Military of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth The military of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth evolved from the merger of the armies of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania following the 1569 Union of Lublin , which formed the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The army was commanded by the Hetmans of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The most unique formation of the army was the heavy cavalry in the form of the Polish winged hussars . The Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy never played a major role in the military structure , and ceased to exist in the mid - 17th century . Commonwealth forces were engaged in numerous conflicts in the south ( against the Ottoman Empire ) , the east ( against the Tsardom of Muscovy and later , the Russian Empire and the north ( the Kingdom of Sweden ) ; as well as internal conflicts ( most notably , numerous Cossack uprisings ) . For the first century or so , the Commonwealth military was usually successful , but became less so from around the mid - 17th century . Plagued by insufficient funds , it found itself increasingly hard - pressed to defend the country , and inferior in numbers to the growing armies of the Commonwealth ' s neighbors . Following the end of the Commonwealth , the Polish military tradition would be continued by Napoleonic Polish Legions and the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw . Background . The Commonwealth was formed at the Union of Lublin of 1569 from the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The armies of those states differed from the organization common in the west of Europe , as according to Bardach , the mercenary formations ( Polish : " wojsko najemne " ) , common there , never gained popularity in Poland . Brzezinski , however , notes that foreign mercenaries did form a significant portion of the more elite infantry units , at least till the early 17th century . In the 15th century Poland , several other formations formed the core of the military . There was a small standing army , " obrona potoczna " ( " continuous defense " ) about 1 , 500 – 3 , 000 strong , paid for by the king , and primarily stationed at the troubled south and eastern borders . It was supplemented by two formations mobilized in case of war : the pospolite ruszenie ( Polish levée en masse – feudal levy of mostly noble knights - landholders ) , and the " wojsko zaciężne " , recruited by the Polish commanders for the conflict ( it differed from Western mercenary formations in that it was commanded by Polish officers , and dissolved after the conflict has ended ) . Several years before the Union of Lublin , the Polish " obrona potoczna " was reformed , as the Sejm ( national parliament of Poland ) legislated in 1562 – 1563 the creation of " wojsko kwarciane " ( named after " kwarta " , the type of tax levied on the royal lands for the purpose of maintaining this formation ) . This formation was also paid for by the king , and in the peace time , numbered about 3 , 500 – 4 , 000 men according to Bardach ; Brzezinski gives the range of 3 , 000 – 5 , 000 . It was composed mostly of the light cavalry units manned by nobility ( szlachta ) and commanded by hetman s . Often , in wartime , the Sejm would legislate a temporary increase in the size of the " wojsko kwarciane " . Operational history . At its heyday , the Commonwealth comprised the territories of present - day Poland , and large parts of Ukraine , Belarus , Lithuania , Latvia , Estonia , and Russia , and represented a major European power . It was engaged in the struggles along most of its borders , with only the Western border with the lands of the Holy Roman Empire being relatively peaceful . In its first decades , major conflicts included the Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory , the interventions in Moldavia , the Danzig rebellion , and the War against Sigismund . Early 17th century saw a number of the Polish – Swedish Wars , the Polish – Ottoman Wars , and the Polish – Russian Wars ( Dymitriads , the Smolensk War ) . The Commonwealth also suffered from a number of Cossacks uprisings , culminating in the devastating Chmielnicki Uprising of 1648 . That period also saw some of the Commonwealth ' s most talented military commanders : Stanisław Żółkiewski ( 1547 - 1620 ) , Jan Karol Chodkiewicz ( 1560 - 1621 ) , Stanisław Koniecpolski ( 1593 - 1646 ) and Stefan Czarniecki ( 1599 - 1665 ) . The Commonwealth managed to hold its weight in most of those conflicts , and scored a number of major victories on all fronts , such as the battle of Kircholm , the battle of Klushino , and had briefly garrisoned Moscow . However , the Chmielnicki Uprising , together with the Russo - Polish War and the Swedish Deluge , all taking place around