mtybilly/Instruct2DS huggingface dataset:
An Empirical Survey of the Effectiveness of Debiasing Techniques for Pre-trained Language Models
Authors: Elinor Poole-Dayan, Siva Reddy Nicholas Meade
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Recent work has shown pre-trained language models capture social biases from the large amounts of text they are trained on. This has attracted attention to developing techniques that mitigate such biases. In this work, we perform an empirical survey of five recently proposed bias mitigation techniques: Counterfactual Data Augmentation (CDA), Dropout, Iterative Nullspace Projection, Self-Debias, and SentenceDebias. We quantify the effectiveness of each technique using three intrinsic bias benchmarks while also measuring the impact of these techniques on a model`s language modeling ability, as well as its performance on downstream NLU tasks. We experimentally find that: (1) Self-Debias is the strongest debiasing technique, obtaining improved scores on all bias benchmarks; (2) Current debiasing techniques perform less consistently when mitigating non-gender biases; And (3) improvements on bias benchmarks such as StereoSet and CrowS-Pairs by using debiasing strategies are often accompanied by a decrease in language modeling ability, making it difficult to determine whether the bias mitigation was effective.
Exploring and Adapting Chinese GPT to Pinyin Input Method
Authors: Yong Dai, Duyu Tang, Zhangyin Feng, Guoping Huang, Jing Jiang, Jiwei Li, Shuming Shi Minghuan Tan
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: While GPT has become the de-facto method for text generation tasks, its application to pinyin input method remains unexplored. In this work, we make the first exploration to leverage Chinese GPT for pinyin input method. We find that a frozen GPT achieves state-of-the-art performance on perfect pinyin. However, the performance drops dramatically when the input includes abbreviated pinyin.A reason is that an abbreviated pinyin can be mapped to many perfect pinyin, which links to even larger number of Chinese characters. We mitigate this issue with two strategies,including enriching the context with pinyin and optimizing the training process to help distinguish homophones. To further facilitate the evaluation of pinyin input method, we create a dataset consisting of 270K instances from fifteen domains. Results show that our approach improves the performance on abbreviated pinyin across all domains. Model analysis demonstrates that both strategiescontribute to the performance boost.
Enhancing Cross-lingual Natural Language Inference by Prompt-learning from Cross-lingual Templates
Authors: Hai Wan, Jianfeng Du, Haolan Chen Kunxun Qi
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Cross-lingual natural language inference (XNLI) is a fundamental task in cross-lingual natural language understanding. Recently this task is commonly addressed by pre-trained cross-lingual language models. Existing methods usually enhance pre-trained language models with additional data, such as annotated parallel corpora. These additional data, however, are rare in practice, especially for low-resource languages. Inspired by recent promising results achieved by prompt-learning, this paper proposes a novel prompt-learning based framework for enhancing XNLI. It reformulates the XNLI problem to a masked language modeling problem by constructing cloze-style questions through cross-lingual templates. To enforce correspondence between different languages, the framework augments a new question for every question using a sampled template in another language and then introduces a consistency loss to make the answer probability distribution obtained from the new question as similar as possible with the corresponding distribution obtained from the original question. Experimental results on two benchmark datasets demonstrate that XNLI models enhanced by our proposed framework significantly outperform original ones under both the full-shot and few-shot cross-lingual transfer settings.
Sense Embeddings are also Biased -- Evaluating Social Biases in Static and Contextualised Sense Embeddings
Authors: Masahiro Kaneko, Danushka Bollegala Yi Zhou
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Sense embedding learning methods learn different embeddings for the different senses of an ambiguous word. One sense of an ambiguous word might be socially biased while its other senses remain unbiased. In comparison to the numerous prior work evaluating the social biases in pretrained word embeddings, the biases in sense embeddings have been relatively understudied. We create a benchmark dataset for evaluating the social biases in sense embeddings and propose novel sense-specific bias evaluation measures. We conduct an extensive evaluation of multiple static and contextualised sense embeddings for various types of social biases using the proposed measures. Our experimental results show that even in cases where no biases are found at word-level, there still exist worrying levels of social biases at sense-level, which are often ignored by the word-level bias evaluation measures.
