mtybilly/Instruct2DS huggingface dataset:
Learning Neural Ordinary Equations for Forecasting Future Links on Temporal Knowledge Graphs
Authors: Zhen Han, Zifeng Ding, Yunpu Ma, Yujia Gu, Volker Tresp
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: There has been an increasing interest in inferring future links on temporal knowledge graphs (KG). While links on temporal KGs vary continuously over time, the existing approaches model the temporal KGs in discrete state spaces. To this end, we propose a novel continuum model by extending the idea of neural ordinary differential equations (ODEs) to multi-relational graph convolutional networks. The proposed model preserves the continuous nature of dynamic multi-relational graph data and encodes both temporal and structural information into continuous-time dynamic embeddings. In addition, a novel graph transition layer is applied to capture the transitions on the dynamic graph, i.e., edge formation and dissolution. We perform extensive experiments on five benchmark datasets for temporal KG reasoning, showing our model`s superior performance on the future link forecasting task.
RAP: Robustness-Aware Perturbations for Defending against Backdoor Attacks on NLP Models
Authors: Wenkai Yang, Yankai Lin, Peng Li, Jie Zhou, Xu Sun
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Backdoor attacks, which maliciously control a well-trained model`s outputs of the instances with specific triggers, are recently shown to be serious threats to the safety of reusing deep neural networks (DNNs). In this work, we propose an efficient online defense mechanism based on robustness-aware perturbations. Specifically, by analyzing the backdoor training process, we point out that there exists a big gap of robustness between poisoned and clean samples. Motivated by this observation, we construct a word-based robustness-aware perturbation to distinguish poisoned samples from clean samples to defend against the backdoor attacks on natural language processing (NLP) models. Moreover, we give a theoretical analysis about the feasibility of our robustness-aware perturbation-based defense method. Experimental results on sentiment analysis and toxic detection tasks show that our method achieves better defending performance and much lower computational costs than existing online defense methods. Our code is available at r̆lhttps://github.com/lancopku/RAP.
FAME: Feature-Based Adversarial Meta-Embeddings for Robust Input Representations
Authors: Lukas Lange, Heike Adel, Jannik Strötgen, Dietrich Klakow
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Combining several embeddings typically improves performance in downstream tasks as different embeddings encode different information. It has been shown that even models using embeddings from transformers still benefit from the inclusion of standard word embeddings. However, the combination of embeddings of different types and dimensions is challenging. As an alternative to attention-based meta-embeddings, we propose feature-based adversarial meta-embeddings (FAME) with an attention function that is guided by features reflecting word-specific properties, such as shape and frequency, and show that this is beneficial to handle subword-based embeddings. In addition, FAME uses adversarial training to optimize the mappings of differently-sized embeddings to the same space. We demonstrate that FAME works effectively across languages and domains for sequence labeling and sentence classification, in particular in low-resource settings. FAME sets the new state of the art for POS tagging in 27 languages, various NER settings and question classification in different domains.
A Strong Baseline for Query Efficient Attacks in a Black Box Setting
Authors: Rishabh Maheshwary, Saket Maheshwary, Vikram Pudi
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Existing black box search methods have achieved high success rate in generating adversarial attacks against NLP models. However, such search methods are inefficient as they do not consider the amount of queries required to generate adversarial attacks. Also, prior attacks do not maintain a consistent search space while comparing different search methods. In this paper, we propose a query efficient attack strategy to generate plausible adversarial examples on text classification and entailment tasks. Our attack jointly leverages attention mechanism and locality sensitive hashing (LSH) to reduce the query count. We demonstrate the efficacy of our approach by comparing our attack with four baselines across three different search spaces. Further, we benchmark our results across the same search space used in prior attacks. In comparison to attacks proposed, on an average, we are able to reduce the query count by 75% across all datasets and target models. We also demonstrate that our attack achieves a higher success rate when compared to prior attacks in a limited query setting.
Machine Translation Decoding beyond Beam Search
Authors: Rémi Leblond, Jean-Baptiste Alayrac, Laurent Sifre, Miruna Pislar, Lespiau Jean-Baptiste, Ioannis Antonoglou, Karen Simonyan, Oriol Vinyals
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Beam search is the go-to method for decoding auto-regressive machine translation models. While it yields consistent improvements in terms of BLEU, it is only concerned with finding outputs with high model likelihood, and is thus agnostic to whatever end metric or score practitioners care about. Our aim is to establish whether beam search can be replaced by a more powerful metric-driven search technique. To this end, we explore numerous decoding algorithms, including some which rely on a value function parameterised by a neural network, and report results on a variety of metrics. Notably, we introduce a Monte-Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) based method and showcase its competitiveness. We provide a blueprint for how to use MCTS fruitfully in language applications, which opens promising future directions. We find that which algorithm is best heavily depends on the characteristics of the goal metric; we believe that our extensive experiments and analysis will inform further research in this area.
