mtybilly/Instruct2DS huggingface dataset:
Improving Grammatical Error Correction via Pre-Training a Copy-Augmented Architecture with Unlabeled Data
Authors: Wei Zhao, Liang Wang, Kewei Shen, Ruoyu Jia, Jingming Liu
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Neural machine translation systems have become state-of-the-art approaches for Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) task. In this paper, we propose a copy-augmented architecture for the GEC task by copying the unchanged words from the source sentence to the target sentence. Since the GEC suffers from not having enough labeled training data to achieve high accuracy. We pre-train the copy-augmented architecture with a denoising auto-encoder using the unlabeled One Billion Benchmark and make comparisons between the fully pre-trained model and a partially pre-trained model. It is the first time copying words from the source context and fully pre-training a sequence to sequence model are experimented on the GEC task. Moreover, We add token-level and sentence-level multi-task learning for the GEC task. The evaluation results on the CoNLL-2014 test set show that our approach outperforms all recently published state-of-the-art results by a large margin.
Topic-Guided Variational Auto-Encoder for Text Generation
Authors: Wenlin Wang, Zhe Gan, Hongteng Xu, Ruiyi Zhang, Guoyin Wang, Dinghan Shen, Changyou Chen, Lawrence Carin
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: We propose a topic-guided variational auto-encoder (TGVAE) model for text generation. Distinct from existing variational auto-encoder (VAE) based approaches, which assume a simple Gaussian prior for latent code, our model specifies the prior as a Gaussian mixture model (GMM) parametrized by a neural topic module. Each mixture component corresponds to a latent topic, which provides a guidance to generate sentences under the topic. The neural topic module and the VAE-based neural sequence module in our model are learned jointly. In particular, a sequence of invertible Householder transformations is applied to endow the approximate posterior of the latent code with high flexibility during the model inference. Experimental results show that our TGVAE outperforms its competitors on both unconditional and conditional text generation, which can also generate semantically-meaningful sentences with various topics.
Implementation of a Chomsky-Schützenberger n-best parser for weighted multiple context-free grammars
Authors: Thomas Ruprecht, Tobias Denkinger
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Constituent parsing has been studied extensively in the last decades. Chomsky-Schützenberger parsing as an approach to constituent parsing has only been investigated theoretically, yet. It uses the decomposition of a language into a regular language, a homomorphism, and a bracket language to divide the parsing problem into simpler subproblems. We provide the first implementation of Chomsky-Schützenberger parsing. It employs multiple context-free grammars and incorporates many refinements to achieve feasibility. We compare its performance to state-of-the-art grammar-based parsers.
Phylogenic Multi-Lingual Dependency Parsing
Authors: Mathieu Dehouck, Pascal Denis
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Languages evolve and diverge over time. Their evolutionary history is often depicted in the shape of a phylogenetic tree. Assuming parsing models are representations of their languages grammars, their evolution should follow a structure similar to that of the phylogenetic tree. In this paper, drawing inspiration from multi-task learning, we make use of the phylogenetic tree to guide the learning of multi-lingual dependency parsers leveraging languages structural similarities. Experiments on data from the Universal Dependency project show that phylogenetic training is beneficial to low resourced languages and to well furnished languages families. As a side product of phylogenetic training, our model is able to perform zero-shot parsing of previously unseen languages.
Discontinuous Constituency Parsing with a Stack-Free Transition System and a Dynamic Oracle
Authors: Maximin Coavoux, Shay B. Cohen
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: We introduce a novel transition system for discontinuous constituency parsing. Instead of storing subtrees in a stack --i.e. a data structure with linear-time sequential access-- the proposed system uses a set of parsing items, with constant-time random access. This change makes it possible to construct any discontinuous constituency tree in exactly $4n–2$ transitions for a sentence of length n. At each parsing step, the parser considers every item in the set to be combined with a focus item and to construct a new constituent in a bottom-up fashion. The parsing strategy is based on the assumption that most syntactic structures can be parsed incrementally and that the set --the memory of the parser-- remains reasonably small on average. Moreover, we introduce a provably correct dynamic oracle for the new transition system, and present the first experiments in discontinuous constituency parsing using a dynamic oracle. Our parser obtains state-of-the-art results on three English and German discontinuous treebanks.
