mtybilly/Instruct2DS huggingface dataset:
Unsupervised Domain Adaptation Method with Semantic-Structural Alignment for Dependency Parsing
Authors: Mingzheng Li, Si Li, Yong Luo Boda Lin
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Unsupervised cross-domain dependency parsing is to accomplish domain adaptation for dependency parsing without using labeled data in target domain. Existing methods are often of the pseudo-annotation type, which generates data through self-annotation of the base model and performing iterative training. However, these methods fail to consider the change of model structure for domain adaptation. In addition, the structural information contained in the text cannot be fully exploited. To remedy these drawbacks, we propose a Semantics-Structure Adaptative Dependency Parser (SSADP), which accomplishes unsupervised cross-domain dependency parsing without relying on pseudo-annotation or data selection. In particular, we design two feature extractors to extract semantic and structural features respectively. For each type of features, a corresponding feature adaptation method is utilized to achieve domain adaptation to align the domain distribution, which effectively enhances the unsupervised cross-domain transfer capability of the model. We validate the effectiveness of our model by conducting experiments on the CODT1 and CTB9 respectively, and the results demonstrate that our model can achieve consistent performance improvement. Besides, we verify the structure transfer ability of the proposed model by introducing Weisfeiler-Lehman Test.
Devil`s Advocate: Novel Boosting Ensemble Method from Psychological Findings for Text Classification
Authors: Jaeseo Lim, Byoung-Tak Zhang Hwiyeol Jo
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: We present a new form of ensemble method--Devil`s Advocate, which uses a deliberately dissenting model to force other submodels within the ensemble to better collaborate. Our method consists of two different training settings: one follows the conventional training process (Norm), and the other is trained by artificially generated labels (DevAdv). After training the models, Norm models are fine-tuned through an additional loss function, which uses the DevAdv model as a constraint. In making a final decision, the proposed ensemble model sums the scores of Norm models and then subtracts the score of the DevAdv model. The DevAdv model improves the overall performance of the other models within the ensemble. In addition to our ensemble framework being based on psychological background, it also shows comparable or improved performance on 5 text classification tasks when compared to conventional ensemble methods.
SideControl: Controlled Open-domain Dialogue Generation via Additive Side Networks
Authors: Yangfeng Ji Wanyu Du
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Transformer-based pre-trained language models boost the performance of open-domain dialogue systems. Prior works leverage Transformer-based pre-trained language models to generate texts with desired attributes in two general approaches: (1) gradient-based methods: updating all latent representations of pre-trained models with gradients from attribute models; (2) weighted-decoding methods: re-ranking beam candidates from pre-trained models with attribute functions. However, gradient-based methods lead to high computation cost and can easily get overfitted on small training sets, while weighted-decoding methods are inherently constrained by the low-variance high-bias pre-trained model. In this work, we propose a novel approach to control the generation of Transformer-based pre-trained language models: the SideControl framework, which leverages a novel control attributes loss to incorporate useful control signals, and is shown to perform well with very limited training samples. We evaluate our proposed method on two benchmark open-domain dialogue datasets, and results show that the SideControl framework has better controllability, higher generation quality and better sample-efficiency than existing gradient-based and weighted-decoding baselines.
Is BERT a Cross-Disciplinary Knowledge Learner? A Surprising Finding of Pre-trained Models' Transferability
Authors: Hung-yi Lee Wei-Tsung Kao
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: This paper investigates whether the power of the models pre-trained on text data, such as BERT, can be transferred to general token sequence classification applications. To verify pre-trained models' transferability, we test the pre-trained models on text classification tasks with meanings of tokens mismatches, and real-world non-text token sequence classification data, including amino acid, DNA, and music. We find that even on non-text data, the models pre-trained on text converge faster, perform better than the randomly initialized models, and only slightly worse than the models using task-specific knowledge. We also find that the representations of the text and non-text pre-trained models share non-trivial similarities.
Geo-BERT Pre-training Model for Query Rewriting in POI Search
Authors: Juan Hu, Qi Shen, Huan Chen Xiao Liu
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Query Rewriting (QR) is proposed to solve the problem of the word mismatch between queries and documents in Web search. Existing approaches usually model QR with an end-to-end sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) model. The state-of-the-art Transformer-based models can effectively learn textual semantics from user session logs, but they often ignore users' geographic location information that is crucial for the Point-of-Interest (POI) search of map services. In this paper, we proposed a pre-training model, called Geo-BERT, to integrate semantics and geographic information in the pre-trained representations of POIs. Firstly, we simulate POI distribution in the real world as a graph, in which nodes represent POIs and multiple geographic granularities. Then we use graph representation learning methods to get geographic representations. Finally, we train a BERT-like pre-training model with text and POIs' graph embeddings to get an integrated representation of both geographic and semantic information, and apply it in the QR of POI search. The proposed model achieves excellent accuracy on a wide range of real-world datasets of map services.