Document Graph for Neural Machine Translation
Authors: Mingzhou Xu, Liangyou Li, Derek F. Wong, Qun Liu, Lidia S. Chao
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Previous works have shown that contextual information can improve the performance of neural machine translation (NMT). However, most existing document-level NMT methods failed to leverage contexts beyond a few set of previous sentences. How to make use of the whole document as global contexts is still a challenge. To address this issue, we hypothesize that a document can be represented as a graph that connects relevant contexts regardless of their distances. We employ several types of relations, including adjacency, syntactic dependency, lexical consistency, and coreference, to construct the document graph. Then, we incorporate both source and target graphs into the conventional Transformer architecture with graph convolutional networks. Experiments on various NMT benchmarks, including IWSLT English--French, Chinese-English, WMT English--German and Opensubtitle English--Russian, demonstrate that using document graphs can significantly improve the translation quality. Extensive analysis verifies that the document graph is beneficial for capturing discourse phenomena.
An Empirical Investigation of Word Alignment Supervision for Zero-Shot Multilingual Neural Machine Translation
Authors: Alessandro Raganato, Raúl Vázquez, Mathias Creutz, Jörg Tiedemann
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Zero-shot translations is a fascinating feature of Multilingual Neural Machine Translation (MNMT) systems. These MNMT models are usually trained on English-centric data, i.e. English either as the source or target language, and with a language label prepended to the input indicating the target language. However, recent work has highlighted several flaws of these models in zero-shot scenarios where language labels are ignored and the wrong language is generated or different runs show highly unstable results. In this paper, we investigate the benefits of an explicit alignment to language labels in Transformer-based MNMT models in the zero-shot context, by jointly training one cross attention head with word alignment supervision to stress the focus on the target language label. We compare and evaluate several MNMT systems on three multilingual MT benchmarks of different sizes, showing that simply supervising one cross attention head to focus both on word alignments and language labels reduces the bias towards translating into the wrong language, improving the zero-shot performance overall. Moreover, as an additional advantage, we find that our alignment supervision leads to more stable results across different training runs.
Graph Algorithms for Multiparallel Word Alignment
Authors: Ayyoob Imani, Masoud Jalili Sabet, Lutfi Kerem Senel, Philipp Dufter, François Yvon, Hinrich Schütze
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: With the advent of end-to-end deep learning approaches in machine translation, interest in word alignments initially decreased; however, they have again become a focus of research more recently. Alignments are useful for typological research, transferring formatting like markup to translated texts, and can be used in the decoding of machine translation systems. At the same time, massively multilingual processing is becoming an important NLP scenario, and pretrained language and machine translation models that are truly multilingual are proposed. However, most alignment algorithms rely on bitexts only and do not leverage the fact that many parallel corpora are multiparallel. In this work, we exploit the multiparallelity of corpora by representing an initial set of bilingual alignments as a graph and then predicting additional edges in the graph. We present two graph algorithms for edge prediction: one inspired by recommender systems and one based on network link prediction. Our experimental results show absolute improvements in F1 of up to 28% over the baseline bilingual word aligner in different datasets.
Improving the Quality Trade-Off for Neural Machine Translation Multi-Domain Adaptation
Authors: Eva Hasler, Tobias Domhan, Jonay Trenous, Ke Tran, Bill Byrne, Felix Hieber
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Building neural machine translation systems to perform well on a specific target domain is a well-studied problem. Optimizing system performance for multiple, diverse target domains however remains a challenge. We study this problem in an adaptation setting where the goal is to preserve the existing system quality while incorporating data for domains that were not the focus of the original translation system. We find that we can improve over the performance trade-off offered by Elastic Weight Consolidation with a relatively simple data mixing strategy. At comparable performance on the new domains, catastrophic forgetting is mitigated significantly on strong WMT baselines. Combining both approaches improves the Pareto frontier on this task.