How Bad are PoS Tagger in Cross-Corpora Settings? Evaluating Annotation Divergence in the UD Project.
Authors: Guillaume Wisniewski, François Yvon
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: The performance of Part-of-Speech tagging varies significantly across the treebanks of the Universal Dependencies project. This work points out that these variations may result from divergences between the annotation of train and test sets. We show how the annotation variation principle, introduced by Dickinson and Meurers (2003) to automatically detect errors in gold standard, can be used to identify inconsistencies between annotations; we also evaluate their impact on prediction performance.
CCG Parsing Algorithm with Incremental Tree Rotation
Authors: Miloš Stanojević, Mark Steedman
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: The main obstacle to incremental sentence processing arises from right-branching constituent structures, which are present in the majority of English sentences, as well as optional constituents that adjoin on the right, such as right adjuncts and right conjuncts. In CCG, many right-branching derivations can be replaced by semantically equivalent left-branching incremental derivations. The problem of right-adjunction is more resistant to solution, and has been tackled in the past using revealing-based approaches that often rely either on the higher-order unification over lambda terms (Pareschi and Steedman,1987) or heuristics over dependency representations that do not cover the whole CCGbank (Ambati et al., 2015). We propose a new incremental parsing algorithm for CCG following the same revealing tradition of work but having a purely syntactic approach that does not depend on access to a distinct level of semantic representation. This algorithm can cover the whole CCGbank, with greater incrementality and accuracy than previous proposals.
Cyclical Annealing Schedule: A Simple Approach to Mitigating KL Vanishing
Authors: Hao Fu, Chunyuan Li, Xiaodong Liu, Jianfeng Gao, Asli Celikyilmaz, Lawrence Carin
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Variational autoencoders (VAE) with an auto-regressive decoder have been applied for many natural language processing (NLP) tasks. VAE objective consists of two terms, the KL regularization term and the reconstruction term, balanced by a weighting hyper-parameter $β$. One notorious training difficulty is that the KL term tends to vanish. In this paper we study different scheduling schemes for $β$, and show that KL vanishing is caused by the lack of good latent codes in training decoder at the beginning of optimization. To remedy the issue, we propose a cyclical annealing schedule, which simply repeats the process of increasing $β$ multiple times. This new procedure allows us to learn more meaningful latent codes progressively by leveraging the results of previous learning cycles as warm re-restart. The effectiveness of cyclical annealing schedule is validated on a broad range of NLP tasks, including language modeling, dialog response generation and semi-supervised text classification.
Evaluating Composition Models for Verb Phrase Elliptical Sentence Embeddings
Authors: Gijs Wijnholds, Mehrnoosh Sadrzadeh
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Ellipsis is a natural language phenomenon where part of a sentence is missing and its information must be recovered from its surrounding context, as in “Cats chase dogs and so do foxes.”. Formal semantics has different methods for resolving ellipsis and recovering the missing information, but the problem has not been considered for distributional semantics, where words have vector embeddings and combinations thereof provide embeddings for sentences. In elliptical sentences these combinations go beyond linear as copying of elided information is necessary. In this paper, we develop different models for embedding VP-elliptical sentences. We extend existing verb disambiguation and sentence similarity datasets to ones containing elliptical phrases and evaluate our models on these datasets for a variety of non-linear combinations and their linear counterparts. We compare results of these compositional models to state of the art holistic sentence encoders. Our results show that non-linear addition and a non-linear tensor-based composition outperform the naive non-compositional baselines and the linear models, and that sentence encoders perform well on sentence similarity, but not on verb disambiguation.
Neural Finite-State Transducers: Beyond Rational Relations
Authors: Chu-Cheng Lin, Hao Zhu, Matthew R. Gormley, Jason Eisner
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: We introduce neural finite state transducers (NFSTs), a family of string transduction models defining joint and conditional probability distributions over pairs of strings. The probability of a string pair is obtained by marginalizing over all its accepting paths in a finite state transducer. In contrast to ordinary weighted FSTs, however, each path is scored using an arbitrary function such as a recurrent neural network, which breaks the usual conditional independence assumption (Markov property). NFSTs are more powerful than previous finite-state models with neural features (Rastogi et al., 2016.) We present training and inference algorithms for locally and globally normalized variants of NFSTs. In experiments on different transduction tasks, they compete favorably against seq2seq models while offering interpretable paths that correspond to hard monotonic alignments.
