Amphibious warfare Amphibious warfare is a type of offensive military operation which uses naval ships to project ground and air military power onto a hostile or potentially hostile shore . Through history the operations were conducted using ship ' s boat s as the primary method of delivering troops to shore . Since the Gallipoli Campaign specialised watercraft were increasingly designed for landing troops , materiel and vehicles , including by landing craft and for insertion of commando s , by fast patrol boat s , zodiacs ( rigid inflatable boats ) and from mini - submersibles . The term " amphibious " first emerged in the USA during the 1930s after design of the Landing Vehicle Tracked where the first prototypes were named " Alligator " and " Crocodile " , though neither species are amphibian . Amphibious warfare includes operations defined by their type , purpose , scale and means of execution . In the British Empire at the time these were called combined operations which were defined as " . . . operations where naval , military or air forces in any combination are co - operating with each other , working independently under their respective commanders , but with a common strategic object . " All armed forces that employ troops with special training and equipment for conducting landings from naval vessels to shore agree to this definition . Since the 20th century an amphibious landing of troops on a beachhead is acknowledged as the most complex of all military manoeuvres . The undertaking requires an intricate coordination of numerous military specialities , including air power , naval gunfire , naval transport , logistical planning , specialised equipment , land warfare , tactics , and extensive training in the nuances of this manoeuvre for all personnel involved . Amphibious operation . An amphibious operation is both similar and different in many ways to both land , naval and air operations . At its basic such operations include phases of strategic planning and preparation , operational transit to the intended theatre of operations , pre - landing rehearsal and disembarkation , troop landings , beachhead consolidation and conducting inland ground and air operations . Historically , within these scope of these phases a vital part is of success was often based on the military logistics , naval gunfire and close air support . Another factor is the variety and quantity of specialised vehicles and equipment used by the landing force that are designed for the specific needs of this type of operation . Amphibious operations can be classified as tactical or operational raids such as the Dieppe Raid , operational landings in support of a larger land strategy such as the Kerch – Eltigen Operation , and a strategic opening of a new Theatre of Operations , for example the " Operation Avalanche " . The purpose of amphibious operations is always offensive , but limited by the plan and terrain . Landings on islands less than in size are tactical , usually with the limited objectives of neutralising enemy defenders and obtaining a new base of operation . Such an operation may be prepared and planned in days or weeks , and would employ a naval Task force to land less than a division of troops . The intent of operational landings is usually to exploit the shore as a vulnerability in the enemy ' s overall position , forcing redeployment of forces , premature use of reserves , and aiding a larger allied offensive effort elsewhere . Such an operation requiring weeks to months of preparation and planning , would use multiple task forces , or even a naval fleet to land corps - size forces , including on large islands , for example " Operation Chromite " . A strategic landing operation requires a major commitment of forces to invade a national territory in the archipelagic , e . g . the Battle of Leyte , or continental , e . g . " Operation Neptune " invasion . Such an operation may require multiple naval and air fleets to support the landings , and extensive intelligence gathering and planning of over a year . Although most amphibious operations are thought of primarily as beach landings , they can take exploit available shore infrastructure to land troops directly into an urban environment if unopposed . In this case non - specialised ships can offload troops , vehicles and cargo using organic or facility wharf - side equipment . Tactical landings in the past have utilised small boats , small craft , small ships and civilian vessels converted for the mission to deliver troops to the water ' s edge . Preparation and planning . Preparation and planning the naval landing operation requires the assembly of vessels with sufficient capacity to lift necessary troops employing combat loading . The military intelligence services produce a briefing on the expected opponent which guides the organisation and equipping of the embarked force . First specially designed landing craft were used for the Gallipoli landings , and armoured tracked vehicles were also available for the Guadalcanal Campaign . Helicopters were first used to support beach landings during " Operation Musketeer " . Hovercraft have been in use for naval landings by military forces since the 1960s . History . Recorded amphibious warfare predates the 18th century by a couple of millennia : the Sea Peoples that menaced the Egyptians from