Language Modeling, Lexical Translation, Reordering: The Training Process of NMT through the Lens of Classical SMT
Authors: Elena Voita, Rico Sennrich, Ivan Titov
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Differently from the traditional statistical MT that decomposes the translation task into distinct separately learned components, neural machine translation uses a single neural network to model the entire translation process. Despite neural machine translation being de-facto standard, it is still not clear how NMT models acquire different competences over the course of training, and how this mirrors the different models in traditional SMT. In this work, we look at the competences related to three core SMT components and find that during training, NMT first focuses on learning target-side language modeling, then improves translation quality approaching word-by-word translation, and finally learns more complicated reordering patterns. We show that this behavior holds for several models and language pairs. Additionally, we explain how such an understanding of the training process can be useful in practice and, as an example, show how it can be used to improve vanilla non-autoregressive neural machine translation by guiding teacher model selection.
Effective Fine-Tuning Methods for Cross-lingual Adaptation
Authors: Tao Yu, Shafiq Joty
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Large scale multilingual pre-trained language models have shown promising results in zero- and few-shot cross-lingual tasks. However, recent studies have shown their lack of generalizability when the languages are structurally dissimilar. In this work, we propose a novel fine-tuning method based on co-training that aims to learn more generalized semantic equivalences as a complementary to multilingual language modeling using the unlabeled data in the target language. We also propose an adaption method based on contrastive learning to better capture the semantic relationship in the parallel data, when a few translation pairs are available. To show our method`s effectiveness, we conduct extensive experiments on cross-lingual inference and review classification tasks across various languages. We report significant gains compared to directly fine-tuning multilingual pre-trained models and other semi-supervised alternatives.
Rethinking Data Augmentation for Low-Resource Neural Machine Translation: A Multi-Task Learning Approach
Authors: Víctor M. Sánchez-Cartagena, Miquel Esplà-Gomis, Juan Antonio Pérez-Ortiz, Felipe Sánchez-Mart\ńez
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: In the context of neural machine translation, data augmentation (DA) techniques may be used for generating additional training samples when the available parallel data are scarce. Many DA approaches aim at expanding the support of the empirical data distribution by generating new sentence pairs that contain infrequent words, thus making it closer to the true data distribution of parallel sentences. In this paper, we propose to follow a completely different approach and present a multi-task DA approach in which we generate new sentence pairs with transformations, such as reversing the order of the target sentence, which produce unfluent target sentences. During training, these augmented sentences are used as auxiliary tasks in a multi-task framework with the aim of providing new contexts where the target prefix is not informative enough to predict the next word. This strengthens the encoder and forces the decoder to pay more attention to the source representations of the encoder. Experiments carried out on six low-resource translation tasks show consistent improvements over the baseline and over DA methods aiming at extending the support of the empirical data distribution. The systems trained with our approach rely more on the source tokens, are more robust against domain shift and suffer less hallucinations.
Wino-X: Multilingual Winograd Schemas for Commonsense Reasoning and Coreference Resolution
Authors: Denis Emelin, Rico Sennrich
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Winograd schemas are a well-established tool for evaluating coreference resolution (CoR) and commonsense reasoning (CSR) capabilities of computational models. So far, schemas remained largely confined to English, limiting their utility in multilingual settings. This work presents Wino-X, a parallel dataset of German, French, and Russian schemas, aligned with their English counterparts. We use this resource to investigate whether neural machine translation (NMT) models can perform CoR that requires commonsense knowledge and whether multilingual language models (MLLMs) are capable of CSR across multiple languages. Our findings show Wino-X to be exceptionally challenging for NMT systems that are prone to undesirable biases and unable to detect disambiguating information. We quantify biases using established statistical methods and define ways to address both of these issues. We furthermore present evidence of active cross-lingual knowledge transfer in MLLMs, whereby fine-tuning models on English schemas yields CSR improvements in other languages.
One Source, Two Targets: Challenges and Rewards of Dual Decoding
Authors: Jitao Xu, François Yvon
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Machine translation is generally understood as generating one target text from an input source document. In this paper, we consider a stronger requirement: to jointly generate two texts so that each output side effectively depends on the other. As we discuss, such a device serves several practical purposes, from multi-target machine translation to the generation of controlled variations of the target text. We present an analysis of possible implementations of dual decoding, and experiment with four applications. Viewing the problem from multiple angles allows us to better highlight the challenges of dual decoding and to also thoroughly analyze the benefits of generating matched, rather than independent, translations.