Hybrid Semantics for Goal-Directed Natural Language Generation
Authors: Soumya Ray Connor Baumler
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: We consider the problem of generating natural language given a communicative goal and a world description. We ask the question: is it possible to combine complementary meaning representations to scale a goal-directed NLG system without losing expressiveness? In particular, we consider using two meaning representations, one based on logical semantics and the other based on distributional semantics. We build upon an existing goal-directed generation system, S-STRUCT, which models sentence generation as planning in a Markov decision process. We develop a hybrid approach, which uses distributional semantics to quickly and imprecisely add the main elements of the sentence and then uses first-order logic based semantics to more slowly add the precise details. We find that our hybrid method allows S-STRUCT`s generation to scale significantly better in early phases of generation and that the hybrid can often generate sentences with the same quality as S-STRUCT in substantially less time. However, we also observe and give insight into cases where the imprecision in distributional semantics leads to generation that is not as good as using pure logical semantics.
Predicting Intervention Approval in Clinical Trials through Multi-Document Summarization
Authors: Georgios Paliouras Georgios Katsimpras
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Clinical trials offer a fundamental opportunity to discover new treatments and advance the medical knowledge. However, the uncertainty of the outcome of a trial can lead to unforeseen costs and setbacks. In this study, we propose a new method to predict the effectiveness of an intervention in a clinical trial. Our method relies on generating an informative summary from multiple documents available in the literature about the intervention under study. Specifically, our method first gathers all the abstracts of PubMed articles related to the intervention. Then, an evidence sentence, which conveys information about the effectiveness of the intervention, is extracted automatically from each abstract. Based on the set of evidence sentences extracted from the abstracts, a short summary about the intervention is constructed. Finally, the produced summaries are used to train a BERT-based classifier, in order to infer the effectiveness of an intervention. To evaluate our proposed method, we introduce a new dataset which is a collection of clinical trials together with their associated PubMed articles. Our experiments, demonstrate the effectiveness of producing short informative summaries and using them to predict the effectiveness of an intervention.
BiTIIMT: A Bilingual Text-infilling Method for Interactive Machine Translation
Authors: Lemao Liu, Guoping Huang, Qu Cui, Shujian Huang, Shuming Shi, Jiajun Chen Yanling Xiao
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Interactive neural machine translation (INMT) is able to guarantee high-quality translations by taking human interactions into account. Existing IMT systems relying on lexical constrained decoding (LCD) enable humans to translate in a flexible translation order beyond the left-to-right. However, they typically suffer from two significant limitations in translation efficiency and quality due to the reliance on LCD. In this work, we propose a novel BiTIIMT system, Bilingual Text-Infilling for Interactive Neural Machine Translation. The key idea to BiTIIMT is Bilingual Text-infilling (BiTI) which aims to fill missing segments in a manually revised translation for a given source sentence. We propose a simple yet effective solution by casting this task as a sequence-to-sequence task. In this way, our system performs decoding without explicit constraints and makes full use of revised words for better translation prediction. Experiment results show that BiTiIMT performs significantly better and faster than state-of-the-art LCD-based IMT on three translation tasks.
Distributionally Robust Finetuning BERT for Covariate Drift in Spoken Language Understanding
Authors: Quynh Do, Judith Gaspers Samuel Broscheit
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: In this study, we investigate robustness against covariate drift in spoken language understanding (SLU). Covariate drift can occur in SLUwhen there is a drift between training and testing regarding what users request or how they request it. To study this we propose a method that exploits natural variations in data to create a covariate drift in SLU datasets. Experiments show that a state-of-the-art BERT-based model suffers performance loss under this drift. To mitigate the performance loss, we investigate distributionally robust optimization (DRO) for finetuning BERT-based models. We discuss some recent DRO methods, propose two new variants and empirically show that DRO improves robustness under drift.
Enhancing Chinese Pre-trained Language Model via Heterogeneous Linguistics Graph
Authors: Jiangxia Cao, Xin Cong, Zhenyu Zhang, Bowen Yu, Hongsong Zhu, Tingwen Liu Yanzeng Li
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Chinese pre-trained language models usually exploit contextual character information to learn representations, while ignoring the linguistics knowledge, e.g., word and sentence information. Hence, we propose a task-free enhancement module termed as Heterogeneous Linguistics Graph (HLG) to enhance Chinese pre-trained language models by integrating linguistics knowledge. Specifically, we construct a hierarchical heterogeneous graph to model the characteristics linguistics structure of Chinese language, and conduct a graph-based method to summarize and concretize information on different granularities of Chinese linguistics hierarchies. Experimental results demonstrate our model has the ability to improve the performance of vanilla BERT, BERTwwm and ERNIE 1.0 on 6 natural language processing tasks with 10 benchmark datasets. Further, the detailed experimental analyses have proven that this kind of modelization achieves more improvements compared with previous strong baseline MWA. Meanwhile, our model introduces far fewer parameters (about half of MWA) and the training/inference speed is about 7x faster than MWA.
