Warfare in Medieval Poland Warfare in Medieval Poland covers the military history of Poland during the Piast and Jagiellon dynasties ( 10th – 16th centuries ) . Periodization . In the military history of Poland in the Middle Ages one has to separate three different periods : early , transitional , and late , each demarcated by the reign of particular princes and kings . The early medieval period was enclosed between times of Mieszko I and Bolesław III Wrymouth , the transitional period spanned the times of the Fragmentation of the State to the rule of Władysław I the Elbow - high , and the late period from Casimir III the Great through dynasties of Angevins and Jagiellon s up to 1514 . There are some difficulties with establishing the time - frame of the epoch , and the territory of the state , especially in the earliest period , and in the time of Fragmentation of Poland as well . There are no doubts as to the beginning of the medieval period of Polish history – it was at the start of the reign of Mieszko I , and the first historically annotated battles with Wichmann the Younger ( 967 ) the Veleti , and the battle of Cedynia in 972 . However it is much more difficult to establish the end of the era as there is no definite turning point in the history of Poland , parallel to events such as the Fall of Constantinople ( 1453 ) , the discovery of America by Cristopher Columbus ( 1492 ) , or the beginning of the Reformation ( 1517 ) in Western and Southern Europe . Most historians agree , that the end of the medieval age and the beginning of the Renaissance in Poland took place during the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty , probably in its waning period ( times of Sigismund I the Old ) . It is much more difficult to establish a single unique battle of that period that can be considered a " final one . " In the history of warfare in Western Europe the end of the medieval period is strictly connected to the end of chivalry , its ethos , and its method of fighting . In Poland , as well as in some other countries of Eastern Europe , knights ( noblemen , the Polish szlachta ) were called for war ( pospolite ruszenie ) until the end of the 18th century , or until the end of the ( Saxon times ) . In such circumstances the criteria for the end of the chivalry ethos - as the end of medieval times in Poland - has to be rejected . Rather , the appropriate moment is more likely the time when heavy cavalry , with its full plate armour , was replaced with lighter formations like the husaria . The painting , in the collection of National Museum in Warsaw , known as " The Battle of Orsza " depicts the common fighting formations of heavy , armoured cavalry , and light hussars . The Battle of Orsha took place in the Fall of 1514 . During the battle of Obertyn ( 1531 ) there was only light cavalry present on the Polish side . It is possible ( but speculative ) that these two dates are the border points ; the last medieval battle ( Orsha ) and first battle of modern times ( Obertyn ) . Polish medieval battles , fought mainly ( though not only ) in the territory of Poland , were distinguished by : Battles of the Middle Ages in Poland - not counting such battles as Battle of Legnica , Battle of Grunwald or the last Battle of Orsha - were not large fights , and most of them can be called skirmishes rather than battles . However , the Crimean Tartars and the Turks simultaneously attacked Polish - Lithuanian frontier , at one time reaching Lublin . To fight successfully this new enemy , light ( or semi - light , like husaria ) cavalry became the most important element of the Polish army . Armament . The basic weapon of the European knight was the sword and the spear ( heavy , thrusting weapon ) . Besides these , a typical arsenal included a number of small armaments from dagger s to battle axe s , mace s , horseman ' s pick s , and many others . The Polish sword was no different than swords used in the West – it was straight , with a blade 80 – 120 cm long , 1 , 0 - 1 , 8 kg of weight , having an almond - shaped pommel and a bar crossguard . The spear , in Poland of the time referred to as " wood " ( pol . " drzewo " ) , was 3 , 5 - 4 , 5 m long , had a spearhead of lancet - like or leaf - like shape , but there were also heavier , armour - piercing rhomboid spearheads . Defensive armament - armour – at first included the gambeson , then developed into the brigandine and scale armour , followed by hauberk , and then mail with some plate elements , such as breastplate s and brassard s , and finally panoply , which by the end of 16th century gained its perfect form , protecting the whole of a knight ' s body , and sometimes his horse . There were some differences between the rich knights of Małopolska , Wielkopolska or Śląsk and those of Mazowsze , who , because they faced enemies from the East , like Old Prussians , Lithuanians , and Tartars , partially adopted their fighting manners , and lighter armament as well . Even their horses were smaller and lighter . Different armament was used by infantry , which marched onto the battlefield in close order formations of shield - bearers covering heavy cavalry detachments , or mobile units of bowmen and cross - bowmen , and sometimes irregulars , who used different weapons specialized to fight both foot soldiers and cavalry : ( war hammer , war scythe , glaive , fork , flail , morgenstern , guisarme , halberd , bardiche ) . Defensive armaments of the infantry consisted of shield s ( wooden , round or oval , through light buckler s , up to heavy pavise s ) , quilted jackets and gambesons or brigandines . A characteristic helmet of the foot soldier was the kettle hat - an iron hat with board brim . Earlier infantry units wore conical helmets , later sallet s , but more often thick felt caps . Camp followers were used mainly for field work and sometimes to defend fortified camps or trains . Their armament was simple and coincidental . There were many different types of throwing weapons . The sling went out of use , and the composite bow did not appear until the arrival of the Mongols in the 13th century . Before their invasion , the Poles used straight , long , yew bows . The cross bow reached Poland relatively early , undoubtedly during wars of Bolesław III Krzywousty in the 12th century . Javelin s and throwing axes were also in use . During sieges both defenders and attackers commonly used a variety of heavy hurling machines like catapult s , onager s , trebuchet s etc . , and from the end of the 14th century bombard s , arquebus es , and finally cannon s . With increasing tension and fighting along the eastern border , Poles adopted many eastern - style war customs and weapons . This is why the sword was so easily and so commonly replaced in the 16th century with the szabla . Previously , the szabla – as a weapon of barbarians – evoked aversion on the part of the noblemen ; it was even forbidden to present it during formal reviews . This change would not probably have happened so widely and so quickly without the Polish – Lithuanian union . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , especially in Rus ' , the eastern style was adopted much earlier . The most visible armour transformation in medieval times was that of the helmet , which changed its shape from a conical shape into a great helm ( 11th - 12th century ) and later to the bascinet with different shapes in following centuries . The knight was usually accompanied by one , two or more squire s , the most experienced of whom ( mainly from the impoverished szlachta ) had to protect their master during the battle , and to hand him the most convenient weapons . Other servants had to deliver fresh horses , spears , shields , and take care of wounded men . All were armed with swords or falchion s and often bows or cross bows . They all formed the smallest element in the army ' s structure − the " kopia " , or Lances fournies . Wealthy knights of Wielkopolska and Śląsk did not differ much – in the sense of weapons and armour – from the western knighthood . Novelties were accepted quickly , and the only constraining factor was the wealth of the knight . Travelers from the West ( as for example Widukind of Corvey , or bishop Thietmar of Merseburg ) , wrote with respect of the pancerni of Mieszko I , and Bolesław I Chrobry . Much later , at tournament s of European Western kingdoms , the Polish knight Zawisza Czarny z Garbowa ( " Zawisza the Black " ) gained eternal fame and became known for his bravery , chivalry , and his black armour . However , until the battle of Grunwald , 15 July 1410 , most of Polish knights were less armoured than their competitors from the West , due to the fact that many of the members of szlachta were relatively poor . In the 15th century however , knights became much wealthier as export of grains and forest goods grew rapidly during this period which became a source of wealth for the szlachta . An important element of medieval army equipment was the horse . Horses were bread in Poland from prehistoric times . Imported from abroad or taken during the war high blood stallions and mares were incorporated into szlachta ' s herds for the quality improvement of Polish horse breeds . The size of these herds is unknown , but they had to be large if the Polish army could deliver at least 40 thousand of them to Grunwald . Fortifications . Fortified grody s ( a fortified Slavic town or castle ) were built in Poland along the borders , near the crossings of main trade routes , in naturally defensive locations ( hills , river curves ) , as centers of administration , and defensive strongholds in case of enemy invasion . In the very beginning they were simple earthworks and later evolved into wooden - earth constructions of two types : grate and case , ) and finally built of brick or stone . Many of these brick - and - stone built castles can still be found in Jura Krakowsko - Częstochowska , Mazowsze and in the Świętokrzyskie region . Grody , castles , and fortified towns were built in Poland from prehistoric times , but the true blossoming of modern castle construction can be observed from the archeological record in the 13th and 14th centuries after the tragic Mongolian invasion . During this time many cities ( like Kraków ) and towns had to be rebuilt from ashes , and as a result acquired solid , brick walls . This was particularly noticeable during the rule of Kazimierz Wielki , when internal peace and growing wealth of the state allowed the construction of new castles . In the same time period , ( especially along the Northern border and in Śląsk ) szlachta ' s strongholds , sometimes in the form of dungeon s ( pol . " stołp " ) appeared . However , until the 17th century , when such fortresses as Zamość or Kudak were constructed , there were no unconquerable stronghold in Poland . Human sources and tactics . Earliest times . In the prehistoric times the main military force of the state consisted of all the grown males subject of a local Władyka . A Władyka was a leader who had enough power to overwhelm previous senior tribal leaders of particular tribes , or who distinguished himself during the war and thanks to it gained hereditary sovereignty . In later times however – with more and more towns and villages – this hereditary ruler , now a duke , began to form his own drużyna . A drużyna became the basic formation of the state . However , to build an army a ruler had to send " wici " to call to arms a pospolite ruszenie of free landowners , who later transformed into the szlachta . The drużyna was equipped and armed by the duke , but a levy - en - masse went to war armed quite arbitrarly : weapons and armour had to be bought privately or captured in the battle . Hence the weapons of the pospolite ruszenie were quite different in origin and quality ; predominately spears and javelins , war axes , bows and maces . Information about the size of an army at the beginning of Polish statehood comes basically from two written sources : " Descritpion of Slavic Territories " of Ibrahim ibn Jakub and " Chronicles and Deeds of the Dukes or Princes of the Poles " of Gall Anonym . The first of these wrote that Mesko , King of the North had 3000 pancerni . According to the second , Polish forces around 1000 AD were much bigger , which may support the theory of escalating militarization of the state during the rule of Bolesław Chrobry . Gall Anonym wrote , that the Prince had at his command : These numbers probably did not refer to the regular army , but to " drużyna " and " pospolite ruszenie " , which the Prince could mobilize in the northern part of Poland . Calculations , based on estimated population numbers demonstrate that Bolesław Chrobry was able to call 16 - 18 thousand men . The exact number of horse warriors remains unclear . According to one compilation of the " " Description of Slavic Lands " " Mieszko provided his men with horses , but according to another " . . . this country lies by the sea in the middle of dense forests , which are difficult to an army to cross , so mentioned Mśko has foot soldiers only . " . It is quite possible that mounted soldiers of Mieszko ' s army were not numerous , or that only the cadre had horses . In the opinion of some historians cavalry units made up 1 / 3 of the army : about 800 horsemen in proportion to 2400 infantry . Following Gallus Anonimus one can recognize 3900 " pancerni " as cavalry , and 13 000 shield - warriors as infantry . During the times of Bolesław III Wrymouth . The " Drużyna " of the 12th century no longer formed the nucleus of the army . Instead it became the guard of the ruler ; some of magnates had " drużynas " comparable to that of the Prince . By this time the army consisted of " drużyna " of the Prince , the detachments of the magnates , and the " pospolite ruszenie " , whose members came from the former free landowners ( now mounted knights ) , as well as peasant infantry . We know almost nothing about the tactics of those times , or about the human resources . There were some changes in the armament of soldiers , as the cross bow and heavy hurling weapons appeared . The defensive armament did not changed a lot , but generally knights wore conical helmets with nasals and full mail armours . Cavalry was the basic element of the army , which improved the speed of the march : in 1103 Wrymouth ' s army covered a distance of 330 km ( from Głogów to Kołobrzeg ) in five days , proving its great mobility . We do not know how big the army was , but it had to be quite big , since it could wage war on two , or even three different fronts . In the time of Mongol ' s invasion . In the 12th century the process of creation of the knighthood began in Poland ( and lasted more than a century ) , which was strictly connected with a tenure of land . In order to recreate the picture of the army of those times , it is essential to know the duties of particular classes of society : " military duty " , " specified works for army ' s needs duty " and " services in kind for the army duty " . The first type of duty rested mainly in soldiers ' hands . The other two were the responsibility of the burghers and ( most of ) the peasants . This period is - as the previous one - little understood , but the Battle of Legnica has such rich iconography , that it is possible to attempt to make some estimates . Armour of an ordinary soldier changed very little , but eminent knights ( including Henry II the Pious ) had their hauberks enriched with iron plate elements , and great helms , nicely ornamented . Leszek Czarny , who died in 1288 , is depicted on his gravestone in Kraków in full plate armour . Tactics of the battlefield were not complicated . Knights ( along with their squires ) stayed in close order formation with infantry on the flanks , and – after the initial shots of bowmen or crossbowmen – started the charge . In the same moment the commander – who was fighting at the head of the main detachment - usually lost control over the army and the battle degenerated into a melée in the scourge and disarray . In such circumstances the possibility of panic was the crucial element of the fight , and the battle - supposedly won - could be lost . In the 14th and 15th centuries . The 14th and the