the reign of Akhenaten as captured on the reliefs at Medinet Habu and Karnak ; the Hellenic city states who routinely resorted to opposed assaults upon each other ' s shores , which they reflected upon in their plays and other expressions of art ; the landing at Marathon by the ancient Persia ns on 9 September 490 BC , which history records as the largest amphibious operation for 2 , 400 years until eclipsed by Gallipoli . More current amphibious landings have been conducted by small commando forces of various states and non - state actors . There exists debate over mainland China ( PRC ) ' s potential to conduct amphibious operations against Taiwan ( ROC ) . With the bulk of the world ' s population concentrated near the sea , chances are high that future conflict may entail the use of amphibious assets . 16th century . In 1565 , the island of Malta was invaded by the Turks during the Siege of Malta . A strategic choke point in the Mediterranean Sea , the loss was so menacing for the Western Europe kingdoms that forces were urgently raised in order to recover the island . But it took four months to train , arm , and move a 5 , 500 man amphibious force to retake the island . Then , Philip II , King of Spain , decided to train and assign amphibious - assault skilled units to the Royal Armada . These units were trained specifically for the fighting on ships and from ships . The Spanish Marines were born . The idea was to set up a permanent assignation of land troops to the Royal Spanish Navy , available for the Crown . Thus , countries adopted the idea and subsequently raised their early marine corps too . The first " professional " Marine units were already task - trained amphibious troops , but instead of being disbanded , were kept for the Crown ' s needs . First actions took place all along the Mediterranean Sea where the Turks and pirate settlements were a risk for the commerce and navigation : Algiers , Malta , Gelves . Landings at the " Terceras Landing " in the Azores Islands 25 May 1583 , was a military feat as the planners decided to make a fake landing to distract the defending forces ( 5 , 000 Portuguese , English and French soldiers ) ; also special seagoing barges were arranged in order to unload cavalry horses and 700 artillery piece s on the beach ; special rowing boat s were equipped with small cannon s to support the landing boats ; special supplies were readied to be unloaded and support the 11 , 000 men landing force strength . The total strength of the amphibious force , was 15 , 000 men , including an armada of 90 ships . After an initial reconnaissance action where the most suitable beaches for the landing assets were chosen , a 4 , 000 – man first assault wave was unloaded while two " Galeras " made a distractive fake landing away from the main beach . The main defensive body ran to defend against the feinted action , but the first wave had set up a firm defensive perimeter , and the second wave was already landing with the heavy artillery . In this operation we can find documented reports about the detailed planning , the previous reconnaissance of the beaches , the special equipment and training , ship - to - shore movement , naval fire support . This would be one of the first examples of a complex amphibious assault that would characterize modern amphibious warfare . 17th century . This was a century of " expansion " . European countries were expanding and creating colonies . Amphibious operations were mostly oriented to settle colonies and strong points along the navigational routes . Fights among countries to keep or destroy opposing power ' s capabilities were continuous . Amphibious forces were fully organized and devoted to this mission , although the troops not only fought ashore , but on board ships . 18th century . Amphibious landings were performed by Spanish Marines allowing them to conquer Sardinia ( 1717 ) and Sicily ( 1732 ) . By their nature amphibious assaults are highly complex operations involving the coordination of disparate elements and are therefore prone to disastrous results if not properly planned . One of the most spectacular instances of such a failure occurred in 1741 at the Battle of Cartagena de Indias , when a large British empire amphibious assault force with a compromised command was defeated by a much smaller but well organised and led Spanish empire defence . In 1759 , during the siege of Quebec , the British troops attempted on a number of occasions to cross the Saint Lawrence River in force . An attempt to land some 4 , 000 troops in the face of resistance failed . Ultimately a landing was managed at a relatively undefended site , and British troops gained a foothold allowing 5 , 000 to take part in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which led to the surrender of the city . In 1762 Royal Navy troops & marines succeed in taking the capitals of the Spanish West & East Indies Havana in Cuba & Manila by sea respectively . In 1776 , Samuel Nicholas and the Continental Marines , the " progenitor " of the United States Marine Corps , made a first successful landing in the Battle of Nassau . In 1781 , the Spanish field marshal Bernardo de Gálvez , successfully captured British controlled Fort George by amphibious assault in the Battle of Pensacola . In 1782 , he captured the British naval base at New Providence in the Bahamas . In 1782 , a long Franco - Spanish attempt to seize Gibraltar by water borne forces was abandoned . In 1783 , a Franco - Spanish force invaded the island of Minorca . In 1793 , Minorca experienced yet another of its many changes of sovereignty , when captured by a British landing . 