Divide and Denoise: Learning from Noisy Labels in Fine-Grained Entity Typing with Cluster-Wise Loss Correction
Authors: Haoyu Zhang, Jie Zhou, Ting Wang Kunyuan Pang
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Fine-grained Entity Typing (FET) has made great progress based on distant supervision but still suffers from label noise. Existing FET noise learning methods rely on prediction distributions in an instance-independent manner, which causes the problem of confirmation bias. In this work, we propose a clustering-based loss correction framework named Feature Cluster Loss Correction (FCLC), to address these two problems. FCLC first train a coarse backbone model as a feature extractor and noise estimator. Loss correction is then applied to each feature cluster, learning directly from the noisy labels. Experimental results on three public datasets show that FCLC achieves the best performance over existing competitive systems. Auxiliary experiments further demonstrate that FCLC is stable to hyperparameters and it does help mitigate confirmation bias. We also find that in the extreme case of no clean data, the FCLC framework still achieves competitive performance.
Towards Robustness of Text-to-SQL Models Against Natural and Realistic Adversarial Table Perturbation
Authors: Bing Wang, Yan Gao, Jiaqi Guo, Zhoujun Li, Jian-Guang Lou Xinyu Pi
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: The robustness of Text-to-SQL parsers against adversarial perturbations plays a crucial role in delivering highly reliable applications. Previous studies along this line primarily focused on perturbations in the natural language question side, neglecting the variability of tables. Motivated by this, we propose the Adversarial Table Perturbation (ATP) as a new attacking paradigm to measure robustness of Text-to-SQL models. Following this proposition, we curate ADVETA, the first robustness evaluation benchmark featuring natural and realistic ATPs. All tested state-of-the-art models experience dramatic performance drops on ADVETA, revealing significant room of improvement. To defense against ATP, we build a systematic adversarial training example generation framework tailored for better contextualization of tabular data. Experiments show that our approach brings models best robustness improvement against ATP, while also substantially boost model robustness against NL-side perturbations. We will release ADVETA and code to facilitate future research.
Overcoming Catastrophic Forgetting beyond Continual Learning: Balanced Training for Neural Machine Translation
Authors: Yang Feng Chenze Shao
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Neural networks tend to gradually forget the previously learned knowledge when learning multiple tasks sequentially from dynamic data distributions. This problem is called \textitcatastrophic forgetting, which is a fundamental challenge in the continual learning of neural networks. In this work, we observe that catastrophic forgetting not only occurs in continual learning but also affects the traditional static training. Neural networks, especially neural machine translation models, suffer from catastrophic forgetting even if they learn from a static training set. To be specific, the final model pays imbalanced attention to training samples, where recently exposed samples attract more attention than earlier samples. The underlying cause is that training samples do not get balanced training in each model update, so we name this problem \textitimbalanced training. To alleviate this problem, we propose Complementary Online Knowledge Distillation (COKD), which uses dynamically updated teacher models trained on specific data orders to iteratively provide complementary knowledge to the student model. Experimental results on multiple machine translation tasks show that our method successfully alleviates the problem of imbalanced training and achieves substantial improvements over strong baseline systems.
Metaphors in Pre-Trained Language Models: Probing and Generalization Across Datasets and Languages
Authors: Mohsen Fayyaz, Yadollah Yaghoobzadeh Ehsan Aghazadeh
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Human languages are full of metaphorical expressions. Metaphors help people understand the world by connecting new concepts and domains to more familiar ones. Large pre-trained language models (PLMs) are therefore assumed to encode metaphorical knowledge useful for NLP systems. In this paper, we investigate this hypothesis for PLMs, by probing metaphoricity information in their encodings, and by measuring the cross-lingual and cross-dataset generalization of this information. We present studies in multiple metaphor detection datasets and in four languages (i.e., English, Spanish, Russian, and Farsi). Our extensive experiments suggest that contextual representations in PLMs do encode metaphorical knowledge, and mostly in their middle layers. The knowledge is transferable between languages and datasets, especially when the annotation is consistent across training and testing sets. Our findings give helpful insights for both cognitive and NLP scientists.
