Toussaint Louverture François - Dominique Toussaint Louverture , also Toussaint Bréda , Toussaint - Louverture , or Toussaint L ' ouverture ( 20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803 ) , was the leader of the Haitian Revolution . His military genius and political acumen transformed an entire society of slaves into the independent black state of Haiti . The success of the Haitian Revolution shook the institution of slavery throughout the New World . Toussaint Louverture began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint Domingue . Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo , Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they abolished slavery . He gradually established control over the whole island and used political and military tactics to gain dominance over his rivals . Throughout his years in power , he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint Domingue . He restored the plantation system using paid labour , negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the United States and maintained a large and well - disciplined army . In 1801 he promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony , with himself as governor for life . In 1802 he was forced to resign by forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte to restore French authority in the former colony . He was deported to France , where he died in 1803 . The Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant , Jean - Jacques Dessalines , who declared independence in 1804 . Early life . Little is known for certain about Toussaint Louverture ' s early life , as there are contradictory accounts and evidence about this point in time . The earliest records of Toussaint Louverture ' s life come from a small number of his recorded remarks and the reminiscences of his second legitimate son Isaac Louverture . Most histories identify Toussaint ' s father as Gaou Guinou , a younger son of the king of Arrada ( Allada ) in modern - day Benin , who had been captured in war and sold into slavery . His mother Pauline was Gaou Guinou ' s second wife . The couple had several children and Toussaint was the eldest son . Pierre Baptiste , who is usually considered to have been his godfather . Toussaint is thought to have been born on the plantation of Bréda at Haut de Cap in Saint - Domingue , which was owned by the Comte de Noé and later managed by Bayon de Libertat . His date of birth is uncertain , but his name suggests he was born on All Saints Day and was probably about 50 at the start of the revolution in 1791 . Various sources have given birth dates between 1739 and 1746 . Because of the lack of written records , Toussaint himself may not have known his exact birth date . In childhood , he earned the nickname Fatras Baton , suggesting he was small and weak , though he was to become known for his stamina and riding prowess . An alternative explanation of Toussaint ' s origins is that he arrived at Bréda with a new overseer ( Bayon de Libertat ) who took up his duties in 1772 . Education . Toussaint is believed to have been well educated by his godfather , Pierre Baptiste . Historians have speculated as to Toussaint ' s intellectual background . His extant letters demonstrate a command of French in addition to Creole patois ; he was familiar with Epictetus , the Stoic philosopher who had also lived as a slave ; and his public speeches as well as his life ' s work , according to his biographers , evidence a familiarity with Machiavelli . Some cite Abbé Raynal , who wrote against slavery , as a possible influence : The wording of proclamation issued by then rebel slave leader Toussaint on August 29 , 1793 , which may have been the first time he publicly used the moniker " Louverture " , seems to reference an anti - slavery passage in Abbé Raynal ' s " A Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies . " He may also have attained some education from Jesuit missionaries . His medical knowledge is attributed to familiarity with African herbal - medical techniques as well those techniques commonly found in Jesuit - administered hospitals . A few legal documents signed on Toussaint ' s behalf between 1778 and 1781 raise the possibility that he could not write at that time . Throughout his military and political career , he made use of secretaries for most of his correspondence , but a few surviving documents in his own hand confirm that he could write , though his spelling in the French language was " strictly phonetic " , as is the spelling of Haitian Creole ( Kreyol ) Marriage and children . In 1782 , Toussaint married Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture , who is thought to have been his cousin or his godfather ' s daughter . Towards the end of his life , he told General Cafarelli that he had fathered 16 children , of whom 11 had predeceased him . Not all his children can be identified for certain , but his three legitimate sons are well known . The eldest , Placide , was probably adopted by Toussaint and is generally thought to be Suzanne ' s first child with a mulatto , Seraphim Le