Leveraging Bidding Graphs for Advertiser-Aware Relevance Modeling in Sponsored Search
Authors: Chaozhuo Li, Xiao Han, Zheng Liu, Xing Xie, Haizhen Huang, Zengxuan Wen Shuxian Bi
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Recently, sponsored search has become one of the most lucrative channels for marketing. As the fundamental basis of sponsored search, relevance modeling has attracted increasing attention due to the tremendous practical value. Most existing methods solely rely on the query-keyword pairs. However, keywords are usually short texts with scarce semantic information, which may not precisely reflect the underlying advertising intents. In this paper, we investigate the novel problem of advertiser-aware relevance modeling, which leverages the advertisers' information to bridge the gap between the search intents and advertising purposes. Our motivation lies in incorporating the unsupervised bidding behaviors as the complementary graphs to learn desirable advertiser representations. We further propose a Bidding-Graph augmented Triple-based Relevance model BGTR with three towers to deeply fuse the bidding graphs and semantic textual data. Empirically, we evaluate the BGTR model over a large industry dataset, and the experimental results consistently demonstrate its superiority.
GPT3Mix: Leveraging Large-scale Language Models for Text Augmentation
Authors: Dongju Park, Jaewook Kang, Sang-Woo Lee, Woomyoung Park Kang Min Yoo
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Large-scale language models such as GPT-3 are excellent few-shot learners, allowing them to be controlled via natural text prompts. Recent studies report that prompt-based direct classification eliminates the need for fine-tuning but lacks data and inference scalability. This paper proposes a novel data augmentation technique that leverages large-scale language models to generate realistic text samples from a mixture of real samples. We also propose utilizing soft-labels predicted by the language models, effectively distilling knowledge from the large-scale language models and creating textual perturbations simultaneously. We perform data augmentation experiments on diverse classification tasks and show that our method hugely outperforms existing text augmentation methods. We also conduct experiments on our newly proposed benchmark to show that the augmentation effect is not only attributed to memorization. Further ablation studies and a qualitative analysis provide more insights into our approach.
Context-aware Entity Typing in Knowledge Graphs
Authors: Wei Wei, Xian-Ling Mao Weiran Pan
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Knowledge graph entity typing aims to infer entities' missing types in knowledge graphs which is an important but under-explored issue. This paper proposes a novel method for this task by utilizing entities' contextual information. Specifically, we design two inference mechanisms: i) N2T: independently use each neighbor of an entity to infer its type; ii) Agg2T: aggregate the neighbors of an entity to infer its type. Those mechanisms will produce multiple inference results, and an exponentially weighted pooling method is used to generate the final inference result. Furthermore, we propose a novel loss function to alleviate the false-negative problem during training. Experiments on two real-world KGs demonstrate the effectiveness of our method. The source code and data of this paper can be obtained from r̆lhttps://github.com/CCIIPLab/CET.
Attribute Alignment: Controlling Text Generation from Pre-trained Language Models
Authors: Zhou Yu, Kenji Sagae Dian Yu
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Large language models benefit from training with a large amount of unlabeled text, which gives them increasingly fluent and diverse generation capabilities. However, using these models for text generation that takes into account target attributes, such as sentiment polarity or specific topics, remains a challenge. We propose a simple and flexible method for controlling text generation by aligning disentangled attribute representations. In contrast to recent efforts on training a discriminator to perturb the token level distribution for an attribute, we use the same data to learn an alignment function to guide the pre-trained, non-controlled language model to generate texts with the target attribute without changing the original language model parameters. We evaluate our method on sentiment- and topic-controlled generation, and show large performance gains over previous methods while retaining fluency and diversity.