19th century . During the American Civil War , the United States made several amphibious assaults all along the Confederate states coastline . Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal , South Carolina were the first of many attacks . Along with others on Roanoke Island , NC ; Galveston , TX ; Fort Sumter , Morris Island and James Island , SC ; and several others . The largest was at the Fort Fisher , which was the largest and most powerful fort in the world at the time , protecting the entrance of Wilmington , North Carolina . The assaulting force of over 15 , 000 men and 70 warships with over 600 guns , was the most powerful amphibious assault in world history ( and was not surpassed until the large - scale landings of World War Two ) . An early form of amphibious warfare was employed during the War of the Pacific in 1879 , and saw coordination of army , navy and specialized units . The first amphibious assault of this war took place as 2 , 100 Chilean troops successfully took Pisagua from 1 , 200 Peruvian and Bolivian defenders on 2 November 1879 . Chilean Navy ships bombarded beach defenses for several hours at dawn , followed by open , oared boats landing Army infantry and sapper units into waist - deep water , under enemy fire . An outnumbered first landing wave fought at the beach ; the second and third waves in the following hours were able to overcome resistance and move inland . By the end of the day , an expeditionary army of 10 , 000 had disembarked at the captured port . In 1881 Chilean ships transported approximately 30 , 000 men , along with their mounts and equipment , in order to attack Lima . Chilean commanders were using purpose - built , flat - bottomed landing craft that would deliver troops in shallow water closer to the beach , possibly the first purpose - built amphibious landing craft in history : " " These [ 36 shallow draft , flat - bottomed ] boats would be able to land three thousand men and twelve guns in a single wave " " . Landing tactics and operations were closely observed by neutral parties during the war : two Royal Navy ships monitored the Battle of Pisagua ; United States Navy observer Lt . Theodorus B . M . Mason included an account on his report " The War on the Pacific Coast of South America " . The USS Wachusett with Alfred Thayer Mahan in command , was stationed at Callao , Peru , protecting American interests during the final stages of the War of the Pacific . He formulated his concept of sea power while reading a history book in an English gentleman ’ s club in Lima , Peru . This concept became the foundation for his celebrated The Influence of Sea Power upon History . World War I era . An amphibious assault took place at the beaches of Veracruz , Mexico in 1914 , when the United States Navy attacked and occupied the city as result of the Tampico Affair . During World War I , amphibious warfare was still in its infancy : tactics and equipment were rudimentary and required much improvisation . During this period , British Royal Marine Light Infantry ( merged with the Royal Marine Artillery in the 1920s to form the Royal Marines ) were used primarily as naval parties onboard Royal Navy warships to maintain discipline and man ships ' guns . The RMLI joined a new Royal Navy division — the Royal Naval Division — formed in 1914 to fight on land ; however , throughout the conflict , army units were depended upon to provide the bulk — if not all — of troops used in amphibious landings . The first amphibious assault of the war ended in disaster in 1914 . A large British Indian Army force was directed to launch an amphibious assault on Tanga , German East Africa . British actions prior to the assault , however , alerted the Germans to prepare to repel an invasion . The Indian forces suffered heavy casualties when they advanced on the city , forcing them to withdraw back to their boats , leaving much of their equipment behind . The Allied invasion against the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915 proved even more disastrous than Tanga , in part due to incompetence at the high command strata . Soldiers were landed via open , oared whaleboats and tugs at Anzac Cove and Helles . At V Beach , Helles , the landing troops — inexperienced at amphibious landings — were effectively slaughtered by the Ottoman defenders , most not even making it out of their landing craft . The Royal Dublin Fusiliers , for example , lost almost all their officers , including their commander , and suffered over 500 casualties . In a second landing at Suvla in August , the forerunner of modern landing craft — the armoured ' Beetle ' — was first used by the British . On the 11th of October 1917 German land and naval forces launched an amphibious assault , code named Operation Albion , on the islands of Saaremaa ( Ösel ) , Hiiumaa ( Dagö ) and Muhu ( Moon ) , that controlled the entrance to the Gulf of Riga . By the end of the month German forces had successfully overrun the islands forcing the Russians to abandon them with the loss of some 