Discrete Opinion Tree Induction for Aspect-based Sentiment Analysis
Authors: Zhiyang Teng, Zhongqing Wang, Yue Zhang Chenhua Chen
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Dependency trees have been intensively used with graph neural networks for aspect-based sentiment classification. Though being effective, such methods rely on external dependency parsers, which can be unavailable for low-resource languages or perform worse in low-resource domains. In addition, dependency trees are also not optimized for aspect-based sentiment classification. In this paper, we propose an aspect-specific and language-agnostic discrete latent opinion tree model as an alternative structure to explicit dependency trees. To ease the learning of complicated structured latent variables, we build a connection between aspect-to-context attention scores and syntactic distances, inducing trees from the attention scores. Results on six English benchmarks and one Chinese dataset show that our model can achieve competitive performance and interpretability.
Investigating Non-local Features for Neural Constituency Parsing
Authors: Sen Yang, Yue Zhang Leyang Cui
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Thanks to the strong representation power of neural encoders, neural chart-based parsers have achieved highly competitive performance by using local features. Recently, it has been shown that non-local features in CRF structures lead to improvements. In this paper, we investigate injecting non-local features into the training process of a local span-based parser, by predicting constituent $n$-gram non-local patterns and ensuring consistency between non-local patterns and local constituents. Results show that our simple method gives better results than the self-attentive parser on both PTB and CTB. Besides, our method achieves state-of-the-art BERT-based performance on PTB (95.92 F1) and strong performance on CTB (92.31 F1). Our parser also outperforms the self-attentive parser in multi-lingual and zero-shot cross-domain settings.
Learning from Sibling Mentions with Scalable Graph Inference in Fine-Grained Entity Typing
Authors: Jiayang Cheng, Haiyun Jiang, Lemao Liu, Haisong Zhang, Shuming Shi, Ruifeng Xu Yi Chen
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: In this paper, we firstly empirically find that existing models struggle to handle hard mentions due to their insufficient contexts, which consequently limits their overall typing performance. To this end, we propose to exploit sibling mentions for enhancing the mention representations. Specifically, we present two different metrics for sibling selection and employ an attentive graph neural network to aggregate information from sibling mentions. The proposed graph model is scalable in that unseen test mentions are allowed to be added as new nodes for inference. Exhaustive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our sibling learning strategy, where our model outperforms ten strong baselines. Moreover, our experiments indeed prove the superiority of sibling mentions in helping clarify the types for hard mentions.
A Variational Hierarchical Model for Neural Cross-Lingual Summarization
Authors: Fandong Meng, Chulun Zhou, Jinan Xu, Yufeng Chen, Jinsong Su, Jie Zhou Yunlong Liang
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: The goal of the cross-lingual summarization (CLS) is to convert a document in one language (e.g., English) to a summary in another one (e.g., Chinese). The CLS task is essentially the combination of machine translation (MT) and monolingual summarization (MS), and thus there exists the hierarchical relationship between MT&MS and CLS. Existing studies on CLS mainly focus on utilizing pipeline methods or jointly training an end-to-end model through an auxiliary MT or MS objective. However, it is very challenging for the model to directly conduct CLS as it requires both the abilities to translate and summarize. To address this issue, we propose a hierarchical model for the CLS task, based on the conditional variational auto-encoder. The hierarchical model contains two kinds of latent variables at the local and global levels, respectively. At the local level, there are two latent variables, one for translation and the other for summarization. As for the global level, there is another latent variable for cross-lingual summarization conditioned on the two local-level variables. Experiments on two language directions (English-Chinese) verify the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed approach. In addition, we show that our model is able to generate better cross-lingual summaries than comparison models in the few-shot setting.
On the Robustness of Question Rewriting Systems to Questions of Varying Hardness
Authors: Hwee Tou Ng, Wenjuan Han Hai Ye
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: In conversational question answering (CQA), the task of question rewriting (QR) in context aims to rewrite a context-dependent question into an equivalent self-contained question that gives the same answer. In this paper, we are interested in the robustness of a QR system to questions varying in rewriting hardness or difficulty. Since there is a lack of questions classified based on their rewriting hardness, we first propose a heuristic method to automatically classify questions into subsets of varying hardness, by measuring the discrepancy between a question and its rewrite. To find out what makes questions hard or easy for rewriting, we then conduct a human evaluation to annotate the rewriting hardness of questions. Finally, to enhance the robustness of QR systems to questions of varying hardness, we propose a novel learning framework for QR that first trains a QR model independently on each subset of questions of a certain level of hardness, then combines these QR models as one joint model for inference. Experimental results on two datasets show that our framework improves the overall performance compared to the baselines.
