mteb/CovidQA huggingface dataset:
Since collagen is the major ECM component MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 cells interact with, the next step was to prove whether v-ATPase inhibition influences the amount of collagen expressed by HUVECs as extracellular matrix. To detect collagen on the endothelial surface, archazolid-treated HUVECs were labeled with an antibody against collagen type I-IV on ice to prevent endocytosis and to ensure that the antibody does not bind to intracellular collagen. Interestingly, archazolid increased the amount of surface collagen on HUVECs by about 50% (Fig 7C) . Control stainings were performed using an antibody against the cytosolic p65 subunit of the transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NFκB) to show that intracellular proteins were not detected by this staining method (S2 Fig) .
It was reported that v-ATPase inhibition by archazolid impairs the activity of cathepsin B [28, 36] , a lysosomal enzyme that degrades extracellular matrix components including collagen [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] . As collagen is degraded by cathepsin B and the activation of cathepsin B depends on v-ATPase activity [28, [36] [37] [38] 42] , we suggested that an accumulation of collagen on the surface of endothelial cells might be a consequence of an impaired functionality of cathepsin B. Therefore, an enzyme activity assay based on the proteolysis of a fluorogenic cathepsin B substrate was performed. In archazolid-treated HUVECs and HMEC-1 the activity of cathepsin B was induce both the mRNA (1 ng/ml TNF) and the cell surface expression (10 ng/ml TNF) of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin and Ncadherin.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203053.g005 Inhibition of endothelial vATPase increases tumor cell adhesion to endothelial cells strongly decreased by approximately 50% compared to control cells at an archazolid concentration of 1 nM (Fig 8A) . In line with this result, western blot analysis showed that archazolid (1 nM) reduces the protein expression of the mature, active form of cathepsin B to less than 40% of the control in HUVECs (Fig 8B) . To proof whether the archazolid-induced tumor cell adhesion is a consequence of the decreased amount of cathepsin B, HUVECs were transfected with a plasmid coding for human cathepsin B or with the empty vector as control. After 48 h, the transfected cells were treated with 1 nM archazolid. The level of cathepsin B after transfection and treatment was assessed by western blot analysis (Fig 9A) . Overexpression of cathepsin B strongly diminished both the basal and the archazolid-induced adhesion of MDA-MB-231 cells (Fig 9B) .
Targeting the proton pump v-ATPase for cancer therapy has gained great interest since its inhibition was reported to reduce the invasiveness of cancer cells and, most importantly, also metastasis [8, 9] . Thus, intensive research related to v-ATPases was done in cancer cells, whereas there are only few studies investigating v-ATPases in endothelial cells indicating a role in migration, proliferation and possibly angiogenesis [22] [23] [24] . In the present study we used the myxobacterial natural product archazolid to investigate the consequences of v-ATPase inhibition in the endothelium on tumor-endothelial cell interactions.
For the first time, we were able to show a link between v-ATPase and the adhesion and transmigration properties of the endothelium. Inhibition of the v-ATPase in endothelial cells by archazolid significantly increased the adhesion of metastatic cancer cells and decreased the transendothelial migration of cancer cells which was attributed to augmented collagen levels on the surface on archazolid-treated endothelial cells. Of note, adhesion of the non-metastatic Jurkat cell line onto archazolid-treated endothelial cells remained unaffected. The archazolidinduced adhesion of tumor cells was independent from the endothelial cell adhesion molecules ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin and N-cadherin, as their expression was not regulated by the compound. However, we found that the archazolid-induced tumor cell adhesion was mediated by β1-integrins expressed on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer and PC-3 prostate cancer cells as blocking of the integrin β1 subunit on these tumor cells reversed the pro-adhesive
effect of archazolid. In adhesion experiments on plastic coated with extracellular matrix components, we could show that MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 cells clearly favored the interaction with collagen, whereas the adhesion of non-metastatic Jurkat cells was largely independent from extracellular matrix proteins (S1B Fig). The different adhesion properties of metastatic cancer cells and Jurkat cells might be a result of the distinct integrin expression pattern of each cell line. MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 cells express α2β1-and α3β1-integrins, which represent collagen receptors [43, 44] , while Jurkat cells express α4β1-integrins but lack α2β1-, α3β1-integrins [44] . α4β1integrins are receptors for VCAM-1 and fibronectin [35] and it has been shown that Jurkat cells interact with human endothelial cells that express VCAM-1 after cytokine treatment or cells transfected with VCAM-1 [45] . Our results are in line with previous studies showing that α2β1-and α3β1-integrin expressing MDA-MB-231 and PC-3