Generate & Rank: A Multi-task Framework for Math Word Problems
Authors: Yichun Yin, Lin Li, Lifeng Shang, Xin Jiang, Ming Zhang, Qun Liu Jianhao Shen
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Math word problem (MWP) is a challenging and critical task in natural language processing. Many recent studies formalize MWP as a generation task and have adopted sequence-to-sequence models to transform problem descriptions to mathematical expressions. However, mathematical expressions are prone to minor mistakes while the generation objective does not explicitly handle such mistakes. To address this limitation, we devise a new ranking task for MWP and propose Generate & Rank, a multi-task framework based on a generative pre-trained language model. By joint training with generation and ranking, the model learns from its own mistakes and is able to distinguish between correct and incorrect expressions. Meanwhile, we perform tree-based disturbance specially designed for MWP and an online update to boost the ranker. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method on the benchmark and the results show that our method consistently outperforms baselines in all datasets. Particularly, in the classical Math23k, our method is 7% (78.4% to 85.4%) higher than the state-of-the-art. Code could be found at r̆lhttps://github.com/huawei-noah/noah-research.
MIRTT: Learning Multimodal Interaction Representations from Trilinear Transformers for Visual Question Answering
Authors: Yatai Ji, Jiaqi Sun, Yujiu Yang, Tetsuya Sakai Junjie Wang
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: In Visual Question Answering (VQA), existing bilinear methods focus on the interaction between images and questions. As a result, the answers are either spliced into the questions or utilized as labels only for classification. On the other hand, trilinear models such as the CTI model efficiently utilize the inter-modality information between answers, questions, and images, while ignoring intra-modality information. Inspired by this observation, we propose a new trilinear interaction framework called MIRTT (Learning Multimodal Interaction Representations from Trilinear Transformers), incorporating the attention mechanisms for capturing inter-modality and intra-modality relationships. Moreover, we design a two-stage workflow where a bilinear model reduces the free-form, open-ended VQA problem into a multiple-choice VQA problem. Furthermore, to obtain accurate and generic multimodal representations, we pre-train MIRTT with masked language prediction. Our method achieves state-of-the-art performance on the Visual7W Telling task and VQA-1.0 Multiple Choice task and outperforms bilinear baselines on the VQA-2.0, TDIUC and GQA datasets.
UniteD-SRL: A Unified Dataset for Span- and Dependency-Based Multilingual and Cross-Lingual Semantic Role Labeling
Authors: Simone Conia, Roberto Navigli Rocco Tripodi
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Multilingual and cross-lingual Semantic Role Labeling (SRL) have recently garnered increasing attention as multilingual text representation techniques have become more effective and widely available. While recent work has attained growing success, results on gold multilingual benchmarks are still not easily comparable across languages, making it difficult to grasp where we stand. For example, in CoNLL-2009, the standard benchmark for multilingual SRL, language-to-language comparisons are affected by the fact that each language has its own dataset which differs from the others in size, domains, sets of labels and annotation guidelines. In this paper, we address this issue and propose UniteD-SRL, a new benchmark for multilingual and cross-lingual, span- and dependency-based SRL. UniteD-SRL provides expert-curated parallel annotations using a common predicate-argument structure inventory, allowing direct comparisons across languages and encouraging studies on cross-lingual transfer in SRL. We release UniteD-SRL v1.0 at r̆lhttps://github.com/SapienzaNLP/united-srl.
Enhancing Dual-Encoders with Question and Answer Cross-Embeddings for Answer Retrieval
Authors: Jun Bai, Ye Wang, Jianfei Zhang, Wenge Rong, Zongcheng Ji, Shaojun Wang, Jing Xiao Yanmeng Wang
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Dual-Encoders is a promising mechanism for answer retrieval in question answering (QA) systems. Currently most conventional Dual-Encoders learn the semantic representations of questions and answers merely through matching score. Researchers proposed to introduce the QA interaction features in scoring function but at the cost of low efficiency in inference stage. To keep independent encoding of questions and answers during inference stage, variational auto-encoder is further introduced to reconstruct answers (questions) from question (answer) embeddings as an auxiliary task to enhance QA interaction in representation learning in training stage. However, the needs of text generation and answer retrieval are different, which leads to hardness in training. In this work, we propose a framework to enhance the Dual-Encoders model with question answer cross-embeddings and a novel Geometry Alignment Mechanism (GAM) to align the geometry of embeddings from Dual-Encoders with that from Cross-Encoders. Extensive experimental results show that our framework significantly improves Dual-Encoders model and outperforms the state-of-the-art method on multiple answer retrieval datasets.