Clerc . The two sons born of his marriage with Suzanne were Isaac and Saint - Jean . Slavery , freedom and working life . I was born a slave , but nature gave me the soul of a free man . Until recently , historians believed that Toussaint had been a slave until the start of the revolution . The discovery of a marriage certificate dated 1777 shows that he was actually freed in 1776 at the age of 33 , and this retrospectively clarified a letter of 1797 in which he said he had been free for twenty years . It seems he still maintained an important role on the Breda plantation until the outbreak of the revolution , presumably as a salaried employee . He had initially been responsible for the livestock , but by 1791 , his responsibilities most likely included acting as coachman to the overseer , de Libertat , and as a driver , charged with organising the work force . As a free man , Toussaint began to accumulate wealth and property of his own . Surviving legal documents show him briefly renting a small coffee plantation worked by a dozen slaves . He would later say that by the start of the revolution , he had acquired a reasonable fortune , and was the owner of a number of properties at Ennery . Religion and spirituality . Throughout his life , Toussaint was known as a devout Catholic . Although Vodou was generally practiced on Saint - Domingue in combination with Catholicism , little is known for certain of Toussaint ' s connection with it , except that , as effective ruler of Saint - Domingue , his official policy was to discourage it . It has been suggested that he was a member of high degree of the Masonic Lodge of Saint - Domingue , mostly based on a Masonic symbol he used in his signature . The membership of several free blacks and white men close to him has been confirmed . The Haitian Revolution . The Rebellion : 1791 – 1794 . Beginning in 1789 , the French Revolution led to instability on Saint - Domingue , though initially the black population did not become involved in the conflict . In August 1791 , a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caiman marked the start of a major slave rebellion in the north . Toussaint apparently did not take part in the earliest stages of the rebellion , but after a few weeks he sent his family to safety in Spanish Santo Domingo and helped the overseers of the Breda plantation to leave the island . He joined the forces of Georges Biassou as doctor to the troops , commanding a small detachment . Surviving documents show him participating in the leadership of the rebellion , discussing strategy , and negotiating with the Spanish supporters of the rebellion for supplies . In December 1791 , he was involved in negotiations between rebel leaders and the French Governor , Blanchelande , for the release of their white prisoners and a return to work in exchange for a ban on the use of the whip , an extra non - working day per week , and freedom for a handful of leaders . When the offer was rejected , he was instrumental in preventing the massacre of Biassou ' s white prisoners . The prisoners were released after further negotiations with the French commissioners and taken to Le Cap by Toussaint . He hoped to use the occasion to present the rebellion ' s demands to the colonial assembly , but they refused to meet with him . Throughout 1792 , Toussaint , as a leader in an increasingly formal alliance between the black rebellion and the Spanish , ran the fortified post of La Tannerie and maintained the Cordon de l ' Ouest , a line of posts between rebel and colonial territory . He gained a reputation for running an orderly camp , trained his men in guerrilla tactics and " the European style of war " , and began to attract soldiers who would play an important role throughout the revolution . After hard fighting , he lost La Tannerie in January 1793 to the French general Étienne Maynaud Bizefranc de Lavaux , but it was in these battles that the French first recognized him as a significant military leader . Some time in 1792 - 3 , Toussaint adopted the surname Louverture , from the French word for " opening " . ( Although some modern writers spell his adopted surname with an apostrophe , as in " L ' Ouverture , " Toussaint himself did not , as his extant correspondence indicates . ) The most common explanation is that it refers to his ability to create openings in battle , and it is sometimes attributed to French commissioner Polverel ' s exclamation : " That man makes an opening everywhere " . However , some writers think it was more prosaically due to a gap between his front teeth . Though that is just a rumor . Despite adhering to royalist political views , Louverture had also begun to use the language of freedom and equality associated with the French revolution . From being willing to bargain for better conditions of slavery late in 1791 , he had become committed to its complete abolition . On 29 August 1793 he made his famous declaration of Camp Turel to the blacks of St Domingue : Brothers and friends , I am Toussaint Louverture ; perhaps my name has made itself known to you . I have undertaken