OpenHands: Making Sign Language Recognition Accessible with Pose-based Pretrained Models across Languages
Authors: Gokul Nc, Pratyush Kumar, Mitesh Khapra Prem Selvaraj
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: AI technologies for Natural Languages have made tremendous progress recently. However, commensurate progress has not been made on Sign Languages, in particular, in recognizing signs as individual words or as complete sentences. We introduce OpenHands, a library where we take four key ideas from the NLP community for low-resource languages and apply them to sign languages for word-level recognition. First, we propose using pose extracted through pretrained models as the standard modality of data in this work to reduce training time and enable efficient inference, and we release standardized pose datasets for different existing sign language datasets. Second, we train and release checkpoints of 4 pose-based isolated sign language recognition models across 6 languages (American, Argentinian, Chinese, Greek, Indian, and Turkish), providing baselines and ready checkpoints for deployment. Third, to address the lack of labelled data, we propose self-supervised pretraining on unlabelled data. We curate and release the largest pose-based pretraining dataset on Indian Sign Language (Indian-SL). Fourth, we compare different pretraining strategies and for the first time establish that pretraining is effective for sign language recognition by demonstrating (a) improved fine-tuning performance especially in low-resource settings, and (b) high crosslingual transfer from Indian-SL to few other sign languages. We open-source all models and datasets in OpenHands with a hope that it makes research in sign languages reproducible and more accessible.
bert2BERT: Towards Reusable Pretrained Language Models
Authors: Yichun Yin, Lifeng Shang, Xin Jiang, Yujia Qin, Fengyu Wang, Zhi Wang, Xiao Chen, Zhiyuan Liu, Qun Liu Cheng Chen
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: In recent years, researchers tend to pre-train ever-larger language models to explore the upper limit of deep models. However, large language model pre-training costs intensive computational resources, and most of the models are trained from scratch without reusing the existing pre-trained models, which is wasteful. In this paper, we propose bert2BERT, which can effectively transfer the knowledge of an existing smaller pre-trained model to a large model through parameter initialization and significantly improve the pre-training efficiency of the large model. Specifically, we extend the previous function-preserving method proposed in computer vision on the Transformer-based language model, and further improve it by proposing a novel method, advanced knowledge for large model`s initialization. In addition, a two-stage learning method is proposed to further accelerate the pre-training. We conduct extensive experiments on representative PLMs (e.g., BERT and GPT) and demonstrate that (1) our method can save a significant amount of training cost compared with baselines including learning from scratch, StackBERT and MSLT; (2) our method is generic and applicable to different types of pre-trained models. In particular, bert2BERT saves about 45% and 47% computational cost of pre-training BERT$_m̊ BASE$ and GPT$_\ ̊BASE$ by reusing the models of almost their half sizes.
Vision-Language Pre-Training for Multimodal Aspect-Based Sentiment Analysis
Authors: Jianfei Yu, Rui Xia Yan Ling
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: As an important task in sentiment analysis, Multimodal Aspect-Based Sentiment Analysis (MABSA) has attracted increasing attention inrecent years. However, previous approaches either (i) use separately pre-trained visual and textual models, which ignore the crossmodalalignment or (ii) use vision-language models pre-trained with general pre-training tasks, which are inadequate to identify fine-grainedaspects, opinions, and their alignments across modalities. To tackle these limitations, we propose a task-specific Vision-LanguagePre-training framework for MABSA (VLP-MABSA), which is a unified multimodal encoder-decoder architecture for all the pretrainingand downstream tasks. We further design three types of task-specific pre-training tasks from the language, vision, and multimodalmodalities, respectively. Experimental results show that our approach generally outperforms the state-of-the-art approaches on three MABSA subtasks. Further analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of each pre-training task. The source code is publicly released at r̆lhttps://github.com/NUSTM/VLP-MABSA.
“You might think about slightly revising the title”: Identifying Hedges in Peer-tutoring Interactions
Authors: Chloé Clavel, Justine Cassell Yann Raphalen
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Hedges have an important role in the management of rapport. In peer-tutoring, they are notably used by tutors in dyads experiencing low rapport to tone down the impact of instructions and negative feedback. Pursuing the objective of building a tutoring agent that manages rapport with teenagers in order to improve learning, we used a multimodal peer-tutoring dataset to construct a computational framework for identifying hedges. We compared approaches relying on pre-trained resources with others that integrate insights from the social science literature. Our best performance involved a hybrid approach that outperforms the existing baseline while being easier to interpret. We employ a model explainability tool to explore the features that characterize hedges in peer-tutoring conversations, and we identify some novel features, and the benefits of a such a hybrid model approach.