A Neural Graph-based Local Coherence Model
Authors: Leonardo F. R. Ribeiro, Iryna Gurevych Mohsen Mesgar
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Entity grids and entity graphs are two frameworks for modeling local coherence. These frameworks represent entity relations between sentences and then extract features from such representations to encode coherence. The benefits of convolutional neural models for extracting informative features from entity grids have been recently studied. In this work, we study the benefits of Relational Graph Convolutional Networks (RGCN) to encode entity graphs for measuring local coherence. We evaluate our neural graph-based model for two benchmark coherence evaluation tasks: sentence ordering (SO) and summary coherence rating (SCR). The results show that our neural graph-based model consistently outperforms the neural grid-based model for both tasks. Our model performs competitively with a strong baseline coherence model, while our model uses 50% fewer parameters. Our work defines a new, efficient, and effective baseline for local coherence modeling.
GiBERT: Enhancing BERT with Linguistic Information using a Lightweight Gated Injection Method
Authors: Marek Rei, Maria Liakata Nicole Peinelt
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Large pre-trained language models such as BERT have been the driving force behind recent improvements across many NLP tasks. However, BERT is only trained to predict missing words -- either through masking or next sentence prediction -- and has no knowledge of lexical, syntactic or semantic information beyond what it picks up through unsupervised pre-training. We propose a novel method to explicitly inject linguistic information in the form of word embeddings into any layer of a pre-trained BERT. When injecting counter-fitted and dependency-based embeddings, the performance improvements on multiple semantic similarity datasets indicate that such information is beneficial and currently missing from the original model. Our qualitative analysis shows that counter-fitted embedding injection is particularly beneficial, with notable improvements on examples that require synonym resolution.
RollingLDA: An Update Algorithm of Latent Dirichlet Allocation to Construct Consistent Time Series from Textual Data
Authors: Carsten Jentsch, Jörg Rahnenführer Jonas Rieger
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: We propose a rolling version of the Latent Dirichlet Allocation, called RollingLDA. By a sequential approach, it enables the construction of LDA-based time series of topics that are consistent with previous states of LDA models. After an initial modeling, updates can be computed efficiently, allowing for real-time monitoring and detection of events or structural breaks. For this purpose, we propose suitable similarity measures for topics and provide simulation evidence of superiority over other commonly used approaches. The adequacy of the resulting method is illustrated by an application to an example corpus. In particular, we compute the similarity of sequentially obtained topic and word distributions over consecutive time periods. For a representative example corpus consisting of The New York Times articles from 1980 to 2020, we analyze the effect of several tuning parameter choices and we run the RollingLDA method on the full dataset of approximately 4 million articles to demonstrate its feasibility.
What If Sentence-hood is Hard to Define: A Case Study in Chinese Reading Comprehension
Authors: Hai Zhao, Yinggong Zhao, Libin Shen Jiawei Wang
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Machine reading comprehension (MRC) is a challenging NLP task for it requires to carefully deal with all linguistic granularities from word, sentence to passage. For extractive MRC, the answer span has been shown mostly determined by key evidence linguistic units, in which it is a sentence in most cases. However, we recently discovered that sentences may not be clearly defined in many languages to different extents, so that this causes so-called location unit ambiguity problem and as a result makes it difficult for the model to determine which sentence exactly contains the answer span when sentence itself has not been clearly defined at all. Taking Chinese language as a case study, we explain and analyze such a linguistic phenomenon and correspondingly propose a reader with Explicit Span-Sentence Predication to alleviate such a problem. Our proposed reader eventually helps achieve a new state-of-the-art on Chinese MRC benchmark and shows great potential in dealing with other languages.
Refining BERT Embeddings for Document Hashing via Mutual Information Maximization
Authors: Qinliang Su, Jianxing Yu, Ruihui Zhao, Yefeng Zheng, Bang Liu Zijing Ou
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Existing unsupervised document hashing methods are mostly established on generative models. Due to the difficulties of capturing long dependency structures, these methods rarely model the raw documents directly, but instead to model the features extracted from them (\textite.g. bag-of-words (BOG), TFIDF). In this paper, we propose to learn hash codes from BERT embeddings after observing their tremendous successes on downstream tasks. As a first try, we modify existing generative hashing models to accommodate the BERT embeddings. However, little improvement is observed over the codes learned from the old BOG or TFIDF features. We attribute this to the reconstruction requirement in the generative hashing, which will enforce irrelevant information that is abundant in the BERT embeddings also compressed into the codes. To remedy this issue, a new unsupervised hashing paradigm is further proposed based on the mutual information (MI) maximization principle. Specifically, the method first constructs appropriate global and local codes from the documents and then seeks to maximize their mutual information. Experimental results on three benchmark datasets demonstrate that the proposed method is able to generate hash codes that outperform existing ones learned from BOG features by a substantial margin.