20 , 000 troops , 100 guns and the Pre - dreadnought battleship Slava . The capture of the islands opened a route for German naval forces into the Gulf of Finland threatening the city of Petrograd , a fact that contributed to the cessation of hostilities on the Eastern front Interwar period . The Alhucemas Landing on 8 September 1925 , performed by a Spanish - French coalition against rebel Kabilas in the north of Morocco , was a landing where tanks were used for the first time ; air naval gunfire support were employed by the landing forces , directed by spotting personnel with communication devices . Floating depots were organized with medical , water , ammunition and food supplies , to be dispatched ashore when needed . The barges used in this landing were the surviving " K " boats from Gallipoli . But in this case , the landings were performed against a prepared , defended in force positions . In 1938 , Japanese forces attacked Chinese defenders over the Yangtze River at the Battle of Wuhan . U . S . Marines devise an amphibious mission . The U . S . Marine Corps was searching for an expanded mission after World War I . It had been used in France as a junior version of the Army infantry , and Marine leaders realized that was a dead end . It found a new mission : it would be a fast - reacting , light infantry fighting force carried rapidly to far off locations by the Navy . Its special role was amphibious landings on enemy - held islands , but it took years to figure out how to do that . The Mahanian notion of a decisive fleet battle required forward bases for the Navy close to the enemy . After the Spanish - American War the Marines gained the mission of occupying and defending those forward bases , and they began a training program on Culebro Island , Puerto Rico . The emphasis at first was on defending the forward base against enemy attack ; they would be like the Turks who in 1915 inflicted 250 , 000 casualties on the British , Australian and New Zealand invaders of Gallipoli , forcing their withdrawal . As early as 1900 the Navy ’ s General Board considered building advance bases for naval operations in the Pacific and the Caribbean . The Marine Corps was given this mission in 1920 , but the challenge was to avoid another disaster like Gallipoli . The conceptual breakthrough came in 1921 when Major " Pete " Ellis wrote “ Advanced Base Operations in Micronesia ” a secret 30 , 000 - word manifesto that proved inspirational to Marine strategists and highly prophetic . To win a war in the Pacific , the Navy would have to fight its way through thousands of miles of ocean controlled by the Japanese — including the Marshall , Caroline , Marianas and Ryukus island chains . If the Navy could land Marines to seize selected islands , they could become forward bases . Ellis argued that with an enemy prepared to defend the beaches , success depended on high - speed movement of waves of assault craft , covered by heavy naval gunfire and attack from the air . He predicted the decision would take place on the beach itself , so the assault teams would need not just infantry but also machine gun units , light artillery , light tanks , and combat engineers to defeat beach obstacles and defenses . Assuming the enemy had its own artillery , the landing craft would have to be specially built to protect the landing force . The failure at Gallipoli came because the Turks could easily reinforce the specific landing sites . The Japanese would be unable to land new forces on the islands under attack . Not knowing which of the many islands would be the American target , the Japanese would have to disperse their strength by garrisoning many islands that would never be attacked . An island like Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands , would , Ellis estimated , require two regiments , or 4 , 000 Marines . ( Indeed , in February 1944 the Marines seized Eniwetok with 4 , 000 men in three battalions . ) Guided by Marine observer airplanes , and supplemented by Marine light bombers , warships would provide enough firepower so that Marines would not need any heavy artillery ( in contrast to the Army , which relied heavily on its artillery . ) Shelling defended islands was a new mission for warships . The Ellis model was officially endorsed in 1927 by the Joint Board of the Army and Navy ( a forerunner of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ) . Actual implementation of the new mission took another decade because the Corps was preoccupied in Central America , the Navy was slow to start training in how to support the landings , and a new kind of ship had to be invented to hit the beaches without massive casualties . In 1941 British and American ship architects invented a new class of " landing ship " to solve the problem . In World War II , the Navy built 1 , 150 LSTs . They were large ( 2400 tons ) and slow ( 10 knots ) ; officially known as " Landing Ship Tank , " the passengers called them " Large Stationary Targets . " Lightly armored , they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power , carrying infantry , tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches . Together with 2 , 000 other landing craft , the LSTs gave the Marines ( and Army soldiers ) a protected , quick way to make combat landings , beginning in summer 1943 . In 1933 , a " Fleet