Discrete and Soft Prompting for Multilingual Models
Authors: Mengjie Zhao, Hinrich Schütze
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: It has been shown for English that discrete and soft prompting perform strongly in few-shot learning with pretrained language models (PLMs). In this paper, we show that discrete and soft prompting perform better than finetuning in multilingual cases: Crosslingual transfer and in-language training of multilingual natural language inference. For example, with 48 English training examples, finetuning obtains 33.74% accuracy in crosslingual transfer, barely surpassing the majority baseline (33.33%). In contrast, discrete and soft prompting outperform finetuning, achieving 36.43% and 38.79%. We also demonstrate good performance of prompting with training data in multiple languages other than English.
Vision Matters When It Should: Sanity Checking Multimodal Machine Translation Models
Authors: Jiaoda Li, Duygu Ataman, Rico Sennrich
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Multimodal machine translation (MMT) systems have been shown to outperform their text-only neural machine translation (NMT) counterparts when visual context is available. However, recent studies have also shown that the performance of MMT models is only marginally impacted when the associated image is replaced with an unrelated image or noise, which suggests that the visual context might not be exploited by the model at all. We hypothesize that this might be caused by the nature of the commonly used evaluation benchmark, also known as Multi30K, where the translations of image captions were prepared without actually showing the images to human translators. In this paper, we present a qualitative study that examines the role of datasets in stimulating the leverage of visual modality and we propose methods to highlight the importance of visual signals in the datasets which demonstrate improvements in reliance of models on the source images. Our findings suggest the research on effective MMT architectures is currently impaired by the lack of suitable datasets and careful consideration must be taken in creation of future MMT datasets, for which we also provide useful insights.
Efficient Inference for Multilingual Neural Machine Translation
Authors: Alexandre Berard, Dain Lee, Stephane Clinchant, Kweonwoo Jung, Vassilina Nikoulina
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Multilingual NMT has become an attractive solution for MT deployment in production. But to match bilingual quality, it comes at the cost of larger and slower models. In this work, we consider several ways to make multilingual NMT faster at inference without degrading its quality. We experiment with several “light decoder” architectures in two 20-language multi-parallel settings: small-scale on TED Talks and large-scale on ParaCrawl. Our experiments demonstrate that combining a shallow decoder with vocabulary filtering leads to almost 2 times faster inference with no loss in translation quality. We validate our findings with BLEU and chrF (on 380 language pairs), robustness evaluation and human evaluation.
Role of Language Relatedness in Multilingual Fine-tuning of Language Models: A Case Study in Indo-Aryan Languages
Authors: Tejas Dhamecha, Rudra Murthy, Samarth Bharadwaj, Karthik Sankaranarayanan, Pushpak Bhattacharyya
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: We explore the impact of leveraging the relatedness of languages that belong to the same family in NLP models using multilingual fine-tuning. We hypothesize and validate that multilingual fine-tuning of pre-trained language models can yield better performance on downstream NLP applications, compared to models fine-tuned on individual languages. A first of its kind detailed study is presented to track performance change as languages are added to a base language in a graded and greedy (in the sense of best boost of performance) manner; which reveals that careful selection of subset of related languages can significantly improve performance than utilizing all related languages. The Indo-Aryan (IA) language family is chosen for the study, the exact languages being Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi and Urdu. The script barrier is crossed by simple rule-based transliteration of the text of all languages to Devanagari. Experiments are performed on mBERT, IndicBERT, MuRIL and two RoBERTa-based LMs, the last two being pre-trained by us. Low resource languages, such as Oriya and Punjabi, are found to be the largest beneficiaries of multilingual fine-tuning. Textual Entailment, Entity Classification, Section Title Prediction, tasks of IndicGLUE and POS tagging form our test bed. Compared to monolingual fine tuning we get relative performance improvement of up to 150% in the downstream tasks. The surprise take-away is that for any language there is a particular combination of other languages which yields the best performance, and any additional language is in fact detrimental.