REBEL: Relation Extraction By End-to-end Language generation
Authors: Roberto Navigli Pere-Lluís Huguet Cabot
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Extracting relation triplets from raw text is a crucial task in Information Extraction, enabling multiple applications such as populating or validating knowledge bases, factchecking, and other downstream tasks. However, it usually involves multiple-step pipelines that propagate errors or are limited to a small number of relation types. To overcome these issues, we propose the use of autoregressive seq2seq models. Such models have previously been shown to perform well not only in language generation, but also in NLU tasks such as Entity Linking, thanks to their framing as seq2seq tasks. In this paper, we show how Relation Extraction can be simplified by expressing triplets as a sequence of text and we present REBEL, a seq2seq model based on BART that performs end-to-end relation extraction for more than 200 different relation types. We show our model`s flexibility by fine-tuning it on an array of Relation Extraction and Relation Classification benchmarks, with it attaining state-of-the-art performance in most of them.
Wine is not v i n. On the Compatibility of Tokenizations across Languages
Authors: Philipp Dufter, Hinrich Schütze Antonis Maronikolakis
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: The size of the vocabulary is a central design choice in large pretrained language models, with respect to both performance and memory requirements. Typically, subword tokenization algorithms such as byte pair encoding and WordPiece are used. In this work, we investigate the compatibility of tokenizations for multilingual static and contextualized embedding spaces and propose a measure that reflects the compatibility of tokenizations across languages. Our goal is to prevent incompatible tokenizations, e.g., “wine” (word-level) in English vs. “v i n” (character-level) in French, which make it hard to learn good multilingual semantic representations. We show that our compatibility measure allows the system designer to create vocabularies across languages that are compatible -- a desideratum that so far has been neglected in multilingual models.
Temporal Adaptation of BERT and Performance on Downstream Document Classification: Insights from Social Media
Authors: Janet Pierrehumbert Paul Röttger
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Language use differs between domains and even within a domain, language use changes over time. For pre-trained language models like BERT, domain adaptation through continued pre-training has been shown to improve performance on in-domain downstream tasks. In this article, we investigate whether temporal adaptation can bring additional benefits. For this purpose, we introduce a corpus of social media comments sampled over three years. It contains unlabelled data for adaptation and evaluation on an upstream masked language modelling task as well as labelled data for fine-tuning and evaluation on a downstream document classification task. We find that temporality matters for both tasks: temporal adaptation improves upstream and temporal fine-tuning downstream task performance. Time-specific models generally perform better on past than on future test sets, which matches evidence on the bursty usage of topical words. However, adapting BERT to time and domain does not improve performance on the downstream task over only adapting to domain. Token-level analysis shows that temporal adaptation captures event-driven changes in language use in the downstream task, but not those changes that are actually relevant to task performance. Based on our findings, we discuss when temporal adaptation may be more effective.
Skim-Attention: Learning to Focus via Document Layout
Authors: Thomas Scialom, Jacopo Staiano, Benjamin Piwowarski Laura Nguyen
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Transformer-based pre-training techniques of text and layout have proven effective in a number of document understanding tasks. Despite this success, multimodal pre-training models suffer from very high computational and memory costs. Motivated by human reading strategies, this paper presents Skim-Attention, a new attention mechanism that takes advantage of the structure of the document and its layout. Skim-Attention only attends to the 2-dimensional position of the words in a document. Our experiments show that Skim-Attention obtains a lower perplexity than prior works, while being more computationally efficient. Skim-Attention can be further combined with long-range Transformers to efficiently process long documents. We also show how Skim-Attention can be used off-the-shelf as a mask for any Pre-trained Language Model, allowing to improve their performance while restricting attention. Finally, we show the emergence of a document structure representation in Skim-Attention.
Attention-based Contrastive Learning for Winograd Schemas
Authors: Moin Nabi Tassilo Klein
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Self-supervised learning has recently attracted considerable attention in the NLP community for its ability to learn discriminative features using a contrastive objective. This paper investigates whether contrastive learning can be extended to Transfomer attention to tackling the Winograd Schema Challenge. To this end, we propose a novel self-supervised framework, leveraging a contrastive loss directly at the level of self-attention. Experimental analysis of our attention-based models on multiple datasets demonstrates superior commonsense reasoning capabilities. The proposed approach outperforms all comparable unsupervised approaches while occasionally surpassing supervised ones.
