mtybilly/Instruct2DS huggingface dataset:
ToxiGen: A Large-Scale Machine-Generated Dataset for Adversarial and Implicit Hate Speech Detection
Authors: Saadia Gabriel, Hamid Palangi, Maarten Sap, Dipankar Ray, Ece Kamar Thomas Hartvigsen
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Toxic language detection systems often falsely flag text that contains minority group mentions as toxic, as those groups are often the targets of online hate. Such over-reliance on spurious correlations also causes systems to struggle with detecting implicitly toxic language. To help mitigate these issues, we create ToxiGen, a new large-scale and machine-generated dataset of 274k toxic and benign statements about 13 minority groups. We develop a demonstration-based prompting framework and an adversarial classifier-in-the-loop decoding method to generate subtly toxic and benign text with a massive pretrained language model. Controlling machine generation in this way allows ToxiGen to cover implicitly toxic text at a larger scale, and about more demographic groups, than previous resources of human-written text. We conduct a human evaluation on a challenging subset of ToxiGen and find that annotators struggle to distinguish machine-generated text from human-written language. We also find that 94.5% of toxic examples are labeled as hate speech by human annotators. Using three publicly-available datasets, we show that finetuning a toxicity classifier on our data improves its performance on human-written data substantially. We also demonstrate that ToxiGen can be used to fight machine-generated toxicity as finetuning improves the classifier significantly on our evaluation subset.
Direct Speech-to-Speech Translation With Discrete Units
Authors: Peng-Jen Chen, Changhan Wang, Jiatao Gu, Sravya Popuri, Xutai Ma, Adam Polyak, Yossi Adi, Qing He, Yun Tang, Juan Pino, Wei-Ning Hsu Ann Lee
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: We present a direct speech-to-speech translation (S2ST) model that translates speech from one language to speech in another language without relying on intermediate text generation. We tackle the problem by first applying a self-supervised discrete speech encoder on the target speech and then training a sequence-to-sequence speech-to-unit translation (S2UT) model to predict the discrete representations of the target speech. When target text transcripts are available, we design a joint speech and text training framework that enables the model to generate dual modality output (speech and text) simultaneously in the same inference pass. Experiments on the Fisher Spanish-English dataset show that the proposed framework yields improvement of 6.7 BLEU compared with a baseline direct S2ST model that predicts spectrogram features. When trained without any text transcripts, our model performance is comparable to models that predict spectrograms and are trained with text supervision, showing the potential of our system for translation between unwritten languages.
Hallucinated but Factual! Inspecting the Factuality of Hallucinations in Abstractive Summarization
Authors: Yue Dong, Jackie Cheung Meng Cao
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: State-of-the-art abstractive summarization systems often generate hallucinations; i.e., content that is not directly inferable from the source text. Despite being assumed to be incorrect, we find that much hallucinated content is actually consistent with world knowledge, which we call factual hallucinations. Including these factual hallucinations in a summary can be beneficial because they provide useful background information. In this work, we propose a novel detection approach that separates factual from non-factual hallucinations of entities. Our method is based on an entity`s prior and posterior probabilities according to pre-trained and finetuned masked language models, respectively. Empirical results suggest that our method vastly outperforms two baselines in both accuracy and F1 scores and has a strong correlation with human judgments on factuality classification tasks. Furthermore, we use our method as a reward signal to train a summarization system using an off-line reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm that can significantly improve the factuality of generated summaries while maintaining the level of abstractiveness.
EntSUM: A Data Set for Entity-Centric Extractive Summarization
Authors: Mayank Kulkarni, Daniel Preotiuc-Pietro Mounica Maddela
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Controllable summarization aims to provide summaries that take into account user-specified aspects and preferences to better assist them with their information need, as opposed to the standard summarization setup which build a single generic summary of a document. We introduce a human-annotated data set EntSUM for controllable summarization with a focus on named entities as the aspects to control. We conduct an extensive quantitative analysis to motivate the task of entity-centric summarization and show that existing methods for controllable summarization fail to generate entity-centric summaries. We propose extensions to state-of-the-art summarization approaches that achieve substantially better results on our data set. Our analysis and results show the challenging nature of this task and of the proposed data set.
Sentence-level Privacy for Document Embeddings
Authors: Khalil Mrini, Kamalika Chaudhuri Casey Meehan
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: User language data can contain highly sensitive personal content. As such, it is imperative to offer users a strong and interpretable privacy guarantee when learning from their data. In this work we propose SentDP, pure local differential privacy at the sentence level for a single user document. We propose a novel technique, DeepCandidate, that combines concepts from robust statistics and language modeling to produce high (768) dimensional, general $ε$-SentDP document embeddings. This guarantees that any single sentence in a document can be substituted with any other sentence while keeping the embedding $ε$-indistinguishable. Our experiments indicate that these private document embeddings are useful for downstream tasks like sentiment analysis and topic classification and even outperform baseline methods with weaker guarantees like word-level Metric DP.
Dataset Geography: Mapping Language Data to Language Users
Authors: Yinkai Wang, Antonios Anastasopoulos Fahim Faisal
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: As language technologies become more ubiquitous, there are increasing efforts towards expanding the language diversity and coverage of natural language processing (NLP) systems. Arguably, the most important factor influencing the quality of modern NLP systems is data availability. In this work, we study the geographical representativeness of NLP datasets, aiming to quantify if and by how much do NLP datasets match the expected needs of the language speakers. In doing so, we use entity recognition and linking systems, also making important observations about their cross-lingual consistency and giving suggestions for more robust evaluation. Last, we explore some geographical and economic factors that may explain the observed dataset distributions.
ILDAE: Instance-Level Difficulty Analysis of Evaluation Data
Authors: Swaroop Mishra, Chitta Baral Neeraj Varshney
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Knowledge of difficulty level of questions helps a teacher in several ways, such as estimating students' potential quickly by asking carefully selected questions and improving quality of examination by modifying trivial and hard questions. Can we extract such benefits of instance difficulty in Natural Language Processing? To this end, we conduct Instance-Level Difficulty Analysis of Evaluation data (ILDAE) in a large-scale setup of 23 datasets and demonstrate its five novel applications: 1) conducting efficient-yet-accurate evaluations with fewer instances saving computational cost and time, 2) improving quality of existing evaluation datasets by repairing erroneous and trivial instances, 3) selecting the best model based on application requirements, 4) analyzing dataset characteristics for guiding future data creation, 5) estimating Out-of-Domain performance reliably. Comprehensive experiments for these applications lead to several interesting results, such as evaluation using just 5% instances (selected via ILDAE) achieves as high as 0.93 Kendall correlation with evaluation using complete dataset and computing weighted accuracy using difficulty scores leads to 5.2% higher correlation with Out-of-Domain performance. We release the difficulty scores and hope our work will encourage research in this important yet understudied field of leveraging instance difficulty in evaluations.
Image Retrieval from Contextual Descriptions
Authors: Vaibhav Adlakha, Vibhav Vineet, Yash Goyal, Edoardo Ponti, Siva Reddy Benno Krojer
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: The ability to integrate context, including perceptual and temporal cues, plays a pivotal role in grounding the meaning of a linguistic utterance. In order to measure to what extent current vision-and-language models master this ability, we devise a new multimodal challenge, Image Retrieval from Contextual Descriptions (ImageCoDe). In particular, models are tasked with retrieving the correct image from a set of 10 minimally contrastive candidates based on a contextual description. As such, each description contains only the details that help distinguish between images. Because of this, descriptions tend to be complex in terms of syntax and discourse and require drawing pragmatic inferences. Images are sourced from both static pictures and video frames. We benchmark several state-of-the-art models, including both cross-encoders such as ViLBERT and bi-encoders such as CLIP, on ImageCoDe.Our results reveal that these models dramatically lag behind human performance: the best variant achieves an accuracy of 20.9 on video frames and 59.4 on static pictures, compared with 90.8 in humans. Furthermore, we experiment with new model variants that are better equipped to incorporate visual and temporal context into their representations, which achieve modest gains. Our hope is that ImageCoDE will foster progress in grounded language understanding by encouraging models to focus on fine-grained visual differences.
Multilingual Molecular Representation Learning via Contrastive Pre-training
Authors: Pramod Sharma, Andy Martinez, Liang Du, Robin Abraham Zhihui Guo
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Molecular representation learning plays an essential role in cheminformatics. Recently, language model-based approaches have gained popularity as an alternative to traditional expert-designed features to encode molecules. However, these approaches only utilize a single molecular language for representation learning. Motivated by the fact that a given molecule can be described using different languages such as Simplified Molecular Line Entry System (SMILES), The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), and The IUPAC International Chemical Identifier (InChI), we propose a multilingual molecular embedding generation approach called MM-Deacon (multilingual molecular domain embedding analysis via contrastive learning). MM-Deacon is pre-trained using SMILES and IUPAC as two different languages on large-scale molecules. We evaluated the robustness of our method on seven molecular property prediction tasks from MoleculeNet benchmark, zero-shot cross-lingual retrieval, and a drug-drug interaction prediction task.
Investigating Failures of Automatic Translationin the Case of Unambiguous Gender
Authors: Adina Williams Adithya Renduchintala
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Transformer-based models are the modern work horses for neural machine translation (NMT), reaching state of the art across several benchmarks. Despite their impressive accuracy, we observe a systemic and rudimentary class of errors made by current state-of-the-art NMT models with regards to translating from a language that doesn`t mark gender on nouns into others that do. We find that even when the surrounding context provides unambiguous evidence of the appropriate grammatical gender marking, no tested model was able to accurately gender occupation nouns systematically. We release an evaluation scheme and dataset for measuring the ability of NMT models to translate gender morphology correctly in unambiguous contexts across syntactically diverse sentences. Our dataset translates from an English source into 20 languages from several different language families. With the availability of this dataset, our hope is that the NMT community can iterate on solutions for this class of especially egregious errors.
Cross-Task Generalization via Natural Language Crowdsourcing Instructions
Authors: Daniel Khashabi, Chitta Baral, Hannaneh Hajishirzi Swaroop Mishra
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Humans (e.g., crowdworkers) have a remarkable ability in solving different tasks, by simply reading textual instructions that define them and looking at a few examples. Despite the success of the conventional supervised learning on individual datasets, such models often struggle with generalization across tasks (e.g., a question-answering system cannot solve classification tasks). A long-standing challenge in AI is to build a model that learns a new task by understanding the human-readable instructions that define it. To study this, we introduce NATURAL INSTRUCTIONS, a dataset of 61 distinct tasks, their human-authored instructions, and 193k task instances (input-output pairs). The instructions are obtained from crowdsourcing instructions used to create existing NLP datasets and mapped to a unified schema. Using this meta-dataset, we measure cross-task generalization by training models on seen tasks and measuring generalization to the remaining unseen ones. We adopt generative pre-trained language models to encode task-specific instructions along with input and generate task output. Our results indicate that models benefit from instructions when evaluated in terms of generalization to unseen tasks (19% better for models utilizing instructions). These models, however, are far behind an estimated performance upperbound indicating significant room for more progress in this direction.
Imputing Out-of-Vocabulary Embeddings with LOVE Makes LanguageModels Robust with Little Cost
Authors: Gael Varoquaux, Fabian Suchanek Lihu Chen
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: State-of-the-art NLP systems represent inputs with word embeddings, but these are brittle when faced with Out-of-Vocabulary (OOV) words. To address this issue, we follow the principle of mimick-like models to generate vectors for unseen words, by learning the behavior of pre-trained embeddings using only the surface form of words. We present a simple contrastive learning framework, LOVE, which extends the word representation of an existing pre-trained language model (such as BERT) and makes it robust to OOV with few additional parameters. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that our lightweight model achieves similar or even better performances than prior competitors, both on original datasets and on corrupted variants. Moreover, it can be used in a plug-and-play fashion with FastText and BERT, where it significantly improves their robustness.
NumGLUE: A Suite of Fundamental yet Challenging Mathematical Reasoning Tasks
Authors: Arindam Mitra, Neeraj Varshney, Bhavdeep Sachdeva, Peter Clark, Chitta Baral, Ashwin Kalyan Swaroop Mishra
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Given the ubiquitous nature of numbers in text, reasoning with numbers to perform simple calculations is an important skill of AI systems. While many datasets and models have been developed to this end, state-of-the-art AI systems are brittle; failing to perform the underlying mathematical reasoning when they appear in a slightly different scenario. Drawing inspiration from GLUE that was proposed in the context of natural language understanding, we propose NumGLUE, a multi-task benchmark that evaluates the performance of AI systems on eight different tasks, that at their core require simple arithmetic understanding. We show that this benchmark is far from being solved with neural models including state-of-the-art large-scale language models performing significantly worse than humans (lower by 46.4 %). Further, NumGLUE promotes sharing knowledge across tasks, especially those with limited training data as evidenced by the superior performance (average gain of 3.4 % on each task) when a model is jointly trained on all the tasks as opposed to task-specific modeling. Finally, we hope that NumGLUE will encourage systems that perform robust and general arithmetic reasoning within language, a first step towards being able to perform more complex mathematical reasoning.
Upstream Mitigation Is \textit Not All You Need: Testing the Bias Transfer Hypothesis in Pre-Trained Language Models
Authors: Swetasudha Panda, Ari Kobren, Michael Wick Ryan Steed
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: A few large, homogenous, pre-trained models undergird many machine learning systems --- and often, these models contain harmful stereotypes learned from the internet. We investigate the \textitbias transfer hypothesis: the theory that social biases (such as stereotypes) internalized by large language models during pre-training transfer into harmful task-specific behavior after fine-tuning. For two classification tasks, we find that reducing intrinsic bias with controlled interventions \textitbefore fine-tuning does little to mitigate the classifier`s discriminatory behavior \textitafter fine-tuning. Regression analysis suggests that downstream disparities are better explained by biases in the fine-tuning dataset. Still, pre-training plays a role: simple alterations to co-occurrence rates in the fine-tuning dataset are ineffective when the model has been pre-trained. Our results encourage practitioners to focus more on dataset quality and context-specific harms.
Improving Multi-label Malevolence Detection in Dialogues through Multi-faceted Label Correlation Enhancement
Authors: Pengjie Ren, Wentao Deng, Zhumin Chen, Maarten de Rijke Yangjun Zhang
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: A dialogue response is malevolent if it is grounded in negative emotions, inappropriate behavior, or an unethical value basis in terms of content and dialogue acts. The detection of malevolent dialogue responses is attracting growing interest. Current research on detecting dialogue malevolence has limitations in terms of datasets and methods. First, available dialogue datasets related to malevolence are labeled with a single category, but in practice assigning a single category to each utterance may not be appropriate as some malevolent utterances belong to multiple labels. Second, current methods for detecting dialogue malevolence neglect label correlation. Therefore, we propose the task of multi-label dialogue malevolence detection and crowdsource a multi-label dataset, multi-label dialogue malevolence detection (MDMD) for evaluation. We also propose a multi-label malevolence detection model, multi-faceted label correlation enhanced CRF (MCRF), with two label correlation mechanisms, label correlation in taxonomy (LCT) and label correlation in context (LCC). Experiments on MDMD show that our method outperforms the best performing baseline by a large margin, i.e., 16.1%, 11.9%, 12.0%, and 6.1% on precision, recall, F1, and Jaccard score, respectively.
How Do We Answer Complex Questions: Discourse Structure of Long-form Answers
Authors: Junyi Jessy Li, Eunsol Choi Fangyuan Xu
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Long-form answers, consisting of multiple sentences, can provide nuanced and comprehensive answers to a broader set of questions. To better understand this complex and understudied task, we study the functional structure of long-form answers collected from three datasets, ELI5, WebGPT and Natural Questions. Our main goal is to understand how humans organize information to craft complex answers. We develop an ontology of six sentence-level functional roles for long-form answers, and annotate 3.9k sentences in 640 answer paragraphs. Different answer collection methods manifest in different discourse structures. We further analyze model-generated answers -- finding that annotators agree less with each other when annotating model-generated answers compared to annotating human-written answers. Our annotated data enables training a strong classifier that can be used for automatic analysis. We hope our work can inspire future research on discourse-level modeling and evaluation of long-form QA systems.
Understanding Iterative Revision from Human-Written Text
Authors: Vipul Raheja, Dhruv Kumar, Zae Myung Kim, Melissa Lopez, Dongyeop Kang Wanyu Du
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Writing is, by nature, a strategic, adaptive, and, more importantly, an iterative process. A crucial part of writing is editing and revising the text. Previous works on text revision have focused on defining edit intention taxonomies within a single domain or developing computational models with a single level of edit granularity, such as sentence-level edits, which differ from human`s revision cycles. This work describes IteraTeR: the first large-scale, multi-domain, edit-intention annotated corpus of iteratively revised text. In particular, IteraTeR is collected based on a new framework to comprehensively model the iterative text revisions that generalizes to a variety of domains, edit intentions, revision depths, and granularities. When we incorporate our annotated edit intentions, both generative and action-based text revision models significantly improve automatic evaluations. Through our work, we better understand the text revision process, making vital connections between edit intentions and writing quality, enabling the creation of diverse corpora to support computational modeling of iterative text revisions.
Making Transformers Solve Compositional Tasks
Authors: Joshua Ainslie, Zachary Fisher, Vaclav Cvicek Santiago Ontanon
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Several studies have reported the inability of Transformer models to generalize compositionally, a key type of generalization in many NLP tasks such as semantic parsing. In this paper we explore the design space of Transformer models showing that the inductive biases given to the model by several design decisions significantly impact compositional generalization. We identified Transformer configurations that generalize compositionally significantly better than previously reported in the literature in many compositional tasks. We achieve state-of-the-art results in a semantic parsing compositional generalization benchmark (COGS), and a string edit operation composition benchmark (PCFG).
Can Transformer be Too Compositional? Analysing Idiom Processing in Neural Machine Translation
Authors: Christopher Lucas, Ivan Titov Verna Dankers
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Unlike literal expressions, idioms' meanings do not directly follow from their parts, posing a challenge for neural machine translation (NMT). NMT models are often unable to translate idioms accurately and over-generate compositional, literal translations. In this work, we investigate whether the non-compositionality of idioms is reflected in the mechanics of the dominant NMT model, Transformer, by analysing the hidden states and attention patterns for models with English as source language and one of seven European languages as target language. When Transformer emits a non-literal translation - i.e. identifies the expression as idiomatic - the encoder processes idioms more strongly as single lexical units compared to literal expressions. This manifests in idioms' parts being grouped through attention and in reduced interaction between idioms and their context. In the decoder`s cross-attention, figurative inputs result in reduced attention on source-side tokens. These results suggest that Transformer`s tendency to process idioms as compositional expressions contributes to literal translations of idioms.
ConditionalQA: A Complex Reading Comprehension Dataset with Conditional Answers
Authors: William Cohen, Ruslan Salakhutdinov Haitian Sun
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: We describe a Question Answering (QA) dataset that contains complex questions with conditional answers, i.e. the answers are only applicable when certain conditions apply. We call this dataset ConditionalQA. In addition to conditional answers, the dataset also features:(1) long context documents with information that is related in logically complex ways;(2) multi-hop questions that require compositional logical reasoning;(3) a combination of extractive questions, yes/no questions, questions with multiple answers, and not-answerable questions;(4) questions asked without knowing the answers. We show that ConditionalQA is challenging for many of the existing QA models, especially in selecting answer conditions. We believe that this dataset will motivate further research in answering complex questions over long documents.
Prompt-free and Efficient Few-shot Learning with Language Models
Authors: Luke Zettlemoyer, James Henderson, Lambert Mathias, Marzieh Saeidi, Veselin Stoyanov, Majid Yazdani Rabeeh Karimi Mahabadi
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Current methods for few-shot fine-tuning of pretrained masked language models (PLMs) require carefully engineered prompts and verbalizers for each new task to convert examples into a cloze-format that the PLM can score. In this work, we propose Perfect, a simple and efficient method for few-shot fine-tuning of PLMs without relying on any such handcrafting, which is highly effective given as few as 32 data points. Perfect makes two key design choices: First, we show that manually engineered task prompts can be replaced with task-specific adapters that enable sample-efficient fine-tuning and reduce memory and storage costs by roughly factors of 5 and 100, respectively. Second, instead of using handcrafted verbalizers, we learn new multi-token label embeddings during fine-tuning, which are not tied to the model vocabulary and which allow us to avoid complex auto-regressive decoding. These embeddings are not only learnable from limited data but also enable nearly 100x faster training and inference. Experiments on a wide range of few shot NLP tasks demonstrate that Perfect, while being simple and efficient, also outperforms existing state-of-the-art few-shot learning methods. Our code is publicly available at r̆lhttps://github.com/rabeehk/perfect.
Continual Sequence Generation with Adaptive Compositional Modules
Authors: Xuezhi Wang, Diyi Yang Yanzhe Zhang
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Continual learning is essential for real-world deployment when there is a need to quickly adapt the model to new tasks without forgetting knowledge of old tasks. Existing work on continual sequence generation either always reuses existing parameters to learn new tasks, which is vulnerable to catastrophic forgetting on dissimilar tasks, or blindly adds new parameters for every new task, which could prevent knowledge sharing between similar tasks. To get the best of both worlds, in this work, we propose continual sequence generation with adaptive compositional modules to adaptively add modules in transformer architectures and compose both old and new modules for new tasks. We also incorporate pseudo experience replay to facilitate knowledge transfer in those shared modules. Experiment results on various sequences of generation tasks show that our framework can adaptively add modules or reuse modules based on task similarity, outperforming state-of-the-art baselines in terms of both performance and parameter efficiency. We make our code public at r̆lhttps://github.com/GT-SALT/Adaptive-Compositional-Modules.
An Investigation of the (In)effectiveness of Counterfactually Augmented Data
Authors: He He Nitish Joshi
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: While pretrained language models achieve excellent performance on natural language understanding benchmarks, they tend to rely on spurious correlations and generalize poorly to out-of-distribution (OOD) data. Recent work has explored using counterfactually-augmented data (CAD)---data generated by minimally perturbing examples to flip the ground-truth label---to identify robust features that are invariant under distribution shift. However, empirical results using CAD during training for OOD generalization have been mixed. To explain this discrepancy, through a toy theoretical example and empirical analysis on two crowdsourced CAD datasets, we show that: (a) while features perturbed in CAD are indeed robust features, it may prevent the model from learning unperturbed robust features; and (b) CAD may exacerbate existing spurious correlations in the data. Our results thus show that the lack of perturbation diversity limits CAD`s effectiveness on OOD generalization, calling for innovative crowdsourcing procedures to elicit diverse perturbation of examples.
Inducing Positive Perspectives with Text Reframing
Authors: Minzhi Li, Anthony Zhang, Diyi Yang Caleb Ziems
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Sentiment transfer is one popular example of a text style transfer task, where the goal is to reverse the sentiment polarity of a text. With a sentiment reversal comes also a reversal in meaning. We introduce a different but related task called positive reframing in which we neutralize a negative point of view and generate a more positive perspective for the author without contradicting the original meaning. Our insistence on meaning preservation makes positive reframing a challenging and semantically rich task. To facilitate rapid progress, we introduce a large-scale benchmark, Positive Psychology Frames, with 8,349 sentence pairs and 12,755 structured annotations to explain positive reframing in terms of six theoretically-motivated reframing strategies. Then we evaluate a set of state-of-the-art text style transfer models, and conclude by discussing key challenges and directions for future work.
VALUE: Understanding Dialect Disparity in NLU
Authors: Jiaao Chen, Camille Harris, Jessica Anderson, Diyi Yang Caleb Ziems
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: English Natural Language Understanding (NLU) systems have achieved great performances and even outperformed humans on benchmarks like GLUE and SuperGLUE. However, these benchmarks contain only textbook Standard American English (SAE). Other dialects have been largely overlooked in the NLP community. This leads to biased and inequitable NLU systems that serve only a sub-population of speakers. To understand disparities in current models and to facilitate more dialect-competent NLU systems, we introduce the VernAcular Language Understanding Evaluation (VALUE) benchmark, a challenging variant of GLUE that we created with a set of lexical and morphosyntactic transformation rules. In this initial release (V.1), we construct rules for 11 features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE), and we recruit fluent AAVE speakers to validate each feature transformation via linguistic acceptability judgments in a participatory design manner. Experiments show that these new dialectal features can lead to a drop in model performance.
From the Detection of Toxic Spans in Online Discussions to the Analysis of Toxic-to-Civil Transfer
Authors: Leo Laugier, Alexandros Xenos, Jeffrey Sorensen, Ion Androutsopoulos John Pavlopoulos
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: We study the task of toxic spans detection, which concerns the detection of the spans that make a text toxic, when detecting such spans is possible. We introduce a dataset for this task, ToxicSpans, which we release publicly. By experimenting with several methods, we show that sequence labeling models perform best, but methods that add generic rationale extraction mechanisms on top of classifiers trained to predict if a post is toxic or not are also surprisingly promising. Finally, we use ToxicSpans and systems trained on it, to provide further analysis of state-of-the-art toxic to non-toxic transfer systems, as well as of human performance on that latter task. Our work highlights challenges in finer toxicity detection and mitigation.
FormNet: Structural Encoding beyond Sequential Modeling in Form Document Information Extraction
Authors: Chun-Liang Li, Timothy Dozat, Vincent Perot, Guolong Su, Nan Hua, Joshua Ainslie, Renshen Wang, Yasuhisa Fujii, Tomas Pfister Chen-Yu Lee
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Sequence modeling has demonstrated state-of-the-art performance on natural language and document understanding tasks. However, it is challenging to correctly serialize tokens in form-like documents in practice due to their variety of layout patterns. We propose FormNet, a structure-aware sequence model to mitigate the suboptimal serialization of forms. First, we design Rich Attention that leverages the spatial relationship between tokens in a form for more precise attention score calculation. Second, we construct Super-Tokens for each word by embedding representations from their neighboring tokens through graph convolutions. FormNet therefore explicitly recovers local syntactic information that may have been lost during serialization. In experiments, FormNet outperforms existing methods with a more compact model size and less pre-training data, establishing new state-of-the-art performance on CORD, FUNSD and Payment benchmarks.
The Moral Integrity Corpus: A Benchmark for Ethical Dialogue Systems
Authors: Jane Yu, Yi-Chia Wang, Alon Halevy, Diyi Yang Caleb Ziems
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Conversational agents have come increasingly closer to human competence in open-domain dialogue settings; however, such models can reflect insensitive, hurtful, or entirely incoherent viewpoints that erode a user`s trust in the moral integrity of the system. Moral deviations are difficult to mitigate because moral judgments are not universal, and there may be multiple competing judgments that apply to a situation simultaneously. In this work, we introduce a new resource, not to authoritatively resolve moral ambiguities, but instead to facilitate systematic understanding of the intuitions, values and moral judgments reflected in the utterances of dialogue systems. The Moral Integrity Corpus, MIC, is such a resource, which captures the moral assumptions of 38k prompt-reply pairs, using 99k distinct Rules of Thumb (RoTs). Each RoT reflects a particular moral conviction that can explain why a chatbot`s reply may appear acceptable or problematic. We further organize RoTs with a set of 9 moral and social attributes and benchmark performance for attribute classification. Most importantly, we show that current neural language models can automatically generate new RoTs that reasonably describe previously unseen interactions, but they still struggle with certain scenarios. Our findings suggest that MIC will be a useful resource for understanding and language models' implicit moral assumptions and flexibly benchmarking the integrity of conversational agents. To download the data, see r̆lhttps://github.com/GT-SALT/mic
Token Dropping for Efficient BERT Pretraining
Authors: Richard Yuanzhe Pang, Tianyi Zhou, Yuexin Wu, Xinying Song, Xiaodan Song, Denny Zhou Le Hou
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Transformer-based models generally allocate the same amount of computation for each token in a given sequence. We develop a simple but effective “token dropping” method to accelerate the pretraining of transformer models, such as BERT, without degrading its performance on downstream tasks. In particular, we drop unimportant tokens starting from an intermediate layer in the model to make the model focus on important tokens more efficiently if with limited computational resource. The dropped tokens are later picked up by the last layer of the model so that the model still produces full-length sequences. We leverage the already built-in masked language modeling (MLM) loss to identify unimportant tokens with practically no computational overhead. In our experiments, this simple approach reduces the pretraining cost of BERT by 25% while achieving similar overall fine-tuning performance on standard downstream tasks.
DialFact: A Benchmark for Fact-Checking in Dialogue
Authors: Chien-Sheng Wu, Wenhao Liu, Caiming Xiong Prakhar Gupta
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Fact-checking is an essential tool to mitigate the spread of misinformation and disinformation. We introduce the task of fact-checking in dialogue, which is a relatively unexplored area. We construct DialFact, a testing benchmark dataset of 22,245 annotated conversational claims, paired with pieces of evidence from Wikipedia. There are three sub-tasks in DialFact: 1) Verifiable claim detection task distinguishes whether a response carries verifiable factual information; 2) Evidence retrieval task retrieves the most relevant Wikipedia snippets as evidence; 3) Claim verification task predicts a dialogue response to be supported, refuted, or not enough information. We found that existing fact-checking models trained on non-dialogue data like FEVER fail to perform well on our task, and thus, we propose a simple yet data-efficient solution to effectively improve fact-checking performance in dialogue. We point out unique challenges in DialFact such as handling the colloquialisms, coreferences, and retrieval ambiguities in the error analysis to shed light on future research in this direction.
The Trade-offs of Domain Adaptation for Neural Language Models
Authors: Dan Iter David Grangier
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: This work connects language model adaptation with concepts of machine learning theory. We consider a training setup with a large out-of-domain set and a small in-domain set. We derive how the benefit of training a model on either set depends on the size of the sets and the distance between their underlying distributions. We analyze how out-of-domain pre-training before in-domain fine-tuning achieves better generalization than either solution independently. Finally, we present how adaptation techniques based on data selection, such as importance sampling, intelligent data selection and influence functions, can be presented in a common framework which highlights their similarity and also their subtle differences.
Towards Afrocentric NLP for African Languages: Where We Are and Where We Can Go
Authors: Muhammad Abdul-Mageed Ife Adebara
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Aligning with ACL 2022 special Theme on “Language Diversity: from Low Resource to Endangered Languages”, we discuss the major linguistic and sociopolitical challenges facing development of NLP technologies for African languages. Situating African languages in a typological framework, we discuss how the particulars of these languages can be harnessed. To facilitate future research, we also highlight current efforts, communities, venues, datasets, and tools. Our main objective is to motivate and advocate for an Afrocentric approach to technology development. With this in mind, we recommend \textitwhat technologies to build and \textithow to build, evaluate, and deploy them based on the needs of local African communities.
Ensembling and Knowledge Distilling of Large Sequence Taggers for Grammatical Error Correction
Authors: Artem Chernodub, Kostiantyn Omelianchuk Maksym Tarnavskyi
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: In this paper, we investigate improvements to the GEC sequence tagging architecture with a focus on ensembling of recent cutting-edge Transformer-based encoders in Large configurations. We encourage ensembling models by majority votes on span-level edits because this approach is tolerant to the model architecture and vocabulary size. Our best ensemble achieves a new SOTA result with an $F_0.5$ score of 76.05 on BEA-2019 (test), even without pre-training on synthetic datasets. In addition, we perform knowledge distillation with a trained ensemble to generate new synthetic training datasets, “Troy-Blogs” and “Troy-1BW”. Our best single sequence tagging model that is pretrained on the generated Troy- datasets in combination with the publicly available synthetic PIE dataset achieves a near-SOTA result with an $F_0.5$ score of 73.21 on BEA-2019 (test). The code, datasets, and trained models are publicly available.
Speaker Information Can Guide Models to Better Inductive Biases: A Case Study On Predicting Code-Switching
Authors: Shuly Wintner, Melinda Fricke, Yulia Tsvetkov Alissa Ostapenko
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: Natural language processing (NLP) models trained on people-generated data can be unreliable because, without any constraints, they can learn from spurious correlations that are not relevant to the task. We hypothesize that enriching models with speaker information in a controlled, educated way can guide them to pick up on relevant inductive biases. For the speaker-driven task of predicting code-switching points in English--Spanish bilingual dialogues, we show that adding sociolinguistically-grounded speaker features as prepended prompts significantly improves accuracy. We find that by adding influential phrases to the input, speaker-informed models learn useful and explainable linguistic information. To our knowledge, we are the first to incorporate speaker characteristics in a neural model for code-switching, and more generally, take a step towards developing transparent, personalized models that use speaker information in a controlled way.
Detecting Unassimilated Borrowings in Spanish: An Annotated Corpus and Approaches to Modeling
Authors: Constantine Lignos Elena Álvarez-Mellado
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: This work presents a new resource for borrowing identification and analyzes the performance and errors of several models on this task. We introduce a new annotated corpus of Spanish newswire rich in unassimilated lexical borrowings---words from one language that are introduced into another without orthographic adaptation---and use it to evaluate how several sequence labeling models (CRF, BiLSTM-CRF, and Transformer-based models) perform. The corpus contains 370,000 tokens and is larger, more borrowing-dense, OOV-rich, and topic-varied than previous corpora available for this task. Our results show that a BiLSTM-CRF model fed with subword embeddings along with either Transformer-based embeddings pretrained on codeswitched data or a combination of contextualized word embeddings outperforms results obtained by a multilingual BERT-based model.
Is Attention Explanation? An Introduction to the Debate
Authors: Rémi Cardon, David Alfter, Rodrigo Wilkens, Xiaoou Wang, Thomas François, Patrick Watrin Adrien Bibal
Published in: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) (Long Paper Track), 2022

Abstract: The performance of deep learning models in NLP and other fields of machine learning has led to a rise in their popularity, and so the need for explanations of these models becomes paramount. Attention has been seen as a solution to increase performance, while providing some explanations. However, a debate has started to cast doubt on the explanatory power of attention in neural networks. Although the debate has created a vast literature thanks to contributions from various areas, the lack of communication is becoming more and more tangible. In this paper, we provide a clear overview of the insights on the debate by critically confronting works from these different areas. This holistic vision can be of great interest for future works in all the communities concerned by this debate. We sum up the main challenges spotted in these areas, and we conclude by discussing the most promising future avenues on attention as an explanation.