Efficient Cluster-Based $k$-Nearest-Neighbor Machine Translation
Authors: Kai Fan, Boxing Chen, Deyi Xiong Dexin Wang
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: $k$-Nearest-Neighbor Machine Translation ($k$NN-MT) has been recently proposed as a non-parametric solution for domain adaptation in neural machine translation (NMT). It aims to alleviate the performance degradation of advanced MT systems in translating out-of-domain sentences by coordinating with an additional token-level feature-based retrieval module constructed from in-domain data. Previous studies (Khandelwal et al., 2021; Zheng et al., 2021) have already demonstrated that non-parametric NMT is even superior to models fine-tuned on out-of-domain data. In spite of this success, $k$NN retrieval is at the expense of high latency, in particular for large datastores. To make it practical, in this paper, we explore a more efficient $k$NN-MT and propose to use clustering to improve the retrieval efficiency. Concretely, we first propose a cluster-based Compact Network for feature reduction in a contrastive learning manner to compress context features into 90+% lower dimensional vectors. We then suggest a cluster-based pruning solution to filter out 10% 40% redundant nodes in large datastores while retaining translation quality. Our proposed methods achieve better or comparable performance while reducing up to 57% inference latency against the advanced non-parametric MT model on several machine translation benchmarks. Experimental results indicate that the proposed methods maintain the most useful information of the original datastore and the Compact Network shows good generalization on unseen domains. Codes are available at r̆lhttps://github.com/tjunlp-lab/PCKMT.
Headed-Span-Based Projective Dependency Parsing
Authors: Kewei Tu Songlin Yang
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: We propose a new method for projective dependency parsing based on headed spans. In a projective dependency tree, the largest subtree rooted at each word covers a contiguous sequence (i.e., a span) in the surface order. We call such a span marked by a root word \textitheaded span. A projective dependency tree can be represented as a collection of headed spans. We decompose the score of a dependency tree into the scores of the headed spans and design a novel $O(n^3)$ dynamic programming algorithm to enable global training and exact inference. Our model achieves state-of-the-art or competitive results on PTB, CTB, and UD
Decoding Part-of-Speech from Human EEG Signals
Authors: Bernd Bohnet, Ryan McDonald, Uta Noppeney Alex Murphy
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: This work explores techniques to predict Part-of-Speech (PoS) tags from neural signals measured at millisecond resolution with electroencephalography (EEG) during text reading. We first show that information about word length, frequency and word class is encoded by the brain at different post-stimulus latencies. We then demonstrate that pre-training on averaged EEG data and data augmentation techniques boost PoS decoding accuracy for single EEG trials. Finally, applying optimised temporally-resolved decoding techniques we show that Transformers substantially outperform linear-SVMs on PoS tagging of unigram and bigram data.
Robust Lottery Tickets for Pre-trained Language Models
Authors: Bao Rong, Yuhao Zhou, Di Liang, Sirui Wang, Wei Wu, Tao Gui, Qi Zhang, Xuanjing Huang Rui Zheng
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Recent works on Lottery Ticket Hypothesis have shown that pre-trained language models (PLMs) contain smaller matching subnetworks(winning tickets) which are capable of reaching accuracy comparable to the original models. However, these tickets are proved to be notrobust to adversarial examples, and even worse than their PLM counterparts. To address this problem, we propose a novel method based on learning binary weight masks to identify robust tickets hidden in the original PLMs. Since the loss is not differentiable for the binary mask, we assign the hard concrete distribution to the masks and encourage their sparsity using a smoothing approximation of L0 regularization. Furthermore, we design an adversarial loss objective to guide the search for robust tickets and ensure that the tickets perform well bothin accuracy and robustness. Experimental results show the significant improvement of the proposed method over previous work on adversarial robustness evaluation.
Knowledgeable Prompt-tuning: Incorporating Knowledge into Prompt Verbalizer for Text Classification
Authors: Ning Ding, Huadong Wang, Zhiyuan Liu, Jingang Wang, Juanzi Li, Wei Wu, Maosong Sun Shengding Hu
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Tuning pre-trained language models (PLMs) with task-specific prompts has been a promising approach for text classification. Particularly, previous studies suggest that prompt-tuning has remarkable superiority in the low-data scenario over the generic fine-tuning methods with extra classifiers. The core idea of prompt-tuning is to insert text pieces, i.e., template, to the input and transform a classification problem into a masked language modeling problem, where a crucial step is to construct a projection, i.e., verbalizer, between a label space and a label word space. A verbalizer is usually handcrafted or searched by gradient descent, which may lack coverage and bring considerable bias and high variances to the results. In this work, we focus on incorporating external knowledge into the verbalizer, forming a knowledgeable prompttuning (KPT), to improve and stabilize prompttuning. Specifically, we expand the label word space of the verbalizer using external knowledge bases (KBs) and refine the expanded label word space with the PLM itself before predicting with the expanded label word space. Extensive experiments on zero and few-shot text classification tasks demonstrate the effectiveness of knowledgeable prompt-tuning.