cells were able to rapidly attach to collagen in the cortical bone matrix. In contrast, Jurkat cells were not able to adhere [44] and might preferentially interact with cell adhesion molecules rather than with ECM proteins. α2β1-and α3β1-integrins can additionally act as laminin receptors [46] and at least α3β1integrins recognize fibronectin [46, 47] . Though expressing receptors for fibronectin and laminin, MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 cells adhered to fibronectin to a much lesser extent and did not adhere to laminin, probably due to lower affinities to these extracellular matrix components.
Importantly, v-ATPase inhibition by archazolid increased the surface levels of the extracellular matrix component collagen, which might explain that the increase of MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 cells onto archazolid-treated HUVECs is independent of endothelial cell adhesion molecules. By performing a live cell proteolysis assay, Cavallo-Medved et al. demonstrated ECM degradation, in particular of gelatin and collagen IV, in association with active cathepsin B in caveolae of endothelial cells during tube formation [40] . In addition, recent studies reported that v-ATPase inhibition impairs the activity of cathepsin B in cancer cells [28, 36] . Therefore, we suggested that the accumulation of collagen on the endothelial surface might be a consequence of impaired cathepsin B activity or expression in endothelial cells. In fact, we confirmed the impairment of cathepsin B activity by archazolid as the expression levels of the mature active form of this enzyme was strongly reduced. Cathepsin B is
synthesized as preprocathepsin B on membrane-bound ribosomes. Following transport to the Golgi apparatus, the preprocathepsin B is glycosylated with mannose-containing oligosaccharides. The targeting of procathepsin B to lysosomes is mannose-6-phosphate receptor-dependent and its dissociation from the receptor as well as its proteolytic processing into mature cathepsin B requires acidification of the compartment [48] . In cancer cells v-ATPase inhibition by archazolid impaired the mannose-6-phosphate receptor-mediated trafficking from the trans-Golgi network to prelysosomal compartments resulting in a decrease of active lysosomal proteases like cathepsin B [28] . We assumed that the archazolid-induced decrease in cathepsin B activity and expression was based on the same mechanism. Interestingly, overexpression of cathepsin B attenuated the archazolid-induced adhesion of breast cancer cells onto endothelial cells, indicating that the adhesion negatively correlates with the expression
of cathepsin B.
As cathepsin B can also degrade other extracellular matrix components such as fibronectin and laminin [38, 49] , v-ATPase inhibition could lead to an accumulation of these proteins and an increased adhesion of cells expressing fibronectin or laminin receptors. However, we did not focus on these ECM components since they were not relevant for the adhesion of MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 cells. These cells predominantly adhered to collagen, while the adhesion of Jurkat cells is mostly independent from the ECM proteins collagen, fibronectin or laminin (S1B Fig). Interestingly [50] . In hepatic cancer cells, archazolid reduces Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling by altering the membrane composition and fluidity [51] . We assume that archazolid affects endothelial cells in a similar way leading to inhibition of Ras signaling and, therefore, reduced transendothelial migration of MDA-MB-231 cells.
Taken together, our study shows that archazolid reduces the activity and expression of cathepsin B in endothelial cells. As a result, the amount of collagen on the surface of endothelial cells was significantly upregulated, which finally resulted in an increased adhesion of the β1-integrin-expressing metastatic cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and PC-3 onto archazolidtreated endothelial cells, whereas the adhesion of non-metastatic Jurkat cells was unaffected. This study shows that the v-ATPase plays an important role in regulating the adhesion of cells expressing receptors for extracellular matrix components. Archazolid represents a promising tool to elucidate the role of v-ATPase in endothelial cells. Moreover, we for the first time linked the function of v-ATPase to the adhesion and transmigration of tumor cells onto endothelial cells as well as to the remodeling of the extracellular matrix on the surface of endothelial cells. The fact that the adhesion of metastatic tumor cells onto
endothelial cells is increased while their transendothelial migration is reduced upon inhibition of endothelial v-ATPase by archazolid further supports the view of archazolid as a potential anti-metastatic compound.
Gastroenteritis and respiratory infection outbreaks in French nursing homes from 2007 to 2018: Morbidity and all-cause lethality according to the individual characteristics of residents