Give the Truth: Incorporate Semantic Slot into Abstractive Dialogue Summarization
Authors: Weihao Zeng, Weiran Xu, Jun Guo Lulu Zhao
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Abstractive dialogue summarization suffers from a lots of factual errors, which are due to scattered salient elements in the multi-speaker information interaction process. In this work, we design a heterogeneous semantic slot graph with a slot-level mask cross-attention to enhance the slot features for more correct summarization. We also propose a slot-driven beam search algorithm in the decoding process to give priority to generating salient elements in a limited length by “filling-in-the-blanks”. Besides, an adversarial contrastive learning assisting the training process is introduced to alleviate the exposure bias. Experimental performance on different types of factual errors shows the effectiveness of our methods and human evaluation further verifies the results..
Challenges in Detoxifying Language Models
Authors: Amelia Glaese, Jonathan Uesato, Sumanth Dathathri, John Mellor, Lisa Anne Hendricks, Kirsty Anderson, Pushmeet Kohli, Ben Coppin, Po-Sen Huang Johannes Welbl
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Large language models (LM) generate remarkably fluent text and can be efficiently adapted across NLP tasks. Measuring and guaranteeing the quality of generated text in terms of safety is imperative for deploying LMs in the real world; to this end, prior work often relies on automatic evaluation of LM toxicity. We critically discuss this approach, evaluate several toxicity mitigation strategies with respect to both automatic and human evaluation, and analyze consequences of toxicity mitigation in terms of model bias and LM quality. We demonstrate that while basic intervention strategies can effectively optimize previously established automatic metrics on the REALTOXICITYPROMPTS dataset, this comes at the cost of reduced LM coverage for both texts about, and dialects of, marginalized groups. Additionally, we find that human raters often disagree with high automatic toxicity scores after strong toxicity reduction interventions---highlighting further the nuances involved in careful evaluation of LM toxicity.
Collecting a Large-Scale Gender Bias Dataset for Coreference Resolution and Machine Translation
Authors: Koren Lazar, Gabriel Stanovsky Shahar Levy
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Recent works have found evidence of gender bias in models of machine translation and coreference resolution using mostly synthetic diagnostic datasets. While these quantify bias in a controlled experiment, they often do so on a small scale and consist mostly of artificial, out-of-distribution sentences. In this work, we find grammatical patterns indicating stereotypical and non-stereotypical gender-role assignments (e.g., female nurses versus male dancers) in corpora from three domains, resulting in a first large-scale gender bias dataset of 108K diverse real-world English sentences. We manually verify the quality of our corpus and use it to evaluate gender bias in various coreference resolution and machine translation models. We find that all tested models tend to over-rely on gender stereotypes when presented with natural inputs, which may be especially harmful when deployed in commercial systems. Finally, we show that our dataset lends itself to finetuning a coreference resolution model, finding it mitigates bias on a held out set. Our dataset and models are publicly available at github.com/SLAB-NLP/BUG. We hope they will spur future research into gender bias evaluation mitigation techniques in realistic settings.
Competence-based Curriculum Learning for Multilingual Machine Translation
Authors: Fandong Meng, Yunhai Tong, Jie Zhou Mingliang Zhang
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Currently, multilingual machine translation is receiving more and more attention since it brings better performance for low resource languages (LRLs) and saves more space. However, existing multilingual machine translation models face a severe challenge: imbalance. As a result, the translation performance of different languages in multilingual translation models are quite different. We argue that this imbalance problem stems from the different learning competencies of different languages. Therefore, we focus on balancing the learning competencies of different languages and propose Competence-based Curriculum Learning for Multilingual Machine Translation, named CCL-M. Specifically, we firstly define two competencies to help schedule the high resource languages (HRLs) and the low resource languages: 1) Self-evaluated Competence, evaluating how well the language itself has been learned; and 2) HRLs-evaluated Competence, evaluating whether an LRL is ready to be learned according to HRLs' Self-evaluated Competence. Based on the above competencies, we utilize the proposed CCL-M algorithm to gradually add new languages into the training set in a curriculum learning manner. Furthermore, we propose a novel competence-aware dynamic balancing sampling strategy for better selecting training samples in multilingual training. Experimental results show that our approach has achieved a steady and significant performance gain compared to the previous state-of-the-art approach on the TED talks dataset.