Marine Force " was established with the primary mission of amphibious landings . The Force was a brigade with attached Marine aviation units that were trained in observation and ground support . By paying special attention to communications between ground and air , and between shore and sea , they developed an integrated three - dimensional assault force . By 1940 , having adding enough men , the appropriate equipment , and a rigorous training program , the Marine Corps had worked out , in theory , its doctrine of amphibious assaults . Under the combat leadership of Holland " Howlin Mad " Smith , the general most responsible for training , the Marines were ready to hit the beaches . World War II . By the Second World War tactics and equipment had moved on . Purpose built landing craft were among the vessels used at the evacuation from Dunkirk ( Operation Dynamo ) and an amphibious operation was tried out at Dieppe in 1942 . The operation proved a costly failure , but the lessons , hard learned , were used later . Many small - scale operations were conducted by the Allies on the Axis - held coast of Europe , including raids on the Lofoten Islands , St Nazaire and Bruneval . Arguably the most famous amphibious assault was the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 , in which British , Canadian , and US forces were landed at Utah , Omaha , Gold , Juno and Sword beaches . Other large amphibious operations in the European Theatre in WWII include : In the Pacific Theatre , almost every campaign involved " island hopping " assaults from the sea . Some of the famous ones include : The war finished before the large Indian Ocean amphibious assault Operation Zipper was launched , however , small amphibious operations took place along the Arakan coast during the Burma Campaign . After World War II . Korean War . During the Korean War the U . S . X Corps , consisting of the 1st Marine Division and 7th Infantry Division landed at Inchon . Conceived of and commanded by U . S . General Douglas MacArthur , this landing is considered by many military historians to have been a tactical jewel , one of the most brilliant amphibious maneuvers in history . The success of this battle eventually resulted in link up with U . S . Army forces that broke out of the Pusan perimeter , and led by the 1st Cavalry Division and its Task Force Lynch , cleared much of South Korea . A second landing by the Tenth Corps on the east coast approached the Chosin Reservoir and hydroelectric plants that powered much of Communist China ' s heavy industry , and led to intervention by Chinese forces on behalf of North Korea . Amphibious landings also took place during the First Indochina War , notably during Operation Camargue , one of the largest of the conflict . Suez Crisis . The British Royal Marines made their first post - World War II amphibious assault during the Suez Crisis of 1956 when they successfully landed at Suez on 6 November as part of a joint seaborne / airborne operation code - named MUSKETEER . It was the first amphibious operation that employed helicopters in the assault . Nearly 30 years later in the Falklands War , the Argentine 1st Marine Brigade of the Argentine Navy along with Naval Special Forces , landed at Mullet Creek near Stanley on 2 April 1982 , while later the Royal Marines ' 3 Commando Brigade , ( augmented by the British Army ' s Parachute Regiment ) landed at Port San Carlos on 21 May 1982 . Sri Lankan Civil War . In the Sri Lankan Civil War , the Sri Lanka armed forces carried out several successful amphibious assault against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , that included the landing code named Operation Balavegaya . Landing at Cyprus . The Turkish Armed Forces launched an amphibious assault in 20 July 1974 , on Kyrenia , following the event of 1974 Cypriot coup d ' état . The Turkish naval force provided naval gun support during the landing operation and transported the amphibious forces from port of Mersin to the island . The Turkish landing forces consisted of around 3 , 000 troops , tanks , armored personnel carriers and artillery pieces . Persian Gulf War . During the Persian Gulf War , Assault Craft Unit 5 was able to position U . S . Marine and naval support off the coast of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia . This force was composed of 40 amphibious assault ship s , the largest such force to be assembled since the Battle of Inchon . The objective was to fix the six Iraqi divisions deployed along the Kuwaiti coast . The purpose behind this amphibious maneuver ( known as an amphibious demonstration ) was to prevent 6 Iraqi divisions poised for the defense of the littorals from being able to actively engage in combat at the real front . The operation was extremely successful in keeping more than 41 , 000 Iraqi forces from repositioning to the main battlefield . As a result , the Marines maneuvered through the Iraq defense of southern Kuwait and outflanked the Iraqi coastal defense forces . Iraq War . An amphibious assault was carried out by Royal Marines , U . S . Marines and units of the Polish special forces when they landed at the Al - Faw Peninsula on 20 March 2003 during the Iraq War . Invasion of Anjouan . The most recent amphibious assault was launched in the Comoros by government and African Union troops in March 2008 .