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Redundancy  

An important issue for coordinating the motor system is the problem of the
**redundancy** of motor degrees of freedom. As detailed in the "  Synergies  "
section, many actions and movements can be executed in multiple ways because
functional synergies controlling those actions are able to co-vary without
changing the outcome of the action. This is possible because there are more
motor components involved in the production of actions than are generally
required by the physical constraints on that action. For example, the human
arm has seven joints which determine the position of the hand in the world.
However, only three spatial dimensions are needed to specify any location the
hand could be placed in. This excess of kinematic degrees of freedom means
that there are multiple arm configurations that correspond to any particular
location of the hand.

Some of the earliest and most influential work on the study of motor
redundancy came from the Russian physiologist  Nikolai Bernstein
 . Bernstein's research was
primarily concerned with understanding how coordination was developed for
skilled actions. He observed that the redundancy of the motor system made it
possible to execute actions and movements in a multitude of different ways
while achieving equivalent outcomes.  [36]  This equivalency in motor action
means that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the desired movements
and the coordination of the motor system needed to execute those movements.
Any desired movement or action does not have a particular coordination of
neurons, muscles, and kinematics that make it possible. This motor equivalency
problem became known as the ** degrees of freedom problem
 ** because it
is a product of having redundant degrees of freedom available in the motor
system.
NEUROSCIENTIFICALLY CHALLENGED
##  What is the cerebellum and what does it do?
Response to stimuli  

The process of becoming aware of a sensory stimulus and using that information
to influence an action occurs in stages.  Reaction time  of simple tasks can be used to reveal information about these
stages. _Reaction time_ refers to the period of time between when the stimulus
is presented, and the end of the response. _Movement time_ is the time it
takes to complete the movement. Some of the first reaction time experiments
were carried out by  Franciscus Donders  , who used the difference in response times to a choice
task to determine the length of time needed to process the stimuli and choose
the correct response.  [20]  While this approach is ultimately flawed, it gave
rise to the idea that reaction time was made up of a stimulus identification,
followed by a response selection, and ultimately culminates in carrying out
the correct movement. Further research has provided evidence that these stages
do exist, but that the response selection period of any reaction time
increases as the number of available choices grows, a relationship known as 
Hick's law  .  [21]
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Basal ganglia

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Neural control of muscle force  

All movements, e.g. touching your nose, require  motor neurons
 to fire  action potentials
 that results in contraction of 
muscles  . In humans, ~150,000 motor neurons control
the contraction of ~600 muscles. To produce movements, a subset of 600 muscles
must contract in a temporally precise pattern to produce the right force at
the right time.  [6]
Behavioral dynamics  

Building on the assumptions of direct perception behavioral dynamics is a
behavioral control theory that treats perceptual organisms as dynamic systems
that respond to informational variables with actions, in a functional manner.
[48]  Under this understanding of behavior, actions unfold as the natural
consequence of the interaction between the organisms and the available
information about the environment, which specified in body-relevant variables.
Much of the research in behavioral dynamics has focused on locomotion, where
visually specified information (such as optic flow, time-to-contact, optical
expansion, etc.) is used to determine how to navigate the environment  [51]
[52]  Interaction forces between the human and the environment also affect
behavioral dynamics as seen in by the  Neural control of limb stiffness
 .
NEUROSCIENCE MADE SIMPLER
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Additional images  

* 

Basal ganglia highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images

* 

Basal ganglia highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images

* 

Basal ganglia highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images
Computational issues of motor control  

The nervous system produces movement by selecting which motor neurons are
activated, and when. The finding that a recruitment order exists within a
motor pool is thought to reflect a simplification of the problem: if a
particular muscle should produce a particular force, then activate the motor
pool along its recruitment hierarchy until that force is produced.