beginning of 15th centuries were characterized by fast development of arms , tactics and strategy as well . Knighthood of the Kingdom of Poland strengthened for good , and in the battlefield developed and dominated maneuverability , with full scale outflanking , surrounding , unconventional uses of cavalry and infantry units to surprise the enemy . In those days commanders stayed away from the fight , observing battle from a carefully selected place ( mostly at the top of the hill ) , from where they had a wide view over the surroundings . All detachments were led by known , experienced knights named voyvode s . Polish army of that period consisted - as before - of knights , burghers , and peasants , with obvious division of labor and specialization : cavalry , infantry , and fortified cities defenders . The knight , along with his lance belonged to his own " chorągiew " ( or rota ) of land , clan , or mercenary , and the best warriors were called to lead the " chorągiews " of the army . Szlachta of moderate means , able to arm and support the lance , enlisted to a " chorągiew " of a particular land , where knights had their estates . Poorer knights enlisted to the " chorągiews " created and maintained by magnates , or to a few mercenary " royal chorągiews " created under king ' s order by a particular , rich and famous commandander . Infantry was made up of peasants ( one of five men of royal villages : four remaining in the village had to equip and arm the fifth ) . Burghers had to defend their cities , and different guilds were responsible for particular part of the walls ' defense . They , as much richer than peasants , were able to get much better armours and weapons : light helmets , mail , or mail - plate armours ; in addition they were taught how to fight , for which purpose the " shot brotherhoods " were created . The weapon of the knight changed a little : swords were longer , some with long cruciform hilt s with grips over 15 cm in length ( providing room for two hands ) , straight double - edged blades often over 90 cm in length , and weigh typically between 1 . 2 and 1 . 4 kg ( so called greatsword s or bastards ) . On the contrary armour transformed significantly . Mail was gradually enriched with iron plates , which covered the most of endangered parts of the body , and in the beginning of 15th century was replaced with full plate armour . Worth to know that the armour was covered with outer garment of tunic form , open at the sides and so usually belted , usually emblazoned with coats of arms , known as tabard . Uncomfortable great helms went out of use , replaced with first visored bascinet s , typically fitted with an aventail and hinge d visor . The crossbows of infantry became heavier , and more dangerous for the knights , and the ordinary shield of the past was replaced with the pavise ; a high , rectangle shield , from behind which a foot soldier could safely shoot at the enemy . The very last inventions of the 15th century were black powder and cannon . The latter was for the first time used in Poland after the death of king Louis I of Hungary , when followers of one of candidates to the throne besieged their opponents in the castle of Pyzdry in 1383 . Bombards of that times , which shot stone projectiles , were quite good against fortifications , but almost useless on the battlefield . In the times of Jagiellons . The most characteristic changes of this period was the appearance – at the side of heavy cavalry – of light horse detachments of hussar s and the new pancerni s , as well as a gradual termination of the call of peasants ( now permanently enslaved into serfs ) . Burghers kept their privileges to defend their towns , but only three cities in all of Poland had a right to send troops to the battlefield . Another novelty was also the so - called " obrona potoczna " ( later wojsko kwarciane ) organized to defend royal lands and – in a general sense – the whole territory of the state against incursions from the East . Also the armament has been changed . The heavy cavalryman ' s armour ( of both knight and horse ) was thicker , and heavier , but weapons remained the same . In the same time light cavalryman dropped out the armour at all ( like first " hussars " ) or stayed with the mail ( like " pancerni " ) . The novelty was personal fire weapon of the soldier , as pistol and arquebuss , soon replaced by musket . The infantry of that times was formed of the mercenary regiments of " foreign style " ( pol . " cudzoziemskiego autoramentu " ) , or of the " field infantry " ( pol . " piechota łanowa " ) recruited from peasants . The gunpowder domination of the battlefield became almost complete in Europe . Armour , of little use against either small arms or artillery fire , was gradually disappearing , but not everywhere : in the nearest future light hussars of the battle of Orsha would eventually wore heavier breastplates , helmets , gorget s , and forearm pieces . Notes . a Due to fluctuations of the borders and almost instant gains and losses of – sometimes large – territories b There were 18 000 Polish cavalrymen , each of them with at least two horses c Such surprising maneuver in the Battle of Grunwald was keeping part of Polish troops in the woods d Ex . according to Jan Długosz ( The Annals . . . , ISBN 1 - 901019 - 00 - 4 ) bombards were used in the beginning of the Battle of Grunwald , but without any significant effect