Riemannian Normalizing Flow on Variational Wasserstein Autoencoder for Text Modeling
Authors: Prince Zizhuang Wang, William Yang Wang
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Recurrent Variational Autoencoder has been widely used for language modeling and text generation tasks. These models often face a difficult optimization problem, also known as KL vanishing, where the posterior easily collapses to the prior and model will ignore latent codes in generative tasks. To address this problem, we introduce an improved Variational Wasserstein Autoencoder (WAE) with Riemannian Normalizing Flow (RNF) for text modeling. The RNF transforms a latent variable into a space that respects the geometric characteristics of input space, which makes posterior impossible to collapse to the non-informative prior. The Wasserstein objective minimizes the distance between marginal distribution and the prior directly and therefore does not force the posterior to match the prior. Empirical experiments show that our model avoids KL vanishing over a range of datasets and has better performance in tasks such as language modeling, likelihood approximation, and text generation. Through a series of experiments and analysis over latent space, we show that our model learns latent distributions that respect latent space geometry and is able to generate sentences that are more diverse.
A Study of Incorrect Paraphrases in Crowdsourced User Utterances
Authors: Mohammad-Ali Yaghoub-Zadeh-Fard, Boualem Benatallah, Moshe Chai Barukh, Shayan Zamanirad
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Developing bots demands highquality training samples, typically in the form of user utterances and their associated intents. Given the fuzzy nature of human language, such datasets ideally must cover all possible utterances of each single intent. Crowdsourcing has widely been used to collect such inclusive datasets by paraphrasing an initial utterance. However, the quality of this approach often suffers from various issues, particularly language errors produced by unqualified crowd workers. More so, since workers are tasked to write open-ended text, it is very challenging to automatically asses the quality of paraphrased utterances. In this paper, we investigate common crowdsourced paraphrasing issues, and propose an annotated dataset called Para-Quality, for detecting the quality issues. We also investigate existing tools and services to provide baselines for detecting each category of issues. In all, this work presents a data-driven view of incorrect paraphrases during the bot development process, and we pave the way towards automatic detection of unqualified paraphrases.
ComQA: A Community-sourced Dataset for Complex Factoid Question Answering with Paraphrase Clusters
Authors: Abdalghani Abujabal, Rishiraj Saha Roy, Mohamed Yahya, Gerhard Weikum
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: To bridge the gap between the capabilities of the state-of-the-art in factoid question answering (QA) and what users ask, we need large datasets of real user questions that capture the various question phenomena users are interested in, and the diverse ways in which these questions are formulated. We introduce ComQA, a large dataset of real user questions that exhibit different challenging aspects such as compositionality, temporal reasoning, and comparisons. ComQA questions come from the WikiAnswers community QA platform, which typically contains questions that are not satisfactorily answerable by existing search engine technology. Through a large crowdsourcing effort, we clean the question dataset, group questions into paraphrase clusters, and annotate clusters with their answers. ComQA contains 11,214 questions grouped into 4,834 paraphrase clusters. We detail the process of constructing ComQA, including the measures taken to ensure its high quality while making effective use of crowdsourcing. We also present an extensive analysis of the dataset and the results achieved by state-of-the-art systems on ComQA, demonstrating that our dataset can be a driver of future research on QA.
FreebaseQA: A New Factoid QA Data Set Matching Trivia-Style Question-Answer Pairs with Freebase
Authors: Kelvin Jiang, Dekun Wu, Hui Jiang
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: In this paper, we present a new data set, named FreebaseQA, for open-domain factoid question answering (QA) tasks over structured knowledge bases, like Freebase. The data set is generated by matching trivia-type question-answer pairs with subject-predicate-object triples in Freebase. For each collected question-answer pair, we first tag all entities in each question and search for relevant predicates that bridge a tagged entity with the answer in Freebase. Finally, human annotation is used to remove any false positive in these matched triples. Using this method, we are able to efficiently generate over 54K matches from about 28K unique questions with minimal cost. Our analysis shows that this data set is suitable for model training in factoid QA tasks beyond simpler questions since FreebaseQA provides more linguistically sophisticated questions than other existing data sets.
