Doctorate A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that , in most countries , qualifies the holder to teach at the university level in the specific field of his or her degree , or to work in a specific profession . In some countries , the highest degree in a given field is called a terminal degree , although this is by no means universal ( the term is not in general use in the UK , for example ) , practice varies from country to country , and a distinction is sometimes made between terminal professional degrees and terminal research degrees ( such as the J . D . and J . S . D . or S . J . D . in law ) . The term " doctorate " comes from the Latin " docere , " meaning " to teach . " The " licentiate " degree shortened from the full Latin title " licentia docendi " , means " teaching licence " . History . The doctorate ( Latin : " doctor " , " teacher , " from " doctum " , " [ that which is ] taught , " past participle of " docere " , " to teach " ) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach ( Latin : " licentia docendi " ) at a medieval university . Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term " doctor " referred to the Apostles , church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible . The right to grant a " licentia docendi " was originally reserved to the Catholic church which required the applicant to pass a test , to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee . The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – by that time largely free of charge – of all able applicants , who were , however , still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic . This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities , but was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach ( " licentia ubiquie docendi " ) . However , while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor ' s degree ( " Baccalaureus " ) , it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate , both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching . At the university , doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild . The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of " Masters of Arts " was seven years , which was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations . Originally the terms " master " and " doctor " were synonymous , but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master ' s degree . A hypothesis by George Makdisi that the doctorate has its origins in the Islamic Ijazah , a 180 degree turnaround to an earlier view of him which held that both systems were of " the most fundamental difference , " has been rejected by Tony Huff as unsubstantiated . It is not until recently that Universities began to accept female students in their Doctorate programs . In the year 1785 , Complutense University became the first University to grant a Doctorate to a female student , María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda . In comparison , University of Oxford did not accept female scholars until the year 1920 , and the University of Cambridge did not grant a Ph . D . to a female student until the year 1926 . The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time , and it has also been subject to regional variations . For instance , until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English - speaking universities held doctorates , except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders . After that time the German practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a " research doctorate " became widespread . Additionally , universities ' shifts to " research oriented " education increased the importance of the doctorate . Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career , although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes an academic by profession . Many universities also award " honorary doctorate s " to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition , either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society . Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career , it is a relatively new invention . The older - style doctorates ( now usually called " Higher Doctorates " in the United Kingdom ) take much longer to complete , since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects . These doctorates are now less common in some countries , and are often awarded honoris causa . The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis ( a second book ) or a portfolio of research publications . The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research , experience in teaching and lecturing and , more recently , the ability to generate funding within the area of research . The " habilitation " is regarded as a senior post - doctoral qualification , many years after the research doctorate , and can be necessary for a Privatdozent ( in Germany ) or professor position . A similar system traditionally holds in Russia . Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree " doctor of the sciences " ( doktor nauk ) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination . This system was generally adopted by the USSR / Russia and many post - Soviet countries . A lower degree , " candidate [ doctor ] of the sciences " ( kandidat nauk ) , is , roughly , the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in most other countries . Types . Since the Middle Ages , there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world , and practices vary from one country to another . While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as " doctor , " usage of the title varies widely , depending on the type of doctorate earned and the doctor ' s occupation . Broadly speaking , doctorates may often be loosely classified into the following categories : Research . Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research that is ( at least in principle ) publishable in a peer - refereed academic journal . In many countries , including the United States , earning a research doctorate also requires successful completion of a regimen of coursework beyond the masters level . The best - known degree of this type , in the Anglophone world , is that of Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph . D . , or sometimes D . Phil ) awarded in many countries throughout the world . Others include the degree of Doctor of Education , various doctorates in engineering , such as the US Doctor of Engineering ( also awarded in Japan and South Korea ) , the UK Engineering Doctorate and the German Engineering Doctorate " Doktor - Ingenieur " and the German nature - science degree of " Doctor rerum naturalium " ( Dr . rer . nat . ) . The Doctor of Theology , often stylized Th . D . , is also a research doctorate , in theology , awarded by universities such as Harvard Divinity School and the University of Toronto among many others . Likewise , the Doctor of Sacred Theology is also a research doctorate in theology , but particular to Catholic Pontifical Universities and Faculties . Criteria for award of research doctorates vary somewhat throughout the world , but typically requires the submission of a substantial body of original research undertaken by the candidate . This may take the form of a single thesis or dissertation , or possibly a portfolio of shorter project reports ; see also Thesis by publication . The submission will usually be assessed by a small committee of examiners appointed by the university , and often an oral examination