Cross-Lingual Contrastive Learning for Fine-Grained Entity Typing for Low-Resource Languages
Authors: Yuqi Luo, Weize Chen, Zhiyuan Liu, Maosong Sun, Zhou Botong, Hao Fei, Suncong Zheng Xu Han
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Fine-grained entity typing (FGET) aims to classify named entity mentions into fine-grained entity types, which is meaningful for entity-related NLP tasks. For FGET, a key challenge is the low-resource problem --- the complex entity type hierarchy makes it difficult to manually label data. Especially for those languages other than English, human-labeled data is extremely scarce. In this paper, we propose a cross-lingual contrastive learning framework to learn FGET models for low-resource languages. Specifically, we use multi-lingual pre-trained language models (PLMs) as the backbone to transfer the typing knowledge from high-resource languages (such as English) to low-resource languages (such as Chinese). Furthermore, we introduce entity-pair-oriented heuristic rules as well as machine translation to obtain cross-lingual distantly-supervised data, and apply cross-lingual contrastive learning on the distantly-supervised data to enhance the backbone PLMs. Experimental results show that by applying our framework, we can easily learn effective FGET models for low-resource languages, even without any language-specific human-labeled data. Our code is also available at r̆lhttps://github.com/thunlp/CrossET.
MELM: Data Augmentation with Masked Entity Language Modeling for Low-Resource NER
Authors: Xin Li, Ruidan He, Lidong Bing, Erik Cambria, Luo Si, Chunyan Miao Ran Zhou
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Data augmentation is an effective solution to data scarcity in low-resource scenarios. However, when applied to token-level tasks such as NER, data augmentation methods often suffer from token-label misalignment, which leads to unsatsifactory performance. In this work, we propose Masked Entity Language Modeling (MELM) as a novel data augmentation framework for low-resource NER. To alleviate the token-label misalignment issue, we explicitly inject NER labels into sentence context, and thus the fine-tuned MELM is able to predict masked entity tokens by explicitly conditioning on their labels. Thereby, MELM generates high-quality augmented data with novel entities, which provides rich entity regularity knowledge and boosts NER performance. When training data from multiple languages are available, we also integrate MELM with code-mixing for further improvement. We demonstrate the effectiveness of MELM on monolingual, cross-lingual and multilingual NER across various low-resource levels. Experimental results show that our MELM consistently outperforms the baseline methods.
Word2Box: Capturing Set-Theoretic Semantics of Words using Box Embeddings
Authors: Michael Boratko, Siddhartha Mishra, Shriya Atmakuri, Dhruvesh Patel, Xiang Li, Andrew McCallum Shib Dasgupta
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Learning representations of words in a continuous space is perhaps the most fundamental task in NLP, however words interact in ways much richer than vector dot product similarity can provide. Many relationships between words can be expressed set-theoretically, for example, adjective-noun compounds (eg. “red cars”\ensuremath⊂eq“cars”) and homographs (eg. “tongue”\ensuremath∩“body” should be similar to “mouth”, while “tongue”\ensuremath∩“language” should be similar to “dialect”) have natural set-theoretic interpretations. Box embeddings are a novel region-based representation which provide the capability to perform these set-theoretic operations. In this work, we provide a fuzzy-set interpretation of box embeddings, and learn box representations of words using a set-theoretic training objective. We demonstrate improved performance on various word similarity tasks, particularly on less common words, and perform a quantitative and qualitative analysis exploring the additional unique expressivity provided by Word2Box.
IAM: A Comprehensive and Large-Scale Dataset for Integrated Argument Mining Tasks
Authors: Lidong Bing, Ruidan He, Qian Yu, Yan Zhang, Luo Si Liying Cheng
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Traditionally, a debate usually requires a manual preparation process, including reading plenty of articles, selecting the claims, identifying the stances of the claims, seeking the evidence for the claims, etc. As the AI debate attracts more attention these years, it is worth exploring the methods to automate the tedious process involved in the debating system. In this work, we introduce a comprehensive and large dataset named IAM, which can be applied to a series of argument mining tasks, including claim extraction, stance classification, evidence extraction, etc. Our dataset is collected from over 1k articles related to 123 topics. Near 70k sentences in the dataset are fully annotated based on their argument properties (e.g., claims, stances, evidence, etc.). We further propose two new integrated argument mining tasks associated with the debate preparation process: (1) claim extraction with stance classification (CESC) and (2) claim-evidence pair extraction (CEPE). We adopt a pipeline approach and an end-to-end method for each integrated task separately. Promising experimental results are reported to show the values and challenges of our proposed tasks, and motivate future research on argument mining.