But then how to choose what force to produce in each muscle? The nervous
system faces the following issues in solving this problem.  [4]

1. Redundancy. Infinite trajectories of movements can accomplish a goal (e.g. touch my nose). How is a trajectory chosen? Which trajectory is best?
2. Noise. Noise is defined as small fluctuations that are unrelated to a signal, which can occur in neurons and synaptic connections at any point from sensation to muscle contraction.
3. Delays. Motor neuron activity precedes muscle contraction, which precedes the movement. Sensory signals also reflect events that have already occurred. Such delays affect the choice of motor program.
4. Uncertainty. Uncertainty arises because of neural noise, but also because inferences about the state of the world may not be correct (e.g. speed of on coming ball).
5. Nonstationarity. Even as a movement is being executed, the state of the world changes, even through such simple effects as reactive forces on the rest of the body,  causing translation of a joint while it is actuated  .
6. Nonlinearity. The effects of neural activity and muscle contraction are highly non-linear, which the nervous system must account for when predicting the consequences of a pattern of motor neuron activity.

Much ongoing research is dedicated to investigating how the nervous system
deals with these issues, both at the behavioral level, as well as how neural
circuits in the brain and spinal cord represent and deal with these factors to
produce the fluid movements we witness in animals.

"Optimal feedback control" is an influential theoretical framing of these
computation issues.  [9]
Working memory  

The basal ganglia has been proposed to gate what enters and what doesn't enter
 working memory  . One hypothesis
proposes that the direct pathway (Go, or excitatory) allows information into
the  PFC  , where it stays
independent of the pathway, however another theory proposes that in order for
information to stay in the PFC the direct pathway needs to continue
reverberating. The short indirect pathway has been proposed to, in a direct
push pull antagonism with the direct pathway, close the gate to the PFC.
Together these mechanisms regulate working memory focus.  [26]
Motor control

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Perception in motor control  

Related, yet distinct from the issue of how the _processing_ of sensory
information affects the control of movements and actions is the question of
how the perception of the world structures action.  Perception
 is extremely important in motor control
because it carries the relevant information about objects, environments and
bodies which is used in organizing and executing actions and movements. What
is perceived and how the subsequent information is used to organize the motor
system is an ongoing area of research.
*  A comparison of the ipsilateral cortical projections to the dorsal and ventral subdivisions of the macaque premotor cortex.
*  Motor areas in the frontal lobe of the primate.
Planning in motor control
Model based control strategies  

Most model based strategies of motor control rely on perceptual information,
but assume that this information is not always useful, veridical or constant.
Optical information is interrupted by eye blinks, motion is obstructed by
objects in the environment, distortions can change the appearance of object
shape. Model based and representational control strategies are those that rely
on accurate  internal models  of
the environment, constructed from a combination of perceptual information and
prior knowledge, as the primary source information for planning and executing
actions, even in the absence of perceptual information.  [44]
Role in motivation  

Extracellular dopamine in the basal ganglia has been linked to motivational
states in rodents, with high levels being linked to satiated state, medium
levels with seeking, and low with aversion. The limbic basal ganglia circuits
are influenced heavily by extracellular  dopamine  . Increased dopamine results in inhibition of the  Ventral
pallidum  , entopeduncular
nucleus, and  substantia nigra pars reticulata
 ,
resulting in disinhibition of the thalamus. This model of direct D1, and
indirect D2 pathways explain why selective agonists of each receptor are not
rewarding, as activity at both pathways is required for disinhibition. The
disinhibition of the thalamus leads to activation of the  prefrontal cortex
 and  ventral striatum
 , selective for increased D1
activity leading to reward.  [25]  There is also evidence from non-human
primate and human electrophysiology studies that other basal ganglia
structures including the globus pallidus internus and subthalamic nucleus are
involved in reward processing.  [33]  [34]
Clinical significance  