vengeance . I want Liberty and Equality to reign in St Domingue . I am working to make that happen . Unite yourselves to us , brothers , and fight with us for the same cause . < br > < br > Your very humble and obedient servant , Toussaint L ' Ouverture , < br > < br > General of the armies of the king , for the public good . On the same day , the beleaguered French commissioner , Léger - Félicité Sonthonax , proclaimed emancipation for all slaves in French Saint - Domingue , hoping to bring the black troops over to his side . Initially , this failed , perhaps because Toussaint and the other leaders knew that Sonthonax was exceeding his authority . However , on 4 February 1794 , the French revolutionary government proclaimed the abolition of slavery . For months , Louverture had been in diplomatic contact with the French general Étienne Maynaud Bizefranc de Lavaux . During this time , competition between him and other rebel leaders was growing and the Spanish had started to look with disfavor on his near - autonomous control of a large and strategically important region . In May 1794 , when the decision of the French government became known in Saint - Domingue , he switched allegiance from the Spanish to the French and rallied his troops to Lavaux . Allegiance with the French : 1794 – 1796 . Toussaint joined the French in early May 1794 , raising the republican flag over the port of Gonaïves and provoking a mass exodus of refugees . In the first weeks he eradicated all Spanish supporters from the Cordon de l ' Ouest , which he had held on their behalf . He now faced attack from multiple sides . His former colleagues in the black rebellion were now fighting against him for the Spanish . As a French commander , he was under attack from the British troops who had landed on Saint - Domingue in September . On the other hand , he was able to pool his 4000 men with Lavaux ' s troops in joint actions . By now his officers included men who were to remain important throughout the revolution : his brother Paul , his nephew Moïse , Jean - Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe . Before long , Louverture had put an end to the Spanish threat to French Saint - Domingue . In any case , the Treaty of Basel of July 1795 marked a formal end to hostilities between the two countries . Even then , the black leaders , Jean - François and Biassou , continued to fight against Toussaint until November , when they left for Spain and Florida , respectively . At that point , most of their men joined Toussaint ' s forces . Toussaint also made inroads against the British troops , but was unable to oust them from Saint - Marc , so he contained them and rendered them ineffective by returning to guerilla tactics . Throughout 1795 and 1796 , Louverture was also concerned with re - establishing agriculture and keeping the peace in areas under his control . In speeches and policy he revealed his belief that the long - term freedom of the people of Saint - Domingue depended on the economic viability of the colony . He was held in general respect and resorted to a mixture of diplomacy and force to return the field hands to the plantations as emancipated and paid workers . Nevertheless , there were regular small rebellions by workers protesting poor conditions , their lack of real freedom or fearing a return to slavery . Another of Louverture ' s concerns was to manage potential rivals for power within the French part of the colony . The most serious of these involved the mulatto commander Jean - Louis Villatte , based in Cap - Français . Toussaint and Villate had been in competition over the right to command some sections of troops and territory since 1794 . Villatte was thought to be somewhat racist towards black soldiers like Toussaint and planned to ally with André Rigaud after overthrowing French General Étienne Lavaux . 1796 Villate was able to drum up popular support by accusing the French authorities of plotting a return to slavery . On March 20 , he succeeded in capturing the French Governor Lavaux , and appointed himself Governor . However , Louverture ' s troops soon arrived at Cap - Français to rescue the captured governor and drive Villatte out of town . Toussaint famously opened the warehouses to the public , proving that they were empty of the chains supposedly imported to prepare for a return to slavery . He was then promoted to commander of the West Province two months later , and was eventually made Saint - Domingue ' s top - ranking officer in 1797 . Lavaux also proclaimed Toussaint Lieutenant Governor , announcing at the same time that he would do nothing without his approval , to which Louverture replied " After God , Lavaux " . The Third Commission : 1796 – 1797 . A few weeks after the triumph over the Villate insurrection , France ' s representatives of the third commission arrived on Saint - Domingue . Among them was Sonthonax , the commissioner who had previously declared abolition on the same day as Louverture ' s proclamation of Camp Turel . At first the relationship between the two was positive . Sonthonax promoted Toussaint to general