of some kind . In some countries ( such as the US ) there may also be a formal component of classes that are taught , typically consisting of graduate - level courses in the subject in question , as well as training in research methodology . The minimum time required to complete a research doctorate varies by country , and may be as short as three years ( excluding undergraduate study ) , although it is not uncommon for a candidate to take up to six years to complete . In the UK , an equivalent formation to doctorate is the QCF 8 . Higher . In some countries , especially the United Kingdom , Ireland , Australia and some Scandinavia n nations , or former USSR and other Eastern Bloc countries , there is a higher tier of research doctorates , awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard . Examples include the Doctor of Science ( DSc / ScD ) and Doctor of Letters ( DLitt / LittD ) degrees found in the UK , Ireland and some Commonwealth countries , and the traditional doctorates in Denmark and Norway , including " Dr . Theol . " ( Theology ) , " Dr . Jur " . ( Law ) , " Dr . Med . " ( Medicine ) and , after Denmark and Norway introduced the Ph . D . at a lower level , " Dr . Phil ( os ) . " . The Danish and Norwegian titles should not be confused with German doctorates . The French , German and Polish habilitation ( a formal professorial qualification with thesis and exam ) is commonly regarded as belonging to this category . However , in some German states , the Habilitation is not an academic degree , but rather a professorial certification ( " facultas docendi " ) that the person concerned holds all the qualifications needed to teach independently at a German university . In other German states , the " Habilitand " is awarded a formal " Dr . habil . " degree . In some cases where such degrees are awarded , the holder of the degree may add " habil . " to his or her research doctorate such as " Dr . phil . habil . " or " Dr . rer . nat . habil . " The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate , called " State doctorate " ( " doctorat d ' État " ) , but it was superseded by the habilitation in 1984 . In Sweden , a title roughly corresponding to the Habilitation is Docent . This was also commonly used in Poland but as of 2005 was changed to a formal " Dr hab . " ( " doktor habilitowany " ) degree . See below ( Poland section ) for more details . Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual ' s achievements and contributions to a particular field . Professional . Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where scholarly research is closely aligned with a particular profession , such as law , medicine , or psychology . Examples include the US and Canadian degrees of Doctor of Medicine ( M . D . ) , Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ( D . O . ) , Doctor of Dental Surgery ( D . D . S . ) , Doctor of Dental Medicine ( D . M . D . ) , Juris Doctor ( J . D . ) , and Doctor of Ministry ( D . Min ) . Professional doctorates originated in the United States , with the introduction of the MD at Columbia University in 1767 , almost 100 years before a research doctorate — that is , a PhD — was awarded in that country , at Yale in 1861 . The JD was introduced in 1870 , just a few years after the PhD . The term " Professional Doctorate " is used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research , or research as used for professional purposes . Among others , these include the degrees of Doctor of Business Administration ( DBA ) , Doctor of Strategic Leadership ( DSL ) , Doctor of Public Administration ( DPA ) , Doctor of Social Work ( DSW ) , Doctor of Biblical Studies ( D . B . S . ) , Doctor of Law and Policy ( Lp . D ) , Doctor of Practical Theology ( DPT ) , Doctor of Professional Studies ( DPS or DProf ) , Doctor of the Built Environment ( DBEnv ) and some others in various specified professional fields . Also included in this area is the Doctor of Education ( Ed . D . ) . In Australia , the term is on occasion applied to the SJD , and on other occasions that degree is also categorized as a research degree . Honorary . When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual ' s contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts , it may choose to grant a doctoral degree " honoris causa " ( i . e . , " for the sake of the honor " ) , the university waiving the usual formal requirements for bestowal of the degree . Some universities do not award honorary degrees , for example , Cornell University , the University of Virginia , the California Institute of Technology , and Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Professor as a higher degree . An extreme rarity among degrees are the " Professorial degrees " . In modern times , the " status " of professor is awarded as a recognition of sustained academic excellence , equivalent in standing to an honorary doctorate , but this is not a degree " per se " . However , in past times , Professor was sometimes awarded as a degree . One example of this is the degree of Sacrae Theologiae Professor ( STP ) , which was awarded by the Pontifical University . This degree is now titled " Sacrae Theologiae Doctor " ( STD ) in keeping with usual modern practices . Practice by country . Argentina . In Argentina the doctorate ( " doctorado " ) is the highest academic degree . The intention is that candidates produce true and original contributions in a specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence . The doctoral candidate ' s work is presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director , and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee . The Committee is composed of examiners external to the program , and at least one examiner external to the institution . The academic degree of Doctor is conferred after a successful defense of the candidate ’ s dissertation . Currently , there are approximately 2 , 151 postgraduate careers in the country , of which 14 % were doctoral degrees . Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the , which is a decentralized agency in Argentina ’ s Ministry of Education , Science and Technology . Denmark . In Denmark , there are four levels of degrees : 1 ) a three - year Bachelor ' s degree ( e . g . " Bachelor of Arts " = B . A . ) ; 2 ) a two - year Candidate ' s degree ( e . g . " candidatus / candidata magisterii " = cand . mag . ) , respectively a three - year extended research graduation , leading to the Magister ' s Degree ( e . g . " magister / magistra artium " = mag . art . ) , the latter of which has recently been phased out in order to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process – both the " cand . mag . " and the " mag . art . " are generally compared to a Master ' s Degree ( MA ) ; 3 ) a Ph . D . Degree ( ph . d . ) , which replaced the licentiate in 1988 , and finally ; 4 ) a Doctor ' s degree ( fx " doctor philosophiae " = dr . phil . ) , which is the higher doctorate . For the Ph . D . , the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation . In the disputation , the candidate defends their thesis against three official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium " ( ex auditorio ) " . For the higher doctorate , the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation . In this disputation , the candidate ( called " præces " ) defends this thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium ( " ex auditorio " ) . Egypt . In Egypt , the Doctorate degree – abbreviated as Doctor of Medicine or MD – is equivalent to the PhD degree . To earn an MD in a specialty of science , one must have a Master degree ( M . Sc . ) ( or 2 diplomas before the introduction of MSc degree in Egypt ) before applying . Earning the MD degree involves studying a course in the specialization , and presenting and defending a dissertation thesis . It usually takes on average from three to five years . Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a Doctorate degree in their specialties . After finishing a 6 year medical school and one year internship ( house officer ) , doctors and surgeons earn M . B . B . Ch . degree , which is equivalent to the MD degree of medical schools in the USA . They can then apply to earn a Master degree or a speciality diploma then an MD degree in a specialty . The MD degree in Egypt is written with the name of one ' s specialty afterward . For example , MD ( Geriatrics ) means a Doctorate Degree in Geriatrics , which is equivalent to a Ph . D degree in Geriatrics . \ Academic sciences like Microbiology earn a PhD degree . Finland . In the Finnish education system , the requirement for the entrance into the doctoral studies is a Master ' s degree or equivalent qualification . All universities have the right to award doctorates in their assigned fields . The " ammattikorkeakoulu " institutes ( institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called " Universities of applied sciences " in English ) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees . The aim of the studies for the doctoral degree is threefold : The way to show that these general requirements have been met is also threefold : In Finland , the entrance into the graduate studies is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies , where a strict numerus clausus is applied . Usually , a prospective graduate student discusses his plans with a professor of his choice . If the professor wishes to accept the student , the student applies the faculty for a study place . Nonetheless , in some cases , the professor may recruit the student to his group after a successful completion of a master ' s thesis , for instance . In any case , a formal graduate study place does not guarantee funding . The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through scholarships handed out by private foundations . Typically , it is easier to obtain funding for graduate studies in natural and engineering sciences , while graduate studies in letters are more difficult to finance . Sometimes , it may be possible to combine normal work and research activity . Prior to introduction of Bologna process , Finland required at least 42 credit weeks ( 1800 hours ) of formal coursework of doctoral students . The general requirement was removed in 2005 , leaving the decision on the scale of coursework needed to individual universities , which may delegate the authority to faculties and even to individual professors . In fields of Engineering and Science , the required amount of coursework varies between 60 and 70 ECTS . The time for the completion of graduate studies varies , as there are no fixed time limits written into the law or to most university regulations . It is possible to graduate even in three years after the master ' s degree , while much longer periods are by no means uncommon . In any case , the study ends with the completion of a dissertation , which must make a substantial contribution to the field by presenting new scientific or scholarly knowledge . The dissertation can either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles , including an introduction tying together the individual parts . If a student is unable or unwilling to write a dissertation , he may qualify for licentiate degree of his field by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis , usually worth of one year of research . After the dissertation is ready , it is submitted to the faculty , which names two pre - examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside of the university . These pre - examiners must be noted experts of the field . Their acceptance of the work is necessary for the permission to defend the work . During the pre - examination process , the student may receive comments on the work and if necessary , requirements to modify it . After the pre - examiners approve , the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for the permission to print the thesis . Simultaneously with the printing permission , the faculty names the " opponent " for the thesis defence , who must also be an outside expert of the field , with at least a doctoral degree . In all Finnish universities , an archaic tradition requires that the printed dissertation must hang on a chord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days after the printing permission has been given in order for the defence of the dissertation to be possible . The doctoral dissertation takes place in public , usually in a university auditorium , with the opponent and the candidate conducting a very formal debate , usually wearing white tie , under the supervision of the thesis supervisor . It is customary for the family , friends , colleagues and the members of the research community to attend the defence proceedings . After a formal entrance , the candidate begins the proceeding by a c . 20 - minute popular lecture ( " lectio praecursoria " ) , which is meant to introduce the laymen present to the topic of the thesis . After this , the opponent gives a short talk on the topic of the defence , after which the pair critically discusses the dissertation . The proceedings take two , maybe three hours . At the end of the proceeding , the opponent presents his final statement on the work , and reveals whether he / she will recommend that the faculty accept it . After the opponent has finished , any member of the public has an opportunity to raise questions on the dissertation , although such " opponents extraordinary " are rare . Immediately after the defence , the supervisor , the opponent and the passed candidate drink coffee with the public . Usually , the attendees of the defence are handed out the printed dissertation and leave with it . In the evening , the passed candidate is obligated to host a dinner ( ) in the honour of the opponent . Usually , the candidate invites his family and colleagues and collaborators . France . In France , the doctorate ( " doctorat " ) is always a research - only degree . It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by an official text of the minister of higher education and research . Except for a very small number of private institutions , only public institutions of higher education and research can award the doctorate . It can be awarded in any field of study . The master ' s degree is a prerequisite for pursuing a doctoral program . The official normal duration of the doctoral work is three years . The redaction of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctorate ' s work . While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline , it is rarely less than 150 pages , and often substantially more . There are ~ 15000 new matriculations for the doctoral program every year and ~ 10000 doctorates awarded . Doctoral candidates can apply for a three - year fellowship , the most well known being the " allocation de recherche du ministère de l ' enseignement supérieur et de la recherche " ( 4000 granted every years , gross salary of 19 , 740 euros in December 2012 ) . During the preparation of the