mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
*  Colour mixing 
*  Primary colour 
*  Secondary colour 
*  Chromaticity 
*  Colour solid 
*  Colour wheel 
*  Colour triangle 
*  Colour analysis  (fashion)
*  Colour realism (art style)  "Colour realism \(art style\)")
* _ On Vision and Colours  _ (Schopenhauer)
* _ Theory of Colours  _ (Goethe)
Additive mixing can be demonstrated physically by using three slide projectors
fitted with filters so that one projector shines a  beam
 of saturated red light onto a
white screen, another a beam of saturated blue light, and the third a beam of
saturated green light. Additive mixing occurs where the beams overlap (and
thus are added together), as shown in the  figure (left)  . Where red and
green beams overlap, yellow is produced. If more red light is added or if the
intensity of the green light is decreased, the light mixture becomes orange.
Similarly, if there is more green light than red light, a yellow-green is
produced. The  RGB colour model  , one of the three main colour models, is an additive model used
in digital devices and light-based media to create a  gamut
 of colours from just red,
green, and blue.
###  3\. UV-Visible Absorption Spectra
Because additive processes have the greatest gamut when the primaries are red,
green, and blue, it is reasonable to expect that the greatest gamut in
subtractive processes will be achieved when the primaries are, respectively,
red-absorbing, green-absorbing, and blue-absorbing. The colour of an image
that absorbs red light while transmitting all other radiations is blue-green,
often called  cyan. An image that absorbs only green light  transmits
 both blue light and red
light, and its colour is  magenta. The blue-absorbing image transmits only
green light and red light, and its colour is   yellow
 . Hence, the subtractive
primaries are cyan, magenta, and yellow ( _see_ figure, right  ).
Some animals are coloured purely incidentally because their blood contains
pigments. For example, amphibians like the  olm  that live
in caves may be largely colorless as colour has no function in that
environment, but they show some red because of the  haem 
pigment in their red blood cells, needed to carry oxygen. They also have a
little orange coloured  riboflavin  in their
skin.  [50]  Human  albinos  and people with fair
skin have a similar colour for the same reason.  [51]
Side of  zebrafish
 shows how  chromatophores
 (dark spots) respond to 24 hours in
dark (above) or light (below).
Animals & Nature
Spatial
ecology  |
14 languages
Countershading was first described by the American artist  Abbott Handerson
Thayer  , a pioneer
in the theory of animal coloration. Thayer observed that whereas a painter
takes a flat canvas and uses coloured paint to create the illusion of solidity
by painting in shadows, animals such as deer are often darkest on their backs,
becoming lighter towards the belly, creating (as zoologist  Hugh Cott
 observed) the illusion of flatness,  [21]
and against a matching background, of invisibility. Thayer's observation
"Animals are painted by Nature, darkest on those parts which tend to be most
lighted by the sky's light, and _vice versa_ " is called _Thayer's Law_ .
[22]
Decomposers  |
Colour psychology  |
Ecology  :  Modelling ecosystems
 :  Trophic  components
---
 Vision  |
In his 1665 book _ Micrographia  _ , 
Robert Hooke  describes the "fantastical"
(  structural  , not
pigment) colours of the Peacock's feathers:  [3]
|  ;)
Henry Walter Bates  's 1863
book _ The Naturalist on the River Amazons
 _ describes his extensive studies of the insects in the Amazon
basin, and especially the butterflies. He discovered that apparently similar
butterflies often belonged to different families, with a harmless species 
mimicking  a poisonous or bitter-tasting species to
reduce its chance of being attacked by a predator, in the process now called
after him,  Batesian mimicry  .