PLANET: Dynamic Content Planning in Autoregressive Transformers for Long-form Text Generation
Authors: Hou Pong Chan, Jiachen Liu, Xinyan Xiao, Hua Wu, Lifu Huang Zhe Hu
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Despite recent progress of pre-trained language models on generating fluent text, existing methods still suffer from incoherence problems in long-form text generation tasks that require proper content control and planning to form a coherent high-level logical flow. In this work, we propose PLANET, a novel generation framework leveraging autoregressive self-attention mechanism to conduct content planning and surface realization dynamically. To guide the generation of output sentences, our framework enriches the Transformer decoder with latent representations to maintain sentence-level semantic plans grounded by bag-of-words. Moreover, we introduce a new coherence-based contrastive learning objective to further improve the coherence of output. Extensive experiments are conducted on two challenging long-form text generation tasks including counterargument generation and opinion article generation. Both automatic and human evaluations show that our method significantly outperforms strong baselines and generates more coherent texts with richer contents.
CTRLEval: An Unsupervised Reference-Free Metric for Evaluating Controlled Text Generation
Authors: Hao Zhou, Yankai Lin, Peng Li, Jie Zhou, Xiaoyan Zhu, Minlie Huang Pei Ke
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Existing reference-free metrics have obvious limitations for evaluating controlled text generation models. Unsupervised metrics can only provide a task-agnostic evaluation result which correlates weakly with human judgments, whereas supervised ones may overfit task-specific data with poor generalization ability to other datasets. In this paper, we propose an unsupervised reference-free metric called CTRLEval, which evaluates controlled text generation from different aspects by formulating each aspect into multiple text infilling tasks. On top of these tasks, the metric assembles the generation probabilities from a pre-trained language model without any model training. Experimental results show that our metric has higher correlations with human judgments than other baselines, while obtaining better generalization of evaluating generated texts from different models and with different qualities.
Beyond the Granularity: Multi-Perspective Dialogue Collaborative Selection for Dialogue State Tracking
Authors: Kai Shuang, Jijie Li, Zihan Wang, Yixuan Liu Jinyu Guo
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: In dialogue state tracking, dialogue history is a crucial material, and its utilization varies between different models. However, no matter how the dialogue history is used, each existing model uses its own consistent dialogue history during the entire state tracking process, regardless of which slot is updated. Apparently, it requires different dialogue history to update different slots in different turns. Therefore, using consistent dialogue contents may lead to insufficient or redundant information for different slots, which affects the overall performance. To address this problem, we devise DiCoS-DST to dynamically select the relevant dialogue contents corresponding to each slot for state updating. Specifically, it first retrieves turn-level utterances of dialogue history and evaluates their relevance to the slot from a combination of three perspectives: (1) its explicit connection to the slot name; (2) its relevance to the current turn dialogue; (3) Implicit Mention Oriented Reasoning. Then these perspectives are combined to yield a decision, and only the selected dialogue contents are fed into State Generator, which explicitly minimizes the distracting information passed to the downstream state prediction. Experimental results show that our approach achieves new state-of-the-art performance on MultiWOZ 2.1 and MultiWOZ 2.2, and achieves superior performance on multiple mainstream benchmark datasets (including Sim-M, Sim-R, and DSTC2).
Are Prompt-based Models Clueless?
Authors: Ryo Takahashi, Yusuke Oda Pride Kavumba
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Finetuning large pre-trained language models with a task-specific head has advanced the state-of-the-art on many natural language understanding benchmarks. However, models with a task-specific head require a lot of training data, making them susceptible to learning and exploiting dataset-specific superficial cues that do not generalize to other datasets. Prompting has reduced the data requirement by reusing the language model head and formatting the task input to match the pre-training objective. Therefore, it is expected that few-shot prompt-based models do not exploit superficial cues. This paper presents an empirical examination of whether few-shot prompt-based models also exploit superficial cues. Analyzing few-shot prompt-based models on MNLI, SNLI, HANS, and COPA has revealed that prompt-based models also exploit superficial cues. While the models perform well on instances with superficial cues, they often underperform or only marginally outperform random accuracy on instances without superficial cues.