the same period of 1650s , proved devastating for the country , resulting in a loss of most of Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667 . In 1683 the Commonwealth scored its last major victory that resounded on the European scene , the relief of Vienna by king Jan III Sobieski . During the 18th century , European powers ( most frequently consisting of Russia , Sweden , Prussia and Saxony ) fought several wars for the control of the territories of the former Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth , particularly during the Great Northern War . By the end of the 18th century a series of internal conflicts and wars with foreign enemies ( the War of the Bar Confederation ) led to the dissolution of the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth and the partitioning of most of its dependent territories among other European powers . The final attempts to preserve independence of the Commonwealth , including the political reforms of the Great Sejm , eventually failed on the military front , with the Commonwealth defeats in the Polish – Russian War of 1792 and the Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 , ultimately ending in Poland ' s final partition and the final dissolution of the remains of the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth . Composition . Organization . By the time of the Commonwealth formation , there was little practical difference between the Polish and Lithuanian components ; the Lithuanian component formed about a fourth to a third of the Commonwealth army . The army of the Commonwealth was organized along several different models , with the primary division being that into two ' contingents ' or ' enlistments ' ( or in Polish : " autorament " ) : national and foreign . The name applied to types of formation , regulations and the officer cadres ; the majority of regular recruits for both came from within the Commonwealth , particularly from the 1630s onward . National units included the towarzysz cavalry ( including the Polish hussars and lighter pancerni ( Polish ) and petyhorcy ( Lithuanian ) units ) and some light cavalry units , with infantry being the distant second in reputation ; whereas the foreign units were primarily centered around the infantry and artillery formations , with dragoon s gaining prominence from the 1620s , and reiter cavalry soon afterward . The Polish – Lithuanian national contingent was organized in traditional formations dating back to the earlier medieval times , with chorągiew ( banner ) unit , commanded by a rotmistrz and composed of smaller poczet ( lance ) retinues , each composed of one towarzysz and a varying number of aides . The size of a chorągiew could vary from as little as 60 to as many as 300 men . Two or more choragwie ( through rarely more than a dozen , and never more than about forty ) formed a regiment ( pułk ) unit , a type of a unit similar to the medieval battle or modern division or corps . Its senior commander was known as pułkownik ( colonel ) . The foreign contingent was organized into regiments , often numbering around 500 - 1 , 000 , and divided into companies . King Jan III Sobieski made an attempt in the 1670s to replace the national - foreign contingent divisions with a single structure , dividing units into infantry , cavalry and dragoons , but it would take many decades before those reforms bore fruit . Formations and their evolution . After the creation of the Commonwealth , several new types of military units were introduced . First among these were the registered Cossack s , formed in 1578 . These were the troops made up of Cossacks , paid for their service and not subject to serfdom . Their numbers varied from about 500 to many times that number , with the Treaty of Zboriv setting the record at 40 , 477 . The Cossacks ' refusal to submit to serfdom , and the Commonwealth ' s nobility attempts to force them into it led to much political wrangling with regard to the size of the Cossack register , and to numerous Cossack uprisings , particularly in the 17th century . These weakened the state , and eventually led to the Cossack subjugation and destruction by the Russian Empire . In addition to the Cossack formations , another group that provided notable service to the Polish state were the Tatars , some of whom resided in Lithuania , and were Commonwealth subjects . Known as Lipka Tatars , they provided some light and medium cavalry units for the Lithuanian army . In the late 16th century , during the reign of Stefan Batory ( 1576 – 1586 ) , a peasant - based levy formation , " piechota wybranicka " ( lit . drafted or selected infantry , also known as " piechota łanowa " , lit . acreage infantry ) was formed . It was based on peasants from the royal estates only , who received a unit of land ( łan ) in exchange for their service . The