doctorate , the candidate has had , since 2002 , to follow a limited number of courses , but there is no written examination for the doctorate . The candidate has to write an extensive thesis which is read by two external reviewers designated by the head of the institution . According to the reports of the reviewer , the head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend his thesis or not . The members of the jury are designated by the head of the institution and must be composed of external and internal academics . The supervisor of the candidate is generally a member of the jury , as well as the reviewers of the thesis . The maximum number of members in the jury is 8 . The defense lasts generally 45 minutes in scientific fields and are followed by 1h – 2h30 of questions from the jury or other doctors present in the assistance . Defense and questions are public . At the end of the series of questions , the jury deliberates in private for 20 – 30 min and comes back to declare the candidate admitted or " postponed " . " Postponement " is very rare . The admission of the candidate is generally followed by a distinction : " honourable " , which is not highly considered , " very honourable " , which is the usual distinction , and " very honourable with the congratulation of the jury " ( Très honorable avec félicitations ) . Because there exist no national criteria for the award of this last distinction , many institutions have decided not to award it . New regulations concerning this distinction were set in 2006 . Many institutions have decided not to award any distinction , as it is now permitted by the law . Confusingly the title of doctor ( " docteur " ) is used only by the medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold not a doctorate but a doctor ' s state diploma ( " diplôme d ' État de docteur " ) , which is a first - degree and professional doctorate obtained after at least 9 years of studies . As they do not pursue research studies , they are not awarded a doctorate . Before 1984 three research doctorates existed : the state doctorate ( " doctorat d ' État " , the old doctorate introduced in 1808 ) , the third cycle doctorate ( " doctorat de troisième cycle " ) , created in 1954 and shorter than the state doctorate , and the diploma of doctor - engineer ( " diplôme de docteur - ingénieur " ) , created in 1923 , for technical research . Since 1984 , there is only one type of doctoral degree , simply called " doctorate " ( " Doctorat " ) . A special diploma has been created called the " accreditation to supervise research " ( " habilitation à diriger des recherches " ) , which is a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work . ( This diploma is similar in spirit to the older state doctorate , and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems . ) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate ' s work . Now the habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university ( " Professeur des Universités " ) and to the title of Research Director ( " Directeur de recherche " ) in national public research agency such as CNRS or INRA . Germany . In Germany , a doctorate is usually a research doctorate . Its duration depends strongly on the field in which it is taken . While a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full - time year to complete , it takes between three and six years in engineering . In Germany , most doctorates are awarded with specific designations for the field of research instead of a general " PhD " for all fields , the most important ones being : " Dr . rer . nat . " ( Doctorate in Natural Sciences , i . e . Physics , Chemistry , Biology , Maths , Psychology often also Computer Science and Information Technology ) , " Dr . phil . " ( Doctorate of philosophy , i . e . the humanities like Philosophy , philology , History , and social sciences like sociology or Psychology ) , " Dr . iur . " ( Doctorate in Law ) , " Dr . oec . " ( Doctorate in Economics ) , " Dr . rer . pol . " ( Doctor Rerum Politicarum , aka Doctorate in Political Science ) , " Dr . med . " ( Doctorate in Medicine ) , " Dr . - Ing . " ( Doctorate in Engineering ) . There are over fifty such specific designations , many of which are highly specialized and rarely awarded . The degree can be written in front of the first name for addresses ( within texts , the abbreviations " Dr . " and " Dr . - Ing . " are common ) and accompanies the person ' s name ( unlike in German - speaking Switzerland , where some doctoral programs issue a PhD ) . Although the " Dr . " does not become part of a person ' s name one can demand naming the title in official documents . However , naming the title even in these documents is not mandatory . The " Dr . " ( but not the specification of the field ) is commonly used to address someone with this title for instance in formal letters . If someone holds other titles , as in " Prof . ( Professor ) Dr . Dr . - Ing . [ Surname ] " , it is common to use only the highest title in formal letters , as in " Prof . [ Surname ] " . Upon the completion of the habilitation thesis ( " Habilitationsschrift " ) a different type of a doctorate ( Dr . habil . or only : habil . ) is awarded . This doctorate is known as the Habilitation . It is not considered a formal degree but an additional academic qualification . It qualifies the owner to teach at ( German ) universities ( " facultas docendi " ) , plus the holder of the " habil . " can apply for the authorization to teach a certain subject ( " venia legendi " ) . This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining the title " Privatdozent " ( PD ) and employment as a Professor at universities . With the introduction of " Juniorprofessoren " – around 2005 in Germany – as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities ( with tenure ) , this has changed partially , and the Habilitation is no longer the only career track at universities . India . In India , doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed to be universities . Entry requirements for doctorate degrees by most of the universities include good academic background at masters level ( post graduate degree ) . Some universities also consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering , medicine or law for entrance to doctorate level degrees . Entrance examinations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees . The duration of the coursework and thesis for award of the degree is ( In most north Indian universities the minimum required time to submit your theses after registration is 2 academic years and in most of the universities in south India its 3 years after PhD registration . The most commonly awarded doctoral level degree is Ph . D . There are some other doctoral level degrees such as DBA ( Doctorate of Business Administration ) , DIT ( Doctorate of Information Technology ) , LLD ( Doctorate in Laws ) and D . Sc ( Doctorate in Science ) . Some of the institutions of the national level importance such as Indian Institute of Management call their doctoral level programmes as fellow programme . Recently Pharmacy Council of India has permitted few colleges for Pharm D course ( Doctorate in Pharmacy ) . Entry to professional fields such as medicine , dentistry , occupational therapy and physical therapy is at the bachelor ' s level that are usually of longer duration than a regular bachelor ' s degree ( e . g . BSc , BCom , BA ) . The dual degree bachelor of medicine / bachelor of surgery ( abbreviated