Training Connectionist Networks with Queries and Selective Sampling
Authors: David A. Cohn, Richard E. Ladner Les E. Atlas
Published in: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 2  (NIPS 1989) (Main Conference Track), 1989

Abstract: "Selective  sampling"  is  a  form  of directed  search  that  can greatly  increase  the ability of a  connectionist  network  to  generalize  accu(cid:173) rately.  Based  on  information  from  previous  batches  of samples,  a  network  may  be  trained  on  data selectively  sampled  from  regions  in  the  domain  that  are  unknown.  This is  realizable  in  cases  when  the distribution is  known,  or when  the cost  of drawing points from  the  target  distribution  is  negligible  compared  to the cost  of label(cid:173) ing  them  with  the proper classification.  The  approach  is  justified  by its applicability  to the problem of training a  network for  power  system  security  analysis.  The  benefits  of selective  sampling  are  studied  analytically,  and  the results  are confirmed  experimentally. 
Introduction:  Random  Sampling vs.  Directed  Search 
1  A  great  deal  of attention  has  been  applied  to the  problem of generalization  based  on  random samples  drawn  from  a  distribution,  frequently  referred  to as  "learning  from  examples."  Many  natural  learning learning systems  however,  do  not  simply  rely  on this  passive  learning technique,  but instead  make use  of at least some form  of directed  search  to  actively  examine  the  problem  domain.  In  many  problems,  directed  search  is  provably  more  powerful  than  passively  learning  from  randomly  given examples. 
Training Connectionist Networks with Queries and Selective Sampling 
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Typically, directed search consists of membership queries,  where the learner asks for  the classification of specific  points in the domain.  Directed  search via membership  queries may proceed simply  by examining the information already given and deter(cid:173) mining  a  region  of uncertainty,  the  area  in  the domain  where  the  learner  believes  mis-classification  is  still  possible.  The  learner  then  asks  for  examples  exclusively  from that region. 
This  paper discusses  one  form  of directed search:  selective  sampling.  In Section 2,  we  describe  theoretical  foundations  of directed  search and  give  a  formal  definition  of selective  sampling.  In  Section  3  we  describe  a  neural  network  implementation  of this technique,  and  we discuss the resulting improvements in  generalization on a  number of tasks in  Section  4. 
2  Learning and Selective  Sampling  For some arbitrary domain learning theory defines a  concept as being some subset of  points in  the domain.  For  example,  if our domain is  ~2, we  might define  a  concept  as  being all  points inside  a  region  bounded  by some  particular  rectangle.  A  concept  class  is  simply  the set of concepts in some description language. 
A concept class of particular interest for  this paper is that defined by neural network  architectures with a single output node.  Architecture refers to the number and types  of units in a network and their connectivity.  The configuration of a network specifies  the  weights on  the connections and  the thresholds of the units  1 . 
A  single-output  architecture  plus  configuration  can  be  seen  as  a  specification  of  a  concept  classifier  in  that  it  classifies  the  set  of all  points  producing  a  network  output  above some  threshold  value.  Similarly,  an  architecture  may  be  seen  as  a  specification of a concept class.  It consists of all concepts classified by configurations  of the network that the learning rule can produce (figure  1).