Gordon is remembered , while Ward is largely forgotten . Some of Gordon ' s fame is due to his dramatic death in Khartoum years after the Taiping Rebellion . There have been several books on Ward and the Ever Victorious Army by Ward ' s contemporaries and biographers published in the century since his death that seek to acknowledge Ward ' s contributions . The bestseller , " The Devil Soldier " ( 1992 ) , by renowned historian and novelist [ [ Caleb Carr ] ] , was optioned for a motion picture soon after publication . Actor Tom Cruise and director [ [ John Woo ] ] were developing a movie scripted by Carr , but the project was never completed . Physical remains and monuments . There are just two U . S . memorials to Ward , both in Salem , MA : a headstone at an [ [ Harmony Grove Cemetery | unfilled grave ] ] , and a collection of materials detailing his life and times by the [ [ Essex Institute ] ] . Caleb Carr explains that “ Ward ' s remains were dug up , and his grave site and shrine were destroyed and paved over . The whereabouts of Ward ' s bones today are unknown . They have almost certainly been destroyed . A plain headstone over a [ [ cenotaph ] ] in Salem is the only memorial to this most noteworthy of nineteenth - century American adventurers . ” Ward is also remembered in a Songjiang Roman Catholic Church , and in a Nanjing museum . One visitor wrote “ The grave of Ward , a Protestant , revered as a Chinese Confucian hero , with a temple in his honour , now lies under the altar of a Roman Catholic church [ built in 1982 ] , whilst the land itself is the property of the local Buddhist monastery in a Communist state . . . Ward has not been forgotten in Songjiang and local memory still has Ward ' s bones under the high altar of the Catholic church ” . Ward ' s accomplishments are documented in the Taiping Rebellion Museum in Nanjing . One visitor remarked “ To my surprise I saw , in a museum in Nanjing , a tribute to Ward — a large headstone bearing Ward ' s name , put in place by the [ [ American Legion ] ] on May 29 , 1923 . “ In fiction . Ward appears in " [ [ Flashman and the Dragon ] ] " , the eighth volume of [ [ George MacDonald Fraser ] ] ' s fictional [ [ Harry Paget Flashman | Flashman Papers ] ] as a gun smuggler ( apocryphal ) and as the leader of the embryonic Ever Victorious Army . Ward appears as Fletcher Thorson Wood in the novel " Yang Shen " by James Lande , which relates the tale of the first three years of the Ever Victorious Army , from its beginning as the Foreign Rifles in 1860 through September 1862 . Sources . [ [ Category : Deaths by firearm in China ] ] [ [ Category : Generals ] ] [ [ Category : Military leaders of the Taiping Rebellion ] ] [ [ Category : People from Essex County , Massachusetts ] ] [ [ Category : American sailors ] ] [ [ Category : 1831 births ] ] [ [ Category : 1862 deaths ] ] [ [ Category : American mercenaries ] ]