formation numbered about 2 , 300 and after early disappointments was never seen as of much military value . It supplemented the few small units of haiduk infantry , which saw service in Poland primarily around late 16th and 17th centuries . In 1655 a new infantry unit was created , the " żołnierz dymowy " ( or " żołnierz łanowy " – lit . chimney or łan soldier , named again after the type of tax applied ) . It required all lands , no matter whether owned by king , nobles or the Church , to provide peasant recruits , and applied a similar requirement to towns . Starting in 1613 , the growing inefficiencies of the central government , as well as an increase in foreign threats , led to the creation of a local territorial defense force , known as " żołnierz powiatowy " ( district ' s soldiers raised by the powiat regions ) . The artillery formations , at first staffed by foreigners , were reformed in the 1630s , with a new tax levied to support them . This time also marked the introduction of the General of the Artillery post into the Commonwealth army . In the mid - 17th century , the numbers of " wojsko zaciężne " and " kwarciane " proved to be insufficient , which led to the creation of " wojsko komputowe " ( named after " komput " , a document passed by the Sejm ) . " Wojsko komputowe " numbered ( in 1649 ) 26 , 000 . At the same time , " wojsko kwarciane " was disbanded , and " kwarta " directed towards the newly created artillery forces . Brzezinski notes that " wojsko kwarciane " was dissolved in the aftermath of its defeat at the battle of Batoh in 1652 . In 1659 , in aftermath of a series of wars , the reformed army numbered around 54 , 000 - 60 , 000 ; it would decline from that point onward , as the country , impoverished from those wars , would not be able to support such a number again . Another element of the Commonwealth army consisted of various private armies fielded by the most powerful magnates . In time of peace these consisted of usually small regiments of a few hundred men , but at their extreme they could number up to 10 , 000 , including cavalry and artillery . In some instances the magnate contribution could surpass that of the main Commonwealth army on the frontlines , although often the magnates preferred to save their troops , as they were not compensated for the state for their contributions . The troops were paid for and equipped by the richest of the noble families , such as the Opaliński , Lubomirski , Potocki , Ossoliński , Zamoyski , Koniecpolski , Sieniawski , Żółkiewski , Sapieha , Chodkiewicz , Pac and Radziwiłł families . This was one of the reasons why the magnates played a major role in Polish politics , and on occasion , allowed them to engage in bloody civil wars ( such as the Lithuanian Civil War in 1700 ) amongst themselves . Similarly , occasional forces of town guard and militia were fielded by some cities . The most impressive town guard and accompanying fortifications belonged to the port of Gdańsk ( Danzig ) , which in 1646 boasted 12 infantry companies of 6 , 000 men total . There was also a small royal guard regiment , paid for directly by the king . In peace time , the royal guard numbered around 1 , 200 , but would often be expanded during time of war . The royal force included a hussar banner , reiter cavalry element , and an infantry unit , based upon the " foreign " model . Finally , there were also some irregular militia or mercenary troops which received no official pay but operated with the permission of the government and were allowed to retain their loot ; most notable of these were the Lisowczycy mercenary group which operated in the first half of the 17th century . Both the state and the magnates supported the construction and renovations of several fortifications ( such as the Kamianets - Podilskyi Castle ) . Command structure . The army of the Commonwealth was commanded by king , under who served four hetman s : two " Grand Hetman s " ( the Grand Crown Hetman and Grand Lithuanian Hetman ) and two " Field Hetmans " ( the Field Crown Hetman and Field Lithuanian Hetman ) . The office of a hetman appeared in the late 15th century as a consequence of the introduction of the " wojsko zaciężne " , and a need for a more professional army commanders than the king could usually provide . By 1530s the hetman system has evolved into that of regular offices that would exist both in Poland and Lithuania for the next three centuries . From 1581 it became officially a lifelong appointment . Hetmans had the right to summary justice in the field . Grand Crown Hetman had the right to maintain his representatives in the Ottoman Empire , which allowed him to influence Poland – Ottoman relations and also laid groundwork for the first Polish intelligence services . Hetman deputy was known as regimentarz and could replace a hetman on a temporary