[5]
##  Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration
|  171  |  15,000  |  hexane
C≡C  |  1-Hexyne  |
While many animals are unable to synthesize carotenoid pigments to create red
and yellow surfaces, the green and blue colours of bird feathers and insect
carapaces are usually not produced by pigments at all, but by structural
coloration.  [53]  Structural coloration means the production of colour by
microscopically-structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with  visible
light  , sometimes in combination with
pigments: for example,  peacock  tail feathers are
pigmented brown, but their structure makes them appear blue, turquoise and
green. Structural coloration can produce the most brilliant colours, often 
iridescent  .  [52]  For example, the
blue/green gloss on the plumage of  birds  such as 
ducks  , and the purple/blue/green/red colours of many 
beetles  and  butterflies  are created by structural coloration.  [55]  Animals use
several methods to produce structural colour, as described in the table.  [55]
**COLOR VISION IN ANIMALS**
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*  Archaea 
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*  Microbial cooperation 
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*  Microbial mat 
*  Microbial metabolism 
*  Phage ecology
*  Linguistic relativity and the colour naming debate 
*  Blue–green distinction in language 
* Colour history
*  Blue in culture 
*  Colour in Chinese culture 
*  Traditional colours of Japan 
*  Human skin colour
*  Colour effects 
*  Colour vision
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###  Mimicry
Light is not the only type of electromagnetic radiation—it is, in fact, only a
small segment of the total electromagnetic spectrum—but it is the one form the
eye can perceive. Wavelengths of light range from about 400 nm at the  violet
 end of the  spectrum
 to 700 nm at the  red
 end ( _see_ table). (The
limits of the visible spectrum are not sharply defined but vary among
individuals; there is some extended visibility for high-intensity light.) At
shorter wavelengths the  electromagnetic spectrum
 extends to the
 ultraviolet radiation  region and continues through  X-rays
 ,  gamma rays
 , and  cosmic rays
 . Just beyond the red end of
the spectrum are the longer wave  infrared radiation
 rays (which can be
felt as heat),  microwaves  , and  radio  waves. Radiation of a single frequency is called   monochromatic
 . When this
frequency falls in the range of the visible spectrum, the colour perception
produced is that of a saturated  hue
 .
* **Violet:** 400 - 420 nm
How Did Alexander the Great Really Die?
|  |
**STRUCTURAL COLORS IN ANIMALS**
Animal coloration may be the result of any combination of  pigments
 ,  chromatophores
 ,  structural coloration
 and  bioluminescence
 .  [52]
###  Distraction
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##  Visible and Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
###  Signalling
Pigments are coloured chemicals (such as  melanin 
) in animal tissues.  [52]  For example, the  Arctic fox  has a white coat in winter (containing little pigment), and a
brown coat in summer (containing more pigment), an example of  seasonal
camouflage  (a  polyphenism
 ). Many animals, including  mammals
 ,  birds  , and  amphibians
 , are unable to synthesize most of the pigments
that colour their fur or feathers, other than the brown or black melanins that
give many mammals their earth tones.  [53]  For example, the bright yellow of
an  American goldfinch  , the
startling orange of a juvenile  red-spotted newt  , the deep red of a  cardinal  and the pink of a  flamingo 
are all produced by  carotenoid  pigments
synthesized by plants. In the case of the flamingo, the bird eats pink
shrimps, which are themselves unable to synthesize carotenoids. The shrimps
derive their body colour from microscopic red algae, which like most plants
are able to create their own pigments, including both carotenoids and (green)
 chlorophyll  . Animals that eat green
plants do not become green, however, as chlorophyll does not survive
digestion.  [53]
####  Startle
*  Theme issue 'Animal coloration: production, perception, function and application'  (Royal Society)
*  NatureWorks: Coloration (for children and teachers) 
*  HowStuffWorks: How Animal Camouflage Works 
*  University of British Columbia: Sexual Selection (a lecture for Zoology students) 
*  Nature's Palette: How animals, including humans, produce colours
**  "Bluebirds aren't really blue."  **
Protective resemblance is used by prey to avoid predation. It includes special
protective resemblance, now called  mimesis 
"Mimesis \(biology\)") , where the whole animal looks like some other object,
for example when a caterpillar resembles a twig or a bird dropping. In general
protective resemblance, now called  crypsis  , the
animal's texture blends with the background, for example when a moth's colour
and pattern blend in with tree bark.  [20]
###  Temperature regulation
n ** __  > ** π*
π ** __  > ** π*
*  Animal senses 
*  Blindness in animals 
*  Eyespot apparatus 
*  Feature detection  "Feature detection \(nervous system\)")
*  Infrared sensing in snakes 
*  Monocular deprivation 
*  Ommatidium 
*  Palpebral (bone)  "Palpebral \(bone\)")
*  Pseudopupil 
*  Rhopalium 
*  Underwater vision 
*  Visual perception
The Origins of Colors, Pigments, and Dyes
*  Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates 
*  Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates 
*  Environment 
*  Fossils & Geologic Time 
*  Mammals 
*  Plants
This frog changes its skin colour to control its temperature.
