Domitian Domitian ( ; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 ) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96 . Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty . Domitian ' s youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus , who gained military renown during the First Jewish - Roman War . This situation continued under the rule of his father Vespasian , who became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors . While Titus held a great many offices under the rule of his father , Domitian was left with honours but no responsibilities . Vespasian died in 79 and was succeeded by Titus , whose own reign came to an unexpected end when he was struck by a fatal illness in 81 . The following day Domitian was declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard , commencing a reign which lasted fifteen years – longer than any man who had ruled since Tiberius . As Emperor , Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage , expanded the border defenses of the Empire , and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city of Rome . Significant wars were fought in Britain , where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia ( Scotland ) , and in Dacia , where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against king Decebalus . Domitian ' s government exhibited totalitarian characteristics ; he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of brilliance . Religious , military , and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality , and by nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals . As a consequence , Domitian was popular with the people and army but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate . According to Suetonius , he was the first Roman Emperor who had demanded to be addressed as " dominus et deus " ( master and god ) . Domitian ' s reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials . The same day he was succeeded by his advisor Nerva . After his death , Domitian ' s memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate , while senatorial authors such as Tacitus , Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant . Modern history has rejected these views , instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat , whose cultural , economic and political program provided the foundation of the peaceful 2nd century . Early life . Family . Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51 , the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus — commonly known as Vespasian — and Flavia Domitilla Major . He had an older sister , Domitilla the Younger , and brother , also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus . Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome , which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century . One such family , the Flavians , or " gens Flavia " , rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations , acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio - Claudian dynasty . Domitian ' s great - grandfather , Titus Flavius Petro , had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar ' s civil war . His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC . Nevertheless , Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla , whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro ' s son Titus Flavius Sabinus I , Domitian ' s grandfather . Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia ( modern Switzerland ) . By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician " gens Vespasia " , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial rank . The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor , aedile , and praetor , and culminated with a consulship in 51 , the year of Domitian ' s birth . As a military commander , Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 . Nevertheless , ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian ' s upbringing , even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula ( 37 – 41 ) and Nero ( 54 – 68 ) . Modern history has refuted these claims , suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio - Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 54 ) and his son Britannicus . By all appearances , the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s . While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus , Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career . Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s , he returned to public office under Nero , serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63 , and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66 . The same year the Jews of the Judaea province revolted against the Roman Empire in what is now known as the First Jewish - Roman War . Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents , with Titus — who had completed his military education by this time — in charge of a legion . Youth and character . By the time he was 6 years old , Domitian ' s mother and sister had long since died , while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military , commanding armies in Germania and Judaea . For Domitian , this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives . During the Jewish - Roman wars , he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II , at the time serving as city prefect of Rome ; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva , a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian . He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class , studying rhetoric and literature . In his biography in the " Lives of the Twelve Caesars " , Suetonius attests to Domitian ' s ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions , and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent , with elegant conversation . Among his first published works were poetry , as well as writings on law and administration . Unlike his brother Titus , Domitian was not educated at court . Whether he received formal military training is not recorded , but according to Suetonius , he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow . A detailed description of Domitian ' s appearance and character is provided by Suetonius , who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality . Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness , which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs . According to Suetonius , he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care . With regard to Domitian ' s personality , however , the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor - tyrant , a man both physically and intellectually lazy , and the intelligent , refined personality drawn elsewhere . Historian Brian Jones concludes in " The Emperor Domitian " that assessing the true nature of Domitian ' s personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources . Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence . He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father . He was prone to suspicion , displayed an odd , sometimes self - deprecating sense of humour , and often communicated in cryptic ways . This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness , and as he grew older , he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude , which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing . Indeed , by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease . Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero ' s reign , his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s , culminating with the civil war of 69 , which brought his family to power . Rise of the Flavian dynasty . Year of the Four Emperors . On 9 June 68 , amidst growing opposition of the Senate and the army , Nero committed suicide , and with him the Julio - Claudian dynasty came to an end . Chaos ensued , leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors , during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba , Otho , Vitellius and Vespasian — successively vied for imperial power . News of Nero ' s death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem . Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba , then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis ( modern Spain ) , as Emperor of Rome . Rather than continue his campaign , Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor . Before reaching Italy , Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho , the governor of Lusitania ( modern Portugal ) . At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt , and prepared to march on Rome , intent on overthrowing Otho . Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other , Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea . Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction . With four legions at his disposal , Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80 , 000 soldiers . His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt , which controlled the grain supply to Rome . His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II , as city prefect , commanded the entire city garrison of Rome . Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high , but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power , Vespasian refused to take action . When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum , the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69 . Vespasian accepted , and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus , the governor of Syria , against Vitellius . A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus , while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria , leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion . In Rome meanwhile , Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius , as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression . Support for the old emperor was waning however , as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian . On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius . In despair , he attempted to negotiate a surrender . Terms of peace , including a voluntary abdication , were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II , but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard — the imperial bodyguard — considered such a resignation disgraceful , and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty . On the morning of 18 December , the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord , but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace . In the confusion , the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus ' house , proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor , but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus , who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill . During the night , he was joined by his relatives , including Domitian . The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome , but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day . On 19 December , Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol , and in the resulting skirmish , Sabinus was captured and executed . Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis , and spent the night in safety with one of his father ' s supporters . By the afternoon of 20 December Vitellius was dead , his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions . With nothing more to be feared from the enemy , Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces ; he was universally saluted by the title of " Caesar " , and the mass of troops conducted him to his father ' s house . The following day , 21 December , the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire . Aftermath of the war . Although the war had officially ended , a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius . Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year . In the meantime , Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate . He received the title of " Caesar " and was appointed praetor with consular power . The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian ' s first speech in the Senate as brief and measured , at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions . Domitian ' s authority was merely nominal , however , foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years . By all accounts , Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian ' s absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian , still only eighteen years old , did not overstep the boundaries of his function . Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar ' s entourage , promoting away Flavian generals such as Arrius Varus and Antonius Primus and replacing them by more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens . Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian ' s military ambitions . The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces , leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul . Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions , led by Gaius Julius Civilis , had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus . Seven legions were sent from Rome , led by Vespasian ' s brother - in - law Quintus Petillius Cerialis . Although the revolt was quickly suppressed , exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own . Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own . According to Tacitus , Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him , he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome . When news arrived of Cerialis ' victory over Civilis , Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours . Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally , suggesting he hand over command of his army but , once again , he was snubbed . With the return of Vespasian in late September , his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature . Marriage . Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment , Domitian ' s private affairs were more successful . In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus , Julia Flavia , but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina , going so far as to persuade her husband , Lucius Aelius Lamia , to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself . Despite its initial recklessness , the alliance was very prestigious for both families . Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo , a respected general and honoured politician . Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65 , he had been forced to commit suicide . The new marriage not only re - established ties to senatorial opposition , but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time , which sought to diminish Vespasian ' s political success under Nero . Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised , and Nero ' s victims , or those otherwise disadvantaged by him , rehabilitated . In 80 , Domitia and Domitian ' s only attested son was born . It is not known what the boy ' s name was , but he died in childhood in 83 . Shortly following his accession as Emperor , Domitian bestowed the honorific title of " Augusta " upon Domitia , while their son was deified , appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period . Nevertheless , the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83 . For reasons unknown , Domitian briefly exiled Domitia , and then soon recalled her , either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia . Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir . By 84 , Domitia had returned to the palace , where she lived for the remainder of Domitian ' s reign without incident . Little is known of Domitia ' s activities as Empress , or how much influence she wielded in Domitian ' s government , but it seems her role was limited . From Suetonius , we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre , while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her . It is not known whether Domitian had other children , but he did not marry again . Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce , the marriage appears to have been happy . Ceremonial heir ( 71 - 81 ) . Prior to becoming Emperor , Domitian ' s role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial . In June 71 , Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea . Ultimately , the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million people , a majority of whom were Jewish . The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed , its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army , and nearly 100 , 000 people were captured and enslaved . For his victory , the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph . On the day of the festivities , the Flavian family rode into the capital , preceded by a lavish parade which displayed the spoils of the war . The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus , while Domitian , riding a magnificent white horse , followed with the remaining Flavian relatives . Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum , after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . A triumphal arch , the Arch of Titus , was erected at the south - east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war . Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian , both militarily and politically . As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian ' s sons , Titus shared tribunician power with his father , received seven consulships , the censorship , and was given command of the Praetorian Guard ; powers which left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire . As a second son , Domitian held honorary titles , such as " Caesar " or " Princeps Iuventutis " , and several priesthoods , including those of " augur " , " pontifex " , " frater arvalis " , " magister frater arvalium " , and " sacerdos collegiorum omnium " , but no office with " imperium " . He held six consulships during Vespasian ' s reign but only one of these , in 73 , was an ordinary consulship . The other five were less prestigious suffect consul ships , which he held in 71 , 75 , 76 , 77 and 79 respectively , usually replacing his father or brother in mid - January . While ceremonial , these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate , and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance . Under Vespasian and Titus , non - Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices . Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time , and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77 . Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction ; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy . Because Titus effectively acted as co - emperor with his father , no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 23 June 79 . Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his , but neither tribunician power nor " imperium " of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus ' brief reign . Understandably , the new Emperor was not eager to alter this arrangement : he would have expected to rule for at least another twenty or thirty years , and urgent attention was required to address the multitude of disasters which struck during 79 and 80 . On 24 August 79 , Mount Vesuvius erupted , burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava ; the following year , a fire broke out in Rome which lasted three days and which destroyed a number of important public buildings . Consequently , Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property . On 13 September 81 after barely two years in office , he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories . Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother , either by directly accusing him of murder , or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead , even alleging that during his lifetime , Domitian was openly plotting against his brother . It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources . Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum , but this was hardly surprising , considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven . Whatever the nature of their relationship , Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying , instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor . The following day , 14 September , the Senate confirmed Domitian ' s powers , granting tribunician power , the office of Pontifex Maximus , and the titles of " Augustus " , and " Pater Patriae " . Emperor ( 81 ) . Administration . As Emperor , Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign . By moving the centre of government ( more or less formally ) to the imperial court , Domitian openly rendered the Senate ' s powers obsolete . In his view , the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head . In addition to exercising absolute political power , Domitian believed the Emperor ' s role encompassed every aspect of daily life , guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority . To usher in the new era , he embarked on ambitious economic , military and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus . Despite these grand designs Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously . He became personally involved in all branches of the administration : edict s were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law , while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced . According to Suetonius , the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian , whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials . Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule , those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate , and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family members ; a policy which stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus . Above all , however , Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts , qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family , whom he regarded with suspicion , and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy . The reality of Domitian ' s autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that , more than any emperor since Tiberius , he spent significant periods of time away from the capital . Although the Senate ' s power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic , under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome , but rather wherever the Emperor was . Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill , the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeo , and sometimes even farther afield . Domitian toured the European provinces extensively , and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum , conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire . Economy . Domitian ' s tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy . The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated . The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian ' s reign . Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically . He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90 % to 98 % — the actual silver weight increasing from 2 . 87 grams to 3 . 26 grams . A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93 . 5 % and 3 . 04 grams respectively . Nevertheless the new values were still higher than the levels which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns . Domitian ' s rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years . Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian ' s titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits . Jones estimates Domitian ' s annual income at more than 1 , 200 million sestertii , of which over one - third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army . The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome . At the time of Domitian ' s accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64 , the civil war of 69 and the fire in 79 . Much more than a renovation project however , Domitian ' s building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire - wide cultural renaissance . Around fifty structures were erected , restored or completed , achievements second only to those of Augustus . Among the most important new structures were an odeon , a stadium , and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace which was designed by Domitian ' s master architect Rabirius . The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill , said to have been covered with a gilded roof . Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , the Arch of Titus , and the Colosseum , to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area . In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives , or " congiaria " , throughout Domitian ' s reign . The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets , which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero , while he invested large sums on entertainment and games . In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games , a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays , chariot racing , and competitions for oratory , music and acting . Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes . Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiator ial games such as naval contests , nighttime battles , and female and dwarf gladiator fights . Lastly , he added two new factions to the chariot races , Gold and Purple , to race against the existing White , Red , Green and Blue factions . Military activity . The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian ' s reign were generally defensive in nature , as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare . His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads , forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire . Nevertheless , several important wars were fought in Gaul , against the Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi , the Sarmatians , and the Dacians . The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola , who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia , or modern day Scotland . Domitian also founded a new legion in 82 , the Legio I Minervia , to fight against the Chatti . Domitian is also credited on the easternmost Roman evidence known , the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain , in present - day Azerbaijan . As judged by the carved titles of Caesar , Augustus and Germanicus , the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD . Domitian ' s administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government . His competence as a military strategist was criticised by his contemporaries however . Although he claimed several triumphs , these were largely propaganda manoeuvres . Tacitus derided Domitian ' s victory against the Chatti as a " mock triumph " , and criticised his decision to retreat from Britain following the conquests of Agricola . Nevertheless , Domitian appears to have been very popular amongst the soldiers , spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns — more than any emperor since Augustus — and raising their pay by one - third . While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions , the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned . Campaign against the Chatti . Once Emperor , Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory . As early as 82 , or possibly 83 , he went to Gaul , ostensibly to conduct a census , and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti . For this purpose , a new legion was founded , Legio I Minervia , which constructed some 75 kilometres ( 46 mi ) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy ' s hiding places . Although little information survives of the battles fought , enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83 , where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of " Germanicus " . Domitian ' s supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors , who described the campaign as " uncalled for " , and a " mock triumph " . The evidence lends some credence to these claims , as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89 . Conquest of Britain ( 77 - 84 ) . One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus , whose biography of his father - in - law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84 . Agricola arrived c . 