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6759171/

SHA: f1d456ea268266ff3c21317c4190e4fcb49b5e4f

Authors: Gaspard, Philippe; Mosnier, Anne; Simon, Loic; Ali-Brandmeyer, Olivia; Rabaud, Christian; Larocca, Sabrina; Heck, Béatrice; Aho-Glélé, Serge; Pothier, Pierre; Ambert-Balay, Katia
Date: 2019-09-24
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222321
License: cc-by
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Gastroenteritis (GE) and respiratory tract infection (RTI) outbreaks are a significant issue in nursing homes. This study aimed to describe GE and RTI outbreaks with infection and all-cause lethality rates according to the individual characteristics of nursing home residents. METHODS: Clinical and virological surveillance were conducted (2007 to 2018). Virus stratifications for the analysis were: outbreaks with positive norovirus or influenza identifications (respectively NoV+ or Flu+), episodes with no NoV or influenza identification or testing (respectively NoV- or Flu-). Associations between individual variables (sex, age, length of stay (LOS), autonomy status) and infection and lethality rates were tested with univariate and Mantel-Haenszel (MH) methods. RESULTS: 61 GE outbreaks and 76 RTI oubreaks (total 137 outbreaks) were recorded involving respectively 4309 and 5862 residents. In univariate analysis, higher infection rates and age were associated in NoV+,
NoV-, and Flu+ contexts, and lower infection rates were associated with longer stays (NoV+ and NoV-). In MH stratified analysis (virus, sex (female/male)) adjusted for LOS (<4 or ≥4 years), the odds of being infected remained significant among older residents (≥86 years): NoV+/male (Odds ratio (OR(MH)): 1.64, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.16–2.30) and Flu+/female and male (respectively OR(MH): 1.50, CI: 1.27–1.79 and 1.73, CI: 1.28–2.33). In univariate analysis, lower autonomy status (NoV+, Flu+ and Flu-) and increased age (Flu+) were associated with higher lethality. In MH adjusted analysis, significant OR(age) adjusted for autonomy was: Flu+/ ≥86 years compared with <86 years, 1.97 (1.19–3.25) and OR(autonomy) adjusted for age for the more autonomous group (compared with the less autonomous group) was: Flu+, 0.41 (0.24–0.69); Flu-, 0.42 (0.20, 0.90). CONCLUSION: The residents of nursing homes are increasingly elderly and dependent. The specific infection and lethality risks
according to these two factors indicate that surveillance and infection control measures are essential and of high priority.
Text: Introduction Gastroenteritis (GE) and respiratory tract infection (RTI) outbreaks represent a significant burden of illness in nursing homes. Viruses cause the majority of these outbreaks, and noroviruses and influenza viruses are the most common pathogens [1, 2] .

Previous studies have suggested that viral respiratory infections and norovirus outbreaks are a common cause of hospitalization or death, particularly among elderly individuals [3] [4] [5] .
The impact of outbreaks has been described in terms of both frequency and epidemiology, but little is known about infection rates and all-cause lethality in GE and RTI nursing home outbreaks in relation to the individual characteristics of the residents [6] . The residents of these institutions are increasingly elderly and dependent, and the impact of this trend on the seasonal outbreak burden requires in-depth investigation. The results of studies focused on this issue could yield valuable information for nursing homes, allowing them to adapt their infection control strategies, in particular for improved assessment of infection risk.

