Nelson Mandela Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela ( ; born 18 July 1918 ) is a South African anti - apartheid revolutionary and politician who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999 . He was the first black South African to hold the office , and the first elected in a fully representative , multiracial election . His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalised racism , poverty and inequality , and fostering racial reconciliation . Politically an African nationalist and democratic socialist , he served as the President of the African National Congress ( ANC ) from 1991 to 1997 . Internationally , Mandela was the Secretary General of the Non - Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999 . A Xhosa born to the Thembu royal family , Mandela attended Fort Hare University and the University of Witwatersrand , where he studied law . Living in Johannesburg , he became involved in anti - colonial politics , joining the ANC and becoming a founding member of its Youth League . After the Afrikaner nationalists of the National Party came to power in 1948 and began implementing the policy of apartheid , he rose to prominence in the ANC ' s 1952 Defiance Campaign , was elected President of the Transvaal ANC Branch and oversaw the 1955 Congress of the People . Working as a lawyer , he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and , with the ANC leadership , was prosecuted in the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961 but was found not guilty . Although initially committed to non - violent protest , in association with the South African Communist Party he co - founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe ( MK ) in 1961 , leading a bombing campaign against government targets . In 1962 he was arrested , convicted of sabotage and conspiracy to overthrow the government , and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial . Mandela served 27 years in prison , first on Robben Island , and later in Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison . An international campaign lobbied for his release , which was granted in 1990 amid escalating civil strife . Becoming ANC President , Mandela published his autobiography and led negotiations with President F . W . de Klerk to abolish apartheid and establish multiracial elections in 1994 , in which he led the ANC to victory . He was elected President and formed a Government of National Unity in an attempt to defuse ethnic tensions . As President , he promulgated a new constitution and initiated the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses . Continuing the former government ' s liberal economic policy , his administration introduced measures to encourage land reform , combat poverty , and expand healthcare services . Internationally , he acted as mediator between Libya and the United Kingdom in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial , and oversaw military intervention in Lesotho . He declined to run for a second term , and was succeeded by his deputy , Thabo Mbeki . Mandela subsequently became an elder statesman , focusing on charitable work in combating poverty and HIV / AIDS through the Nelson Mandela Foundation . Mandela has been a controversial figure for much of his life . Right - wing critics denounced him as a terrorist and communist sympathiser . He nevertheless gained international acclaim for his anti - colonial and anti - apartheid stance , having received more than 250 honours , including the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize , the US Presidential Medal of Freedom , and the Soviet Order of Lenin . He is held in deep respect within South Africa , where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name , Madiba , or as Tata ( " Father " ) ; he is often described as " the father of the nation " . Early life . Childhood : 1918 – 1936 . Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtatu , then a part of South Africa ' s Cape Province . Given the forename Rolihlahla , a Xhosa term colloquially meaning " troublemaker " , in later years he became known by his clan name , Madiba . His patrilineal great - grandfather , Ngubengcuka , was ruler of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa ' s modern Eastern Cape province . One of this king ' s sons , named " Mandela " , became Nelson ' s grandfather and the source of his surname . Because Mandela was only the king ' s child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan , a so - called " Left - Hand House " , the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic , ineligible to inherit the throne but recognized as hereditary royal councillors . Nonetheless , his father , Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa , was a local chief and councillor to the monarch ; he had been appointed to the position in 1915 , after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate . In 1926 , Gadla , too , was sacked for corruption , but Nelson would be told that he had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate ' s unreasonable demands . A devotee of the god Qamata , Gadla was a polygamist , having four wives , four sons and nine daughters , who lived in different villages . Nelson ' s mother was Gadla ' s third wife , Nosekeni Fanny , who was daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa . Later stating that his early life was dominated by " custom , ritual and taboo " , Mandela grew up with two sisters in his mother ' s " kraal " in the village of Qunu , where he tended herds as a cattle - boy , spending much time outside with other boys . Both his parents were illiterate , but being a devout Christian , his mother sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven . Baptised a Methodist , Mandela was given the English forename of " Nelson " by his teacher . When Mandela was about nine , his father came to stay at Qunu , where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease . Feeling " cut adrift " , he later said that he inherited his father ' s " proud rebelliousness " and " stubborn sense of fairness " . His mother took Mandela to the " Great Place " palace at Mqhekezweni , where he was entrusted under the guardianship of Thembu regent , Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo . Although he would not see his mother again for many years , Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child , raising him alongside their son Justice and daughter Nomafu . As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians , Christianity became a significant part of his life . He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace , studying English , Xhosa , history and geography . He developed a love of African history , listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace , and becoming influenced by the anti - imperialist rhetoric of Chief Joyi . At the time he nevertheless considered the European colonialists as benefactors , not oppressors . Aged 16 , he , Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men ; the rite over , he was given the name " Dalibunga " . Clarkebury , Healdtown and Fort Hare : 1936 – 1940 . Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house , Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Boarding Institute in Engcobo , a Western - style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland . Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis , he claimed that he lost his " stuck up " attitude , becoming best friends with a girl for the first time ; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening . Completing his Junior Certificate in two years , in 1937 he moved to Healdtown , the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most Thembu royalty , including Justice . The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government , but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture , making his first non - Xhosa friend , a Sotho language - speaker , and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers , a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho . Spending much of his spare time long - distance running and boxing , in his second year Mandela became a prefect . With Jongintaba ' s backing , Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) degree at the University of Fort Hare , an elite black institution in Alice , Eastern Cape with around 150 students . There he studied English , anthropology , politics , native administration and Roman Dutch law in his first year , desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department . Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory , befriending Oliver Tambo and his own kinsman , K . D . Matanzima . Continuing his interest in sport , Mandela took up ballroom dancing , and performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln . A member of the Students Christian Association , he gave Bible classes in the local community , and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World War broke out . Although having friends connected to the African National Congress ( ANC ) and the anti - imperialist movement , Mandela avoided any involvement . Helping found a first - year students ' House Committee which challenged the dominance of the second - years , at the end of his first year he became involved in a Students ' Representative Council ( SRC ) boycott against the quality of food , for which he was temporarily suspended from the university ; he left without receiving a degree . Arriving in Johannesburg : 1941 – 1943 . Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940 , Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriage s for him and Justice ; dismayed , they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown , arriving in April 1941 . Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines , his " first sight of South African capitalism in action " , but was fired when the " induna " ( headman ) discovered he was a runaway . Staying with a cousin in George Goch Township , Mandela was introduced to the realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu , who secured him a job as an articled clerk at law firm Witkin , Sidelsky and Eidelman . The company was run by a liberal Jew , Lazar Sidelsky , who was sympathetic to the ANC ' s cause . At the firm , Mandela befriended Gaur Redebe , a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party , as well as Nat Bregman , a Jewish communist who became his first white friend . Attending communist talks and parties , Mandela was impressed that Europeans , Africans , Indians and Coloured s were mixing as equals . However , he stated later that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith , and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than class warfare . Becoming increasingly politicised , in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises . Continuing his higher education , Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course , working on his bachelor ' s degree at night . Earning a small wage , Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township ; although rife with poverty , crime and pollution , Alexandra always remained " a treasured place " for him . Although embarrassed by his poverty , he briefly courted a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord ' s daughter . In order to save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg , Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association , living among miners of various tribes ; as the compound was a " way station for visiting chiefs " , he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland . In late 1941 , Jongintaba visited , forgiving Mandela for running away . On returning to Thembuland , the regent died in winter 1942 ; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral . After passing his BA exams in early 1943 , Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland . He later stated that he experienced no epiphany , but that he " simply found myself doing so , and could not do otherwise . " Revolutionary activity . Law studies and the ANC Youth League : 1943 – 1949 . Beginning law studies at the University of Witwatersrand , Mandela was the only native African student , and though facing racism , he befriended a number of liberal and communist European , Jewish , and Indian students , among them Joe Slovo , Harry Schwarz and Ruth First . Joining the ANC , Mandela was increasingly influenced by Sisulu , spending much time with other activists at Sisulu ' s Orlando house , including old friend Oliver Tambo . In 1943 , Mandela met Anton Lembede , an African nationalist virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists . Despite his friendships with non - blacks and communists , Mandela supported Lembede ' s views , believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self - determination . Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation , Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiatown ; the African National Congress Youth League ( ANCYL ) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men ' s Social Centre in Eloff Street , with Lembede as President and Mandela as a member of the executive committee . At Sisulu ' s house , Mandela met Evelyn Mase , an ANC activist from Engcobo , Transkei , who was training at the time to become a nurse . Married on 5 October 1944 , after initially living with her relatives , they rented House no . 8115 in Orlando from early 1946 . Their first child , Madiba " Thembi " Thembekile , was born in February 1946 , while a daughter named Makaziwe was born in 1947 , dying nine months later of meningitis . Mandela enjoyed home life , welcoming his mother and sister Leabie to stay with him . In early 1947 , his three years of articles ended at Witkin , Sidelsky and Eidelman , and he decided to become a full - time student , subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust . In July 1947 , Mandela rushed Lembede to hospital , where he died ; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda , who agreed to co - operate with communists and non - blacks , appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary . Mandela disagreed with Mda ' s approach , in December 1947 supporting an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL , considering their ideology un - African . In 1947 , Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the Transvaal ANC , serving under regional president C . S . Ramohanoe . When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the Transvaal Executive Committee by co - operating with Indians and communists , Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation . In the South African general election , 1948 , in which only whites were permitted to vote , the Afrikaner - dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan took power , soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Party . Openly racialist , the party codified and expanded racial segregation with the new apartheid legislation . Gaining increasing influence in the ANC , Mandela and his cadres began advocating direct action against apartheid , such as boycotts and strikes , influenced by the tactics of South Africa ' s Indian community . Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence , replaced by James Moroka and a more militant cabinet containing Sisulu , Mda , Tambo and Godfrey Pitje ; Mandela later related that " We had now guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path . " Having devoted his time to politics , Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times ; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949 . Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency : 1950 – 1954 . Mandela took Xuma ' s place on the ANC National Executive in March 1950 . That month , the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg , bringing together African , Indian and communist activists to call an anti - apartheid general strike . Mandela opposed the strike because it was not ANC - led , but a majority of black workers took part , resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism Act , 1950 , affecting the actions of all protest groups . In 1950 , Mandela was elected national president of the ANCYL ; at the ANC national conference of December 1951 , he continued arguing against a racially united front , but was outvoted . Thenceforth , he altered his entire perspective , embracing such an approach ; influenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union ' s support for wars of independence , Mandela ' s mistrust of communism also broke down . He became influenced by the texts of Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels , Vladimir Lenin , Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong , and embraced dialectical materialism . In April 1952 , Mandela began work at the H . M . Basner law firm , though his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family . In 1952 , the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist groups , founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers . Deciding on a path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mohandas Gandhi , some considered it the ethical option , but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic . At a Durban rally on 22 June , Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10 , 000 , initiating the campaign protests , for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison . With further protests , the ANC ' s membership grew from 20 , 000 to 100 , 000 ; the government responded with mass arrests , introducing the Public Safety Act , 1953 to permit martial law . In May , authorities banned Transvaal ANU President J . B . Marks from making public appearances ; unable to maintain his position , he recommended Mandela as his successor . Although the ultra - Africanist Bafabegiya group opposed his candidacy , Mandela was elected regional president in October . On 30 July 1952 , Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as a part of the 21 accused – among them Moroka , Sisulu and Dadoo – in Johannesburg . Found guilty of " statutory communism " , their sentence of nine months ' hard labour was suspended for two years . In December , Mandela was given a six - month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time , making his Transvaal ANU presidency impractical . The Defiance Campaign meanwhile petered out . In September 1953 , Andrew Kunene read out Mandela ' s " No Easy Walk to Freedom " speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting ; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru , a seminal influence on Mandela ' s thought . The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned . This Mandela Plan , or M - Plan , involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership . Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish , before moving to the liberal - run Helman and Michel , passing qualification exams to become a full - fledged attorney . In August 1953 , Mandela and Oliver Tambo opened their own law firm , Mandela and Tambo , operating in downtown Johannesburg . The only African - run law firm in the country , it was popular with aggrieved blacks , often dealing with cases of police brutality . Disliked by the authorities , the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the Group Areas Act ; as a result , their custom dwindled . Though a second daughter , Makaziwe Phumia , was born in May 1954 , Mandela ' s relationship with Evelyn became strained , and she accused him of adultery . Evidence has emerged indicating that he was having affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati ; persistent but unproven claims assert that the latter bore Mandela a child . Disgusted by her son ' s behaviour , Nosekeni returned to Transkei , while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah ' s Witnesses and rejected Mandela ' s obsession with politics . Congress of the People and the Treason Trial : 1955 – 1961 . Mandela came to the opinion that the ANC " had no alternative to armed and violent resistance " after taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the demolition of the all - black Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955 . He advised Sisulu to request weaponry from the People ' s Republic of China , but while supporting the anti - apartheid struggle , China ' s government believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerilla warfare . With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress , the Coloured People ' s Congress , the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats , the ANC planned a Congress of the People , calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post - apartheid era . Based on the responses , a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein , calling for the creation of a democratic , non - racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry . When the charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown attended by 3000 delegates , police cracked down on the event , but it remained a key part of Mandela ' s ideology . Following the end of a second ban in September 1955 , Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act , 1951 with local tribal leaders , also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to Cape Town . In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances , restricting him to Johannesburg for five years , but he often defied it . His marriage broke down as Evelyn left Mandela , taking their children to live with her brother . Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956 , she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her ; he denied the allegations , and fought for custody of their children . She withdrew her petition of separation in November , but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958 ; the divorce was finalised in March , with the children placed in Evelyn ' s care . During the divorce proceedings , he began courting and politicising a social worker , Winnie Madikizela , who he married in Bizana on 14 June 1958 . She later became involved in ANC activities , spending several weeks imprisoned . On 5 December 1956 , Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC Executive for " high treason " against the state . Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests , they underwent a preparatory examination in Drill Hall on 19 December , before being granted bail . The defence ' s refutation began on 9 January 1957 , overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé , and continued until adjourning in September . In January 1958 , judge Oswald Pirow was appointed to the case , and in February he ruled that there was " sufficient reason " for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court . The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958 , with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges – all linked to the governing National Party – replaced . In August , one charge was dropped , and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment , submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution , a charge the defendants denied . In April 1959 , militant Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC ' s united front approach founded the Pan - African Congress ( PAC ) ; Mandela ' s friend Robert Sobukwe was elected president , though Mandela thought the group " immature " . Both parties campaigned for an anti - pass campaign in May 1960 , in which Africans burned the passes that they were legally obliged to carry . One of the PAC - organized demonstrations was fired upon by police , resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre . In solidarity , Mandela publicly burned his pass as rioting broke out across South Africa , leading the government to proclaim martial law . Under the State of Emergency measures , Mandela and other activists were arrested on 30 March , imprisoned without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison , while the ANC and PAC were banned in April . This made it difficult for their lawyers to reach them , and it was agreed that the defence team for the Treason Trial should withdraw in protest . Representing themselves in court , the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August . Mandela used his free time to organise an All - In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg , Natal , in March , at which 1 , 400 anti - apartheid delegates met , agreeing on a stay - at home protest to mark 31 May , the day South Africa became a republic . On 29 March 1961 , after a six - year trial , the judges produced a verdict of not guilty , embarrassing the government . Umkhonto we Sizwe and African tour : 1961 – 1962 . Disguising himself as a chauffeur , Mandela travelled the country incognito , organising the ANC ' s new cell structure and a mass stay - at - home strike for 29 May . Referred to as the " Black Pimpernel " in the press – a reference to Emma Orczy ' s 1905 novel " The Scarlet Pimpernel " – the police put out a warrant for his arrest . Mandela held secret meetings with reporters , and after the government failed to prevent the strike , he warned them that many anti - apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC ' s Poqo . He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence , convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli – who was morally opposed to violence – and allied activist groups of its necessity . Inspired by Fidel Castro ' s 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution , in 1961 Mandela co - founded Umkhonto we Sizwe ( " Spear of the Nation " , abbreviated " MK " ) with Sisulu and the communist Joe Slovo . Becoming chairman of the militant group , he gained ideas from illegal literature on guerilla warfare by Mao and Che Guevara . Officially separate from the ANC , in later years MK became the group ' s armed wing . Most early MK members were white communists ; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh ' s flat in Berea , Mandela moved to the communist - owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia , there joined by Raymond Mhlaba , Slovo and Bernstein , who put together the MK constitution . Although Mandela himself denied ever being a Communist Party member , historical research has suggested that he might have been for a short period , starting from the late 1950s or early 1960s . Operating through a cell structure , the MK agreed to acts of sabotage to exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties , bombing military installations , power plants , telephone lines and transport links at night , when civilians were not present . Mandela noted that should these tactics fail , MK would resort to " guerilla warfare and terrorism . " Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , the MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane ' s Day ( 16 December ) 1961 , followed by further attacks on New Year ' s Eve . The ANC agreed to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 Pan - African Freedom Movement for East , Central and Southern Africa ( PAFMECSA ) meeting in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia . Traveling there in secret , Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I , and gave his speech after Selaisse ' s at the conference . After the conference , he travelled to Cairo , Egypt , admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser , and then went to Tunis , Tunisia , where President Habib Bourguiba gave him £5000 for weaponry . He proceeded to Morocco , Mali , Guinea , Sierra Leone , Liberia and Senegal , receiving funds from Liberian President William Tubman and Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré . Leaving Africa for London , England , he met anti - apartheid activists , reporters and prominent leftist politicians . Returning to Ethiopia , he began a six - month course in guerrilla warfare , but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa . Imprisonment . Arrest and Rivonia trial : 1962 – 1964 . On 5 August 1962 , police captured Mandela along with Cecil Williams near Howick . Jailed in Johannesburg ' s Marshall Square prison , he was charged with inciting workers ' strikes and leaving the country without permission . Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor , Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase " the ANC ' s moral opposition to racism " while supporters demonstrated outside the court . Moved to Pretoria , where Winnie could visit him , in his cell he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws ( LLB ) degree from the University of London . His hearing began on 15 October , but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional " kaross " , refusing to call any witnesses , and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech . Found guilty , he was sentenced to five years ' imprisonment ; as he left the courtroom , supporters sang " Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika " . On 11 July 1963 , police raided Liliesleaf Farm , arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK ' s activities , some of which mentioned Mandela . The subsequent Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court on 9 October , with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government . Their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar , who called for them to receive the death penalty . Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution ' s case for insufficient evidence , but Yutar reformulated the charges , presenting his new case from December until February 1964 , calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial . With the exception of James Kantor , who was innocent of all charges , Mandela and the accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerilla war against the government . They used the trial to highlight their political cause ; one of Mandela ' s speeches – inspired by Castro ' s " History Will Absolve Me " speech – was widely reported in the press despite official censorship . The trial gained international attention , with global calls for the release of the accused from such institutions as the United Nations and World Peace Council . The University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency , and nightly vigils for him were held in St . Paul ' s Cathedral , London . However , deeming them to be violent communist agitators , South Africa ' s government ignored all calls for clemency , and on 12 June 1964 de Wet found Mandela and two of his co - accused guilty on all four charges , sentencing them to life imprisonment rather than death . Robben Island : 1962 – 1982 . Mandela and his co - accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robben Island , remaining there for the next 18 years . Isolated from non - political prisoners in Section B , Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring by , with a straw mat on which to sleep . Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens , the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel , until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry . Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses , and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight . At night , he worked on his LLB degree , but newspapers were forbidden , and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for possessing smuggled news clippings . Classified as the lowest grade of prisoner , Class D , he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months , although all mail was heavily censored . The political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes – the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela – to improve prison conditions , viewing this as a microcosm of the anti - apartheid struggle . ANC prisoners elected him to their four - man " High Organ " along with Sisulu , Govan Mbeki and Raymond Mhlaba , while he also involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners on the island , Ulundi , through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members . Initiating the " University of Robben Island , " whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise , he debated topics such as homosexuality and politics with his comrades , getting into fierce arguments on the latter with Marxists like Mbeki and Harry Gwala . Though attending Christian Sunday services , Mandela studied Islam . He also studied Afrikaans , hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause . Various official visitors met with Mandela ; most significant was the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party , who championed Mandela ' s cause outside prison . In September 1970 he met British Labour Party MP Dennis Healey . South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974 , but he and Mandela did not get on . His mother visited in 1968 , dying shortly after , and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year ; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral . His wife was rarely able to visit , being regularly imprisoned for political activity , while his daughters first visited in December 1975 ; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort , still unable to visit him . From 1967 , prison conditions improved , with black prisoners given trousers rather than shorts , games being permitted , and food quality improving . In 1969 , an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce , but it was abandoned after being infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security ( BOSS ) , who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape . In 1970 , Commander Piet Badenhost became commanding officer . Mandela , seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners , complained to visiting judges , who had Badenost reassigned . He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse , who developed a co - operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards . By 1975 , Mandela had become a Class A prisoner , allowing greater numbers of visits and letters ; he corresponded with anti - apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu . That year , he began his autobiography , which was smuggled to London , but remained unpublished at the time ; prison authorities discovered several pages , and his study privileges were stopped for four years . Instead he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until he resumed his LLB degree studies in 1980 . By the late 1960s , Mandela ' s fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement ( BCM ) . Seeing the ANC as ineffectual , the BCM called for militant action , but following the Soweto uprising of 1976 , many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island . Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals , although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti - apartheid activists . Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978 , when he celebrated his 60th birthday . He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho , the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979 , and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow , Scotland in 1981 . In March 1980 the slogan " Free Mandela ! " was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza , sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release . Despite increasing foreign pressure , the government refused , relying on powerful foreign Cold War allies in US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher ; Thatcher considered Mandela a communist terrorist and supported the suppression of the ANC . Pollsmoor Prison : 1982 – 1988 . In April 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai , Cape Town along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu , Andrew Mlangeni , Ahmed Kathrada and Raymond Mhlaba ; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists . Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island , although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island . Getting on well with Pollsmoor ' s commanding officer , Brigadier Munro , Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden , also reading voraciously and corresponding widely , now permitted 52 letters a year . He was appointed patron of the multi - racial United Democratic Front ( UDF ) , founded to combat reforms implemented by South African President P . W . Botha . Botha ' s National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments which would have control over education , health , and housing , but black Africans were excluded from the system ; like Mandela , the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti - apartheid movement on racial lines . Violence across the country escalated , with many fearing civil war . Under pressure from an international lobby , multinational banks stopped investing in South Africa , resulting in economic stagnation . Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela – then at the height of his international fame – to defuse the volatile situation . Although considering Mandela a dangerous " arch - Marxist " , in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison on condition that he ' " unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon " . Mandela spurned the offer , releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating " What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ ANC ] remains banned ? Only free men can negotiate . A prisoner cannot enter into contracts . " In 1985 Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland , before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor . He was met by " seven eminent persons " , an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement , but Botha ' s government refused to co - operate , in June calling a state of emergency and initiating a police crackdown on unrest . The anti - apartheid resistance fought back , with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987 . Utilising the army and right - wing paramilitaries to combat the resistance , the government secretly funded Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha to attack ANC members , furthering the violence . Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied , instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987 , having a further 11 meetings over 3 years . Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988 ; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence , break links with the Communist Party and not insist on majority rule . Mandela rejected these conditions , insisting that the ANC would only end the armed struggle when the government renounced violence . Mandela ' s 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention , with the BBC organising the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute music gig at London ' s Wembley Stadium . Although presented globally as a heroic figure , he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a criminal gang , the " Mandela United Football Club " , who had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents – including children – in Soweto . Though some encouraged him to divorce her , he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial . Victor Verster Prison and release : 1988 – 1990 . Recovering from tuberculosis caused by dank conditions in his cell , in December 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl . Here , he was housed in the relative comfort of a warders house with a personal cook , using the time to complete his LLB degree . Allowed many visitors , Mandela organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo . In 1989 , Botha suffered a stroke , retaining the state presidency but stepping down as leader of the National Party , to be replaced by the conservative F . W . de Klerk . In a surprise move , Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989 , an invitation Mandela considered genial . Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later ; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and unconditionally released all ANC prisoners except Mandela . Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 , de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela . Although some were deeply opposed to his plans , de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation , a meeting both men considered friendly , before releasing Mandela unconditionally and legalising all formerly banned political parties on 2 February 1990 . The government published a photograph of Mandela meeting with de Klerk in Cape Town , the first photograph of Mandela published in over 20 years . Leaving Victor Verster on 11 February , Mandela held Winnie ' s hand in front of amassed crowds and press ; the event was broadcast live across the world . Driven to Cape Town ' s City Hall through crowds , he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority , but made it clear that the ANC ' s armed struggle was not over , and would continue as " a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid . " He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations , so that " there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle " , and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections . Staying at the home of Desmond Tutu , in the following days , Mandela met with friends , activists , and press , giving a speech to 100 , 000 people at Johannesburg ' s Soccer City . The end of apartheid . Early negotiations : 1990 – 1991 . Mandela proceeded on an African tour , meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia , Zimbabwe , Namibia , Libya and Algeria , continuing to Sweden where he was reunited with Tambo , and then London , where he appeared at the concert in Wembley Stadium . Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government , in France he was welcomed by President François Mitterrand , in the Vatican City by Pope John Paul II , and in England he met Margaret Thatcher . In the United States , he met President George H . W . Bush , addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities , being particularly popular among the African - American community . In Cuba he met President Fidel Castro , whom he had long emulated , with the two becoming friends . In Asia he met President R . Venkataraman in India , President Suharto in Indonesia and Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia , before visiting Australia to meet Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Japan ; he notably did not visit the Soviet Union , a longtime ANC supporter . In May 1990 , Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men . Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history , and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute , in which the government lifted the state of emergency . In August Mandela – recognising the ANC ' s severe military disadvantage – offered a ceasefire , the Pretoria Minute , for which he was widely criticised by MK activists . He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC , appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates , many of whom found him more moderate than expected . At the ANC ' s July 1991 national conference in Durban , Mandela admitted the party ' s faults and announced his aim in building a " strong and well - oiled task force " for securing majority rule . At the conference , he was elected ANC President , replacing the ailing Tambo , while a 50 - strong multiracial , multi - gendered national executive was elected . Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House , central Johannesburg , while moving with Winnie to her large Soweto home . Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu , but he supported her during her trial for kidnap and assault . He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi , but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years , reduced to two on appeal . On 13 April 1992 , Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie , while the ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds ; Mandela moved into the mostly - white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton . Mandela ' s reputation was further damaged by the increase in " black - on - black " violence , particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu - Natal , in which thousands died . Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi , but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue . Mandela recognised that there was a " third force " within the state intelligence services fuelling the " slaughter of the people " and openly blamed de Klerk – whom he increasingly distrusted – for the Sebokeng massacre . In September 1991 a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg in which Mandela , Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord , though the violence continued . The CODESA talks : 1991 – 1992 . The Convention for a Democratic South Africa ( CODESA ) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Center , attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties . Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC ' s delegation , Mandela remained a key figure , and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC ' s violence , he took to the stage to denounce him as " head of an illegitimate , discredited minority regime " . Dominated by the National Party and ANC , little negotiation was achieved . CODESA 2 was held in May 1992 , in which de Klerk insisted that post - apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities ; Mandela opposed this , demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule . Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government - aided Inkatha militants , Mandela called off the negotiations , before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal , at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent " state terrorism " . The UN subsequently sent special envoy Cyrus Vance to the country to aid negotiations . Calling for domestic mass action , in August the ANC organised the largest - ever strike in South African history , while supporters marched on Pretoria . Following the Bisho massacre , in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march , Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September . He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released , that Zulu traditional weapons be banned , and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off , the latter two measures to prevent further Inkatha attacks ; under increasing pressure , de Klerk reluctantly agreed . The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held , resulting in a five - year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence . The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants ; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism . The duo agreed on an interim constitution , guaranteeing separation of powers , creating a constitutional court , and including a US - style bill of rights ; it also divided the country into nine provinces , each with its own premier and civil service , a concession between de Klerk ' s desire for federalism and Mandela ' s for unitary government . The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group ( COSAG ) , an alliance of far - right Afrikaner parties and black ethnic - secessionist groups like Inkatha ; in June 1993 the white supremacist Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging ( AWB ) attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre . Following the murder of ANC leader Chris Hani , Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting , soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo , who had died from a stroke . In July 1993 , both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US , independently meeting President Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal . Soon after , they were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway . Influenced by young ANC leader Thabo Mbeki , Mandela began meeting with big business figures , and played down his support for nationalisation , fearing that he would scare away much - needed foreign investment . Although criticised by socialist ANC members , he was encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland . Mandela also made a cameo appearance as a schoolteacher reciting one of Malcolm X ' s speeches in the final scene of the 1992 film " Malcolm X " . General election : 1994 . With the election set for 27 April 1994 , the ANC began campaigning , opening 100 election offices and hiring advisor Stanley Greenberg . Greenberg orchestrated the foundation of People ' s Forums across the country , at which Mandela could appear ; though a poor public speaker , he was a popular figure with great status among black South Africans . The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme ( RDP ) to build a million houses in five years , introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity . The party ' s slogan was " a better life for all " , although it was not explained how this development would be funded . With the exception of the " Weekly Mail " and the " New Nation " , South Africa ' s press opposed Mandela ' s election , fearing continued ethnic strife , instead supporting the National or Democratic Party . Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC , touring North America , Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors , including former supporters of the apartheid regime . He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14 ; rejected by the ANC , this policy became the subject of ridicule . Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election , particularly in the wake of the Battle of Bop and Shell House Massacre – incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha , respectively – Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals , including P . W . Botha , Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen , persuading many to work within the democratic system , and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha ' s Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession . As leaders of the two major parties , de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate ; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event , Mandela ' s offer to shake his hand surprised him , leading some commentators to consider it a victory for Mandela . The election went ahead with little violence , although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs . Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban , and though he was elected President , he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage . Having taken 62 % of the national vote , the ANC was just short of the two - thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution . The ANC was also victorious in 7 provinces , with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another . Presidency of South Africa : 1994 – 1999 . Mandela ' s inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994 , televised to a billion viewers globally . The event was attended by 4000 guests , including world leaders from disparate backgrounds . South Africa ' s first black President , Mandela became head of a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC – which alone had no experience of governance – but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha . In keeping with earlier agreements , de Klerk became first Deputy President , while Thabo Mbeki was selected as second . Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job , Mandela would grow to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency , allowing him to organise policy details . Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town , Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate , instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor , which he renamed " Genadendal " , meaning " Valley of Mercy " in Afrikaans . Retaining his Houghton home , he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu , which he visited regularly , walking around the area , meeting with locals , and judging tribal disputes . Aged 76 , he faced various ailments , and although exhibiting continued energy , he felt isolated and lonely . He often entertained celebrities , such as Michael Jackson , Whoopi Goldberg , and the Spice Girls , and befriended a number of ultra - rich businessman , like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo - American , as well as British monarch Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa , resulting in strong criticism from ANC anti - capitalists . Despite his opulent surroundings , Mandela lived simply , donating a third of his 552 , 000 rand annual income to the Nelson Mandela Children ' s Fund , which he had founded in 1995 . Although speaking out in favour of freedom of the press and befriending many journalists , Mandela was critical of much of the country ' s media , noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle - class whites and believing that it focused too much on scaremongering around crime . Changing clothes several times a day , after assuming the presidency , one of Mandela ' s trademarks was his use of Batik shirts , known as " Madiba shirt s " , even on formal occasions . In December 1994 , Mandela ' s autobiography , " Long Walk to Freedom " , was finally published . In late 1994 he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein , at which a more militant National Executive was elected , among them Winnie Mandela ; although she expressed an interest in reconciling , Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995 . By 1995 he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel , a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel . They had first met in July 1990 , when she was still in mourning , but their friendship grew into a partnership , with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits . She turned down Mandela ' s first marriage proposal , wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg . National reconciliation . Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy , Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency . Having seen other post - colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites , Mandela worked to reassure South Africa ' s white population that they were protected and represented in " the Rainbow Nation " . Mandela attempted to create the broadest possible coalition in his cabinet , with de Klerk as first Deputy President while other National Party officials became ministers for Agriculture , Energy , Environment , and Minerals and Energy , and Buthelezi was named Minister for Home Affairs . The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members , many of whom – like Joe Modise , Alfred Nzo , Joe Slovo , Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar – had long been comrades , although others , such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe , were much younger . Mandela ' s relationship with de Klerk was strained ; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative , while de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president . In January 1995 , Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3 , 500 police just before the election , and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder . Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime , including Hendrik Verwoerd ' s widow Betsie Schoombie and the lawyer Percy Yutar ; emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation , he announced that " courageous people do not fear forgiving , for the sake of peace . " He encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team , the Springboks , as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup . After the Springboks won an epic final over New Zealand , Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar , an Afrikaner , wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar ' s own number 6 on the back . This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans ; as de Klerk later put it , " Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans . " Mandela ' s efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites , but also drew criticism from more militant blacks . His estranged wife , Winnie , accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing whites than in helping blacks . More controversially , Mandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC , appointing Desmond Tutu as its chair . To prevent the creation of martyrs , the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era . Dedicated in February 1996 , it held two years of hearings detailing rapes , torture , bombings , and assassinations , before issuing its final report in October 1998 . Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed , though only de Klerk ' s appeal was successful . Mandela praised the Commission ' s work , stating that it " had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future " . Domestic programs . Mandela ' s administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities . Of a population of 40 million , around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation , 12 million lacked clean water supplies , with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate . There was 33 % unemployment , and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line . Government financial reserves were nearly depleted , with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment , meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme ( RDP ) was scaled back , with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation . Instead , the government adopted liberal economic policies designed to promote foreign investment , adhering to the " Washington consensus " advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund . Under Mandela ' s presidency , welfare spending increased by 13 % in 1996 / 97 , 13 % in 1997 / 98 , and 7 % in 1998 / 99 . The government introduced parity in grants for communities , including disability grants , child maintenance grants , and old - age pensions , which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa ' s different racial groups . In 1994 , free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women , a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996 . By the 1999 election , the ANC could boast that due to their policies , 3 million people were connected to telephone lines , 1 . 5 million children were brought into the education system , 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed , 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid , water access was extended to 3 million people , and 750 , 000 houses were constructed , housing nearly 3 million people . The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act , 1913 to claim back their land , leading to the settlement of tens of thousands of land claims . The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants who live and grow crops or graze livestock on farms . This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of sixty - five . The Skills Development Act of 1998 provided for the establishment of mechanisms to finance and promote skills development at the workplace . The Labour Relations Act of 1995 promoted workplace democracy , orderly collective bargaining , and the effective resolution of labour disputes . The Basic Conditions of Employment Act of 1997 improved enforcement mechanisms while extending a " floor " of rights to all workers , while the Employment Equity Act of 1998 was passed to put an end to unfair discrimination and ensure the implementation of affirmative action in the workplace . Many domestic problems however remained . Critics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela ' s government of doing little to stem the HIV / AIDS pandemic in the country ; by 1999 , 10 % of South Africa ' s population were HIV positive . Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue , leaving it for Mbeki to deal with . Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime , South Africa having one of the world ' s highest crime rates ; this was a key reason cited by the 750 , 000 whites who emigrated in the late 1990s . Mandela ' s administration was mired in corruption scandals , with Mandela being perceived as " soft " on corruption and greed . Foreign affairs . Following the South African example , Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation . He echoed Mbeki ' s calls for an " African Renaissance " , and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent ; he took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha ' s military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha ' s regime increased human rights violations . In 1996 he was appointed Chairman of the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire . In South Africa ' s first post - apartheid military operation , Mandela ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings . In September 1998 , Mandela was appointed Secretary - General of the Non - Aligned Movement , who held their annual conference in Durban . He used the event to criticise the " narrow , chauvinistic interests " of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli - Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict , for which he was criticised by both Israel and India . Inspired by the region ' s economic boom , Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia , in particular with Malaysia , although this was scuppered by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . He attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian President Suharto , whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses , although privately urged him to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor . Mandela faced similar criticism from the west for his personal friendships with Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi . Castro visited in 1998 , to widespread popular acclaim , while Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope . When western governments and media criticised these visits , Mandela lambasted the criticisms as having racist undertones . Mandela hoped to resolve the long - running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans , Abdelbaset al - Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah , who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103 . Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country , which was agreed to by all parties ; governed by Scots law , the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999 , and found one of the two men guilty . Withdrawing from politics . The new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996 , enshrining a series of institutions to check political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy . De Klerk however opposed the implementation of this constitution , withdrawing from the coalition government in protest . The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the National Party , with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President . When both Mandela and Mbkei were out of the country in one occasion , Buthelezi was appointed " Acting President " , marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela . Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the December 1997 conference , and although hoping that Ramaphosa would replace him , the ANC elected Mbeki to the position ; Mandela admitted that by then , Mbeki had become " " de facto " President of the country " . Replacing Mbeki as Deputy President , Mandela and the Executive supported the candidacy of Jacob Zuma , a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island , but he was challenged by Winnie , whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party ; Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election . Mandela ' s relationship with Machel had intensified ; in February 1998 he publicly stated that " I ' m in love with a remarkable lady " , and under pressure from his friend Desmond Tutu , who urged him to set an example for young people , he set a wedding for his 80th birthday , in July . The following day he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries . Mandela had never planned on standing for a second term in office , and gave his farewell speech on 29 March 1999 , after which he retired . Retirement . Continued activism : 1999 – 2004 . Retiring in June 1999 , Mandela sought a quiet family life , to be divided between Johannesburg and Qunu . He set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography , to be titled " The Presidential Years " , but it was abandoned before publication . Finding such seclusion difficult , he reverted to a busy public life with a daily programme of tasks , meeting with world leaders and celebrities , and when in Johannesburg worked with the Nelson Mandela Foundation , founded in 1999 to focus on combating HIV / AIDS , rural development and school construction . Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the pandemic during his presidency , he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement , describing it as " a war " that had killed more than " all previous wars " , and urged Mbeki ' s government to ensure that HIV + South Africans had access to retrovirals . In 2000 , the Nelson Mandela Invitational charity golf tournament was founded , hosted by Gary Player . Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001 . In 2002 , Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture , and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House , University of Oxford , to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students . These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV / AIDS . He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000 , and in 2004 , spoke at the XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok , Thailand . Publicly , Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers . He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world ' s powerful nations to police the entire world . In 2003 he spoke out against the plans for the US and UK to launch the War in Iraq , describing it as " a tragedy " and lambasting US President George W . Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for undermining the UN . He attacked the US more generally , asserting that it had committed more " unspeakable atrocities " across the world than any other nation , citing the atomic bombing of Japan ; this attracted international controversy , although he would subsequently reconcile his relationship with Blair . Retaining an interest in Libyan - UK relations , he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison , and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment , referring to them as " psychological persecution . " " Retiring from retirement " : 2004 – present . In June 2004 , aged 85 and amid failing health , Mandela announced that he was " retiring from retirement " and retreating from public life , remarking " Don ' t call me , I will call you . " Although continuing to meet with close friends and family , the Foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests . He retained some involvement in international affairs . In 2005 , he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust , travelling to the U . S . , to speak before the Brookings Institute and NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa . He spoke with U . S . Senator Hillary Clinton and President George W . Bush and first met then - U . S . Senator Barack Obama . Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country . When this proved ineffective , he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007 , asking him to step down " with residual respect and a modicum of dignity . " That year , Mandela , Machel , and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world ' s toughest problems . Mandela announced the formation of this new group , The Elders , in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday . Mandela ' s 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008 , with the main celebrations held at Qunu , and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park , London . In a speech marking the event , Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world . Throughout Mbeki ' s presidency , Mandela continued to support the ANC , although usually overshadowed Mbeki at any public events that the two attended . Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki ' s successor Jacob Zuma , although the Nelson Mandela Foundation were upset when his grandson , Mandla Mandela , flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro - Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009 . Since 2004 , Mandela had successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup , declaring that there would be " few better gifts for us in the year " marking a decade since the fall of apartheid . Despite maintaining a low - profile during the event , Mandela made a rare public appearance during the closing ceremony , where he received a " rapturous reception " . Between 2005 and 2013 , Mandela , and later his family , were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants . In mid - 2013 , as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria , his descendants were involved in intra - family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela ' s deceased children , and ultimately Mandela himself . In February 2011 , he was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection , attracting international attention , before being re - hospitalised for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012 . After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013 , his lung infection recurred , and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria . On 8 June 2013 , his lung infection worsened , and he was rehospitalised in Pretoria in a serious condition . After four days , it was reported that he had stabilised and remained in a " serious , but stable condition " . En route to the hospital , his ambulance broke down and was stranded on the roadside for 40 minutes . The government was criticised for the incident , but Zuma countered that throughout , Mandela was given " expert medical care . " On 22 June 2013 , CBS News stated that he had not opened his eyes in days and was unresponsive , and the family was discussing how much medical intervention should be given . Former bodyguard Shaun van Heerden , described by CBS News as " Mandela ' s constant companion for the last 12 years " , had publicly asked the family to " set him free " a week prior . On 23 June 2013 , Zuma announced that Mandela ' s condition had become " critical " . Zuma , accompanied by the Deputy President of the ANC , Cyril Ramaphosa , met Mandela ' s wife Graça Machel at the hospital in Pretoria and discussed his condition . On 25 June Cape Town Archbishop Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Graça Machel Mandela " at this hard time of watching and waiting " . The next day , Zuma visited Mandela in the hospital and canceled a visit scheduled for the next day to Mozambique . A relative of Mandela told " The Daily Telegraph " newspaper he is on life support . On 4 July it was reported that David Smith , a lawyer acting on behalf of Mandela family members , claimed in court on 26 June that Mandela was in a permanent vegetative state and life support should be shut off . The South African Presidency stated that the doctors treating Mandela deny that he is in a vegetative state . On 10 July , Zuma ' s office announced that Mandela remained in critical but stable condition , and was responding to treatment . On 1 September 2013 , Mandela was discharged from hospital and , according to President Jacob Zuma ' s office , " Madiba ' s condition remains critical and is at times unstable . His team of doctors are convinced that he will receive the same level of intensive care at his Houghton [ in Johannesburg ] home that he received in Pretoria . " It came at the same weekend as a Mandela family member said he was discharged but Zuma ' s spokesman Mac Maharaj denied the claim . Personal and public life . Image . Across the world , Mandela came to be seen as " a moral authority " with a great " concern for truth " . Considered friendly and welcoming , Mandela exhibited a " relaxed charm " when talking to others , including his opponents . Although often befriending millionaires and dignitaries , he enjoyed talking with their staff when at official functions . In later life , he was known for looking for the best in everyone , even defending political opponents to his allies , though some thought him too trusting of others . He was renowned for his stubbornness and loyalty , and exhibited a " hot temper " which could flare up in anger in certain situations , also being " moody and dejected " away from the public eye . He also had a mischievous sense of humour . Very conscious of his image , throughout his life he sought fine quality clothes , carrying himself in a " regal style " stemming from his childhood in the Thembu royal house , and during his presidency was often compared to a . Considered a " master of imagery and performance " , he excelled at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing soundbites . Political ideology . Mandela was an African nationalist , an ideological position he held since joining the ANC , also being " a democrat , and a socialist " . Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches , Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and would abide by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them . He held a conviction that " inclusivity , accountability and freedom of speech " were the fundamentals of democracy , and was driven by a belief in natural and human rights . A democratic socialist , Mandela was " openly opposed to capitalism , private land - ownership and the power of big money " . Influenced by Marxism , during the revolution Mandela advocated scientific socialism , although he denied being a communist during the Treason Trial . Biographer David James Smith thought this untrue , stating that Mandela " embraced communism and communists " in the late 1950s and early 1960s , though was a " fellow traveller " rather than a party member . In the 1955 Freedom Charter , which Mandela had helped create , it called for the nationalisation of banks , gold mines , and land , believing it necessary to ensure equal distribution of wealth . Despite these beliefs , Mandela nationalised nothing during his presidency , fearing that this would scare away foreign investors . This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s . Family . Mandela has been married three times , has fathered six children , has 17 grandchildren and a growing number of great - grandchildren . He could be stern and demanding of his children , although was more affectionate with his grandchildren . Mandela ' s first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase , who was also from the Transkei , although they met in Johannesburg before being married in October 1944 . The couple broke up in 1957 after 13 years , divorcing under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences , devotion to revolutionary agitation , and the fact that she was a member of the Jehovah ' s Witnesses , a religion requiring political neutrality . The couple had two sons , Madiba " Thembi " Thembekile ( 1946 – 1969 ) and Makgatho Mandela ( 1950 – 2005 ) , and two daughters , both named Makaziwe Mandela ( known as Maki ; born 1947 and 1953 ) . Their first daughter died aged nine months , and they named their second daughter in her honour . Mase died in 2004 , and Mandela attended her funeral . Makgatho ' s son , Mandla Mandela , became chief of the Mvezo tribal council in 2007 . Mandela ' s second wife , Winnie Madikizela - Mandela , also came from the Transkei area , although they , too , met in Johannesburg , where she was the city ' s first black social worker . They had two daughters , Zenani ( Zeni ) , born 4 February 1958 , and Zindziswa ( Zindzi ) Mandela - Hlongwane , born 1960 . Zindzi was only 18 months old when her father was sent to Robben island . Later , Winnie would be deeply torn by family discord which mirrored the country ' s political strife ; whilearation ( April 1992 ) and divorce ( March 1996 ) , fueled by political estrangement . Mandela was still in prison when his daughter Zenani was married in 1973 to Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini , a brother of both King Mswati III of Swaziland and of Queen Mantfombi of the Zulus . Although she had vivid memories of her father , from the age of four up until sixteen , South African authorities did not permit her to visit him . In July 2012 , Zenani was appointed ambassador to Argentina , becoming the first of Mandela ' s three remaining children to enter public life . Mandela remarried on his 80th birthday in 1998 , to his third wife , Graça Machel ( " née " Simbine ) , widow of Samora Machel , the former Mozambican president and ANC ally who was killed in an air crash 12 years earlier . Legacy . Within South Africa , Mandela is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name of " Madiba " . Orders , decorations and monuments . Within South Africa , Mandela is widely considered to be " the father of the nation " , and " the founding father of democracy " , being seen as " the national liberator , the saviour , its Washington and Lincoln rolled into one " . In 2004 , Johannesburg granted Mandela the freedom of the city , and the Sandton Square shopping centre was renamed Nelson Mandela Square , after a Mandela statue was installed there . In 2008 , another Mandela statue was unveiled at Groot Drakenstein Correctional Centre , formerly Victor Verster Prison , near Cape Town , standing on the spot where Mandela was released from the prison . He has also received international acclaim . In 1993 , he received the joint Nobel Peace Prize with de Klerk . In November 2009 , the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela ' s birthday , 18 July , as " Mandela Day " , marking his contribution to the anti - apartheid struggle . It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others , commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement . Awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom , and the Order of Canada , he was the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen . The last reciprocent of the Soviet Union ' s Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union , and first reciprocent of the Al - Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights , in 1990 he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the government of India , and in 1992 received Pakistan ' s Nishan - e - Pakistan . In 1992 he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey . He refused the award , citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time , but later accepted the award in 1999 . Elizabeth II awarded him the Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St . John and the Order of Merit . Tributes by musicians . Many artists have dedicated songs to Mandela . One of the most popular was from The Special AKA who recorded the song " Free Nelson Mandela " in 1983 , which Elvis Costello also recorded and had a hit with . Stevie Wonder dedicated his 1985 Oscar for the song " I Just Called to Say I Love You " to Mandela , resulting in his music being banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation . In 1985 , Youssou N ' Dour ' s album " Nelson Mandela " was the Senegalese artist ' s first US release . Other artists who released songs or videos honouring Mandela include Johnny Clegg , Hugh Masekela , Brenda Fassie , Beyond , Nickelback , Raffi , and Ampie du Preez and AB de Villiers . Cinema and television . Mandela has been depicted in cinema and television on multiple occasions . The 1997 film " Mandela and de Klerk " starred Sidney Poitier as Mandela , while Dennis Haysbert played him in " Goodbye Bafana " ( 2007 ) . In the 2009 BBC television film " Mrs Mandela " , Nelson Mandela was portrayed by David Harewood , and Morgan Freeman portrayed him in " Invictus " ( 2009 ) . He is portrayed by Idris Elba in the upcoming 2013 film , " " .