Comparing Feature-Engineering and Feature-Learning Approaches for Multilingual Translationese Classification
Authors: Daria Pylypenko, Kwabena Amponsah-Kaakyire, Koel Dutta Chowdhury, Josef van Genabith, Cristina España-Bonet
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Traditional hand-crafted linguistically-informed features have often been used for distinguishing between translated and original non-translated texts. By contrast, to date, neural architectures without manual feature engineering have been less explored for this task. In this work, we (i) compare the traditional feature-engineering-based approach to the feature-learning-based one and (ii) analyse the neural architectures in order to investigate how well the hand-crafted features explain the variance in the neural models' predictions. We use pre-trained neural word embeddings, as well as several end-to-end neural architectures in both monolingual and multilingual settings and compare them to feature-engineering-based SVM classifiers. We show that (i) neural architectures outperform other approaches by more than 20 accuracy points, with the BERT-based model performing the best in both the monolingual and multilingual settings; (ii) while many individual hand-crafted translationese features correlate with neural model predictions, feature importance analysis shows that the most important features for neural and classical architectures differ; and (iii) our multilingual experiments provide empirical evidence for translationese universals across languages.
Multi-Sentence Resampling: A Simple Approach to Alleviate Dataset Length Bias and Beam-Search Degradation
Authors: Ivan Provilkov, Andrey Malinin
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Neural Machine Translation (NMT) is known to suffer from a beam-search problem: after a certain point, increasing beam size causes an overall drop in translation quality. This effect is especially pronounced for long sentences. While much work was done analyzing this phenomenon, primarily for autoregressive NMT models, there is still no consensus on its underlying cause. In this work, we analyze errors that cause major quality degradation with large beams in NMT and Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR). We show that a factor that strongly contributes to the quality degradation with large beams is dataset length-bias - NMT datasets are strongly biased towards short sentences. To mitigate this issue, we propose a new data augmentation technique -- Multi-Sentence Resampling (MSR). This technique extends the training examples by concatenating several sentences from the original dataset to make a long training example. We demonstrate that MSR significantly reduces degradation with growing beam size and improves final translation quality on the IWSTL15 En-Vi, IWSTL17 En-Fr, and WMT14 En-De datasets.
Cross-Policy Compliance Detection via Question Answering
Authors: Marzieh Saeidi, Majid Yazdani, Andreas Vlachos
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Policy compliance detection is the task of ensuring that a scenario conforms to a policy (e.g. a claim is valid according to government rules or a post in an online platform conforms to community guidelines). This task has been previously instantiated as a form of textual entailment, which results in poor accuracy due to the complexity of the policies. In this paper we propose to address policy compliance detection via decomposing it into question answering, where questions check whether the conditions stated in the policy apply to the scenario, and an expression tree combines the answers to obtain the label. Despite the initial upfront annotation cost, we demonstrate that this approach results in better accuracy, especially in the cross-policy setup where the policies during testing are unseen in training. In addition, it allows us to use existing question answering models pre-trained on existing large datasets. Finally, it explicitly identifies the information missing from a scenario in case policy compliance cannot be determined. We conduct our experiments using a recent dataset consisting of government policies, which we augment with expert annotations and find that the cost of annotating question answering decomposition is largely offset by improved inter-annotator agreement and speed.
Meta-LMTC: Meta-Learning for Large-Scale Multi-Label Text Classification
Authors: Ran Wang, Xi′ao Su, Siyu Long, Xinyu Dai, Shujian Huang, Jiajun Chen
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Large-scale multi-label text classification (LMTC) tasks often face long-tailed label distributions, where many labels have few or even no training instances. Although current methods can exploit prior knowledge to handle these few/zero-shot labels, they neglect the meta-knowledge contained in the dataset that can guide models to learn with few samples. In this paper, for the first time, this problem is addressed from a meta-learning perspective. However, the simple extension of meta-learning approaches to multi-label classification is sub-optimal for LMTC tasks due to long-tailed label distribution and coexisting of few- and zero-shot scenarios. We propose a meta-learning approach named META-LMTC. Specifically, it constructs more faithful and more diverse tasks according to well-designed sampling strategies and directly incorporates the objective of adapting to new low-resource tasks into the meta-learning phase. Extensive experiments show that META-LMTC achieves state-of-the-art performance against strong baselines and can still enhance powerful BERTlike models.
Unsupervised Multi-View Post-OCR Error Correction With Language Models
Authors: Harsh Gupta, Luciano Del Corro, Samuel Broscheit, Johannes Hoffart, Eliot Brenner
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: We investigate post-OCR correction in a setting where we have access to different OCR views of the same document. The goal of this study is to understand if a pretrained language model (LM) can be used in an unsupervised way to reconcile the different OCR views such that their combination contains fewer errors than each individual view. This approach is motivated by scenarios in which unconstrained text generation for error correction is too risky. We evaluated different pretrained LMs on two datasets and found significant gains in realistic scenarios with up to 15% WER improvement over the best OCR view. We also show the importance of domain adaptation for post-OCR correction on out-of-domain documents.