Simple Question Answering with Subgraph Ranking and Joint-Scoring
Authors: Wenbo Zhao, Tagyoung Chung, Anuj Goyal, Angeliki Metallinou
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Knowledge graph based simple question answering (KBSQA) is a major area of research within question answering. Although only dealing with simple questions, i.e., questions that can be answered through a single knowledge base (KB) fact, this task is neither simple nor close to being solved. Targeting on the two main steps, subgraph selection and fact selection, the literature has developed sophisticated approaches. However, the importance of subgraph ranking and leveraging the subject--relation dependency of a KB fact have not been sufficiently explored. Motivated by this, we present a unified framework to describe and analyze existing approaches. Using this framework as a starting point we focus on two aspects: improving subgraph selection through a novel ranking method, and leveraging the subject--relation dependency by proposing a joint scoring CNN model with a novel loss function that enforces the well-order of scores. Our methods achieve a new state of the art (85.44% in accuracy) on the SimpleQuestions dataset.
Learning to Attend On Essential Terms: An Enhanced Retriever-Reader Model for Open-domain Question Answering
Authors: Jianmo Ni, Chenguang Zhu, Weizhu Chen, Julian McAuley
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Open-domain question answering remains a challenging task as it requires models that are capable of understanding questions and answers, collecting useful information, and reasoning over evidence. Previous work typically formulates this task as a reading comprehension or entailment problem given evidence retrieved from search engines. However, existing techniques struggle to retrieve indirectly related evidence when no directly related evidence is provided, especially for complex questions where it is hard to parse precisely what the question asks. In this paper we propose a retriever-reader model that learns to attend on essential terms during the question answering process. We build (1) an essential term selector which first identifies the most important words in a question, then reformulates the query and searches for related evidence; and (2) an enhanced reader that distinguishes between essential terms and distracting words to predict the answer. We evaluate our model on multiple open-domain QA datasets, notably achieving the level of the state-of-the-art on the AI2 Reasoning Challenge (ARC) dataset.
UHop: An Unrestricted-Hop Relation Extraction Framework for Knowledge-Based Question Answering
Authors: Zi-Yuan Chen, Chih-Hung Chang, Yi-Pei Chen, Jijnasa Nayak, Lun-Wei Ku
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: In relation extraction for knowledge-based question answering, searching from one entity to another entity via a single relation is called “one hop”. In related work, an exhaustive search from all one-hop relations, two-hop relations, and so on to the max-hop relations in the knowledge graph is necessary but expensive. Therefore, the number of hops is generally restricted to two or three. In this paper, we propose UHop, an unrestricted-hop framework which relaxes this restriction by use of a transition-based search framework to replace the relation-chain-based search one. We conduct experiments on conventional 1- and 2-hop questions as well as lengthy questions, including datasets such as WebQSP, PathQuestion, and Grid World. Results show that the proposed framework enables the ability to halt, works well with state-of-the-art models, achieves competitive performance without exhaustive searches, and opens the performance gap for long relation paths.
BAG: Bi-directional Attention Entity Graph Convolutional Network for Multi-hop Reasoning Question Answering
Authors: Yu Cao, Meng Fang, Dacheng Tao
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Multi-hop reasoning question answering requires deep comprehension of relationships between various documents and queries. We propose a Bi-directional Attention Entity Graph Convolutional Network (BAG), leveraging relationships between nodes in an entity graph and attention information between a query and the entity graph, to solve this task. Graph convolutional networks are used to obtain a relation-aware representation of nodes for entity graphs built from documents with multi-level features. Bidirectional attention is then applied on graphs and queries to generate a query-aware nodes representation, which will be used for the final prediction. Experimental evaluation shows BAG achieves state-of-the-art accuracy performance on the QAngaroo WIKIHOP dataset.
