mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Certain animals, including  bats  and  cetaceans
 , have the ability to determine orientation to
other objects through interpretation of reflected sound (like  sonar
 ). They most often use this to navigate through poor
lighting conditions or to identify and track prey. There is currently an
uncertainty whether this is simply an extremely developed post-sensory
interpretation of auditory perceptions or it actually constitutes a separate
sense. Resolution of the issue will require brain scans of animals while they
actually perform echolocation, a task that has proven difficult in practice.
*  Photoreceptor cell 
*  Cone cell 
*  Rod cell 
*  ipRGC 
*  Photopigment 
*  Aureochrome
*  Anosmia 
*  Dysosmia 
*  Hyperosmia 
*  Hyposmia 
*  Olfactory reference syndrome 
*  Parosmia 
*  Phantosmia
####  Absolute threshold
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Main article:  Olfactory system
###  I'm Liz
###  External
###  Nervousness
*  Hyperalgesia 
*  Hypoalgesia 
*  Pain dissociation 
*  Phantom pain
*  Visual system (sense of vision) 
*  Auditory system (sense of hearing) 
*  Vestibular system (sense of balance) 
*  Olfactory system (sense of smell) 
*  Gustatory system (sense of taste) 
*  Somatosensory system (sense of touch)
Sensory modality refers to the way that information is encoded, which is
similar to the idea of  transduction 
"Transduction \(physiology\)") . The main sensory modalities can be described
on the basis of how each is transduced. Listing all the different sensory
modalities, which can number as many as 17, involves separating the major
senses into more specific categories, or submodalities, of the larger sense.
An individual sensory modality represents the sensation of a specific type of
stimulus. For example, the general sensation and perception of touch, which is
known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure,
vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement, while the general
sensation and perception of taste can be separated into submodalities of 
sweet  ,  salty  ,  sour
 ,  bitter  "Bitter \(taste\)") ,
spicy, and  umami  , all of which are based on
different chemicals binding to  sensory neurons  .  [16]
Sensory  cranial  and  spinal nerves
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Main article:  Auditory system
####  Auditory system (hearing)  ") ]
Main article:  Machine perception
Main article:  Sensory neuroscience
#  50 Things that Please the Senses
Home   /   Wellbeing
 /  50 Things that Please the
Senses
Subjective visual and auditory experiences appear to be similar across humans
subjects. The same cannot be said about taste. For example, there is a
molecule called  propylthiouracil  (PROP) that some humans experience as bitter, some as
almost tasteless, while others experience it as somewhere between tasteless
and bitter. There is a genetic basis for this difference between perception
given the same sensory stimulus. This subjective difference in taste
perception has implications for individuals' food preferences, and
consequently, health.  [6]
A  transmembrane protein  receptor is a protein in the  cell membrane  that mediates a physiological change in a neuron, most often
through the opening of  ion channels  or
changes in the  cell signaling 
processes. Transmembrane receptors are activated by chemicals called  ligands
 . For example, a molecule in food can serve as a
ligand for taste receptors. Other transmembrane proteins, which are not
accurately called receptors, are sensitive to mechanical or thermal changes.
Physical changes in these proteins increase ion flow across the membrane, and
can generate an  action potential  or a  graded potential  in the  sensory neurons 
.  [16]
Hygroreception  is the ability to
detect changes in the moisture content of the environment.  [9]  [75]
Low frequency vibrations are sensed by mechanoreceptors called  Merkel cells
 , also known as type I cutaneous
mechanoreceptors. Merkel cells are located in the  stratum basale
 of the  epidermis  . Deep pressure and vibration is transduced by lamellated ( 
Pacinian  ) corpuscles, which
are receptors with encapsulated endings found deep in the dermis, or
subcutaneous tissue. Light touch is transduced by the encapsulated endings