BERT-Beta: A Proactive Probabilistic Approach to Text Moderation
Authors: Fei Tan, Yifan Hu, Kevin Yen, Changwei Hu
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Text moderation for user generated content, which helps to promote healthy interaction among users, has been widely studied and many machine learning models have been proposed. In this work, we explore an alternative perspective by augmenting reactive reviews with proactive forecasting. Specifically, we propose a new concept text toxicity propensity to characterize the extent to which a text tends to attract toxic comments. Beta regression is then introduced to do the probabilistic modeling, which is demonstrated to function well in comprehensive experiments. We also propose an explanation method to communicate the model decision clearly. Both propensity scoring and interpretation benefit text moderation in a novel manner. Finally, the proposed scaling mechanism for the linear model offers useful insights beyond this work.
STaCK: Sentence Ordering with Temporal Commonsense Knowledge
Authors: Deepanway Ghosal, Navonil Majumder, Rada Mihalcea, Soujanya Poria
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Sentence order prediction is the task of finding the correct order of sentences in a randomly ordered document. Correctly ordering the sentences requires an understanding of coherence with respect to the chronological sequence of events described in the text. Document-level contextual understanding and commonsense knowledge centered around these events are often essential in uncovering this coherence and predicting the exact chronological order. In this paper, we introduce STaCK --- a framework based on graph neural networks and temporal commonsense knowledge to model global information and predict the relative order of sentences. Our graph network accumulates temporal evidence using knowledge of \textquoteleftpast' and \textquoteleftfuture' and formulates sentence ordering as a constrained edge classification problem. We report results on five different datasets, and empirically show that the proposed method is naturally suitable for order prediction. The implementation of this work is available at: r̆lhttps://github.com/declare-lab/sentence-ordering.
Preventing Author Profiling through Zero-Shot Multilingual Back-Translation
Authors: David Ifeoluwa Adelani, Miaoran Zhang, Xiaoyu Shen, Ali Davody, Thomas Kleinbauer, Dietrich Klakow
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Documents as short as a single sentence may inadvertently reveal sensitive information about their authors, including e.g. their gender or ethnicity. Style transfer is an effective way of transforming texts in order to remove any information that enables author profiling. However, for a number of current state-of-the-art approaches the improved privacy is accompanied by an undesirable drop in the down-stream utility of the transformed data. In this paper, we propose a simple, zero-shot way to effectively lower the risk of author profiling through multilingual back-translation using off-the-shelf translation models. We compare our models with five representative text style transfer models on three datasets across different domains. Results from both an automatic and a human evaluation show that our approach achieves the best overall performance while requiring no training data. We are able to lower the adversarial prediction of gender and race by up to 22% while retaining 95% of the original utility on downstream tasks.
CodeT5: Identifier-aware Unified Pre-trained Encoder-Decoder Models for Code Understanding and Generation
Authors: Yue Wang, Weishi Wang, Shafiq Joty, Steven C.H. Hoi
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Pre-trained models for Natural Languages (NL) like BERT and GPT have been recently shown to transfer well to Programming Languages (PL) and largely benefit a broad set of code-related tasks. Despite their success, most current methods either rely on an encoder-only (or decoder-only) pre-training that is suboptimal for generation (resp. understanding) tasks or process the code snippet in the same way as NL, neglecting the special characteristics of PL such as token types. We present CodeT5, a unified pre-trained encoder-decoder Transformer model that better leverages the code semantics conveyed from the developer-assigned identifiers. Our model employs a unified framework to seamlessly support both code understanding and generation tasks and allows for multi-task learning. Besides, we propose a novel identifier-aware pre-training task that enables the model to distinguish which code tokens are identifiers and to recover them when they are masked. Furthermore, we propose to exploit the user-written code comments with a bimodal dual generation task for better NL-PL alignment. Comprehensive experiments show that CodeT5 significantly outperforms prior methods on understanding tasks such as code defect detection and clone detection, and generation tasks across various directions including PL-NL, NL-PL, and PL-PL. Further analysis reveals that our model can better capture semantic information from code. Our code and pre-trained models are released at r̆lhttps://github.com/salesforce/CodeT5.