basis . Navy . The Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth . Despite having access to the Baltic Sea , neither Poland nor Lithuania had any significant navy throughout their histories . In the 16th century , as Poland and Lithuania became involved in conflicts in Livonia , Polish king Zygmunt August supported the operations of privateer s , but that met with opposition of the Poland ' s primary port , Gdańsk ( Danzig ) , which saw them as a threat to its trade operations " Baltic grain trade " . This led to the development of a privateer port in Puck . At the turn of the century , Poland became ruled by the House of Vasa , and was involved in a series of wars with Sweden ( see also dominium maris baltici ) . Vasa kings attempted to create a proper fleet , and Władysław IV Waza built a dedicated port for the royal navy ( Władysławowo ) , but their attempts met with repeated failures , due to lack of funds in the royal treasury ( seeing little need for the fleet , Polish nobility refused to raise taxes for its construction , and Gdańsk continued its opposition to the idea of a royal fleet ) . Although Władysław bought 12 ships , they were sold between 1641 and 1643 , marking the end of the Commonwealth Navy . Logistics and tactics . Due to lack of centralized logistical system , the Polish armies were encumbered by large baggage trains . To some degree , this was turned into an advantage with the development of the tabor – military horse - drawn wagon s , usually carrying army supplies . The wagon use for defensive formations was perfected by the Cossacks , and to a smaller extent used by other Commonwealth units . The Commonwealth army relied on cavalry , which the nobility saw as a much more respectable type of a troop than the infantry . The Polish cavalry was seen as an elite unit in Europe , and the fame of Polish hussars has spread , particularly following their victories in the Polish - Swedish wars of the 1600s – 1620s . Despite the reforms of the 17th century , it lost much of its military significance in the 18th century ; the primary reason for this was a lack of sufficient funding . Problems and reforms . With the growing influence of foreign powers in the Commonwealth , the Russian - dominated Silent Sejm of 1717 declared that the size of the Commonwealth Army should be 24 , 200 ( 18 , 000 from Poland and 6 , 200 for Lithuania ) . Due to insufficient taxation , the military was often not paid properly , which led to a relatively small army size ; in mid - 18th century , the Commonwealth had funds to field an army of around 24 , 000 , whereas the Commonwealth ' s neighbors ' armies were often up to 12 times larger : the Imperial Russian Army numbered 300 , 000 ; the Prussian Army and Imperial Austrian Army , 150 , 000 , and a few decades later , the Commonwealth could field an army of about 16 , 000 , with Prussian and Austrian armies rising to 200 , 000 . The stated size of the Commonwealth army was further exaggerated , as some money was lost due to corruption . The first half of the 18th century , following the 1717 Sejm , marks the nadir of the Commonwealth army , as it lacked funds and training , and was primarily used for ceremonial purposes . The only constructive reform of that time was the introduction of a stable ( if grossly insufficient ) budget for the military . Furthermore , the unpaid units of the army were known for mutinying and forming confederations , occupying the Commonwealth ' s own lands until such a time that they were paid properly or pillaged enough to satisfy themselves . The trend reversed itself following the election of the last king of Poland , Stanisław August Poniatowski , in 1765 and the introduction of the new governing body , Permanent Council , in 1775 . Its Military Department attempted to modernize the army , and increase its size ( although even the target number of 30 , 000 was never achieved ) . A major military reform came with the passing of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , which stated that the Army was to be built up to 100 , 000 men . ( The exact number would be settled on only on 22 May 1792 , at 25 , 654 cavalry and 72 , 910 infantry ) . A new conscription law was introduced , affecting all lands ( royal , noble and Church - owned ) . With the days of the Commonwealth numbered , the Constitution was never fully implemented in practice , although the new Military Commission saw the Army expanded to 65 , 000 before the Polish defeat in the War in Defense of the Constitution . After the Commonwealth defeat in that war and the rescinding of the Constitution , the Army was reduced to about 36 , 000 . In 1794 Russians demanded a further downsizing of the army to 15 , 000 . This plan was one of the sparks that led to the Army ' s ( and Commonwealth ' s ) final conflict , the Kościuszko Uprising .