While AFFF itself is not classified as a carcinogen, fire-fighting foam does contain several known carcinogenic compounds, meaning that it has been shown to cause cancer in humans. This is because many AFFF types contain PFOS and PFOA, which are both highly toxic. According to a study performed by researchers at UC Berkeley and Harvard, these chemicals in aqueous film-forming foams have been linked to a wide range of cancers, particularly cancer of the kidneys, bladder, and testicles. AFFF exposure can also result in endocrine disruption and other serious complications.