known as tactile (  Meissner 
) corpuscles. Follicles are also wrapped in a  plexus  of nerve endings known as the hair follicle plexus. These nerve
endings detect the movement of hair at the surface of the skin, such as when
an insect may be walking along the  skin  . Stretching of
the skin is transduced by stretch receptors known as  bulbous corpuscles
 . Bulbous corpuscles are also
known as Ruffini corpuscles, or type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors.  [16]
Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on taste. Humans
receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory
calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. Other tastes such
as calcium  [35]  [36]  and  free fatty acids  [37]  may also be basic tastes but have yet to receive
widespread acceptance. The inability to taste is called  ageusia
 .
####  Hygroreception
###  Fourier analysis
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Main article:  Absolute threshold
Sensation consists
of signal collection and transduction.
Wikiversity has learning resources about _** What is the sixth sense
 ** _
###  Receptors
#####  Cell type
Some examples of  human   absolute thresholds
 for the nine to 21  external
senses  .  [21]
Further information:  Five wits  ,  Āyatana
 , and  Indriya
Perceptions  |
####  Other
For news, information and upcoming extras!
The gustatory system or the sense of taste is the  sensory system
 that is partially responsible for the
perception of  taste (flavor)  .  [33]  A few
recognized  submodalities 
exist within taste:  sweet  ,  salty  ,  sour  ,  bitter 
"Bitter \(taste\)") , and  umami  . Very recent
research has suggested that there may also be a sixth taste submodality for
fats, or lipids.  [16]  The sense of taste is often confused with the
perception of flavor, which is the results of the  multimodal integration
 of gustatory (taste)
and olfactory (smell) sensations.  [34]
November 25, 2020 at 6:12 pm
Like the sense of taste, the sense of smell, or the olfactory system, is also
responsive to  chemical stimuli  .  [16]  Unlike taste, there are hundreds of  olfactory receptors
 (388 functional ones
according to one 2003 study  [40]  ), each binding to a particular molecular
feature.  Odor molecules  possess a variety of features
and, thus, excite specific receptors more or less strongly. This combination
of excitatory signals from different receptors makes up what humans perceive
as the molecule's smell.  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]
###  Thresholds
The visual system, or sense of sight, is based on the transduction of light
stimuli received through the eyes and contributes to  visual perception
 . The visual system detects 
light  on  photoreceptors  in the  retina  of each eye
that generates electrical  nerve impulses  for the perception of varying colors and brightness. There are two
types of photoreceptors:  rods  and  cones
 . Rods are very sensitive to light but do not
distinguish colors. Cones distinguish colors but are less sensitive to dim
light.  [16]
Number  |  Sense  |  Absolute threshold (obsolete system of signal detection
used)
---|---|---
1  |   Hearing  |  Ticking of a watch 6 m (20 ft)
away, in an otherwise silent environment
2  |   Vision  |  Stars at
night; candlelight 48 km (30 mi) away on a dark and clear night
3  |   Vestibular  |  Tilt of
less than 30 seconds (3 degrees) of a clock's minute hand
4  |   Smell  |  A drop of perfume in
a volume of the size of three rooms
5  |   Touch  |  A wing
of a fly falling on the cheek from a height of 7.6 cm (3 inches)
6  |   Taste  |  A teaspoon of sugar in 7.5 liters (2
gallons) of water
The  vestibular nerve  conducts
information from sensory receptors in three  ampulla  that sense motion of fluid in three  semicircular canals
 caused by three-dimensional
rotation of the head. The vestibular nerve also conducts information from the
 utricle  "Utricle \(ear\)") and the  saccule
 , which contain hair-like sensory receptors that
bend under the weight of  otoliths  (which are
small crystals of  calcium carbonate  ) that provide the inertia needed to detect head rotation, linear
acceleration, and the direction of gravitational force.
Addiction_and_dependence "Methylphenidate")
*  Nicotine 
*  Opioid 