and arranged for his sons , Placide and Isaac , to attend the school that had been established in France for the children of colonials . In September 1796 , elections were held to choose colonial representatives for the French national assembly . Toussaint ' s letters show that he encouraged Lavaux to stand , and historians have speculated as to whether he was seeking to place a firm supporter in France or to remove a rival in power . Sonthonax was also elected , either at Toussaint ' s instigation or on his own initiative , but while Lavaux left Saint Domingue in October , Sonthonax remained . Sonthonax , a fervent revolutionary and fierce supporter of racial equality , soon rivalled Louverture in popularity and although their goals were similar , there were several points of conflict . The worst of these was over the return of the white planters who had fled Saint - Domingue at the start of the revolution . To Sonthonax , they were potential counter - revolutionaries , to be assimilated , officially or not , with the ‘ émigrés ’ who had fled the French revolution and were forbidden to return under pain of death . To Toussaint , they were bearers of useful skills and knowledge and he wanted them back . In summer 1797 , Toussaint authorised the return of Bayon de Libertat , the ex - overseer of Breda with whom he had a lifelong relationship . Sonthonax wrote to Louverture threatening him with prosecution and ordering him to get Bayon off the territory . Toussaint then went over his head and wrote to the French Directoire directly for permission for Bayon to stay . Only a few weeks later , he began arranging for Sonthonax ' s return to France that summer . There were in fact several reasons why Toussaint might want to get rid of Sonthonax , but the one he gave out officially was that Sonthonax had tried to involve him in a plot to make Saint - Domingue independent , starting with a massacre of the whites of the island . The accusation played on Sonthonax ' s political radicalism and known hatred of the aristocratic white planters , but historians have varied as to how credible they consider it . On reaching France , Sonthonax countered by accusing Toussaint of royalist , counter - revolutionary and pro - independence tendencies . Toussaint knew that he had asserted his authority to such an extent that the French government might well suspect him of seeking independence . At the same time , the French Directoire government was considerably less revolutionary than it had been , and suspicions began to brew that it might reconsider the abolition of slavery . In November 1797 , Toussaint wrote again to the Directoire , assuring them of his loyalty but reminding them firmly that abolition must be maintained . Treaties with Britain and the United States : 1798 . For several months , Toussaint found himself in sole command of French Saint - Domingue , except for a semi - autonomous state in the south , where the mulatto general , Andre Rigaud , had rejected the authority of the third commission . Both generals continued attacking the British , whose position on Saint - Domingue was looking increasingly weak . Toussaint was negotiating their withdrawal when France ' s latest commissioner , Gabriel Hédouville , arrived in March 1798 , with orders to undermine his authority . On 30 April 1798 , Toussaint signed a treaty with the British general , Thomas Maitland , exchanging the withdrawal of British troops from western Saint - Domingue for an amnesty for the French counter - revolutionaries in those areas . In May , Port - au - Prince was returned to French rule in an atmosphere of order and celebration . In July , Louverture and Rigaud met commissioner Hédouville together . Hoping to create a rivalry that would diminish Toussaint ' s power , Hédouville displayed a strong preference for Rigaud , and an aversion for Toussaint However , General Maitland was also playing on French rivalries and evaded the authority of Hédouville to deal with Toussaint directly . In August , Toussaint and Maitland signed treaties for the evacuation of the remaining British troops . On 31 August , they signed a secret treaty which lifted the British blockade on Saint - Domingue in exchange for a promise that Toussaint would not export the black revolution to Jamaica . As Toussaint ' s relationship with Hédouville reached the breaking point , an uprising began among the troops of Toussaint ' s adopted nephew , Hyacinthe Moïse . Attempts by Hédouville to manage the situation made matters worse and Toussaint declined to help him . As the rebellion grew to a full - scale insurrection , Hedouville prepared to leave the island , while Toussaint and Dessalines threatened to arrest him as a troublemaker . Hédouville sailed for France in October 1798 , nominally transferring his authority to Rigaud . Toussaint decided instead to work with Phillipe Roume , a member of the third commission who had been posted to the Spanish parts of the colony . Though he continued to protest his loyalty to the French government , he had expelled a second government representative from the territory