Detect and Classify -- Joint Span Detection and Classification for Health Outcomes
Authors: Micheal Abaho, Danushka Bollegala, Paula Williamson, Susanna Dodd
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: A health outcome is a measurement or an observation used to capture and assess the effect of a treatment. Automatic detection of health outcomes from text would undoubtedly speed up access to evidence necessary in healthcare decision making. Prior work on outcome detection has modelled this task as either (a) a sequence labelling task, where the goal is to detect which text spans describe health outcomes, or (b) a classification task, where the goal is to classify a text into a predefined set of categories depending on an outcome that is mentioned somewhere in that text. However, this decoupling of span detection and classification is problematic from a modelling perspective and ignores global structural correspondences between sentence-level and word-level information present in a given text. To address this, we propose a method that uses both word-level and sentence-level information to simultaneously perform outcome span detection and outcome type classification. In addition to injecting contextual information to hidden vectors, we use label attention to appropriately weight both word and sentence level information. Experimental results on several benchmark datasets for health outcome detection show that our proposed method consistently outperforms decoupled methods, reporting competitive results.
Multi-Class Grammatical Error Detection for Correction: A Tale of Two Systems
Authors: Zheng Yuan, Shiva Taslimipoor, Christopher Davis, Christopher Bryant
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: In this paper, we show how a multi-class grammatical error detection (GED) system can be used to improve grammatical error correction (GEC) for English. Specifically, we first develop a new state-of-the-art binary detection system based on pre-trained ELECTRA, and then extend it to multi-class detection using different error type tagsets derived from the ERRANT framework. Output from this detection system is used as auxiliary input to fine-tune a novel encoder-decoder GEC model, and we subsequently re-rank the N-best GEC output to find the hypothesis that most agrees with the GED output. Results show that fine-tuning the GEC system using 4-class GED produces the best model, but re-ranking using 55-class GED leads to the best performance overall. This suggests that different multi-class GED systems benefit GEC in different ways. Ultimately, our system outperforms all other previous work that combines GED and GEC, and achieves a new single-model NMT-based state of the art on the BEA-test benchmark.
Towards Zero-shot Commonsense Reasoning with Self-supervised Refinement of Language Models
Authors: Tassilo Klein, Moin Nabi
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Can we get existing language models and refine them for zero-shot commonsense reasoning? This paper presents an initial study exploring the feasibility of zero-shot commonsense reasoning for the Winograd Schema Challenge by formulating the task as self-supervised refinement of a pre-trained language model. In contrast to previous studies that rely on fine-tuning annotated datasets, we seek to boost conceptualization via loss landscape refinement. To this end, we propose a novel self-supervised learning approach that refines the language model utilizing a set of linguistic perturbations of similar concept relationships. Empirical analysis of our conceptually simple framework demonstrates the viability of zero-shot commonsense reasoning on multiple benchmarks.
To Share or not to Share: Predicting Sets of Sources for Model Transfer Learning
Authors: Lukas Lange, Jannik Strötgen, Heike Adel, Dietrich Klakow
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: In low-resource settings, model transfer can help to overcome a lack of labeled data for many tasks and domains. However, predicting useful transfer sources is a challenging problem, as even the most similar sources might lead to unexpected negative transfer results. Thus, ranking methods based on task and text similarity --- as suggested in prior work --- may not be sufficient to identify promising sources. To tackle this problem, we propose a new approach to automatically determine which and how many sources should be exploited. For this, we study the effects of model transfer on sequence labeling across various domains and tasks and show that our methods based on model similarity and support vector machines are able to predict promising sources, resulting in performance increases of up to 24 F1 points.
Self-Supervised Detection of Contextual Synonyms in a Multi-Class Setting: Phenotype Annotation Use Case
Authors: Jingqing Zhang, Luis Bolanos Trujillo, Tong Li, Ashwani Tanwar, Guilherme Freire, Xian Yang, Julia Ive, Vibhor Gupta, Yike Guo
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Contextualised word embeddings is a powerful tool to detect contextual synonyms. However, most of the current state-of-the-art (SOTA) deep learning concept extraction methods remain supervised and underexploit the potential of the context. In this paper, we propose a self-supervised pre-training approach which is able to detect contextual synonyms of concepts being training on the data created by shallow matching. We apply our methodology in the sparse multi-class setting (over 15,000 concepts) to extract phenotype information from electronic health records. We further investigate data augmentation techniques to address the problem of the class sparsity. Our approach achieves a new SOTA for the unsupervised phenotype concept annotation on clinical text on F1 and Recall outperforming the previous SOTA with a gain of up to 4.5 and 4.0 absolute points, respectively. After fine-tuning with as little as 20% of the labelled data, we also outperform BioBERT and ClinicalBERT. The extrinsic evaluation on three ICU benchmarks also shows the benefit of using the phenotypes annotated by our model as features.