Vector of Locally-Aggregated Word Embeddings (VLAWE): A Novel Document-level Representation
Authors: Radu Tudor Ionescu, Andrei Butnaru
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: In this paper, we propose a novel representation for text documents based on aggregating word embedding vectors into document embeddings. Our approach is inspired by the Vector of Locally-Aggregated Descriptors used for image representation, and it works as follows. First, the word embeddings gathered from a collection of documents are clustered by k-means in order to learn a codebook of semnatically-related word embeddings. Each word embedding is then associated to its nearest cluster centroid (codeword). The Vector of Locally-Aggregated Word Embeddings (VLAWE) representation of a document is then computed by accumulating the differences between each codeword vector and each word vector (from the document) associated to the respective codeword. We plug the VLAWE representation, which is learned in an unsupervised manner, into a classifier and show that it is useful for a diverse set of text classification tasks. We compare our approach with a broad range of recent state-of-the-art methods, demonstrating the effectiveness of our approach. Furthermore, we obtain a considerable improvement on the Movie Review data set, reporting an accuracy of 93.3%, which represents an absolute gain of 10% over the state-of-the-art approach.
Multi-task Learning for Multi-modal Emotion Recognition and Sentiment Analysis
Authors: Md Shad Akhtar, Dushyant Chauhan, Deepanway Ghosal, Soujanya Poria, Asif Ekbal, Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Related tasks often have inter-dependence on each other and perform better when solved in a joint framework. In this paper, we present a deep multi-task learning framework that jointly performs sentiment and emotion analysis both. The multi-modal inputs (i.e. text, acoustic and visual frames) of a video convey diverse and distinctive information, and usually do not have equal contribution in the decision making. We propose a context-level inter-modal attention framework for simultaneously predicting the sentiment and expressed emotions of an utterance. We evaluate our proposed approach on CMU-MOSEI dataset for multi-modal sentiment and emotion analysis. Evaluation results suggest that multi-task learning framework offers improvement over the single-task framework. The proposed approach reports new state-of-the-art performance for both sentiment analysis and emotion analysis.
Utilizing BERT for Aspect-Based Sentiment Analysis via Constructing Auxiliary Sentence
Authors: Chi Sun, Luyao Huang, Xipeng Qiu
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Aspect-based sentiment analysis (ABSA), which aims to identify fine-grained opinion polarity towards a specific aspect, is a challenging subtask of sentiment analysis (SA). In this paper, we construct an auxiliary sentence from the aspect and convert ABSA to a sentence-pair classification task, such as question answering (QA) and natural language inference (NLI). We fine-tune the pre-trained model from BERT and achieve new state-of-the-art results on SentiHood and SemEval-2014 Task 4 datasets. The source codes are available at r̆lhttps://github.com/HSLCY/ABSA-BERT-pair.
A Variational Approach to Weakly Supervised Document-Level Multi-Aspect Sentiment Classification
Authors: Ziqian Zeng, Wenxuan Zhou, Xin Liu, Yangqiu Song
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: In this paper, we propose a variational approach to weakly supervised document-level multi-aspect sentiment classification. Instead of using user-generated ratings or annotations provided by domain experts, we use target-opinion word pairs as “supervision.” These word pairs can be extracted by using dependency parsers and simple rules. Our objective is to predict an opinion word given a target word while our ultimate goal is to learn a sentiment polarity classifier to predict the sentiment polarity of each aspect given a document. By introducing a latent variable, i.e., the sentiment polarity, to the objective function, we can inject the sentiment polarity classifier to the objective via the variational lower bound. We can learn a sentiment polarity classifier by optimizing the lower bound. We show that our method can outperform weakly supervised baselines on TripAdvisor and BeerAdvocate datasets and can be comparable to the state-of-the-art supervised method with hundreds of labels per aspect.
HiGRU: Hierarchical Gated Recurrent Units for Utterance-Level Emotion Recognition
Authors: Wenxiang Jiao, Haiqin Yang, Irwin King, Michael R. Lyu
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: In this paper, we address three challenges in utterance-level emotion recognition in dialogue systems: (1) the same word can deliver different emotions in different contexts; (2) some emotions are rarely seen in general dialogues; (3) long-range contextual information is hard to be effectively captured. We therefore propose a hierarchical Gated Recurrent Unit (HiGRU) framework with a lower-level GRU to model the word-level inputs and an upper-level GRU to capture the contexts of utterance-level embeddings. Moreover, we promote the framework to two variants, Hi-GRU with individual features fusion (HiGRU-f) and HiGRU with self-attention and features fusion (HiGRU-sf), so that the word/utterance-level individual inputs and the long-range contextual information can be sufficiently utilized. Experiments on three dialogue emotion datasets, IEMOCAP, Friends, and EmotionPush demonstrate that our proposed Hi-GRU models attain at least 8.7%, 7.5%, 6.0% improvement over the state-of-the-art methods on each dataset, respectively. Particularly, by utilizing only the textual feature in IEMOCAP, our HiGRU models gain at least 3.8% improvement over the state-of-the-art conversational memory network (CMN) with the trimodal features of text, video, and audio.