and was about to negotiate another autonomous agreement with one of France ' s enemies . The United States had suspended trade with France in 1798 because of increasing conflict over piracy . The two countries were almost at war , but trade between Saint - Domingue and the United States was desirable to both Toussaint and the United States . With Hédouville gone , Louverture sent Joseph Bunel to negotiate with the government of John Adams . The terms of the treaty were similar to those already established with the British , but Toussaint continually resisted suggestions from either power that he should declare independence . As long as France maintained the abolition of slavery , it seems that he was content that the colony remain French , at least in name . Expansion of territory : 1799 – 1801 . In 1799 , the tensions between Toussaint and André Rigaud came to a head . Louverture accused Rigaud of trying to assassinate him to gain power over Saint Domingue for himself . Rigaud claimed Toussaint was conspiring with the British to restore slavery . The conflict was complicated by racial overtones which escalated tension between blacks and mulattoes . Toussaint had other political reasons for bringing down Rigaud . Only by controlling every port could he hope to prevent a landing of French troops if necessary . Louverture persuaded Roume to declare Rigaud a traitor in July 1799 and attacked the southern state . The civil war lasted over a year , with the defeated Rigaud fleeing to Guadeloupe , then France , in August 1800 . Toussaint delegated most of the campaign to his lieutenant , Jean - Jacques Dessalines , who became infamous , during and after the war , for massacring mulatto captives and civilians . The number of deaths is contested : James claims a few hundred deaths in contravention of the amnesty . The contemporary French general , Pamphile de Lacroix , suggested 10 , 000 . In November 1799 , during the civil war , Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France and passed a new constitution declaring that the colonies would be subject to special laws . Although the colonies suspected this meant the re - introduction of slavery , Napoleon began by confirming Toussaint ' s position and promising to maintain the abolition . But he also forbade Toussaint to invade Spanish Santo Domingo , an action that would put Toussaint in a powerful defensive position . Toussaint was determined to proceed anyway and coerced Roume into supplying the necessary permission . In January 1801 , Toussaint and Hyacinthe Moïse invaded the Spanish territory , taking possession from the Governor , Don Garcia , with few difficulties . The area had been wilder and less densely populated than the French section . Toussaint brought it under French law which abolished slavery , and embarked on a program of modernization . He was now master of the whole island . The Constitution of 1801 . Napoleon had made it clear to the inhabitants of Saint - Domingue that France would draw up a new constitution for its colonies , in which they would be subjected to special laws . Despite his initial protestations to the contrary , it seemed likely all along that he might restore slavery , which obviously worried the former slaves in Saint - Domingue . In March 1801 , Louverture appointed a constitutional assembly , mainly composed of white planters , to draft a constitution for Saint - Domingue . He promulgated the Constitution on July 7 , 1801 , officially establishing his authority over the entire island of Hispaniola . It made him governor - general for life with near absolute powers and the possibility of choosing his successor . However , Toussaint was careful enough as to not explicitly declare Saint - Domingue ' s independence , immediately acknowledging that it was just a single colony of the French Empire in Article 1 of the Constitution . Article 3 of the constitution states : " There cannot exist slaves [ in Saint - Domingue ] , servitude is therein forever abolished . All men are born , live and die free and French . " The constitution guaranteed equal opportunity and equal treatment under the law for all races , but also confirmed Toussaint ' s policies of forced labour and the importation of workers through the slave trade . Toussaint was willing to compromise the dominant Vodou faith for Catholicism . Article 6 clearly states that " the Catholic , Apostolic , Roman faith shall be the only publicly professed faith . " Toussaint charged Colonel Vincent with the task of presenting the new constitution to Napoleon , even though Vincent himself was horrified to discover that the general had gone so far . Several aspects of the constitution were damaging to France : the absence of provision for French government officials , the lack of advantages to France in trade with its own colony , and Toussaint ' s breach of protocol in publishing the constitution before submitting it to the French government . Despite his disapproval , Vincent attempted to submit the constitution to Napoleon in a positive light , but was briefly exiled to Elba for his pains . Toussaint