Informed Sampling for Diversity in Concept-to-Text NLG
Authors: Gerasimos Lampouras Giulio Zhou
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Deep-learning models for language generation tasks tend to produce repetitive output. Various methods have been proposed to encourage lexical diversity during decoding, but this often comes at a cost to the perceived fluency and adequacy of the output. In this work, we propose to ameliorate this cost by using an Imitation Learning approach to explore the level of diversity that a language generation model can reliably produce. Specifically, we augment the decoding process with a meta-classifier trained to distinguish which words at any given timestep will lead to high-quality output. We focus our experiments on concept-to-text generation where models are sensitive to the inclusion of irrelevant words due to the strict relation between input and output. Our analysis shows that previous methods for diversity underperform in this setting, while human evaluation suggests that our proposed method achieves a high level of diversity with minimal effect on the output`s fluency and adequacy.
Novel Natural Language Summarization of Program Code via Leveraging Multiple Input Representations
Authors: Mijung Kim, Jaegul Choo Fuxiang Chen
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: The lack of description of a given program code acts as a big hurdle to those developers new to the code base for its understanding. To tackle this problem, previous work on code summarization, the task of automatically generating code description given a piece of code reported that an auxiliary learning model trained to produce API (Application Programming Interface) embeddings showed promising results when applied to a downstream, code summarization model. However, different codes having different summaries can have the same set of API sequences. If we train a model to generate summaries given an API sequence, the model will not be able to learn effectively. Nevertheless, we note that the API sequence can still be useful and has not been actively utilized. This work proposes a novel multi-task approach that simultaneously trains two similar tasks: 1) summarizing a given code (code to summary), and 2) summarizing a given API sequence (API sequence to summary). We propose a novel code-level encoder based on BERT capable of expressing the semantics of code, and obtain representations for every line of code. Our work is the first code summarization work that utilizes a natural language-based contextual pre-trained language model in its encoder. We evaluate our approach using two common datasets (Java and Python) that have been widely used in previous studies. Our experimental results show that our multi-task approach improves over the baselines and achieves the new state-of-the-art.
WikiNEuRal: Combined Neural and Knowledge-based Silver Data Creation for Multilingual NER
Authors: Valentino Maiorca, Niccolò Campolungo, Francesco Cecconi, Roberto Navigli Simone Tedeschi
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Multilingual Named Entity Recognition (NER) is a key intermediate task which is needed in many areas of NLP. In this paper, we address the well-known issue of data scarcity in NER, especially relevant when moving to a multilingual scenario, and go beyond current approaches to the creation of multilingual silver data for the task. We exploit the texts of Wikipedia and introduce a new methodology based on the effective combination of knowledge-based approaches and neural models, together with a novel domain adaptation technique, to produce high-quality training corpora for NER. We evaluate our datasets extensively on standard benchmarks for NER, yielding substantial improvements up to 6 span-based F1-score points over previous state-of-the-art systems for data creation.
Beyond Grammatical Error Correction: Improving L1-influenced research writing in English using pre-trained encoder-decoder models
Authors: Ana Frankenberg-Garcia Gustavo Zomer
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: In this paper, we present a new method for training a writing improvement model adapted to the writer`s first language (L1) that goes beyond grammatical error correction (GEC). Without using annotated training data, we rely solely on pre-trained language models fine-tuned with parallel corpora of reference translation aligned with machine translation. We evaluate our model with corpora of academic papers written in English by L1 Portuguese and L1 Spanish scholars and a reference corpus of expert academic English. We show that our model is able to address specific L1-influenced writing and more complex linguistic phenomena than existing methods, outperforming what a state-of-the-art GEC system can achieve in this regard. Our code and data are open to other researchers.
Classification and Geotemporal Analysis of Quality-of-Life Issues in Tenant Reviews
Authors: Zeev Waks Adam Haber
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Online tenant reviews of multifamily residential properties present a unique source of information for commercial real estate investing and research. Real estate professionals frequently read tenant reviews to uncover property-related issues that are otherwise difficult to detect, a process that is both biased and time-consuming. Using this as motivation, we asked whether a text classification-based approach can automate the detection of four carefully defined, major quality-of-life issues: severe crime, noise nuisance, pest burden, and parking difficulties. We aggregate 5.5 million tenant reviews from five sources and use two-stage crowdsourced labeling on 0.1% of the data to produce high-quality labels for subsequent text classification. Following fine-tuning of pretrained language models on millions of reviews, we train a multi-label reviews classifier that achieves a mean AUROC of 0.965 on these labels. We next use the model to reveal temporal and spatial patterns among tens of thousands of multifamily properties. Collectively, these results highlight the feasibility of automated analysis of housing trends and investment opportunities using tenant-perspective data.