Learning Interpretable Negation Rules via Weak Supervision at Document Level: A Reinforcement Learning Approach
Authors: Nicolas Pröllochs, Stefan Feuerriegel, Dirk Neumann
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Negation scope detection is widely performed as a supervised learning task which relies upon negation labels at word level. This suffers from two key drawbacks: (1) such granular annotations are costly and (2) highly subjective, since, due to the absence of explicit linguistic resolution rules, human annotators often disagree in the perceived negation scopes. To the best of our knowledge, our work presents the first approach that eliminates the need for world-level negation labels, replacing it instead with document-level sentiment annotations. For this, we present a novel strategy for learning fully interpretable negation rules via weak supervision: we apply reinforcement learning to find a policy that reconstructs negation rules from sentiment predictions at document level. Our experiments demonstrate that our approach for weak supervision can effectively learn negation rules. Furthermore, an out-of-sample evaluation via sentiment analysis reveals consistent improvements (of up to 4.66%) over both a sentiment analysis with (i) no negation handling and (ii) the use of word-level annotations from humans. Moreover, the inferred negation rules are fully interpretable.
Learning Bilingual Sentiment-Specific Word Embeddings without Cross-lingual Supervision
Authors: Yanlin Feng, Xiaojun Wan
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Word embeddings learned in two languages can be mapped to a common space to produce Bilingual Word Embeddings (BWE). Unsupervised BWE methods learn such a mapping without any parallel data. However, these methods are mainly evaluated on tasks of word translation or word similarity. We show that these methods fail to capture the sentiment information and do not perform well enough on cross-lingual sentiment analysis. In this work, we propose UBiSE (Unsupervised Bilingual Sentiment Embeddings), which learns sentiment-specific word representations for two languages in a common space without any cross-lingual supervision. Our method only requires a sentiment corpus in the source language and pretrained monolingual word embeddings of both languages. We evaluate our method on three language pairs for cross-lingual sentiment analysis. Experimental results show that our method outperforms previous unsupervised BWE methods and even supervised BWE methods. Our method succeeds for a distant language pair English-Basque.
ReWE: Regressing Word Embeddings for Regularization of Neural Machine Translation Systems
Authors: Inigo Jauregi Unanue, Ehsan Zare Borzeshi, Nazanin Esmaili, Massimo Piccardi
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Regularization of neural machine translation is still a significant problem, especially in low-resource settings. To mollify this problem, we propose regressing word embeddings (ReWE) as a new regularization technique in a system that is jointly trained to predict the next word in the translation (categorical value) and its word embedding (continuous value). Such a joint training allows the proposed system to learn the distributional properties represented by the word embeddings, empirically improving the generalization to unseen sentences. Experiments over three translation datasets have showed a consistent improvement over a strong baseline, ranging between 0.91 and 2.4 BLEU points, and also a marked improvement over a state-of-the-art system.
Lost in Machine Translation: A Method to Reduce Meaning Loss
Authors: Reuben Cohn-Gordon, Noah Goodman
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: A desideratum of high-quality translation systems is that they preserve meaning, in the sense that two sentences with different meanings should not translate to one and the same sentence in another language. However, state-of-the-art systems often fail in this regard, particularly in cases where the source and target languages partition the “meaning space” in different ways. For instance, “I cut my finger.” and “I cut my finger off.” describe different states of the world but are translated to French (by both Fairseq and Google Translate) as “Je me suis coupé le doigt.”, which is ambiguous as to whether the finger is detached. More generally, translation systems are typically many-to-one (non-injective) functions from source to target language, which in many cases results in important distinctions in meaning being lost in translation. Building on Bayesian models of informative utterance production, we present a method to define a less ambiguous translation system in terms of an underlying pre-trained neural sequence-to-sequence model. This method increases injectivity, resulting in greater preservation of meaning as measured by improvement in cycle-consistency, without impeding translation quality (measured by BLEU score).