professed himself a Frenchman and strove to convince Bonaparte of his loyalty . He wrote to Napoleon but received no reply . Napoleon eventually decided to send an expedition of 20 , 000 men to Saint - Domingue to restore French authority , and possibly to restore slavery as well . Leclerc ' s campaign . Napoleon ' s troops , under the command of his brother - in - law , General Charles Emmanuel Leclerc , were to seize control of the island by diplomatic means , proclaiming peaceful intentions , and keeping secret his orders to deport all black officers . Meanwhile , Toussaint was preparing for defence and ensuring discipline . This may have contributed to a rebellion against forced labor led by his nephew and top general , Moïse , in October 1801 . It was violently repressed with the result that when the French ships arrived not all of Saint - Domingue was automatically on Toussaint ' s side . In late January 1802 , while Leclerc sought permission to land at Cap - Français and Christophe held him off , the Vicomte de Rochambeau suddenly attacked Fort - Liberté , effectively quashing the diplomatic option . Toussaint ' s plan in case of war was to burn the coastal cities and as much of the plains as possible , retreat with his troops into the inaccessible mountains and wait for fever to decimate the European troops . The biggest impediment to this plan proved to be difficulty in internal communications . Christophe burned Cap - Français and retreated , but Paul Louverture was tricked by a false letter into allowing the French to occupy Santo Domingo ; other officers believed Napoleon ' s diplomatic proclamation , while some attempted resistance instead of burning and retreating . French reports to Napoleon show that in the months of fighting that followed , the French felt their position was weak , but that Toussaint and his generals were not fully conscious of their strength . With both sides shocked by the violence of the initial fighting , Leclerc tried belatedly to revert to the diplomatic solution . Toussaint ' s sons and their tutor had accompanied the expedition with this end in mind and were now sent to present Napoleon ' s proclamation to Toussaint . When these talks broke down , months of inconclusive fighting followed . On 6 May 1802 , Louverture rode into Cap - Français to treat with Leclerc . He negotiated an amnesty for all his remaining generals , then retired with full honors to his plantations at Ennery . Arrest and imprisonment . Leclerc originally asked Dessalines to arrest Louverture , but he declined . The task then fell to Jean Baptiste Brunet . However accounts differ as to how he accomplished this . One account has it that Brunet pretended that he planned to settle in Saint - Domingue and was asking Toussaint ' s advice about plantation management . Louverture ' s memoirs however suggest that Brunet ' s troops had been provocative , leading Louverture to seek a discussion with him . Either way , Louverture had a letter in which Brunet described himself as a " sincere friend " to take with him to France . Embarrassed about his trickery , Brunet absented himself during the arrest . He deported them to France on the frigate " Créole " and the 74 - gun " Héros " , claiming that he suspected the former leader of plotting an uprising . Boarding " Créole " , Toussaint Louverture famously warned his captors that the rebels would not repeat his mistake : In overthrowing me you have cut down in Saint Domingue only the trunk of the tree of liberty ; it will spring up again from the roots , for they are many and they are deep . They reached France on 2 July 1802 and , on 25 August , Toussaint Louverture was sent to the jail in Fort - de - Joux in the Doubs . While in prison , he died on the seventh of April , 1803 . In his absence , Jean - Jacques Dessalines led the Haitian rebellion until its completion , finally defeating the French forces in 1803 . Memorials . On August 29 , 1954 , the Haitian ambassador to France , Léon Thébaud , inaugurated a stone cross memorial for Toussaint Louverture at the foot of the fort . Years afterward , the French government ceremoniously presented a shovelful of soil from the grounds of Fort - de - Joux to the Haitian government as a symbolic transfer of Toussaint Louverture ' s remains . An inscription in his memory , installed in 1998 , can be found on the wall of the Panthéon in Paris , inscribed with the following description : " Combattant de la liberté , artisan de l ' abolition de l ' esclavage , héros haïtien mort déporté au Fort - de - Joux en 1803 . " < br > ( Combatant for liberty , artisan of the abolition of slavery , Haitian hero died in deportation at Fort - de - Joux in 1803 . ) The inscription is opposite a wall inscription , also installed in 1998 , honoring Louis Delgrès , a mulatto military leader who died leading the resistance against Napoleonic reoccupation and re - institution of slavery in Guadeloupe ; the location of Delgrès ' body is also a mystery . Both inscriptions are located near the coffins of Jean Jaurès , Félix Éboué , Marc Schoelcher and Victor Schoelcher .