*  Health & Medicine 
*  Science 
*  Technology
The science behind the color black
The main mechanisms to create the resemblances described by Poulton – whether
in nature or in military applications – are  crypsis  , blending into the background so as to become hard to see (this
covers both special and general resemblance);  disruptive patterning
 , using colour and
pattern to break up the animal's outline, which relates mainly to general
resemblance; mimesis, resembling other objects of no special interest to the
observer, which relates to special resemblance;  countershading
 , using graded colour to create the
illusion of flatness, which relates mainly to general resemblance; and 
counterillumination  , producing light to match the background, notably in some
species of  squid  .  [20]
n ** __  > ** σ*
n ** __  > ** σ*
Example webs  |
###  2\. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Bioluminescence is the production of  light  , such as
by the  photophores  of marine animals,  [56]
and the tails of  glow-worms  and  fireflies
 . Bioluminescence, like other forms of  metabolism
 , releases energy derived from the chemical
energy of food. A pigment,  luciferin  is
catalysed by the  enzyme   luciferase
 to react with oxygen, releasing light.  [57]
 Comb jellies  such as _Euplokamis_ are
bioluminescent, creating blue and green light, especially when stressed; when
disturbed, they secrete an ink which luminesces in the same colours. Since
comb jellies are not very sensitive to light, their bioluminescence is
unlikely to be used to signal to other members of the same species (e.g. to
attract mates or repel rivals); more likely, the light helps to distract
predators or parasites.  [58]  Some species of  squid 
have light-producing organs (  photophores  )
scattered all over their undersides that create a sparkling glow. This
provides  counter-illumination  camouflage, preventing the animal from appearing as a dark
shape when seen from below.  [59]  Some  anglerfish  of the deep sea, where it is too dark to hunt by sight, contain
 symbiotic  bacteria in the 'bait' on their
'fishing rods'. These emit light to attract prey.  [60]
* **Yellow:** 570 - 585 nm
Many animals have dark pigments such as  melanin 
in their  skin  ,  eyes  and  fur
 to protect themselves against  sunburn  [44]  (damage to living tissues caused by  ultraviolet
 light).  [45]  [46]  Another example of
photoprotective pigments are the  GFP  -like proteins in some  corals  .  [47]  In some  jellyfish  , 
rhizostomins  have also been hypothesized
to protect against ultraviolet damage.  [48]
Main article:  Deimatic behaviour
** Just CLICK on a logo below.  **
Further information:  Coloration evidence for natural selection
;)
---
Producers  |
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 Colour perception  |
*  Lifestyles & Social Issues 
*  Philosophy & Religion 
*  Politics, Law & Government 
*  World History
###  Structural coloration
---|---|---|---|---|---
C=C  |  Ethene  |
*  advertising  , to signal a capability or service to other animals, whether within a species or not
* sexual selection, where members of one sex choose to mate with suitably coloured members of the other sex, thus driving the development of such colours
* warning, to signal that an animal is harmful, for example can sting, is poisonous or is bitter-tasting. Warning signals may be mimicked truthfully or untruthfully.
Evolution  |
Molar Absorptivity, ε = _A_ / c l
*  Colour tool 
*  Monochromatic colours 
*  black-and-white 
*  Complementary colours 
*  Analogous colours 
*  Achromatic colours (Neutral) 
*  Polychromatic colours 
*  Light-on-dark 
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** \- GENERAL ARTICLES -  **
> When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the 
> alpine ptarmigan  white in winter,
> the  red-grouse  the colour of heather, and
> the  black-grouse  that of peaty earth,
> we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects
> in preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed at some period of
> their lives, would increase in countless numbers; they are known to suffer
> largely from birds of prey; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey,
> so much so, that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep
> white pigeons, as being the most liable to destruction. Hence I can see no
> reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the
> proper colour to each kind of grouse, and in keeping that colour, when once
> acquired, true and constant.
>
> —  Charles Darwin  [4]
** [ MISCELLANY ](MiscellanyMain.html) **
*  Apex predator 
*  Bacterivore 
*  Carnivores 
*  Chemoorganotroph 
*  Foraging 
*  Generalist and specialist species 
*  Intraguild predation 
*  Herbivores 
*  Heterotroph 
*  Heterotrophic nutrition 
*  Insectivore 
*  Mesopredators 
*  Mesopredator release hypothesis 
*  Omnivores 
*  Optimal foraging theory 
*  Planktivore 
*  Predation 
*  Prey switching
####  Motion dazzle
Additive mixing occurs when beams of light are combined. The colour circle,
first devised by Newton, is still widely used for purposes of colour design
and is also useful when the qualitative behaviour of mixing beams of light is
considered. Newton’s colour circle  combines
 the spectral colours red, 
orange  , yellow,  green
 , cyan,  indigo
 , and blue-violet with the
nonspectral colour magenta (a mixture of blue-violet and red light beams), as
shown in the  figure  . White is at the centre and is produced by mixing light
beams of approximately equal intensities of   complementary colours
 (colours that are
diametrically opposed on the colour circle), such as yellow and blue-violet,
green and magenta, or cyan and red. Intermediate colours can be produced by
mixing light beams, so mixing red and yellow gives orange, red and blue-violet
gives magenta, and so on.
