Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( 20 / 21 July 356 – 10 / 11 June 323 BC ) , commonly known as Alexander the Great ( , " Aléxandros ho Mégas " from the Greek " alexo " " to defend , help " + " aner " " man " ) , was a king of Macedon , a state in northern ancient Greece . Born in Pella in 356 BC , Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16 . By the age of thirty , he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world , stretching from the Ionian Sea to the Himalayas . He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history ' s most successful commanders . Alexander succeeded his father , Philip II of Macedon , to the throne in 336 BC after Philip was assassinated . Upon Philip ' s death , Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army . He had been awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father ' s military expansion plans . In 334 BC , he invaded the Achaemenid empire , ruled Asia Minor , and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years . Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles , most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela . He subsequently overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the entirety of the Persian Empire . At that point , his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River . Seeking to reach the " ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea " , he invaded India in 326 BC , but was eventually forced to turn back at the demand of his troops . Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC , without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia . In the years following his death , a series of civil wars tore his empire apart , resulting in several states ruled by the Diadochi , Alexander ' s surviving generals and heirs . Alexander ' s legacy includes the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered . He founded some twenty cities that bore his name , most notably Alexandria in Egypt . Alexander ' s settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization , aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid - 15th century . Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles , and he features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non - Greek cultures . He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves , and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics . Early life . Lineage and childhood . Alexander was born on the 6th day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion , which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC , although the exact date is not known , in Pella , the capital of the Ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedon . He was the son of the king of Macedon , Philip II , and his fourth wife , Olympias , the daughter of Neoptolemus I , king of Epirus . Although Philip had seven or eight wives , Olympias was his principal wife for some time , likely a result of giving birth to Alexander . Several legends surround Alexander ' s birth and childhood . According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch , Olympias , on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip , dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt , causing a flame that spread " far and wide " before dying away . Some time after the wedding , Philip is said to have seen himself , in a dream , securing his wife ' s womb with a seal engraved with a lion ' s image . Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams : that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage , indicated by the sealing of her womb ; or that Alexander ' s father was Zeus . Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander ' s divine parentage , variously claiming that she had told Alexander , or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious . On the day that Alexander was born , Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice . That same day , Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies , and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games . It was also said that on this day , the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus , one of the Seven Wonders of the World , burnt down . This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away , attending the birth of Alexander . Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king , and possibly at his own instigation , to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception . In his early years , Alexander was raised by a nurse , Lanike , sister of Alexander ' s future general Cleitus the Black . Later in his childhood , Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas , a relative of his mother , and by Philip ' s general Lysimachus . Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths , learning to read , play the lyre , ride , fight , and hunt . When Alexander was ten years old , a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse , which he offered to sell for thirteen talents . The horse refused to be mounted and Philip ordered it away . Alexander however , detecting the horse ' s fear of its own shadow , asked to tame the horse , which he eventually managed . Plutarch stated that Philip , overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition , kissed his son tearfully , declaring : " My boy , you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions . Macedon is too small for you " , and bought the horse for him . Alexander named it Bucephalas , meaning " ox - head " . Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as Pakistan . When the animal died ( due to old age , according to Plutarch , at age thirty ) , Alexander named a city after him , Bucephala . Adolescence and education . When Alexander was 13 , Philip began to search for a tutor , and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus , the latter offering to resign to take up the post . In the end , Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom . In return for teaching Alexander , Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle ' s hometown of Stageira , which Philip had razed , and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex - citizens who were slaves , or pardoning those who were in exile . Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles , such as Ptolemy , Hephaistion , and Cassander . Many of these students would become his friends and future generals , and are often known as the ' Companions ' . Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine , philosophy , morals , religion , logic , and art . Under Aristotle ' s tutelage , Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer , and in particular the " Iliad " ; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy , which Alexander later carried on his campaigns . Philip ' s heir . Regency and ascent of Macedon . At age 16 , Alexander ' s education under Aristotle ended . Philip waged war against Byzantion , leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent . During Philip ' s absence , the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia . Alexander responded quickly , driving them from their territory . He colonized it with Greeks , and founded a city named Alexandropolis . Upon Philip ' s return , he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace . Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus , Alexander is reported to have saved his father ' s life . Meanwhile , the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi , a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs . Still occupied in Thrace , he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece . Concerned that other Greek states might intervene , Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead . During this turmoil , the Illyrians invaded Macedonia , only to be repelled by Alexander . Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC , and they marched south through Thermopylae , taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison . They went on to occupy the city of Elatea , only a few days ' march from both Athens and Thebes . The Athenians , led by Demosthenes , voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia . Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes ' favor , but Athens won the contest . Philip marched on Amphissa ( ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League ) , capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city ' s surrender . Philip then returned to Elatea , sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes , who both rejected it . As Philip marched south , his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea , Boeotia . During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea , Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left , accompanied by a group of Philip ' s trusted generals . According to the ancient sources , the two sides fought bitterly for some time . Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat , counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow , thus breaking their line . Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines , followed by Philip ' s generals . Having damaged the enemy ' s cohesion , Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them . With the Athenians lost , the Thebans were surrounded . Left to fight alone , they were defeated . After the victory at Chaeronea , Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese , welcomed by all cities ; however , when they reached Sparta , they were refused , but did not resort to war . At Corinth , Philip established a " Hellenic Alliance " ( modeled on the old anti - Persian alliance of the Greco - Persian Wars ) , which included most Greek city - states except Sparta . Philip was then named " Hegemon " ( often translated as " Supreme Commander " ) of this league ( known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth ) , and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire . Exile and return . When Philip returned to Pella , he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice , the niece of his general Attalus . The marriage made Alexander ' s position as heir less secure , since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir , while Alexander was only half - Macedonian . During the wedding banquet , a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir . Alexander fled Macedon with his mother , dropping her off with her brother , King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona , capital of the Molossians . He continued to Illyria , where he sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest , despite having defeated them in battle a few years before . However , it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son . Accordingly , Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend , Demaratus , who mediated between the two parties . In the following year , the Persian satrap ( governor ) of Caria , Pixodarus , offered his eldest daughter to Alexander ' s half - brother , Philip Arrhidaeus . Olympias and several of Alexander ' s friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir . Alexander reacted by sending an actor , Thessalus of Corinth , to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter ' s hand to an illegitimate son , but instead to Alexander . When Philip heard of this , he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian , explaining that he wanted a better bride for him . Philip exiled four of Alexander ' s friends , Harpalus , Nearchus , Ptolemy and Erigyius , and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains . King of Macedon . Accession . In 336 BC , while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias ' s brother , Alexander I of Epirus , Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards , Pausanias . As Pausanias tried to escape , he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers , including two of Alexander ' s companions , Perdiccas and Leonnatus . Alexander was proclaimed king by the nobles and army at the age of 20 . Consolidation of power . Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne . He had his cousin , the former Amyntas IV , executed . He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed , but spared a third , Alexander Lyncestes . Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa , her daughter by Philip , burned alive . When Alexander learned about this , he was furious . Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus , who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra ' s uncle . Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes , regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens . Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander , and following Cleopatra ' s murder , Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive . Alexander spared Arrhidaeus , who was by all accounts mentally disabled , possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias . News of Philip ' s death roused many states into revolt , including Thebes , Athens , Thessaly , and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon . When news of the revolts reached Alexander , he responded quickly . Though advised to use diplomacy , Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3 , 000 and rode south towards Thessaly . He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa , and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa . When the Thessalians awoke the next day , they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered , adding their cavalry to Alexander ' s force . He then continued south towards the Peloponnese . Alexander stopped at Thermopylae , where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth . Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels . The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander ' s stay in Corinth . When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him , the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side , as he was blocking the sunlight . This reply apparently delighted Alexander , who is reported to have said " But verily , if I were not Alexander , I would like to be Diogenes . " At Corinth Alexander took the title of " Hegemon " ( " leader " ) , and like Philip , was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia . He also received news of a Thracian uprising . Balkan campaign . Before crossing to Asia , Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders . In the spring of 335 BC , he advanced to suppress several revolts . Starting from Amphipolis , he traveled east into the country of the " Independent Thracians " ; and at Mount Haemus , the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights . The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi , and defeated their army near the Lyginus river ( a tributary of the Danube ) . Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube , encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore . Crossing the river at night , he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish . News then reached Alexander that Cleitus , King of Illyria , and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against his authority . Marching west into Illyria , Alexander defeated each in turn , forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops . With these victories , he secured his northern frontier . While Alexander campaigned north , the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again . Alexander immediately headed south . While the other cities again hesitated , Thebes decided to fight . The Theban resistance was ineffective , and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities . The end of Thebes cowed Athens , leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace . Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign , leaving Antipater as regent . Conquest of the Persian Empire . Asia Minor . Alexander ' s army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48 , 100 soldiers , 6 , 100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38 , 000 , drawn from Macedon and various Greek city - states , mercenaries , and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace , Paionia , and Illyria . He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods . This also showed Alexander ' s eagerness to fight , in contrast to his father ' s preference for diplomacy . After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus , Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis ; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast . Though Alexander believed in his divine right to expend the lives of men in battle , he did experience sorrow , as those who died were rewarded generously : ‘ To the relatives of his fallen , Alexander granted immunity from taxation and public service ’ . Whether it was his own warriors or the Persian forces opposing him , Alexander chose to respect those who died . He even went so far to set up statues to honor and respect these people . Though this did not directly influence the culture of the Persians they did not feel the need to begin a rebellion as their men and rulers were treated with proper respect . At Halicarnassus , in Caria , Alexander successfully waged the first of many siege s , eventually forcing his opponents , the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria , Orontobates , to withdraw by sea . Alexander left the government of Caria to Ada , who adopted Alexander . From Halicarnassus , Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylia n plain , asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases . From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland . At Termessos , Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidia n city . At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium , Alexander " undid " the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot , a feat said to await the future " king of Asia " . According to the story , Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword . The Levant and Syria . Alexander journeyed south but was met by Darius ’ significantly larger army which he easily defeated , causing Darius to panic . Although he was chased by some troops ‘ Alexander treated them ( his family ) with the respect out of consideration ’ which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards those he conquered . Darius fled the battle , causing his army to collapse , and left behind his wife , his two daughters , his mother Sisygambis , and a fabulous treasure . He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost , and a ransom of 10 , 000 talents for his family . Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia , it was he alone who decided territorial divisions . Alexander the Great , although a generous man in victory , eventually recognized the power that he was capable of when he would defeat an enemy in war . Following the siege of Tyre in 332 , the enemy he defeated , Darius , attempted to present terms of unconditional surrender but Alexander became ruthless . He realized that he had control and could receive much more . Darius was thus forced to come back , ‘ This time the offer was impressive . Darius offered all territory as a far the Euphrates … a colossal ransom of 30 , 000 talents for his family … invited to marry his eldest daughter ’ . This new change in diplomatic relations induced panic among the leaders of the surrounding nations , as they feared a similar defeat . This led to some barbarian cultures choosing to merely abdicate power to Alexander , to avoid certain death . ” Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria , and most of the coast of the Levant . In the following year , 332 BC , he was forced to attack Tyre , which he captured after a long and difficult siege . Alexander massacred the men of military age and sold the women and children into slavery . Egypt . When Alexander destroyed Tyre , most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated , with the exception of Gaza . The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built on a hill , requiring a siege . Alexander came upon the city only to be met with a surprising resistance and fortification . When ‘ his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible … this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt ’ . The divine right that Alexander believed he had gave him confidence of a miracle occurring . After three unsuccessful assaults , the stronghold fell , but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound . As in Tyre , men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children sold into slavery . Jerusalem instead opened its gates in surrender , and according to Josephus , Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel ' s prophecy , presumably chapter 8 , which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire . He spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt . Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC , where he was regarded as a liberator . He was pronounced the new " master of the Universe " and son of the deity of Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert . Henceforth , Alexander often referred to Zeus - Ammon as his true father , and subsequent currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity . During his stay in Egypt , he founded Alexandria - by - Egypt , which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death . Assyria and Babylonia . Leaving Egypt in 331 BC , Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia ( now northern Iraq ) and again defeated Darius , at the Battle of Gaugamela . Darius once more fled the field , and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela . Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two . Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana ( modern Hamedan ) , while Alexander captured Babylon . Persia . From Babylon , Alexander went to Susa , one of the Achaemenid capitals , and captured its legendary treasury . He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Royal Road . Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city . He had to storm the pass of the Persian Gates ( in the modern Zagros Mountains ) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury . On entering Persepolis , Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days . Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months . During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes and spread to the rest of the city . Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War . Fall of the Empire and the East . Alexander then chased Darius , first into Media , and then Parthia . The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny , and was taken prisoner by Bessus , his Bactria n satrap and kinsman . As Alexander approached , Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius ' successor as Artaxerxes V , before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander . Alexander buried Darius ' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral . He claimed that , while dying , Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne . The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius . Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him . This campaign , initially against Bessus , turned into a grand tour of central Asia . Alexander founded a series of new cities , all called Alexandria , including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan , and Alexandria Eschate ( " The Furthest " ) in modern Tajikistan . The campaign took Alexander through Media , Parthia , Aria ( West Afghanistan ) , Drangiana , Arachosia ( South and Central Afghanistan ) , Bactria ( North and Central Afghanistan ) , and Scythia . Spitamenes , who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana , in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy , one of Alexander ' s trusted companions , and Bessus was executed . However , when , at some point later , Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army , Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt . Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes , defeating him in the Battle of Gabai . After the defeat , Spitamenes was killed by his own men , who then sued for peace . Problems and plots . During this time , Alexander took the Persian title " King of Kings " ( " Shahanshah " ) and adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court , notably the custom of " proskynesis " , either a symbolic kissing of the hand , or prostration on the ground , that Persians showed to their social superiors . The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it . This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen , and he eventually abandoned it . A plot against his life was revealed , and one of his officers , Philotas , was executed for failing to alert Alexander . The death of the son necessitated the death of the father , and thus Parmenion , who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana , was assassinated at Alexander ' s command , to prevent attempts at vengeance . Most infamously , Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus , Cleitus the Black , during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda ( modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan ) , in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgemental mistakes and most especially , of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle . Later , in the Central Asian campaign , a second plot against his life was revealed , this one instigated by his own royal pages . His official historian , Callisthenes of Olynthus , was implicated in the plot ; however , historians have yet to reach consensus regarding this involvement . Callisthenes had fallen out of favor by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis . Macedon in Alexander ' s absence . When Alexander set out for Asia , he left his general Antipater , an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II ' s " Old Guard " , in charge of Macedon . Alexander ' s sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence . The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC , whom Antipater defeated and killed in battle at Megalopolis the following year . Antipater referred the Spartans ' punishment to the League of Corinth , which then deferred to Alexander , who chose to pardon them . There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias , and each complained to Alexander about the other . In general , Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander ' s campaign in Asia . Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest , which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire . However , Alexander ' s constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon ' s manpower , greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander , and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome . Indian campaign . Invasion of the Indian subcontinent . After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana ( Roshanak in Bactrian ) to cement relations with his new satrapies , Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent . He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara , in the north of what is now Pakistan , to come to him and submit to his authority . Omphis , ruler of Taxila , whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes ( Jhelum ) , complied , but the chieftains of some hill clans , including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas ( known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas ) , refused to submit . In the winter of 327 / 326 BC , Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans ; the Aspasioi of Kunar valley s , the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley , and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys . A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart , but eventually the Aspasioi lost . Alexander then faced the Assakenoi , who fought in the strongholds of Massaga , Ora and Aornos . The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting , in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle . According to Curtius , " Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga , but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble " . A similar slaughter followed at Ora . In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora , numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos . Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill - fort after four bloody days . After Aornos , Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus , who ruled a region in the Punjab , in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC . Alexander was impressed by Porus ' s bravery , and made him an ally . He appointed Porus as satrap , and added to Porus ' territory land that he did not previously own . Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece . Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river , naming one Bucephala , in honor of his horse , who died around this time . The other was Nicaea ( Victory ) , thought to be located at the site of modern day Mong , Punjab . Revolt of the army . East of Porus ' kingdom , near the Ganges River , were the Nanda Empire of Magadha and further east the Gangaridai Empire ( of modern day Bangladesh ) . Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning , Alexander ' s army mutinied at the Hyphasis River ( Beas ) , refusing to march farther east . This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander ' s conquests . Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther , but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return ; the men , he said , " longed to again see their parents , their wives and children , their homeland " . Alexander eventually agreed and turned south , marching along the Indus . Along the way his army conquered the Malhi ( in modern day Multan ) and other Indian tribes and sustained an injury during the siege . Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania ( modern southern Iran ) with general Craterus , and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus , while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran ( now part of southern Iran and Pakistan ) . Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC , but not before losing many men to the harsh desert . Last years in Persia . Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence , Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa . As a gesture of thanks , he paid off the debts of his soldiers , and announced that he would send over - aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon , led by Craterus . His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis . They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units . After three days , unable to persuade his men to back down , Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units . The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness , which Alexander accepted , and held a great banquet for several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together . In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects , Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa , but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year . Meanwhile , upon his return , Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great had desecrated it , and swiftly executed them . After Alexander traveled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure , his closest friend and possible lover , Hephaestion , died of illness or poisoning . Hephaestion ' s death devastated Alexander , and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon , as well as a decree for public mourning . Back in Babylon , Alexander planned a series of new campaigns , beginning with an invasion of Arabia , but he would not have a chance to realize them , as he died shortly thereafter . Death and succession . On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC , Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II , in Babylon , at age 32 . Details of the death differ slightly – Plutarch ' s account is that roughly 14 days before his death , Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus , and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa . He developed a fever , which worsened until he was unable to speak . The common soldiers , anxious about his health , were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them . Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Hercules , and died after some agony . Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative , but Plutarch specifically denied this claim . Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination , foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death . Diodorus , Plutarch , Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned . Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication , while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness . The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater , recently removed as Macedonian viceroy , and at odds with Olympias , as the head of the alleged plot . Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence , and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas , Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas , who was Alexander ' s wine - pourer . There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated . The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death ; such long - acting poisons were probably not available . In 2010 , however , a new theory proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx ( Mavroneri ) that contained calicheamicin , a dangerous compound produced by bacteria . Several natural causes ( diseases ) have been suggested , including malaria and typhoid fever . A 1998 article in the " New England Journal of Medicine " attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis . Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic spondylitis or meningitis . Other illnesses fit the symptoms , including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus . Natural - cause theories also tend to emphasise that Alexander ' s health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds . The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion ' s death may also have contributed to his declining health . Another possible cause is an overdose of medication containing hellebore , which is deadly in large doses . After death . Alexander ' s body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey , which was in turn placed in a gold casket . According to Aelian , a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest " would be happy and unvanquishable forever " . Perhaps more likely , the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy , since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative . While Alexander ' s funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon , Ptolemy stole it and took it to Memphis . His successor , Ptolemy II Philadelphus , transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria , where it remained until at least late Antiquity . Ptolemy IX Lathyros , one of Ptolemy ' s final successors , replaced Alexander ' s sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage . Pompey , Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria . The latter allegedly accidentally knocked the nose off the body . Caligula was said to have taken Alexander ' s breastplate from the tomb for his own use . In c . AD 200 , Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander ' s tomb to the public . His son and successor , Caracalla , a great admirer , visited the tomb during his own reign . After this , details on the fate of the tomb are hazy . The so - called " Alexander Sarcophagus " , discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum , is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander ' s remains , but because its bas - reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting . It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus ( died 311 BC ) , the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331 . However , more recently , it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus ' death . Division of the empire . Alexander ' s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece , they were not immediately believed . Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir , his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander ' s death . According to Diodorus , Alexander ' s companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom ; his laconic reply was " tôi kratistôi " — " to the strongest " . Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point , implying that this was an apocryphal story . Diodorus , Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas , a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry , in front of witnesses , thereby nominating him . Perdiccas initially did not claim power , instead suggesting that Roxane ' s baby would be king , if male ; with himself , Craterus , Leonnatus , and Antipater as guardians . However , the infantry , under the command of Meleager , rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion . Instead , they supported Alexander ' s half - brother Philip Arrhidaeus . Eventually , the two sides reconciled , and after the birth of Alexander IV , he and Philip III were appointed joint kings , albeit in name only . Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians , however . The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power . After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC , Macedonian unity collapsed , and 40 years of war between " The Successors " ( " Diadochi " ) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks : the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt , the Seleucid Empire in the east , the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor , and Macedon . In the process , both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered . Testament . Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death . Craterus started to carry out Alexander ' s commands , but the successors chose not to further implement them , on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant . Nevertheless , Perdiccas read Alexander ' s will to his troops . The testament called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean , monumental constructions , and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations . It included : Character . Generalship . Alexander earned the epithet " the Great " due to his unparalleled success as a military commander . He never lost a battle , despite typically being outnumbered . This was due to use of terrain , phalanx and cavalry tactics , bold strategy , and the fierce loyalty of his troops . The Macedonian phalanx , armed with the sarissa , a spear long , had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training , and Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces . Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army , which employed various languages and weapons . He overcame this by being personally involved in battle , in the manner of a Macedonian king . In his first battle in Asia , at Granicus , Alexander used only a small part of his forces , perhaps 13 , 000 infantry with 5 , 000 cavalry , against a much larger Persian force of 40 , 000 . Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings , so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line , about . By contrast , the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry . This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked , while his phalanx , armed with long pikes , had a considerable advantage over the Persian ' s scimitars and javelins . Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians . At Issus in 333 BC , his first confrontation with Darius , he used the same deployment , and again the central phalanx pushed through . Alexander personally led the charge in the center , routing the opposing army . At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela , Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes . Alexander arranged a double phalanx , with the center advancing at an angle , parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming . The advance was successful and broke Darius ' center , causing the latter to flee once again . When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques , such as in Central Asia and India , Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents ' style . Thus , in Bactria and Sogdiana , Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements , while massing his cavalry at the center . In India , confronted by Porus ' elephant corps , the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants ' handlers . Physical appearance . Greek biographer Plutarch ( c . 45 – 120 AD ) describes Alexander ' s appearance as : Greek historian Arrian ( Lucius Flavius Arrianus ' Xenophon ' c . 86 – 160 ) described Alexander as : The semi - legendary " Alexander Romance " also suggests that Alexander suffered from heterochromia iridum : that one eye was dark and the other light . British historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander ' s appearance , based on his review of statues and some ancient documents : Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image . Lysippos had often used the Contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos , Hermes and Eros . Lysippos ' sculpture , famous for its naturalism , as opposed to a stiffer , more static pose , is thought to be the most faithful depiction . Personality . Some of Alexander ' s strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents . His mother had huge ambitions , and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire . Olympias ' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him , and Plutarch tells us that his ambition " kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years . " However , his father Philip was Alexander ' s most immediate and influential role model , as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year , winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds . Alexander ' s relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality ; he had a need to out - do his father , illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle . While Alexander worried that his father would leave him " no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world " , he also downplayed his father ' s achievements to his companions . According to Plutarch , among Alexander ' s traits were a violent temper and rash , impulsive nature , which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions . Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father , he was open to reasoned debate . He had a calmer side — perceptive , logical , and calculating . He had a great desire for knowledge , a love for philosophy , and was an avid reader . This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle ' s tutelage ; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn . His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general . He had great self - restraint in " pleasures of the body , " in contrast with his lack of self control with alcohol . Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences . However , he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games ( unlike his father ) , seeking only the Homeric ideals of honor ( " timê " ) and glory ( " kudos " ) . He had great charisma and force of personality , characteristics which made him a great leader . His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so . During his final years , and especially after the death of Hephaestion , Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia . His extraordinary achievements , coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions , may have combined to produce this effect . His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his testament and in his desire to conquer the world . He appears to have believed himself a deity , or at least sought to deify himself . Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus , a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa . He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus - Ammon . Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court , notably " proskynesis " , a practice that Macedonians disapproved , and were loath to perform . This behavior cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen . However , Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples , many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine . Thus , rather than megalomania , his behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together . Personal relationships . Alexander married twice : Roxana , daughter of the Bactria n nobleman Oxyartes , out of love ; and Stateira II , a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of Persia , for political reasons . He apparently had two sons , Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and , possibly , Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine . He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon . Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend , general , and bodyguard Hephaestion , the son of a Macedonian noble . Hephaestion ' s death devastated Alexander . This event may have contributed to Alexander ' s failing health and detached mental state during his final months . Alexander ' s sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy . No ancient sources stated that Alexander had homosexual relationships , or that Alexander ' s relationship with Hephaestion was sexual . Aelian , however , writes of Alexander ' s visit to Troy where " Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles and Hephaestion that of Patroclus , the latter riddling that he was a beloved of Alexander , in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles " . Noting that the word " eromenos " ( ancient Greek for beloved ) does not necessarily bear sexual meaning , Alexander may have been bisexual , which in his time was not controversial . Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women ; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life . However , he was relatively young when he died , and Ogden suggests that Alexander ' s matrimonial record is more impressive than his father ' s at the same age . Apart from wives , Alexander had many more female companions . Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings , but he used it rather sparingly ; showing great self - control in " pleasures of the body " . Nevertheless , Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her . Green suggested that , in the context of the period , Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women , including Ada of Caria , who adopted him , and even Darius ' s mother Sisygambis , who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander ' s death . Legacy . Alexander ' s legacy extended beyond his military conquests . His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West , and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence . Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers , many surviving into the 21st century . His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched , while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean . Hellenistic kingdoms . Alexander ' s most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia . At the time of his death , Alexander ' s empire covered some , and was the largest state of its time . Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200 – 300 years . The successor state s that emerged were , at least initially , dominant forces , and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period . The eastern borders of Alexander ' s empire began to collapse even during his lifetime . However , the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history . Taking advantage of this , Chandragupta Maurya ( referred to in Greek sources as " Sandrokottos " ) , of relatively humble origin , took control of the Punjab , and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire . Founding of cities . Over the course of his conquests , Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name , most of them east of the Tigris . The first , and greatest , was Alexandria in Egypt , which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities . The cities locations ' reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions . At first the cities must have been inhospitable , little more than defensive garrisons . Following Alexander ' s death , many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece . However , a century or so after Alexander ' s death , many of the Alexandrias were thriving , with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples . Hellenization . " Hellenization " was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language , culture , and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander ' s conquest . That this export took place is undoubted , and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of , for instance , Alexandria , Antioch and Seleucia ( south of modern Baghdad ) . Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture . This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe . However , his successors explicitly rejected such policies . Nevertheless , Hellenization occurred throughout the region , accompanied by a distinct and opposite ' Orientalization ' of the Successor states . The core of Hellenistic culture was essentially Athenian . The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander ' s army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic - based " koine " , or " common " Greek dialect . Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world , becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek . Furthermore , town planning , education , local government , and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals , evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic . Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid - 15th century . Some of the most unusual effects of Hellenization can be seen in India , in the region of the relatively late - arising Indo - Greek kingdoms . There , isolated from Europe , Greek culture apparently hybridized with Indian , and especially Buddhist , influences . The first realistic portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time ; they were modeled on Greek statues of Apollo . Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion : the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes , and some Mahayana ceremonial practices ( burning incense , gifts of flowers , and food placed on altars ) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks . One Greek king , Menander I , probably became Buddhist , and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as ' Milinda ' . The process of Hellenization extended to the sciences , where ideas from Greek astronomy filtered eastward and had profoundly influenced Indian astronomy by the early centuries AD . For example , Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco - Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern - day Afghanistan while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets was adopted in India and eventually supplanted the long - standing Indian cosmological belief of a flat and circular earth . The Yavanajataka and Paulisa Siddhanta texts in particular show Greek influence . Influence on Rome . Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans , especially generals , who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements . Polybius began his " Histories " by reminding Romans of Alexander ' s achievements , and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model . Pompey the Great adopted the epithet " Magnus " and even Alexander ' s anastole - type haircut , and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander ' s 260 - year - old cloak , which he then wore as a sign of greatness . Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander ' s head with his own , while Octavian visited Alexander ' s tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander ' s profile . The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander , as did Nero and Caracalla . The Macriani , a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne , kept images of Alexander on their persons , either on jewelry , or embroidered into their clothes . On the other hand , some Roman writers , particularly Republican figures , used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values . Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as " amicita " ( friendship ) and " clementia " ( clemency ) , but also " iracundia " ( anger ) and " cupiditas gloriae " ( over - desire for glory ) . Legend . Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great , many deriving from his own lifetime , probably encouraged by Alexander himself . His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis . Writing shortly after Alexander ' s death , another participant , Onesicritus , invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris , queen of the mythical Amazons . When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron , Alexander ' s general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped , " I wonder where I was at the time . " In the first centuries after Alexander ' s death , probably in Alexandria , a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the " Alexander Romance " , later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as " Pseudo - Callisthenes " . This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages , containing many dubious stories , and was translated into numerous languages . In ancient and modern culture . Alexander the Great ' s accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures . Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day . The " Alexander Romance " , in particular , has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures , from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek . Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore , more so than any other ancient figure . The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ( " O Megalexandros " ) is a household name , and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play . One well - known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship ' s prow during a storm and ask the captain " Is King Alexander alive ? " . The correct answer is " He is alive and well and rules the world ! " , causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm . Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea , all hands aboard . St . Augustine in his book City of God restated Cicero ’ s parable showing that Alexander the Great was little more than a leader of a robber band : In pre - Islamic Middle Persian ( Zoroastrian ) literature , Alexander is referred to by the epithet " gujastak " , meaning " accursed " , and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism . In Islamic Iran , under the influence of the " Alexander Romance " ( in " Iskandarnamah " ) , a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges . Firdausi ' s " Shahnameh " ( " The Book of Kings " ) includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Iranian shahs , a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth . Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy , portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates , Plato and Aristotle , in search of immortality . The Syriac version of the " Alexander Romance " portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to " the one true God " . In Egypt , Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II , the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest . His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt ' s salvation , " proving " Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian . The figure of Dhul - Qarnayn ( literally " the Two - Horned One " ) mentioned in the Quran is believed by some scholars to represent Alexander , due to parallels with the " Alexander Romance " . In this tradition , he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog . He then traveled the known world in search for the Water of Life and Immortality , eventually becoming a prophet . In India and Pakistan , more specifically the Punjab , the name " Sikandar " , derived from Persian , denotes a rising young talent . In medieval Europe he was made a member of the Nine Worthies , a group of heroes who encapsulated all the ideal qualities of chivalry . Historiography . Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments , texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost . Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander ' s campaign historian Callisthenes ; Alexander ' s generals Ptolemy and Nearchus ; Aristobulus , a junior officer on the campaigns ; and Onesicritus , Alexander ' s chief helmsman . Their works are lost , but later works based on these original sources have survived . The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus ( 1st century BC ) , followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus ( mid - to - late 1st century AD ) , Arrian ( 1st to 2nd century AD ) , the biographer Plutarch ( 1st to 2nd century AD ) , and finally Justin , whose work dated as late as the 4th century . Of these , Arrian is generally considered the most reliable , given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources , closely followed by Diodorus . In film . Alexander the Great was subject of the films " Alexander the Great " ( 1956 ) , starring Richard Burton , and " Alexander " ( 2004 ) , starring Colin Farrell .