Probing Pre-trained Language Models for Semantic Attributes and their Values
Authors: Chris Biemann Meriem Beloucif
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Pretrained language models (PTLMs) yield state-of-the-art performance on many natural language processing tasks, including syntax, semantics and commonsense. In this paper, we focus on identifying to what extent do PTLMs capture semantic attributes and their values, e.g., the correlation between rich and high net worth. We use PTLMs to predict masked tokens using patterns and lists of items from Wikidata in order to verify how likely PTLMs encode semantic attributes along with their values. Such inferences based on semantics are intuitive for humans as part of our language understanding. Since PTLMs are trained on large amount of Wikipedia data we would assume that they can generate similar predictions, yet our findings reveal that PTLMs are still much worse than humans on this task. We show evidence and analysis explaining how to exploit our methodology to integrate better context and semantics into PTLMs using knowledge bases.
Uncovering the Limits of Text-based Emotion Detection
Authors: Andreas Kaltenbrunner, Vicenç Gómez Nurudin Alvarez-Gonzalez
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Identifying emotions from text is crucial for a variety of real world tasks. We consider the two largest now-available corpora for emotion classification: GoEmotions, with 58k messages labelled by readers, and Vent, with 33M writer-labelled messages. We design a benchmark and evaluate several feature spaces and learning algorithms, including two simple yet novel models on top of BERT that outperform previous strong baselines on GoEmotions. Through an experiment with human participants, we also analyze the differences between how writers express emotions and how readers perceive them. Our results suggest that emotions expressed by writers are harder to identify than emotions that readers perceive. We share a public web interface for researchers to explore our models.
Named Entity Recognition for Entity Linking: What Works and What`s Next
Authors: Simone Conia, Francesco Cecconi, Roberto Navigli Simone Tedeschi
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Entity Linking (EL) systems have achieved impressive results on standard benchmarks mainly thanks to the contextualized representations provided by recent pretrained language models. However, such systems still require massive amounts of data -- millions of labeled examples -- to perform at their best, with training times that often exceed several days, especially when limited computational resources are available. In this paper, we look at how Named Entity Recognition (NER) can be exploited to narrow the gap between EL systems trained on high and low amounts of labeled data. More specifically, we show how and to what extent an EL system can benefit from NER to enhance its entity representations, improve candidate selection, select more effective negative samples and enforce hard and soft constraints on its output entities. We release our software -- code and model checkpoints -- at r̆lhttps://github.com/Babelscape/ner4el.
Learning Numeracy: A Simple Yet Effective Number Embedding Approach Using Knowledge Graph
Authors: Yi Yang, Kar Yan Tam Hanyu Duan
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Numeracy plays a key role in natural language understanding. However, existing NLP approaches, not only traditional word2vec approach or contextualized transformer-based language models, fail to learn numeracy. As the result, the performance of these models is limited when they are applied to number-intensive applications in clinical and financial domains. In this work, we propose a simple number embedding approach based on knowledge graph. We construct a knowledge graph consisting of number entities and magnitude relations. Knowledge graph embedding method is then applied to obtain number vectors. Our approach is easy to implement, and experiment results on various numeracy-related NLP tasks demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of our method.
Weakly Supervised Semantic Parsing by Learning from Mistakes
Authors: Jian-Guang Lou, Ting Liu, Dongmei Zhang Jiaqi Guo
Published in: Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2021 (Findings Track), 2021

Abstract: Weakly supervised semantic parsing (WSP) aims at training a parser via utterance-denotation pairs. This task is challenging because it requires (1) searching consistent logical forms in a huge space; and (2) dealing with spurious logical forms. In this work, we propose Learning from Mistakes (LFM), a simple yet effective learning framework for WSP. LFM utilizes the mistakes made by a parser during searching, i.e., generating logical forms that do not execute to correct denotations, for tackling the two challenges. In a nutshell, LFM additionally trains a parser using utterance-logical form pairs created from mistakes, which can quickly bootstrap the parser to search consistent logical forms. Also, it can motivate the parser to learn the correct mapping between utterances and logical forms, thus dealing with the spuriousness of logical forms. We evaluate LFM on WikiTableQuestions, WikiSQL, and TabFact in the WSP setting. The parser trained with LFM outperforms the previous state-of-the-art semantic parsing approaches on the three datasets. Also, we find that LFM can substantially reduce the need for labeled data. Using only 10% of utterance-denotation pairs, the parser achieves 84.2 denotation accuracy on WikiSQL, which is competitive with the previous state-of-the-art approaches using 100% labeled data.