Bi-Directional Differentiable Input Reconstruction for Low-Resource Neural Machine Translation
Authors: Xing Niu, Weijia Xu, Marine Carpuat
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: We aim to better exploit the limited amounts of parallel text available in low-resource settings by introducing a differentiable reconstruction loss for neural machine translation (NMT). This loss compares original inputs to reconstructed inputs, obtained by back-translating translation hypotheses into the input language. We leverage differentiable sampling and bi-directional NMT to train models end-to-end, without introducing additional parameters. This approach achieves small but consistent BLEU improvements on four language pairs in both translation directions, and outperforms an alternative differentiable reconstruction strategy based on hidden states.
Code-Switching for Enhancing NMT with Pre-Specified Translation
Authors: Kai Song, Yue Zhang, Heng Yu, Weihua Luo, Kun Wang, Min Zhang
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Leveraging user-provided translation to constrain NMT has practical significance. Existing methods can be classified into two main categories, namely the use of placeholder tags for lexicon words and the use of hard constraints during decoding. Both methods can hurt translation fidelity for various reasons. We investigate a data augmentation method, making code-switched training data by replacing source phrases with their target translations. Our method does not change the MNT model or decoding algorithm, allowing the model to learn lexicon translations by copying source-side target words. Extensive experiments show that our method achieves consistent improvements over existing approaches, improving translation of constrained words without hurting unconstrained words.
Aligning Vector-spaces with Noisy Supervised Lexicon
Authors: Noa Yehezkel Lubin, Jacob Goldberger, Yoav Goldberg
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: The problem of learning to translate between two vector spaces given a set of aligned points arises in several application areas of NLP. Current solutions assume that the lexicon which defines the alignment pairs is noise-free. We consider the case where the set of aligned points is allowed to contain an amount of noise, in the form of incorrect lexicon pairs and show that this arises in practice by analyzing the edited dictionaries after the cleaning process. We demonstrate that such noise substantially degrades the accuracy of the learned translation when using current methods. We propose a model that accounts for noisy pairs. This is achieved by introducing a generative model with a compatible iterative EM algorithm. The algorithm jointly learns the noise level in the lexicon, finds the set of noisy pairs, and learns the mapping between the spaces. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed algorithm on two alignment problems: bilingual word embedding translation, and mapping between diachronic embedding spaces for recovering the semantic shifts of words across time periods.
Understanding and Improving Hidden Representations for Neural Machine Translation
Authors: Guanlin Li, Lemao Liu, Xintong Li, Conghui Zhu, Tiejun Zhao, Shuming Shi
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Multilayer architectures are currently the gold standard for large-scale neural machine translation. Existing works have explored some methods for understanding the hidden representations, however, they have not sought to improve the translation quality rationally according to their understanding. Towards understanding for performance improvement, we first artificially construct a sequence of nested relative tasks and measure the feature generalization ability of the learned hidden representation over these tasks. Based on our understanding, we then propose to regularize the layer-wise representations with all tree-induced tasks. To overcome the computational bottleneck resulting from the large number of regularization terms, we design efficient approximation methods by selecting a few coarse-to-fine tasks for regularization. Extensive experiments on two widely-used datasets demonstrate the proposed methods only lead to small extra overheads in training but no additional overheads in testing, and achieve consistent improvements (up to +1.3 BLEU) compared to the state-of-the-art translation model.
Content Differences in Syntactic and Semantic Representation
Authors: Daniel Hershcovich, Omri Abend, Ari Rappoport
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Syntactic analysis plays an important role in semantic parsing, but the nature of this role remains a topic of ongoing debate. The debate has been constrained by the scarcity of empirical comparative studies between syntactic and semantic schemes, which hinders the development of parsing methods informed by the details of target schemes and constructions. We target this gap, and take Universal Dependencies (UD) and UCCA as a test case. After abstracting away from differences of convention or formalism, we find that most content divergences can be ascribed to: (1) UCCA`s distinction between a Scene and a non-Scene; (2) UCCA`s distinction between primary relations, secondary ones and participants; (3) different treatment of multi-word expressions, and (4) different treatment of inter-clause linkage. We further discuss the long tail of cases where the two schemes take markedly different approaches. Finally, we show that the proposed comparison methodology can be used for fine-grained evaluation of UCCA parsing, highlighting both challenges and potential sources for improvement. The substantial differences between the schemes suggest that semantic parsers are likely to benefit downstream text understanding applications beyond their syntactic counterparts.