Main article:  Basal ganglia disease 

 Basal ganglia disease 
is a group of  movement disorders  that result from either excessive output from the basal ganglia to
the thalamus –  hypokinetic disorders  , or
from insufficient output –  hyperkinetic disorders  . Hypokinetic disorders arise from an excessive output from
the basal ganglia, which inhibits the output from the thalamus to the cortex,
and thus limits voluntary movement. Hyperkinetic disorders result from a low
output from the basal ganglia to the thalamus which gives not enough
inhibition to the thalamic projections to the cortex and thus gives
uncontrolled/involuntary movements. Dysfunction of the basal ganglia circuitry
can also lead to other disorders.  [38]

The following is a list of disorders, conditions, and symptoms that have been
linked to the basal ganglia:  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]

*  Addiction  [39]  [40]
*  Athetosis  [41]
*  Athymhormic syndrome  (  PAP syndrome  )
*  Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder  (ADHD)
*  Blepharospasm 
*  Bruxism 
*  Cerebral palsy  : basal ganglia damage during second and third trimester of pregnancy
*  Chorea  [41]
*  Dystonia  [41]  [42]
*  Epilepsy  [43]
*  Fahr's disease  [39]
*  Foreign accent syndrome  (FAS)
*  Huntington's disease  [39]  [42]
*  Kernicterus 
*  Lesch–Nyhan syndrome 
*  Major depressive disorder  [39]  [44]
*  Obsessive-compulsive disorder  [39]  [45]  [46]
* Other  anxiety disorders  [40]  [46]
*  PANDAS (disorder)  "PANDAS \(disorder\)")
*  Parkinson's disease  [39]  [42]
*  Restless legs syndrome 
*  Schizophrenia  [39]  [40]
*  Spasmodic dysphonia 
*  Stuttering  [47]
*  Sydenham's chorea 
*  Tardive dyskinesia  , caused by chronic  antipsychotic  treatment
*  Tourette's syndrome  [39]
*  Wilson's disease  [39]  [42]
Sensorimotor feedback
##  Where is the cerebellum?
Derek W. Yip  et al.
Inference and indirect perception  

Many models of the perceptual system assume  indirect perception
 , or the notion that the
world that gets perceived is not identical to the actual environment.
Environmental information must go through several stages before being
perceived, and the transitions between these stages introduce ambiguity. What
actually gets perceived is the mind's best guess about what is occurring in
the environment based on previous experience. Support for this idea comes from
the  Ames room  illusion, where a distorted
room causes the viewer to see objects known to be a constant size as growing
or shrinking as they move around the room. The room itself is seen as being
square, or at least consisting of right angles, as all previous rooms the
perceiver has encountered have had those properties. Another example of this
ambiguity comes from the  doctrine of specific nerve energies
 . The doctrine presents the finding that there are distinct nerve
types for different types of sensory input, and these nerves respond in a
characteristic way regardless of the method of stimulation. That is to say,
the color red causes optical nerves to fire in a specific pattern that is
processed by the brain as experiencing the color red. However, if that same
nerve is electrically stimulated in an identical pattern, the brain could
perceive the color red when no corresponding stimuli is present.
Some people may struggle to label their emotions, causing a sense of loss of
control. Instead of understanding your behaviors, you may react based on a
whim or a habit you developed early in life. By learning to label your
emotions, you may better understand their meaning and how to cope with them.
In addition, studies show that labeling your emotions can have  positive
mental health impacts
 .
####  Oct 20, 2023
####  Sep 11, 2023
External links  * Bechara, A.; Damasio, H.; Damasio, A. R. (March 2000).  "Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex"  . _Cereb. Cortex_ . **10** (3): 295–307.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :   10.1093/cercor/10.3.295  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  10731224  .