Our objective was to describe GE and RTI infection and all-cause lethality rates according to the individual characteristics of nursing home residents (sex, age, length of stay, autonomy status), and to identify specific susceptibility patterns related to these types of viral outbreaks in these facilities.
The present study explored outbreaks in 14 sites (28 units with geriatric nursing home activities for a total of 1121 beds) caring for dependent people in southern Alsace (an area in northeastern France). Data were collected between September 2007 and August 2018 [7, 8] .

Each site was geographically independent and autonomous for social and care management. Units were located within the larger sites and were defined as a place having a dedicated team at one location.
During outbreaks at one site, only the residents in the units with confirmed cases were included. Outbreak inclusion depended on institutional alert to the hygiene team. Surveillance was done in each unit independently, and the members of staff had to inform a physician or charge nurse when two or more potential related cases of pneumonia or GE were observed within four days and when three or more cases were observed for other RTI. Units also had to inform the hygiene team when these threshold values were exceeded. For influenza, the first suspected case led to a local alert and the hygiene team was contacted. A practitioner from the hygiene team collected the information and evaluated the clinical signs, the virology information and the epidemiological context with the physician in the affected unit. The detected cluster was only put under surveillance if the hygiene team considered that there was a potential outbreak phenomenon. The duration of 4 days was in relation with the
national protocol with alert to the authorities when 5 cases occurred within 4 days [9, 10] . On a local level and in addition to the clusters reported to the authorities, clusters with at least 3 cases within a period of seven days in one unit could be recorded if they were reported to the hygiene team. Because several outbreaks could potentially occur in the same unit during the surveillance period, a resident could be included repeatedly in different clusters. As a result, the observed patterns reflected the characteristics of an institutional population with longitudinal and pluriannual exposures.
Personal information and clinical information was collected by a practitioner from the hygiene team directly from the residents' health care records. Personal information was collected for all those present the first day of the outbreak. The collected information included: month and year of birth, sex, date of arrival at the nursing home and autonomy status. The autonomy status of residents in French nursing homes is assessed using the AGGIR scale (Autonomy Gerontology Groups Iso-Resources), which is the legal instrument for evaluating dependency in the elderly and whose primary purpose is the allocation of means and resources [11] .
With the AGGIR scale, autonomy is classified into 6 Iso-Resource Groups (GIR): GIR 1 (bedridden or armchair-bound persons, mental functions seriously altered and requiring continuous presence), GIR 2 (bedridden or armchair-bound persons, mental functions not totally altered and requiring assistance in most activities of daily living, or mental functions altered with preserved ability to get around), GIR 3 (preserved mental autonomy with partially preserved motor autonomy and assistance several times a day for physical autonomy), GIR 4 (moves around the home and sometimes assistance for washing, dressing, physical activities or eating), GIR 5 (only occasional assistance for washing, meal preparation, and housework), GIR 6 (autonomy for essential tasks of daily living). In outbreaks where the influenza virus was identified, influenza vaccination status and oseltamivir prescriptions were recorded as well. A file is transmitted in the Supporting Information with all previous data (S1
Data).
GE was defined as the sudden onset of vomiting and/or diarrhea over a 24 h period: (i) diarrhea �3 episodes, (ii) and/or vomiting �3 episodes, (iii) or diarrhea or vomiting <3 episodes with two or more other symptoms (diarrhea, vomiting, stomach ache, abdominal cramps, nausea, fever, mucus in stools) [1] .
RTI presentation in older adults may be atypical, like for other acute illnesses in this age group [12] . We used the recommended definitions for RTI surveillance in geriatric units, divided in 3 subcategories: (i) common cold syndromes or pharyngitis (at least two of the following criteria: runny nose or sneezing, stuffy nose (i.e. congestion), sore throat or hoarseness or difficulty swallowing, dry cough, swollen or tender glands in the neck (cervical lymphadenopathy)), (ii) influenza-like illness (both the following criteria must be met: fever AND at least three other symptoms (chills, new headache or eye pain, myalgia or body aches, malaise or loss of appetite, sore throat, new or increased dry cough)) and (iii) lower respiratory tract infection (both of the following criteria must be met: at least two respiratory signs or symptoms (new or increased cough, new/increased sputum production, O 2 saturation <94% or reduced >3% from baseline, abnormal lung examination (new or changed),
pleuritic chest pain, respiratory rate �25 breaths/min AND one or more constitutional signs/symptoms (fever, leukocytosis, confusion, acute functional decline)) [13] [14] [15] [16] . Infection corresponding to one of these three subcategories was included in this study and classified as RTI.
For both infection types, the practitioner from the hygiene team obtained clinical information from the patient's health care records, and members of the health care team were consulted if necessary to complete any missing information. At the end of the episode (within seven days after the last identified case), case inclusion as exposed and not infected (ENI) or exposed and infected (EI) was determined with a resident physician.
In order to study the lethality, the presence of each infected resident was evaluated once at least 56 days after the last case of each outbreak. Each resident was followed up retrospectively during eighth 7-day interval (I n, n = 1 to 8, total 56 days, between the date of onset of symptoms and the fifty-sixth day of the studied period) with three different possibilities: present (alive and officially residing in the institution), lost to follow-up (alive at the date of departure but no longer residing in the institution (return home, transfer to another institution)) or death (death recorded in the health care record). The dates of death and lost to follow-up were recorded.