77 as governor of Roman Britain , immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia ( modern day Scotland ) . In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then . He fortified the coast facing Ireland , and Tacitus recalls that his father - in - law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries . He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest . This conquest never happened , but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small - scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland . Turning his attention from Ireland , the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia . To aid the advance , a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil . In the summer of 84 , Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians , led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy , two - thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands , ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control . In 85 , Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian , having served for more than six years as governor , longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era . Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola ' s successes outshone the Emperor ' s own modest victories in Germania . The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear : on the one hand , Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue , on the other , Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown . He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa , but declined it , either due to ill health or , as Tacitus claims , the machinations of Domitian . Not long after Agricola ' s recall from Britain , the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East . Reinforcements were needed , and in 87 or 88 , Domitian ordered a large - scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned , moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) further south . The army command may have resented Domitian ' s decision to retreat , but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury . Dacian wars ( 85 – 88 ) . The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum , where the Suebi , the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river . Of these , the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat . In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians , led by King Decebalus , crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia , wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus . Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive , personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus . Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid - 85 , prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph . The victory proved short - lived , however : as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill - fated expedition into Dacia which resulted in the complete destruction of the fifth legion , Legio V Alaudae , in the First Battle of Tapae . Fuscus was killed , and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost . The loss of the battle standard , or " aquila " , was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride . Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86 . He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia , and transferred three additional legions to the Danube . In 87 , the Romans invaded Dacia once more , this time under the command of Tettius Julianus , and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished . An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89 . In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts , Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus , negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces . Contemporary authors severely criticised this treaty , which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged . For the remainder of Domitian ' s reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom , but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defences . Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians , and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia . Trajan continued Domitian ' s policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia , and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars . Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106 . Again , the Roman army sustained heavy losses , but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and , importantly , annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines . Religious policy . Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion , and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign . In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule , Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter , perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill . A small chapel dedicated to " Jupiter Conservator " was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December , 69 . Later in his reign , he replaced it with a more expansive building , dedicated to " Jupiter Custos " . The goddess he worshipped the most zealously , however , was Minerva . Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom , she regularly appeared on his coinage — in four different attested reverse types — and he founded a legion , Legio I Minervia , in her name . Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult , which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian . Significantly , his first act as an Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus . Upon their deaths , his infant son , and niece , Julia Flavia , were likewise enrolled among the gods . With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure , both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of " Dominus et Deus " . However , not only did he reject the title of " Dominus " during his reign , but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect , historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from the emperor . To foster the worship of the imperial family , he erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian ' s former house on the Quirinal , and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother . To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family , he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux , and completed the Arch of Titus . Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian ' s religious policy , which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals . In 85 , he nominated himself perpetual censor , the office which held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct . Once again , Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully , and with care . He renewed the " Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis " , under which adultery was punishable by exile . From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back , while an ex - quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing . Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials , removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected . He ensured that libellous writings , especially those directed against himself , were punishable by exile or death . Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion , as their performances provided an opportunity for satire at the expense of the government . Consequently , he forbade mime s from appearing on stage in public . In 87 , Vestal Virgin s were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity . As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community , this offence essentially constituted incest . Accordingly , those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death , either by a manner of their choosing , or according to the ancient fashion , which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive . Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order , or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion . The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty , to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus . Veneration of Serapis and Isis , who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively , was especially prominent . 