---|---
 Behavioral  |

* Financial
*  Gambling 
*  Shopping 
*  Palatable food 
* Sex-related
*  Intercourse 
*  Pornography 
* Internet-related
*  Internet addiction disorder 
*  Internet sex addiction 
*  Video game addiction 
*  Digital media addictions 

Cellular
mechanisms  |

*  Transcriptional 
* **[ ΔFosB ](/wiki/FOSB
##  Plant sensation
####  Magnetoception
An example of smell in non-mammals is that of  sharks  , which combine their keen sense of smell with timing to determine
the direction of a smell. They follow the nostril that first detected the
smell.  [51]   Insects  have olfactory receptors on
their  antennae  "Antenna \(biology\)") . Although
it is unknown to the degree and magnitude which non-human mammals can smell
better than humans,  [52]  humans are known to have far fewer olfactory
receptors than  mice  , and humans have also accumulated
more  genetic mutations  in
their olfactory receptors than other primates.  [53]
Addiction  

Main article:  Addiction 

 ΔFosB  (DeltaFosB) – a  gene transcription
factor  – 
overexpression  in the  D1-type
  medium spiny neurons  of the  nucleus accumbens  is the _crucial_ common factor among virtually all forms
of addiction (i.e.,  behavioral addictions  and  drug addictions  ) that induces addiction-related behavior and  neural plasticity
 .  [6]  [59]  [60]  [61]  In
particular, ΔFosB promotes  self-administration  ,  reward sensitization  , and reward cross-sensitization effects among
specific addictive drugs and behaviors.  [6]  [59]  [60]  [62]  [63]  Certain
 epigenetic  modifications of  histone
 protein tails (i.e., histone modifications) in
specific regions of the brain are also known to play a crucial role in the
molecular basis of  addictions  .  [61]  [64]
[65]  [66]

 Addictive drugs  and  behaviors
 are rewarding and 
reinforcing  (i.e., are _addictive_ ) due to
their effects on the  dopamine reward pathway  .  [16]  [67]

The  lateral hypothalamus  and  medial forebrain bundle  has been the most-frequently-studied brain-
stimulation reward site, particularly in studies of the effects of drugs on
brain stimulation reward.  [68]  The neurotransmitter system that has been
most-clearly identified with the habit-forming actions of drugs-of-abuse is
the mesolimbic dopamine system, with its  efferent
 targets in the nucleus
accumbens and its local GABAergic  afferents
 . The reward-
relevant actions of amphetamine and cocaine are in the dopaminergic synapses
of the nucleus accumbens and perhaps the  medial prefrontal cortex
 . Rats also learn
to lever-press for cocaine injections into the medial prefrontal cortex, which
works by increasing dopamine turnover in the nucleus accumbens.  [69]  [70]
Nicotine infused directly into the nucleus accumbens also enhances local
dopamine release, presumably by a presynaptic action on the dopaminergic
terminals of this region. Nicotinic receptors localize to dopaminergic cell
bodies and local nicotine injections increase dopaminergic cell firing that is
critical for nicotinic reward.  [71]  [72]  Some additional habit-forming
drugs are also likely to decrease the output of  medium spiny neurons
 as a consequence, despite
activating dopaminergic projections. For opiates, the lowest-threshold site
for reward effects involves actions on GABAergic neurons in the  ventral
tegmental area  , a
secondary site of opiate-rewarding actions on medium spiny output neurons of
the nucleus accumbens. Thus the following form the core of currently
characterised drug-reward circuitry; GABAergic [ afferents
Wanting and liking  

Main article:  Incentive salience 

 Tuning of appetitive and
defensive reactions in the nucleus accumbens shell (above). AMPA blockade
requires D1 function in order to produce motivated behaviors, regardless of
valence, and D2 function to produce defensive behaviors. GABA agonism, on the
other hand, does not requires dopamine receptor function (below). The
expansion of the anatomical regions that produce defensive behaviors under
stress, and appetitive behaviors in the home environment produced by AMPA
antagonism. This flexibility is less evident with GABA agonism.  [27]

 Incentive salience  is the
"wanting" or "desire" attribute, which includes a motivational component, that
is assigned to a rewarding stimulus by the  nucleus accumbens shell
 (NAcc shell).  [1]
[41]  [42]  The degree of dopamine neurotransmission into the NAcc shell from
the  mesolimbic pathway  is
highly correlated with the magnitude of incentive salience for rewarding
stimuli.  [41]

Activation of the dorsorostral region of the nucleus accumbens correlates with
increases in wanting without concurrent increases in liking.  [43]  However,
dopaminergic neurotransmission into the nucleus accumbens shell is responsible
not only for appetitive  motivational salience  (i.e., incentive salience) towards rewarding stimuli,
but also for aversive motivational salience, which directs behavior away from
undesirable stimuli.  [12]  [44]  [45]  In the dorsal striatum, activation of
D1 expressing MSNs produces appetitive incentive salience, while activation of
D2 expressing MSNs produces aversion. In the NAcc, such a dichotomy is not as
clear cut, and activation of both D1 and D2 MSNs is sufficient to enhance
motivation,  [46]  [47]  likely via disinhibiting the VTA through inhibiting
the ventral pallidum.  [48]  [49]

Robinson and Berridge's 1993 incentive-sensitization theory proposed that
_reward_ contains separable psychological components: wanting (incentive) and
liking (pleasure). To explain increasing contact with a certain stimulus such
as chocolate, there are two independent factors at work – our desire to have
the chocolate (wanting) and the pleasure effect of the chocolate (liking).
According to Robinson and Berridge, wanting and liking are two aspects of the
same process, so rewards are usually wanted and liked to the same degree.
However, wanting and liking also change independently under certain
circumstances. For example, rats that do not eat after receiving dopamine
(experiencing a loss of desire for food) act as though they still like food.
In another example, activated self-stimulation electrodes in the lateral
hypothalamus of rats increase appetite, but also cause more adverse reactions
to tastes such as sugar and salt; apparently, the stimulation increases
wanting but not liking. Such results demonstrate that the reward system of
rats includes independent processes of wanting and liking. The wanting
component is thought to be controlled by  dopaminergic pathways
 , whereas the liking
component is thought to be controlled by opiate-GABA-endocannabinoids systems.
[8]
###  Regret
However, plants can perceive the world around them,  [13]  and might be able
to emit airborne sounds similar to "screaming" when  stressed
 "Stress \(biology\)") . Those noises could not be
detectable by human ears, but organisms with a  hearing range
 that can hear  ultrasonic frequencies
 —like mice, bats or perhaps other
plants—could hear the plants' cries from as far as 15 feet (4.6 m) away.  [80]
###  Sensory organs
This section may **require cleanup  ** to meet Wikipedia's  quality standards
 . The specific
problem is: **This section may contain original research. Additional citations
are needed.** Please help  improve this section
 if you can.  _( March
2020  ) _ _(  Learn how and when to remove this template message

) _
Cerebral cortices  |
* .jpg "Detail of The Senses of Hearing, Touch and Taste, Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1618")
Main article:  Signal detection theory
###  Pity
Further reading suggestions include  7 Ways to Think Differently
 by Looby
MacNamara,  Walking with Trees  by Glennie Kindred and  The Little Pocketbook of Mindfulness
 by Anna Black.
1.  ** Cherie Kemp  ** says:
Artificial  |
####  Echolocation
###  Sensory modalities
###  Rejection
###  Subscribe to our Newsletter
Main article:  Sensory nervous system
Main article:  Vestibular system
##  Movie clips
|   External  |
Main article:  Plant perception (physiology)
 "Plant perception \(physiology\)")
Two types of somatosensory signals that are transduced by  free nerve endings
 are pain and temperature. These
two modalities use  thermoreceptors 
and  nociceptors  to transduce temperature
and pain stimuli, respectively. Temperature receptors are stimulated when
local temperatures differ from  body temperature  . Some thermoreceptors are sensitive to just cold and
others to just heat. Nociception is the sensation of potentially damaging
stimuli. Mechanical, chemical, or thermal stimuli beyond a set threshold will
elicit painful sensations. Stressed or damaged tissues release chemicals that
activate receptor proteins in the nociceptors. For example, the sensation of
heat associated with spicy foods involves  capsaicin  , the active molecule in hot peppers.  [16]
###  Hope
The sense of smell.
Bequest of  Mrs E.G. Elgar  , 1945 
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
 .
###  Shock
On February 14, 2013, researchers developed a  neural implant
 that gives  rats 
the ability to sense  infrared  light which for
the first time provides  living creatures  with new abilities, instead of simply replacing or augmenting
existing abilities.  [23]
Anti-reward system  

Koobs & Le Moal proposed that there exists a separate circuit responsible for
the attenuation of reward-pursuing behavior, which they termed the anti-reward
circuit. This component acts as brakes on the reward circuit, thus preventing
the over pursuit of food, sex, etc. This circuit involves multiple parts of
the amygdala (the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the central nucleus),
the Nucleus Accumbens, and signal molecules including norepinephrine,
corticotropin-releasing factor, and dynorphin.  [50]  This circuit is also
hypothesized to mediate the unpleasant components of stress, and is thus
thought to be involved in addiction and withdrawal. While the reward circuit
mediates the initial positive reinforcement involved in the development of
addiction, it is the anti-reward circuit that later dominates via negative
reinforcement that motivates the pursuit of the rewarding stimuli.  [51]
---|---
 Sensory systems  |
###  Insecurity
###  Positive surprise
####  Sensory nervous system
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder  

In those with  ADHD  , core aspects of the reward system
are underactive, making it challenging to derive reward from regular
activities. Those with the disorder experience a boost of motivation after a
high-stimulation behaviour triggers a release of dopamine. In the aftermath of
that boost and reward, the return to baseline levels results in an immediate
drop in motivation.  [90]

Impairments of  dopaminergic  and  serotonergic
 function are said to be key factors in ADHD.
[91]  These impairments can lead to  executive dysfunction
 such as dysregulation
of reward processing and motivational dysfunction, including anhedonia.  [92]
---|---
 Plant  "Plant perception
\(physiology\)") |
###  Startle
###  Distrust
###  Moved
Cephalopods  have the ability to change
color using  chromatophores  in their
skin. Researchers believe that  opsins  in the skin can
sense different wavelengths of light and help the creatures choose a
coloration that camouflages them, in addition to light input from the eyes.
[60]  Other researchers hypothesize that  cephalopod eyes
 in species which only have a single 
photoreceptor protein 
may use  chromatic aberration  to turn monochromatic vision into color vision,  [61]  explaining
pupils shaped like the letter U, the letter W, or a  dumbbell
 , as well as explaining the need for colorful
mating displays.  [62]  Some cephalopods can distinguish the polarization of
light.
##  One Comment
Body modification  enthusiasts
have experimented with magnetic implants to attempt to replicate this sense.
[74]  However, in general humans (and it is presumed other mammals) can detect
electric fields only indirectly by detecting the effect they have on hairs. An
electrically charged balloon, for instance, will exert a force on human arm
hairs, which can be felt through tactition and identified as coming from a
static charge (and not from wind or the like). This is not electroreception,
as it is a post-sensory cognitive action.
*  Astereognosis 
*  CMT disease 
*  Formication 
*  Hyperesthesia 
*  Hypoesthesia 
*  Paresthesia 
*  Tactile hallucination
( **Disclosure.** Some of these are affiliate links. In other words, if you
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“That smells great.”
“Look at that, so beautiful!”
Detail of _The Senses of Hearing, Touch and Taste_ ,  Jan Brueghel the Elder
 , 1618
Overview  

The brain structures that compose the reward system are located primarily
within the  cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop  ;  [13]  the  basal ganglia 
portion of the loop drives activity within the reward system.  [13]  Most of
the pathways that connect structures within the reward system are 
glutamatergic   interneurons
 ,  GABAergic   medium spiny neurons  (MSNs), and  dopaminergic  
projection neurons  ,  [13]
[14]  although other types of projection neurons contribute (e.g., 
orexinergic  projection neurons). The reward
system includes the  ventral tegmental area  ,  ventral striatum  (i.e., the  nucleus accumbens  and  olfactory tubercle  ),  dorsal striatum  (i.e., the  caudate nucleus  and  putamen  ),  substantia nigra
 (i.e., the  pars compacta
 and  pars reticulata
 ),  prefrontal cortex
 ,  anterior cingulate cortex
 ,  insular
cortex  ,  hippocampus
 ,  hypothalamus  (particularly, the  orexinergic  nucleus in the  lateral hypothalamus
 ),  thalamus
 (multiple nuclei),  subthalamic nucleus
 ,  globus pallidus
 (both  external
 and  internal
 ),  ventral
pallidum  ,  parabrachial nucleus
 ,  amygdala
 , and the remainder of the  extended amygdala
 .  [2]  [13]  [15]  [16]  [17]
The  dorsal raphe nucleus  and  cerebellum  appear to modulate
some forms of reward-related cognition (i.e.,  associative learning
 ,  motivational salience
 , and  positive
emotions  ) and behaviors
as well.  [18]  [19]  [20]  The  laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT)
 , 
pedunculopontine nucleus (PPTg)  , and  lateral habenula (LHb)  (both directly and indirectly via the  rostromedial tegmental
nucleus (RMTg)  ) are also capable of inducing  aversive salience
 and  incentive salience
 through their projections to
the ventral tegmental area (VTA).  [21]  The LDT and PPTg both send
glutaminergic projections to the VTA that synapse on dopaminergic neurons,
"CREB") , and increasing cellular excitability via inhibiting  Kv4.2
 [56]  [57]  [58]
###  Sensory adaptation
####  Vision
###  Sensory pleasure
Main article:  Gestalt psychology
##  Artificial sensation and perception
Reward system

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