Retrieved from " 
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somatic_marker_hypothesis&oldid=1205286199

"

 Last edited on 9 February 2024, at 09:04
Emotions are not conscious. They are reactions produced in your body that
often arise from experiences, thoughts, and memories. There has been some
debate in research over the number of types of emotions. Some researchers have
found over  27 emotions
 . However, six
emotions are often cited as the most common, including the following:
Background  See also: [ Phineas Gage § Somatic marker hypothesis
](/wiki/Phineas_Gage
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Feelings happen in the mind and  are conscious
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30186-3/fulltext)
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Antonio Damasio  António Damásio

Main article:  Antonio Damasio 

Antonio Damasio (  Portuguese  : _António Damásio_ ) is a  Portuguese-American
  neuroscientist
 . He is currently the David Dornsife
Professor of Neuroscience, Psychology and Philosophy at the  University of
Southern California  and an adjunct professor at the  Salk Institute
 .  [7]  Damasio heads the  Brain and
Creativity Institute  , and has authored several books: his most recent work,
_Feeling and Knowing: Making Minds Conscious_ (2021), explores the
relationship between the brain, feelings and consciousness.  [8]  Damasio's
research in neuroscience has shown that emotions play a central role in social
cognition and decision-making.  [9]
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Application to risky behavior  The somatic marker hypothesis has been applied to trying to understand risky
behaviors, such as  risky sexual behavior  and drug addiction.

According to the hypothesis, riskier sexual behaviors are more exhilarating
and pleasurable, and therefore they are more likely to stimulate repetitive
engagement in such behaviors.  [15]  When this idea was tested in individuals
who were infected with  HIV  and were  substance dependent
 , differences were found
between persons who scored well in the Iowa gambling test, and those who
scored poorly. The high scorers showed a correlation between the amount of
distress they reported having over their HIV status, and their acceptance of
risk during sexual behavior – the greater the distress, the greater the risk
that these people would take. The low scorers, on the other hand, showed no
such correlation. These results were interpreted as indicating that persons
with intact decision-making abilities are better able to rely on past
emotional experiences when weighing risks, than are persons who are deficient
in such abilities, and that acceptance of risk serves to ameliorate emotional
distress.  [13]

Drug abusers are thought to ignore the negative consequences of addiction
while seeking drugs. According to the somatic marker hypothesis, such abusers
are impaired in their ability to recall and consider past unpleasant
experiences when weighing whether to consider drug seeking behaviors.  [16]
[17]  Researchers analyzed the  neuroendocrine  responses of substance-dependent individuals and healthy
individuals after being shown pleasant or unpleasant images. In response to
unpleasant images, drug users showed decreased levels of several
neuroendocrine markers, including  norepinephrine  ,  cortisol  , and 
adrenocorticotropic hormone  . Addicts showed lesser responses to both
pleasant and unpleasant images, suggesting that they may have a diminished
emotional response.  [18]   Neuroimaging 
studies utilizing fMRI indicate that drug-related stimuli have the ability to
activate brain regions involved in emotional evaluation and reward processing.
When shown a film of people smoking  cocaine  ,
cocaine users showed greater activation of the  anterior cingulate cortex
 , the right
inferior  parietal lobe  , and the 
caudate nucleus  than did non-users.
Conversely, the cocaine users showed lesser activation when viewing a sex film
than did non-users.  [19]
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Somatic marker hypothesis

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The **somatic marker hypothesis** , formulated by  Antonio Damasio
 and associated researchers,
proposes that  emotional  processes guide (or bias)
 behavior  , particularly decision-making.  [1]
[2]

 Somatic markers are probably
stored in the  ventromedial prefrontal cortex

(highlighted).

"Somatic markers" are feelings in the body that are associated with emotions,
such as the association of rapid heartbeat with  anxiety  or of  nausea  with  disgust
 . According to the hypothesis, somatic markers
strongly influence subsequent decision-making. Within the brain, somatic
markers are thought to be processed in the  ventromedial prefrontal cortex

(vmPFC) and the  amygdala  . The hypothesis has
been tested in experiments using the  Iowa gambling task
 .
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###  A few reasons why emotions are important!
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When you start paying attention to  how behavior impacts relationships
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