4th century writings by Eusebius of Caesarea maintains that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian ' s reign . The Book of Revelation is thought by some to have been written during this period . Although Jews were heavily taxed , no contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on religious offense s other than those within the Roman religion . Opposition . Revolt of Governor Saturninus ( 89 ) . On 1 January 89 , the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti tribe . The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain , although it appears to have been planned well in advance . The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian ' s military strategies , such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack , as well as his recent retreat from Britain , and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus . At any rate , the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus ' province , and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces . The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once , assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . From Spain , Trajan was summoned , whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard . By a stroke of luck , a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus ' aid . Within twenty - four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished . The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded . Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria , a consulship in May 95 , and finally a priesthood which he still held in 102 . Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt , but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94 , with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague . Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva , suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy , perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero . Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96 , he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat , surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians ' most trusted advisors . His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasise the stability and status quo of the regime . The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order . Relationship with the Senate . Since the fall of the Republic , the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi - monarchical system of government established by Augustus , known as the Principate . The Principate allowed the existence of a " de facto " dictatorial regime , while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic . Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy , and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor ' s status as a " de facto " monarch . Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others . Domitian was not so subtle . From the outset of his reign , he stressed the reality of his autocracy . He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it , withdrawing every decision - making power from the Senate , and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state . The dislike was mutual . After Domitian ' s assassination , the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house , where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion . Under the rulers of the Nervan - Antonian dynasty , senatorial authors published histories which elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant . Nevertheless , the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion . Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family , Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship , allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul . Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained . By offering the consulship to potential opponents , Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters . When their conduct proved unsatisfactory , they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed , and their property was confiscated . Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian ' s reign , identifying a point of sharp increase around 93 , or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89 . At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed , including Domitia Longina ' s former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian ' s own family members , Titus Flavius Sabinus IV , Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens . Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85 however , lending little credit to Tacitus ' notion of a " reign of terror " late in Domitian ' s reign . According to Suetonius , some were convicted for corruption or treason , others on trivial charges , which Domitian justified through his suspicion : Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 55 ) , noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians , and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history . Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy , despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments . His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate ' s loss of power , while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt . Death and succession . Assassination ( 96 ) . Domitian was murdered on 18 September 96 , in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials . A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius , who alleges that Domitian ' s chamberlain Parthenius was the chief instigator behind the conspiracy , citing the recent execution of Domitian ' s secretary Epaphroditus as the primary motive . The murder itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus , and a steward of Domitian ' s niece Flavia Domitilla , named Stephanus . The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is less clear . At the time the Guard was commanded by Titus Flavius Norbanus and Titus Petronius Secundus and the latter was almost certainly aware of the plot . Cassius Dio , writing nearly a hundred years after the assassination , includes Domitia Longina among the conspirators , but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian — even years after her husband had died — her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely . Dio further suggests that the assassination was improvised , while Suetonius implies a well organised conspiracy . For some days before the attack took place , Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a dagger beneath his bandages . On the day of the assassination the doors to the servants ' quarters were locked while Domitian ' s personal weapon of last resort , a sword he concealed beneath his pillow , had been removed in advance . In accordance with an astrological prediction the Emperor believed that he would die around noon , and was therefore restless during this time of the day . On his last day , Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant several times what time it was . The boy , included in the plot , lied , saying that it was much later than noon . More at ease , the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees , where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus : Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time , until the Emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators ; Stephanus was stabbed by Domitian during the struggle and died shortly afterward . Around noon Domitian , just one month short of his 45th birthday , was dead . His body was carried away on a common bier , and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis , who later mingled the ashes with those of his niece Julia , at the Flavian temple . According to Suetonius , a number of omen s had foretold Domitian ' s death . Several days prior to the assassination , Minerva had appeared to him in a dream , announcing she had been disarmed by Jupiter , and would no longer be able to protect him . Succession and aftermath . The " Fasti Ostienses " , the Ostian Calendar , records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor . Despite his political experience , this was a remarkable choice . Nerva was old and childless , and had spent much of his career out of the public light , prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian ' s assassination . According to Cassius Dio , the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination , suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot . He does not appear in Suetonius ' version of the events , but this may be understandable , since his works were published under Nerva ' s direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian . To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive . On the other hand , Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire , and as a known Flavian loyalist , his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators . The precise facts have been obscured by history , but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , within hours after the news of the assassination broke . The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war , but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy . The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian , and immediately following Nerva ' s accession as Emperor , passed " damnatio memoriae " on his memory : his coins and statues were melted , his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records . Domitian and , over a century later Publius Septimius Geta , were the only emperors known to have officially received a " damnatio memoriae " , though others may have received " de facto " ones . In many instances , existing portraits of Domitian , such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs , were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva , which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material . Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome , and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy . According to Suetonius , the people of Rome met the news of Domitian ' s death with indifference , but the army was much grieved , calling for his deification immediately after the assassination , and in several provinces rioting . As a compensation measure , the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian ' s assassins , which Nerva refused . Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus , and replaced him with a former commander , Casperius Aelianus . Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva ' s reign , and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97 , when members of the Praetorian Guard , led by Casperius Aelianus , laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage . He was forced to submit to their demands , agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian ' s death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians . Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed . Nerva was unharmed in this assault , but his authority was damaged beyond repair . Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor , and with this decision all but . Legacy . Ancient sources . The classic view of Domitian is usually negative , since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class , with which Domitian had a notoriously difficult relation . Furthermore , contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger , Tacitus and Suetonius all authored the information on his reign after it had ended , and his memory had been condemned to oblivion . The work of Domitian ' s court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign . Perhaps equally unsurprising as the attitude of post - Domitianic historians , the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory , praising Domitian ' s achievements as equalling those of the gods . The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius , who was born during the reign of Vespasian , and published his works under Emperor Hadrian ( 117 – 138 ) . His " De Vita Caesarum " is the source of much of what is known of Domitian . Although his text is predominantly negative , it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian , and asserts that his rule started well , but gradually declined into terror . The biography is problematic however , in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian ' s rule and personality , at the same time presenting him as a conscientious , moderate man , and as a decadent libertine . According to Suetonius , Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature , and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors . Other passages , alluding to Domitian ' s love of epigram matic expression , suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers , while he also patronized poets and architects , founded artistic Olympics , and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down . " De Vita Caesarum " is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian ' s marriage life . According to Suetonius , Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris . When Domitian found out , he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife , with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled , Domitian took Julia as his mistress , who later died during a failed abortion . Modern historians consider this highly implausible however , noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia ' s alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post - Domitianic authors , and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals , while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court . Nevertheless , the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries . Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era , his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father - in - law , Gnaeus Julius Agricola , may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor . In his biographical work " Agricola " , Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian ' s own inadequacy as a military commander . Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite : that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian , and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power . Tacitus ' major historical works , including " The Histories " and Agricola ' s biography , were all written and published under Domitian ' s successors Nerva ( 96 – 98 ) and Trajan ( 98 – 117 ) . Unfortunately , the part of Tacitus ' " Histories " dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost . His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books , and the short but highly negative characterisation in " Agricola " in which he severely criticises Domitian ' s military endeavours . Nevertheless , Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career . Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger , the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous " Panygericus Traiani " before Trajan and the Roman Senate , exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant . Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his " Satires " , depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt , violent and unjust . As a consequence , the anti - Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century , and by the 3rd century , even expanded upon by early Church historians , who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians . Modern revisionism . Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th century , before archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign , and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny . In 1930 , Ronald Syme argued a complete reassessment of Domitian ' s financial policy , which had until then been largely viewed as a disaster , opening his paper with the following introduction : Over the course of the 20th century , Domitian ' s military , administrative and economic policies were re - evaluated . New book length studies were not published until the 1990s however , nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell ' s " Essai sur le règne de l ' empereur Domitien " ( 1894 ) . The most important of these was " The Emperor Domitian " , by Brian W . Jones . In his monograph , Jones concludes that Domitian was a ruthless , but efficient autocrat . For the majority of his reign , there was no widespread dissatisfaction with the emperor or his rule . His harshness was felt by only a small , but highly vocal minority , who later exaggerated his despotism in favour of the well regarded Nervan - Antonian dynasty which followed . Domitian ' s foreign policy was realistic , rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest . His economic program , which was rigorously efficient , maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve . Persecution of religious minorities , such as Jews and Christians , was non - existent . Domitian ' s government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics . As Emperor , he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance . Religious , military and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality . He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements . Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior - emperor , but many of these were either unearned or premature . By nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals . He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials . The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech , and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate . He punished libel with exile or death and , due to his suspicious nature , increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary . Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death , his administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive , but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian ' s . Much more than a " gloomy coda to the . . . 1st century " the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96 , in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian .