Yields vary depending on the securities held, the length of time spent, and the amount of money returned. Yield on stocks Two types of yields are commonly utilised in stock-based investments. The yield is called yield on cost (YOC) or cost yield when it is calculated based on the purchase price. Cost Yield = (Price Increase + Dividends Paid) / Purchase Price For example, suppose an investor made a profit of £20 (£120 – £100) due to a price increase and also received £2 from a corporate dividend. As a result, the cost yield equals (£20 + £2) / £100 = 0.22, or 22%. Many investors, on the other hand, may want to compute the yield using the current market price rather than the purchase price. This yield is known as the present yield, and it is calculated as follows: Current Yield = (Price Increase + Dividend Paid) / Current Price The current yield, for example, is (£20 + £2) / £120 = 0.1833, or 18.33%. Because yield and stock price have an inverse connection, as a company’s stock price rises, the present yield falls. Yield on bond The nominal yield on bonds that pay annual interest can be calculated in a simple way, as follows: Nominal Yield = (Annual Interest Earned / Face Value of Bond) For example, if a £1,000 Treasury bond matures in one year and pays 5% yearly interest, the yield is calculated as £50 / £1,000 = 0.05 or 5%. However, the yield on a floating interest rate bond, which pays a variable interest rate over the life of the bond, will fluctuate over time depending on the applicable interest rate at various maturities. If a bond pays interest based on the 10-year Treasury yield + 2%, the relevant interest will be 3% while the 10-year Treasury yield is 1% and will change to 4% if the 10-year Treasury rate increases to 2% after a few months. Similarly, the interest collected on an index-linked bond, whose interest payments are adjusted for an index such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation index, will fluctuate with the index’s value. Yield to maturity Yield to maturity (YTM) is a unique measure of the annual total return on a bond if it is kept to maturity. It is not to be confused with nominal yield, which is calculated on a per-year basis and fluctuates with each passing year. YTM, on the other hand, is the predicted annual average yield, and the value is expected to remain constant throughout the holding term until the bond matures. Yield to worst case scenario The yield to worst (YTW) is a measure of the lowest possible yield on a bond that may be received without the issuer defaulting. YTW calculates the return that would be received if the issuer used provisions such as prepayments, call-backs, or sinking funds to calculate the worst-case scenario on the bond. This yield serves as a key risk indicator, ensuring that certain income requirements are met even in the worst-case situation. Yield to call The yield to call (YTC) is a measure associated with a callable bond, a type of bond that can be redeemed by the issuer before maturity and refers to the bond’s yield at the call date. The bond’s interest payments, market price, and the length until the call date, which specifies the interest amount, all contribute to this value. Municipal bonds, which are mainly non-taxable bonds issued by a state, municipality, or county to fund capital expenditures, also have a tax-equivalent yield (TEY). 1 TEY is the required pre-tax yield for a taxable bond to have the same yield as a tax-free municipal bond, which is determined by the investor’s tax bracket. While there are many various ways to compute different types of yields, corporations, issuers, and fund managers have a lot of freedom to calculate, report, and market the yield value according to their own conventions. Regulators such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) have adopted a standard yield calculation known as the SEC yield. The SEC yield is a standard yield calculation produced by the SEC with the goal of providing a common metric for fairer bond fund comparisons. SEC yields are computed after the fund’s mandatory costs have been taken into account. Mutual fund yield is determined by dividing the yearly income distribution payment by the value of a mutual fund’s shares and is used to represent the net income return of a mutual fund. It contains the income made by the fund’s portfolio in the form of dividends and interest during the year. The yields are calculated and vary with the fund’s market value each day, as mutual fund valuations change every day based on its determined net asset value. Any company venture’s yield can be calculated in addition to investments. The form of how much return is earned on the invested capital is retained in the calculation.