7 of History's Most Notorious Serial Killers
---|---
 Cultural differences  |
*  Tristimulus measurement and chromaticity diagrams 
*  Colour atlases
* distasteful, for example caterpillars, pupae and adults of the  cinnabar moth  , the  monarch  and the  variable checkerspot butterfly  [30]  have bitter-tasting chemicals in their blood. One monarch contains more than enough  digitalis  -like  toxin  to kill a cat, while a monarch extract makes  starlings  vomit.  [31]
* foul-smelling, for example the  skunk  can eject a liquid with a long-lasting and powerful odour  [32]
* aggressive and able to defend itself, for example  honey badgers  .  [33]
* venomous, for example a  wasp  can deliver a painful sting, while snakes like the  viper  "Viper \(animal\)") or  coral snake  can deliver a fatal bite.  [28]
π ** __  > ** π*
The
brilliant iridescent colours of the peacock's tail feathers are created by 
Structural coloration  .
 Butterfly wing at
different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as diffraction
grating.
Main articles:  Biological pigment  and  Seasonal camouflage
Abbott Handerson Thayer  's 1909 book _ Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
 _ , completed by his son Gerald H. Thayer, argued
correctly for the widespread use of  crypsis  among
animals, and in particular described and explained  countershading
 for the first time. However, the
Thayers spoilt their case by arguing that camouflage was the sole purpose of
animal coloration, which led them to claim that even the brilliant pink
plumage of the  flamingo  or the  roseate
spoonbill  was cryptic—against
the momentarily pink sky at dawn or dusk. As a result, the book was mocked by
critics including  Theodore Roosevelt  as having "pushed [the "doctrine" of concealing coloration] to
such a fantastic extreme and to include such wild absurdities as to call for
the application of common sense thereto."  [12]  [13]
* **Indigo:** 420 - 440 nm
A
_Euplokamis_  comb jelly  is  bioluminescent
 .
Main article:  Aposematism
#  Animal coloration
> The parts of the Feathers of this glorious Bird appear, through the
> Microscope, no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers; for, as to the naked
> eye 'tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the tail sends
> out multitudes of Lateral branches, ... so each of those threads in the
> Microscope appears a large long body, consisting of a multitude of bright
> reflecting parts.
>  ... their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated
> bodies, which are exceeding thin, and lie very close together, and thereby,
> like  mother of Pearl  shells, do not onely reflect a
> very brisk light, but tinge that light in a most curious manner; and by
> means of various positions, in respect of the light, they reflect back now
> one colour, and then another, and those most vividly. Now, that these
> colours are onely fantastical ones, that is, such as arise immediately from
> the refractions of the light, I found by this, that water wetting these
> colour'd parts, destroy'd their colours, which seem'd to proceed from the
> alteration of the reflection and refraction.
>
> —  Robert Hooke  [3]
Warning coloration of the  skunk  in  Edward Bagnall
Poulton  's _The
Colours of Animals_ , 1890
Fish
and frog melanophores are cells that can change colour by dispersing or
aggregating pigment-containing bodies.
Articles related to Animal coloration
Male  Goldie's bird-of-paradise  displays to a female
Colour
organisations  |
*  Chromesthesia 
*  Sonochromatism 
*  Colour blindness 
*  Achromatopsia 
*  Dichromacy 
*  Colour calibration 
*  Colour constancy 
*  Colour task 
*  Colour code 
*  Colour temperature 
*  Colour vision test 
*  Evolution of colour vision 
*  Impossible colours 
*  Metamerism  "Metamerism \(color\)")
*  Opponent process 
*  Afterimage 
*  Unique hues 
*  Tetrachromacy 
* _ The dress  _
__ Contents
Animal coloration has been a topic of interest and  research  in  biology  for centuries. In the 
classical era  ,  Aristotle
 recorded that the  octopus  was able to change its coloration to match its background, and when
it was alarmed.  [2]
*  Geography & Travel
---|---
 Shades of:  |
*  Red 
*  Orange 
*  Yellow 
*  Green 
*  Cyan 
*  Blue 
*  Violet 
*  Purple 
*  Magenta 
*  Pink 
*  Brown 
*  White 
*  Gray 
*  Black
The  hawk-cuckoo
 resembles a predatory 
shikra  , giving the cuckoo time
to lay eggs in a songbird's nest unnoticed
*  List of colours: A–F 
*  List of colours: G–M 
*  List of colours: N–Z 
*  List of colours (compact)  "List of colours \(compact\)")
*  List of colours by shade 
*  List of colour palettes 
*  List of colour spaces 
*  List of Crayola crayon colours 
*  history 
*  Colour chart 
*  List of RAL colours 
*  List of web colours
** You can also
post questions for
The Piedmont Naturalist
** |
*  Hue 
*  Dichromatism 
*  Colourfulness 
*  Pastel colours  "Pastel \(color\)")
*  Luminance 
*  Lightness 
*  Darkness 
*  Brightness 
*  Iridescence 
*  Fluorescence 
*  Grayscale 
*  Tint, shade and tone
Main article:  Structural coloration
###  Incidental coloration
Further information:  Biological pigment
Species
interaction  |
In _Roseate
Spoonbills_ 1905–1909,  Abbott Handerson Thayer
 tried to show that
even the bright pink of these conspicuous birds had a  cryptic
 function.