ClauseRec: A Clause Recommendation Framework for AI-aided Contract Authoring
Authors: Vinay Aggarwal, Aparna Garimella, Balaji Vasan Srinivasan, Anandhavelu N, Rajiv Jain
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Contracts are a common type of legal document that frequent in several day-to-day business workflows. However, there has been very limited NLP research in processing such documents, and even lesser in generating them. These contracts are made up of clauses, and the unique nature of these clauses calls for specific methods to understand and generate such documents. In this paper, we introduce the task of clause recommendation, as a first step to aid and accelerate the authoring of contract documents. We propose a two-staged pipeline to first predict if a specific clause type is relevant to be added in a contract, and then recommend the top clauses for the given type based on the contract context. We pre-train BERT on an existing library of clauses with two additional tasks and use it for our prediction and recommendation. We experiment with classification methods and similarity-based heuristics for clause relevance prediction, and generation-based methods for clause recommendation, and evaluate the results from various methods on several clause types. We provide analyses on the results, and further outline the limitations and future directions of this line of research.
Finnish Dialect Identification: The Effect of Audio and Text
Authors: Mika Hämäläinen, Khalid Alnajjar, Niko Partanen, Jack Rueter
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: Finnish is a language with multiple dialects that not only differ from each other in terms of accent (pronunciation) but also in terms of morphological forms and lexical choice. We present the first approach to automatically detect the dialect of a speaker based on a dialect transcript and transcript with audio recording in a dataset consisting of 23 different dialects. Our results show that the best accuracy is received by combining both of the modalities, as text only reaches to an overall accuracy of 57%, where as text and audio reach to 85%. Our code, models and data have been released openly on Github and Zenodo.
English Machine Reading Comprehension Datasets: A Survey
Authors: Daria Dzendzik, Jennifer Foster, Carl Vogel
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: This paper surveys 60 English Machine Reading Comprehension datasets, with a view to providing a convenient resource for other researchers interested in this problem. We categorize the datasets according to their question and answer form and compare them across various dimensions including size, vocabulary, data source, method of creation, human performance level, and first question word. Our analysis reveals that Wikipedia is by far the most common data source and that there is a relative lack of why, when, and where questions across datasets.
Expanding End-to-End Question Answering on Differentiable Knowledge Graphs with Intersection
Authors: Priyanka Sen, Armin Oliya, Amir Saffari
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: End-to-end question answering using a differentiable knowledge graph is a promising technique that requires only weak supervision, produces interpretable results, and is fully differentiable. Previous implementations of this technique (Cohen et al, 2020) have focused on single-entity questions using a relation following operation. In this paper, we propose a model that explicitly handles multiple-entity questions by implementing a new intersection operation, which identifies the shared elements between two sets of entities. We find that introducing intersection improves performance over a baseline model on two datasets, WebQuestionsSP (69.6% to 73.3% Hits@1) and ComplexWebQuestions (39.8% to 48.7% Hits@1), and in particular, improves performance on questions with multiple entities by over 14% on WebQuestionsSP and by 19% on ComplexWebQuestions.
Structured Context and High-Coverage Grammar for Conversational Question Answering over Knowledge Graphs
Authors: Pierre Marion, Pawel Nowak, Francesco Piccinno
Published in: Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (Main Conference Track), 2021

Abstract: We tackle the problem of weakly-supervised conversational Question Answering over large Knowledge Graphs using a neural semantic parsing approach. We introduce a new Logical Form (LF) grammar that can model a wide range of queries on the graph while remaining sufficiently simple to generate supervision data efficiently. Our Transformer-based model takes a JSON-like structure as input, allowing us to easily incorporate both Knowledge Graph and conversational contexts. This structured input is transformed to lists of embeddings and then fed to standard attention layers. We validate our approach, both in terms of grammar coverage and LF execution accuracy, on two publicly available datasets, CSQA and ConvQuestions, both grounded in Wikidata. On CSQA, our approach increases the coverage from 80% to 96.2%, and the LF execution accuracy from 70.6% to 75.6%, with respect to previous state-of-the-art results. On ConvQuestions, we achieve competitive results with respect to the state-of-the-art.