as MBBS ) takes the longest with 5 1 / 2 years to complete . Italy . According to the " European Higher Education Area Academic Degrees " stated by the Bologna Process and to the " Ministero dell ' Educazione Pubblica " ( MIUR ) , Italy uses the three levels degree system . The first level degree , called " laurea triennale " ( " Bachelor ' s degree " ) is obtained after three years of study and a short thesis on a specific subject . The second level degree , called " laurea magistrale " ( " Master ' s degree " ) is obtained after two additional years of study , specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject ( e . g . particle physics , nuclear engineering , etc . ) . This degree requires a more complex thesis work , usually involving some academic research or an internship in a private company . The final degree is called " dottorato di ricerca " ( " Ph . D . " ) and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis . Alternatively , after obtaining the " laurea triennale " or the " laurea magistrale " one can attend a " Master " ( first - level Master after the " laurea triennale " ; second - level Master after the " laurea magistrale " ) of one or two years , offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects , lengths and costs and usually including a final internship in a private company . An Italian " Master " is not to be confused with a Master degree ; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience than standard degrees . The title for Bachelor Graduate students is , regardless from the field of study , " Dottore / Dottoressa " ( abbrev . " Dott . " / " Dott . ssa " , sometimes incorrectly abbreviated as " Dr . " , meaning Doctor ) , not to be confused with the title for the PhD level graduate , which instead is " Dottore / Dottoressa di Ricerca " . A " laurea magistrale " grants instead the title of " Dottore / Dottoressa magistrale " . Graduates from the fields of Education , Art and Music are also called " Dr . Prof . " ( or simply " Professore " ) or " Maestro " . On the other side , many professional titles like " ingegnere " ( engineer ) are not automatically awarded upon the graduation on the corresponding field of study but instead are given upon passing a post graduation examination ( " esame di stato " ) , and the subsequent registration in the relative professional association . The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program ( PhD ) was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name " " Diploma di Perfezionamento " " . Further , the research doctorates or PhD ( Italian : " Dottorato di ricerca " ) in Italy were introduced with law and Presidential Decree in 1980 ( Law of February 21 , 1980 , No . 28 and the Presidential Decree No . 382 of 11 July 1980 ) , referring to the reform of academic teaching , training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods . Hence , the Superior Graduate Schools in Italy ( Grandes écoles ) ( Italian : " Scuola Superiore Universitaria " ) , also called " Schools of Excellence " ( Italian : " Scuole di Eccellenza " ) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant ' Anna School of Advanced Studies still keep their reputed historical " " Diploma di Perfezionamento " " PhD title by law and MIUR Decree . Japan . By dissertation . Until the 1990s , most doctorates in the natural sciences and engineering in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies . These degrees are awarded by the employees ' former university , usually after many years of research in industrial laboratories . No matriculation is necessary , only submission of a dissertation with some articles published in well - known journals . This program , called , represented the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities . With the expansion of university - based doctoral programs called , however , the proportion of these degrees earned is decreasing . By 1994 , more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories ( 53 % ) than industrial research laboratories ( 47 % ) . Since 1978 , Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ( JSPS ) provides tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa to earn their PhD degrees through this route . The program is called JSPS RONPAKU . Professional degree . The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor . In Japan the J . D . is known as " Hōmu Hakushi " ( 法務博士 ) The program generally lasts two or three years . This curriculum is professionally oriented , but unlike in the United States the program does not provide the education sufficient for a license , as all candidates passed bar exam ( Shihou shiken ) for a bar license must attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam ( Nikai Shiken or Shihou Shushusei koushi ) . The Netherlands / Flanders . The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provided four basic academic diplomas and degrees : " propaedeuse " , " kandidaat " , " doctorandus " ( drs . ) and " doctor " ( dr . ) . After successful completion of the first year of University , the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma ( not a degree ) . In some studies , this diploma was already abolished in the 1980s : in physics and mathematics , the student could obtain directly a " kandidaats " degree in two years . The " kandidaat " ( candidate ) degree , which was all but abolished by 1989 , used to be attained after four or five years of academic study , after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus thesis . The successful completion of this thesis allowed one to use the " doctorandus " title , attainment of which means one ' s initial studies are finished . In addition to these ' general ' degrees , a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available , each of which is equivalent to the " doctorandus " degree : for law : " meester " ( master ) ( mr . ) , and for engineering at a technical university like Delft : " ingenieur " ( engineer ) ( ir . ) . In the last few years , the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo - Saxon system of academic degrees into their own . The old candidate ' s degree has been revived as bachelor ' s degree , the doctorandus ' by the master ' s degree . However , Dutch regular university programmes tend to include subject matter which , e . g . , at Harvard is only taught in PhD - courses ( for instance advanced quantum mechanics or general relativity in a Dutch course for the master ' s degree in theoretical physics ) . Those who choose to can enroll in a doctorate system after achieving a masters degree ( or equivalent ) recognised by the Dutch government . The most common way is to be hired as " promovendus " / " assistent in opleiding " ( aio ) / " onderzoeker in opleiding " ( oio ) ( research assistant with additional courses and supervision ) , perform extensive research , and write a doctoral dissertation consisting of published scientific articles ( this course is normally four years , although the average duration to completions is about 5 . 