Attentive Mimicking: Better Word Embeddings by Attending to Informative Contexts
Authors: Timo Schick, Hinrich Schütze
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Learning high-quality embeddings for rare words is a hard problem because of sparse context information. Mimicking (Pinter et al., 2017) has been proposed as a solution: given embeddings learned by a standard algorithm, a model is first trained to reproduce embeddings of frequent words from their surface form and then used to compute embeddings for rare words. In this paper, we introduce attentive mimicking: the mimicking model is given access not only to a word`s surface form, but also to all available contexts and learns to attend to the most informative and reliable contexts for computing an embedding. In an evaluation on four tasks, we show that attentive mimicking outperforms previous work for both rare and medium-frequency words. Thus, compared to previous work, attentive mimicking improves embeddings for a much larger part of the vocabulary, including the medium-frequency range.
Evaluating Style Transfer for Text
Authors: Remi Mir, Bjarke Felbo, Nick Obradovich, Iyad Rahwan
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Research in the area of style transfer for text is currently bottlenecked by a lack of standard evaluation practices. This paper aims to alleviate this issue by experimentally identifying best practices with a Yelp sentiment dataset. We specify three aspects of interest (style transfer intensity, content preservation, and naturalness) and show how to obtain more reliable measures of them from human evaluation than in previous work. We propose a set of metrics for automated evaluation and demonstrate that they are more strongly correlated and in agreement with human judgment: direction-corrected Earth Mover`s Distance, Word Mover`s Distance on style-masked texts, and adversarial classification for the respective aspects. We also show that the three examined models exhibit tradeoffs between aspects of interest, demonstrating the importance of evaluating style transfer models at specific points of their tradeoff plots. We release software with our evaluation metrics to facilitate research.
Big BiRD: A Large, Fine-Grained, Bigram Relatedness Dataset for Examining Semantic Composition
Authors: Shima Asaadi, Saif Mohammad, Svetlana Kiritchenko
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: Bigrams (two-word sequences) hold a special place in semantic composition research since they are the smallest unit formed by composing words. A semantic relatedness dataset that includes bigrams will thus be useful in the development of automatic methods of semantic composition. However, existing relatedness datasets only include pairs of unigrams (single words). Further, existing datasets were created using rating scales and thus suffer from limitations such as in consistent annotations and scale region bias. In this paper, we describe how we created a large, fine-grained, bigram relatedness dataset (BiRD), using a comparative annotation technique called Best--Worst Scaling. Each of BiRD`s 3,345 English term pairs involves at least one bigram. We show that the relatedness scores obtained are highly reliable (split-half reliability r= 0.937). We analyze the data to obtain insights into bigram semantic relatedness. Finally, we present benchmark experiments on using the relatedness dataset as a testbed to evaluate simple unsupervised measures of semantic composition. BiRD is made freely available to foster further research on how meaning can be represented and how meaning can be composed.
Outlier Detection for Improved Data Quality and Diversity in Dialog Systems
Authors: Stefan Larson, Anish Mahendran, Andrew Lee, Jonathan K. Kummerfeld, Parker Hill, Michael A. Laurenzano, Johann Hauswald, Lingjia Tang, Jason Mars
Published in: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Main Conference Track), 2019

Abstract: In a corpus of data, outliers are either errors: mistakes in the data that are counterproductive, or are unique: informative samples that improve model robustness. Identifying outliers can lead to better datasets by (1) removing noise in datasets and (2) guiding collection of additional data to fill gaps. However, the problem of detecting both outlier types has received relatively little attention in NLP, particularly for dialog systems. We introduce a simple and effective technique for detecting both erroneous and unique samples in a corpus of short texts using neural sentence embeddings combined with distance-based outlier detection. We also present a novel data collection pipeline built atop our detection technique to automatically and iteratively mine unique data samples while discarding erroneous samples. Experiments show that our outlier detection technique is effective at finding errors while our data collection pipeline yields highly diverse corpora that in turn produce more robust intent classification and slot-filling models.