*  Albinism 
* Animal coloration
*  Aposematism 
*  Camouflage 
*  Chromatophore 
*  Counter-illumination 
*  Countershading 
*  Crypsis 
*  Deimatic behaviour 
*  Disruptive coloration 
*  coincident 
*  Eyespot (mimicry)  "Eyespot \(mimicry\)")
*  Mimicry 
*  Structural coloration 
*  Underwater camouflage
Outline of ecology
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Science & Tech
* **Green:** 490 - 570 nm
|   |  |
More Art and Colors Quiz
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Coloration  |
|   Colour scheme  |
Squid  chromatophores appear as black, brown, reddish and pink areas in this
micrograph.
Arts & Culture
* ** Batesian mimicry  ** , where an edible species resembles a distasteful or dangerous species. This is most common in insects such as  butterflies  . A familiar example is the resemblance of harmless  hoverflies  (which have no sting) to  bees  .
* ** Müllerian mimicry  ** , where two or more distasteful or dangerous animal species resemble each other. This is most common among insects such as  wasps  and bees (  hymenoptera  ).
*  Antibiosis 
*  Biological interaction 
*  Commensalism 
*  Community ecology  "Community \(ecology\)")
*  Ecological facilitation 
*  Interspecific competition 
*  Mutualism  "Mutualism \(biology\)")
*  Parasitism 
*  Storage effect 
*  Symbiosis
---
 Colour science  |
*  Assembly rules 
*  Bateman's principle 
*  Bioluminescence 
*  Ecological collapse 
*  Ecological debt 
*  Ecological deficit 
*  Ecological energetics  "Energy flow \(ecology\)")
*  Ecological indicator 
*  Ecological threshold 
*  Ecosystem diversity 
*  Emergence 
*  Extinction debt 
*  Kleiber's law 
*  Liebig's law of the minimum 
*  Marginal value theorem 
*  Thorson's rule 
*  Xerosere
Colours of the spectrum are called chromatic colours; there are also
nonchromatic colours such as the browns, magentas, and pinks. The term
_achromatic colours_ is sometimes applied to the black-gray-white sequence.
According to some estimates, the eye can distinguish some 10 million colours,
all of which derive from two types of light mixture: additive and subtractive.
As the names imply,   additive mixture
 involves the addition
of spectral components, and subtractive mixture concerns the subtraction or  
absorption  of parts
of the spectrum.
Robert Hooke  's _Micrographia_
* __  Colour and light
Further information:  Temperature regulation
Some frogs such as _ Bokermannohyla alvarengai
 _ , which basks
in sunlight, lighten their skin colour when hot (and darkens when cold),
making their skin reflect more heat and so avoid overheating.  [49]
*  Introduction
*  Abiotic component 
*  Abiotic stress 
*  Behaviour 
*  Biogeochemical cycle 
*  Biomass  "Biomass \(ecology\)")
*  Biotic component 
*  Biotic stress 
*  Carrying capacity 
*  Competition  "Competition \(biology\)")
*  Ecosystem 
*  Ecosystem ecology 
*  Ecosystem model 
*  Keystone species 
*  List of feeding behaviours 
*  Metabolic theory of ecology 
*  Productivity  "Productivity \(ecology\)")
*  Resource  "Resource \(biology\)")
*  Restoration
[ Return to Table of Contents ](../../Spectrpy/spectro.htm#contnt)
---
*  Evolution of the eye 
*  Evolution of color vision 
*  Evolution of color vision in primates
Who Invented the Internet?
A  venomous
  coral snake  uses
bright colours to warn off potential predators.