5 years ) . It is also possible to conduct research without the research assistant status , for example through a business sponsored research laboratory , or in spare time . Regardless of the way , every thesis has to be supported by a promotor ( full university professor who has the role of principal advisor ) before it can be submitted . The written thesis is subjected to review by a committee of experts in the relevant academic field ; who either approve or reject the submitted thesis . Failures at this stage are rare as the supervisors will hold back submission ( causing delay beyond the 4 years ) rather than allow a substandard thesis to be submitted . The supervisors , and especially the promotor lose face with her / his colleagues allowing a substandard thesis to be submitted ; thus gaining supervisor approval is in practice the more demanding requirement . After approval by the reviewers , the candidate will print typically 100 - 300 copies of the thesis and send it to colleagues , friends and family with an invitation to the public defense . The doctoral degree is awarded in a formal , public , defense session ( failure during this session is in theory possible but in practice this never happens ) . The defense lasts exactly the assigned time slot ( 45 minutes or 1 hour exactly depending on the University ) after which the defense is stopped by the " pedel " ( proctor ) who interrupts ongoing questioning by entering the room and announcing that the time is past in Latin ( " Hora Est " ) . At this stage the candidate is allowed to stop the defense even midsentence , although in practice a short one sentence wrap up is usually given . If one of the examiners is still phrasing a question , no answer will be given . The doctor ' s title is the highest academic degree one can attain in the Netherlands . There is only one title " doctor " , which as is explained above requires original scientific publications , unlike the Anglo - Saxon PhD . , which is only an exam and may or may not include original scientific publications . However , the three Dutch universities of technology ( Eindhoven University of Technology , Technical University Delft , and University of Twente ) do award a Professional Doctorate in Engineering ( PDEng ) . In the Netherlands , although the title doctor ( dr . ) is informally called PhD , there is no such thing as a PhD degree ; there is the title doctor ( dr . ) in stead of PhD . Seeing that all other university titles ( BSc / BBa / LL . B / BA M . Sc / MBA / LL . M / MA ) are protected by law but PhD is not it follows that any person can call himself PhD in the Netherlands without having obtained that title . Calling oneself " Doctor " without having a doctorate " is " fraud though . For people who obtained a degree in a foreign country to be allowed to use the Dutch title drs . mr . ir . or dr . a request has to be made at the " Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs " though according to the opportunity principle there is little incentive to punish such fraud . Dutch doctors may use the letter D behind their name instead of the shortcut dr . before their name . Those who have multiple doctor ( dr . ) titles may use dr . mult . before their own name . Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr . h . c . before their own name . In Flanders ( the Dutch - speaking region of Belgium ) the system is very similar , except the doctorandus title was only awarded to those who actually started their doctoral work . Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a PhD student . The " licentiaat " ( licencee ) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the kandidaat to bachelor and licentiaat to master . Nepal . In Nepal , doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed to be universities . Entry requirements for doctorate degrees by most of the universities include good academic background at masters level ( post graduate degree ) . Some universities also consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering , medicine or law for entrance to doctorate level degrees . Entrance examinations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees . The duration of the coursework and thesis for award of the degree is 2 – 3 years after PhD registration . Pakistan . Research Degrees are PhD ( Doctor of Philosophy ) awarded after extensive research work . To get admission in PhD you must be admitted to the MPhil program for which you need to pass NTS or GRE and should have good grades throughout your career . Exemption from MPhil is possible if you have MS from a reputable University . Professional Degree / Terminal Degree is awarded in Pharmacy i . e . Doctor of Pharmacy ( PharmD , a five ( 5 ) year course of study ) which requires accreditation of the School / Faculty of Pharmacy by Pakistan Pharmacy Council . It is the only Professional Degree in Pharmacy awarded in Pakistan replacing Bachelor of Pharmacy degree ( a four ( 4 ) year course of study . Poland . The Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany , with Ph . D . as a first level doctorate and habilitation ( " habilitacja " ) as second . The award of the title of " doktor " ( Ph . D . ) is usually preceded by 4 – 5 years of doctoral study ( a post - graduate study offered at most universities , during which candidate is employed by this university and is usually obligated to teach some classes ) and a doctoral exam . Doctoral studies usually consist of seminars , lectures , research and teaching . In order to become a " doktor habilitowany " ( i . e . to be awarded a second level doctorate ) a candidate has to publish a dissertation that is the culmination of several years of deep field studies , as well as have a recognized research record . While , according to current Polish law , candidates without habilitation are theoretically eligible to become professors , in practice it is extremely rare . Since 1993 only Master - degree holders are allowed to become a doctor , while prior to that time it was possible ( but rare ) to gain doctorate without Master studies ( for example Stefan Banach ) . First , a prospective doctor must have published some works ( articles , books ) . To become a doctor one needs to go through the process called doctoral proceedings ( " przewód doktorski " ) . This proceedings include the writing of a dissertation ( varying in length ) , which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so - called " defence of the dissertation " ( " obrona pracy doktorskiej " ) . There are several other requirements , like passing an exam in a foreign language and subject related to the dissertation title . The title of a first level doctor is abbreviated as " dr " ( without a full stop ) before the surname of a person , e . g . " dr Kowalski " and a second level " dr hab . " . After becoming a doctor " mgr " is omitted , e . g . " mgr " → " dr " , " mgr inż . " → " dr inż . " . " Doktor " is also a common form of addressing a physician , but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree . Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation " dr n . med . " ( doctor of medical science ) before or after their surname . Other specific doctoral titles include " dr inż . " ( doctor of engineering ) and " dr n . farm " ( doctor of pharmaceutical science ) . " Dr n . hum . " means doctor of humanities ( incl . psychology and sociology ) , but is rarely used to differentiate from doctors of other fields . All other doctorates have no indications of their field . All doctoral programs are of research nature . Usually 3 or 4 years of study are required , mostly as a period of research . The student must write his ( or her ) thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science . If approved by his / her " supervisor " , the study will be presented to a panel of distinguished scholars . If approved , he or she will receive the doctorate . In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title " Dr . " ( supposedly the abbreviation of " Doutor " ) in reference to people with " Licenciatura " or " Mestrado " degrees . Portugal . Thus " Doutor " is commonly used in the extended form to denote someone with a doctorate . " Professor Doutor " is used with professional career teaching doctorates , usually university professors ) . Before the Bologna Process reform , a " Licenciatura " was something between a Bachelor ( " Bacharelato " in Portugal ) and it represented 4 to 6 years of graduate studies . After the Bologna Process reform in Portugal , the new " Licenciatura " degree is equivalent to the old " Bacharelato " ( Bachelor with 3 or 4 years ) . There are also the " Mestrado " ( Master degree ) and the " Mestrado Integrado " ( integrated Bachelor and Master degree with 5 or 6 years , required for access to some professional fields ) . Some professionals have , however , different titles . For example : " Eng . " ( Engenheiro , such as the Master of Engineering ) , " Arq . " ( Arquitecto , Architect ) . The term " Dr . " in Portugal is used for people from other professional fields . Russia . Many post - Soviet countries , including Russian Federation , have a two - stage research degree obtaining path , generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe . The first stage is named " " Kandidat ( Кандидат наук ) of < . . . > Sciences " " ( literal translation means " Candidate of Sciences " , ) ( for instance , Kandidat of Medical Sciences , of Chemical Sciences , of Philological Sciences , and so on ) . The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as an equivalent of Philosophy Doctor ( Ph . D . ) degree and requires at least ( and typically more than ) three , four or five years of post - graduate research which is finished by defence of Dissertation or rarely - thesis . Additionally , a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations ( a so - called " Kandidate ' s minimum " ) : in his / her special field , in a foreign language , and in the history and philosophy of science . After additional certification by the corresponding experts , the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of Ph . D . ( An unconditional Ph . D . equivalence has been recognized before the dissolution of the Soviet Union , and the additional certification in many countries has become required after the steep increase flow of post - Soviet emigration . ) The second stage , Doktor nauk , " " Doctor of < . . . > Sciences " " , requires many years of research experience , and writing of a second dissertation . The degrees of Kandidat and Doktor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency ( Higher Attestation Commission ) ; a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to award a seeker the sought degree . Spain . Doctor degrees are regulated by Royal Decree ( R . D . 778 / 1998 ) , " Real Decreto " ( in Spanish ) . They are granted by the University on behalf of the King , and its Diploma has the force of a public document . The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO . According to the National Institute of Statistics ( INE ) , less than 5 % of M . Sc . degree holders are admitted to Ph . D . programs . All doctoral programs are of research nature . A minimum of 5 years of study were required , and were divided into 2 stages : Note that since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree ( R . D . 99 / 2011 ) ( in Spanish ) , three marks can be granted : Unsatisfactory ( " No apto " ) , Pass ( " Apto " ) and " Cum laude " ( " Apto Cum Laude " ) as maximum mark . In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed ; if the doctor is granted the " Apto Cum Laude " mark , this will be notified by letter or e - mail after the public defense as it is the result of a private votation ( even between the panel members ) : closed votes are checked and verified by the University after the public defense . Doctors granted " Apto Cum Laude " can be nominated for an " Extraordinary Award " ( " Premio Extraordinario de Doctorado " ) if all the panel members vote so . There is also a numeric mark up to 50 ( 10 points per scholar in the panel ) , but it is only communicated to the candidate , the thesis director and the department . Also , since the same Royal Decree ( R . D . 99 / 2011 ) the initial 3 - year period of studies is substituted by a Research Master Degree ( one or two years ; Professional Master Degrees do not grant direct access to Ph . D . Programs ) which concludes with a public dissertation called " Trabajo de Fin de Máster " or " Proyecto de Fin de Máster " . If the project receives approval from the university , he / she will receive a Masters Degree that grants access to become a Ph . D . Candidate and initiate the period of research . A Doctor degree is required in order to apply to a teaching position at the University . The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Ph . D . holders , Grandees and Duke s can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King . Complutense University was the sole university in Spain authorized to confer the Doctor degree on any scholar . This law remained in effect until 1954 , when the authorization was extended to the University of Salamanca in commemoration of its septecentenary . This made the degree of Doctor all the more unique and prestigious in social circles . In 1970 , the right was extended to all Spanish universities , ending the monopoly of Complutense University over this distinction . All Doctorate Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ( " Bonn Agreement of November 14 , 1994 " ) . United Kingdom . All doctorates ( except for those awarded " honoris causa " ) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above , in that their main ( and in many cases only ) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research , examined by an expert panel appointed by the university . The Quality Assurance Agency ( for England , Wales and Northern Ireland but not Scotland ) states : The professional doctorates such as the EngD , EdD , DSocSci , DCrimJ and DClinPsych requires the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a PhD thesis . In the case of the EngD , however , this might be in the form of a portfolio of technical reports on different research projects undertaken by the candidate as opposed to a single , long monographical thesis . Another important difference is that traditional PhD programs are mostly academic - oriented , whereas , in an EngD program , the candidate typically works full - time for an industrial sponsor on application - oriented topics of direct interest to the partner company and is jointly supervised by university faculty members and company employees . The PhD itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK , dating from 1917 . It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries , notably Germany and the USA . Previously , the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates , awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career . The universities of Oxford and Sussex denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials DPhil . The University of York also did this for some years , switching to the more conventional PhD quite recently . In UK the Doctorate is a qualification awarded at NVQ level 5 or QCF level 8 in the national qualifications framework . http : / / www . ofqual . gov . uk / help - and - advice / comparing - qualifications / Higher degrees . Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years . Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer - refereed context and pay an examination fee . The university then assembles a committee of academics both internal and external who review the work submitted and decide on whether the candidate deserves the doctorate based on the submission . Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years ' standing . The most common doctorates of this type are those in Divinity ( DD ) , Laws ( LLD ) , Civil Law ( DCL ) , Music ( DMus or MusD ) , Letters ( DLitt or LittD ) , Science ( DSc or ScD ) and DSc ( Med ) . In the United Kingdom , the degrees in medicine or dentistry that permit licensure are bachelors ' degrees ; these correspond roughly with the MD in the USA or the Dr . med . in Germany . The MD in the United Kingdom ( in most universities ) is an unsupervised doctorate by thesis , usually ranking above the supervised PhD , but below the DSc ( Med ) . Of these , the DD historically ranked highest , theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities . The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence , but ( except for a brief revival during the reign of Mary Tudor ) did not survive the Protestant reformation , a consequence of the fact that the teaching of canon law at Cambridge and Oxford was forbidden by Henry VIII , founder of the Church of England . The DMus was , historically , in an anomalous situation , since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation ( that is , to be a Master of Arts ) . The DLitt and DSc are relatively recent innovations , dating from the latter part of the 19th century . Honorary degrees . Most British universities award degrees " honoris causa " in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field . Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances , depending on the achievements of the candidate . However , some universities , in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates , have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University ( DUniv ) for these purposes , and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research . United States . Research degrees . The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph . D . ) . This degree was first awarded in the U . S . at the 1861 Yale University commencement . The University of Pennsylvania followed shortly thereafter in 1871 , while Cornell ( 1872 ) , Harvard ( 1873 ) , and Princeton ( 1879 ) also followed suit . Unlike the introduction of the professional doctorate M . D . , there was considerable controversy and opposition over the introduction of the Ph . D . into the U . S . educational system , even through the 1950s , as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign educational system ( that of Germany ) , which corrupted a system based on the Oxbridge model of England . The requirements for obtaining Ph . D . s and other research doctorates in the U . S . typically entail successful completion of pertinent classes , passing of a comprehensive examination , and defense of a dissertation . The median number of years for completion of doctoral degrees for all fields in the US is seven . Students are often discouraged from taking an unnecessarily long time to graduate by having their financial support ( stipend s , research funds , etc . ) relinquished and / or by being required to re - take comprehensive exams . Furthermore , doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master ' s degree , but many programs will now accept students immediately following their undergraduate studies . Many programs simply gauge the potential of a student applying to their program and will give them a master ' s degree upon completion of the necessary Ph . D course work . When so admitted , the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the masters degree even though the student does not officially hold a masters degree . Once the person has finished Ph . D . qualifying exams , he / she is considered a Ph . D candidate , and may begin work on his / her dissertation . The International Affairs Office of the U . S . Department of Education lists over 20 frequently awarded research doctorate degree titles accepted by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) degree . They are : Doctor of Arts ( D . A . / D . Arts ) , Doctor of Business Administration ( D . B . A . ) , Doctor of Church Music ( D . C . M . ) , Doctor of Canon Law ( J . C . D . / D . C . L . ) , Doctor of Design ( D . Des . ) , Doctor of Education ( Ed . D . ) , Doctor of Engineering ( D . Eng . / D . E . Sc . / D . E . S . ) , Doctor of Fine Arts ( D . F . A . ) , Doctor of Health Science ( D . H . Sc . ) , Doctor of Hebrew Letters ( D . H . L . ) , Doctor of Industrial Technology ( D . I . T . ) , Doctor of Juridical Science ( J . S . D . / S . J . D . ) , Doctor of Management ( D . M . ) , Doctor of Music ( D . M . ) , Doctor of Musical / Music Arts ( D . M . A . / A . Mus . D . / D . Mus . A . ) , Doctor of Music Education ( D . M . E . ) , Doctor of Modern Languages ( D . M . L . ) , Doctor of Nursing Science ( D . N . Sc . ) , Doctor of Occupational Therapy ( O . T . D . ) , Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph . D . ) , Doctor of Public Administration ( D . P . A . ) , Doctor of Physical Education ( D . P . E . ) , Doctor of Public Health ( Dr . P . H . ) , Doctor of Sacred Theology ( S . T . D . ) , Doctor of Biblical Studies ( D . B . S . ) , Doctor of Science ( D . Sc . / Sc . D . ) , Doctor of Social Work ( D . S . W . ) , and Doctor of Theology ( Th . D . ) . Professional degrees . In the United States , numerous fields of study have professional doctorates , such as medicine / osteopathic medicine , public health , dentistry , optometry , pharmacy , psychology , physical therapy , occupational therapy , health science , advanced practice registered nurse , chiropractic , naturopathic medicine , law , education , teaching , and many others that usually require such degrees for licensure . Some of these degrees are also termed " first professional degree s , " since they are also the first degrees in their fields . Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century during a movement to improve the training of professionals by raising the requirements for entry and completion of the degree necessary to enter the profession . These first professional degree s were created to help strengthen professional training programs . The first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M . D . in 1767 by Columbia University which was nearly one hundred years before the first Ph . D . was awarded in the U . S . in 1861 . The Juris Doctor ( J . D . ) was subsequently established by Harvard University for the same reasons that the M . D . was established . A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the Terminal / Professional degree in Pharmacy replacing BS in Pharmacy . It is the only Professional Pharmacy Degree awarded in the US and the Pharmacy School needs accreditation of American Council on Pharmacy Education ( ACPE ) . Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4 – 6 years depending if a matriculating student has earned a BS / BA or not . Recently there has been a trend for introducing professional doctorates in other fields as well , including the Doctor of Audiology in 2007 . Advanced Practice Registered Nurses are expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015 , and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020 .