Testing for the virus was not systematic and was decided by the physicians in each institution in the presence of clinical signs.
For GE, stool samples were sent to the National Reference Centre for Gastroenteritis Viruses in Dijon for laboratory testing, as previously described [8] . For RTI surveillance, rapid tests were used to identify the influenza virus. The rapid immunoassay diagnosis tests used for influenza detection were: Clearview1 Exact Influenza A and B (Inverness Medical, Cologne, Germany) from 2007 to 2014 and InfluenzaTop1 (Alldiag, Strasbourg, France) from 2014 to 2018. Given the low sensitivity of influenza rapid tests, they were no longer used once the control measures had been implemented and the influenza outbreak was under control. Samples were also occasionally sent to hospital laboratories or to the National Reference Centre for Influenza Viruses to detect viruses with real-time RT-PCR [17] . Most testing targeted the norovirus (NoV) and influenza virus, but other tests were occasionally performed by the National Reference Centre for Influenza Viruses (rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial
virus, human metapneumovirus, parainfluenza 1, 2, 3 and 4, and coronavirus) and the National Reference Centre for Enteric Viruses (rotavirus, astrovirus, and adenovirus).
Because testing for the viruses was variable (from one institution/physician to another, not used in some outbreaks, types of virus sought) and considering the poor sensitivity of the rapid influenza tests, these two sources of data were used to define the epidemiological context of confirmed outbreaks. Consequently, individual cases were included consistently in all episodes according to clinical signs and medical evaluation. When virus testing was negative, the clinical signs were recorded and medical evaluation was used as previously to classify the included residents as infected or not infected.

The epidemiological context of each outbreak was defined according to whether the virus had been identified or not. One or more positive samples led to the qualification of a NoV (NoV+) or flu (Flu+) context. The other episodes were qualified as flu or NoV outbreaks with no specific identification or testing (NoV-and Flu-).
Flu and NoV contexts did not eliminate other potential enteric or respiratory pathogens.

Sex, age, length of stay (LOS, in years) and autonomy status were described for all exposed residents. Influenza vaccination and oseltamivir administration rates were calculated for confirmed influenza outbreaks. Dichotomous or categorical variables were expressed as percentages. In univariate analysis, the categories were specific in order to obtain a precise description of the age and LOS variables. Class intervals were 5 years for age and one year for LOS. The residents classified as GIR 4 to 6 (sometimes, occasional and no assistance) were grouped together because they were few.
For the multi-level analysis with 2x2 tables, a median value was used to define the two-level age categories. For LOS, assessing the longest stays was necessary to identify the effect of longer exposure in a nursing home. Consequently, a four-year cutoff was chosen to create the two categories. For autonomy, the two most dependent categories (GIR � 2) were grouped together and compared with the more autonomous categories (GIR � 3).

The outbreak epidemiological contexts were used with the four categories: NoV+, Flu+, NoV-and flu-. Other GE or RTI viruses were occasionally identified, but the number of results was too limited to develop separate analyses. However, all the results are available in the tables about the virus investigations along with NoV and influenza identifications.