mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
*  Anthropocentric thinking  , the tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, biological phenomena.  [21]
*  Anthropomorphism  is characterization of animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing human traits, emotions, or intentions.  [22]  The opposite bias, of not attributing feelings or thoughts to another person, is  dehumanised perception  ,  [23]  a type of  objectification  .
*  Attentional bias  , the tendency of perception to be affected by recurring thoughts.  [24]
*  Frequency illusion  or  Baader–Meinhof phenomenon  . The frequency illusion is that once something has been noticed then every instance of that thing is noticed, leading to the belief it has a high frequency of occurrence (a form of  selection bias  ).  [25]  The Baader–Meinhof phenomenon is the illusion where something that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards.  [26]  [27]  It was named after an incidence of frequency illusion in which the  Baader–Meinhof Group  was mentioned.  [28]
*  Implicit association  , where the speed with which people can match words depends on how closely they are associated.
*  Salience bias  , the tendency to focus on items that are more prominent or emotionally striking and ignore those that are unremarkable, even though this difference is often irrelevant by objective standards. See also  von Restorff effect  .
*  Selection bias  , which happens when the members of a  statistical sample  "Sample \(statistics\)") are not chosen completely at random, which leads to the sample not being representative of the population.
*  Survivorship bias  , which is concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that did not because of their lack of visibility.
*  Well travelled road effect  , the tendency to underestimate the duration taken to traverse oft-travelled routes and overestimate the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.
*  Dunning–Kruger effect  , the tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability.  [77]
*  Hot-cold empathy gap  , the tendency to underestimate the influence of  visceral drives  on one's attitudes, preferences, and behaviors.  [78]
*  Hard–easy effect  , the tendency to overestimate one's ability to accomplish hard tasks, and underestimate one's ability to accomplish easy tasks.  [5]  [79]  [80]  [81]
*  Illusion of explanatory depth  , the tendency to believe that one understands a topic much better than one actually does.  [82]  [83]  The effect is strongest for explanatory knowledge, whereas people tend to be better at self-assessments for procedural, narrative, or factual knowledge.  [83]  [84]
*  Impostor Syndrome  , a psychological occurrence in which an individual doubts their skills, talents, or accomplishments and has a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a fraud. Also known as impostor phenomenon.  [85]
*  Objectivity illusion ") , the phenomena where people tend to believe that they are more objective and unbiased than others. This bias can apply to itself – where people are able to see when others are affected by the objectivity illusion, but unable to see it in themselves. See also _ bias blind spot  . _ [86]
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*  Normalcy bias  , a form of  cognitive dissonance  , is the refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.
*  Effort justification  is a person's tendency to attribute greater value to an outcome if they had to put effort into achieving it. This can result in more value being applied to an outcome than it actually has. An example of this is the  IKEA effect  , the tendency for people to place a disproportionately high value on objects that they partially assembled themselves, such as furniture from  IKEA  , regardless of the quality of the end product.  [29]
*  Ben Franklin effect  , where a person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had _received_ a favor from that person.  [30]
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Name  |  Description
---|---
 Assumed similarity bias
") |  Where an individual assumes that
others have more traits in common with them than those others actually do.
[141]
 Outgroup favoritism  |
When some socially disadvantaged groups will express favorable attitudes (and
even preferences) toward social, cultural, or ethnic groups other than their
own.  [142]
 Pygmalion effect  |  The
phenomenon whereby others' expectations of a target person affect the target
person's performance.
 Reactance  "Reactance \(psychology\)") |
The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants one to do out of a need to
resist a perceived attempt to constrain one's freedom of choice (see also 
Reverse psychology  ).
 Reactive devaluation  |
Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an
adversary.
 Social comparison bias  |  The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates
who do not compete with one's own particular strengths.  [143]
 Shared information bias  |  The tendency for group members to spend more time and energy
discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e.,
shared information), and less time and energy discussing information that only
some members are aware of (i.e., unshared information).  [144]
 Worse-than-average effect  |  A tendency to believe ourselves to be worse than others at
tasks which are difficult.  [145]
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*  Authority bias  , the tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.  [126]
*  Cheerleader effect  , the tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation.  [127]
*  Halo effect  , the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one personality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also  physical attractiveness stereotype  ).  [128]
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Main article:  Fallacy
*  Not invented here  , an aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group.
*  Outgroup homogeneity bias  , where individuals see members of other groups as being relatively less varied than members of their own group.  [140]
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##   Speak This Not That
Attribution bias includes:
*  Backfire effect  , a tendency to react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs.  [32]
*  Congruence bias  , the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of testing possible alternative hypotheses.  [12]
*  Experimenter's  or  expectation bias  , the tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations.  [33]
*  Observer-expectancy effect  , when a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also  subject-expectancy effect  ).
*  Selective perception  , the tendency for expectations to affect perception.
*  Semmelweis reflex  , the tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.  [15]
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*  Abilene paradox  – False consensus due to communication failure
*  Affective forecasting  – Predicting someone's future emotions (affect)
*  Anecdotal evidence  – Evidence relying on personal testimony
*  Attribution (psychology)  "Attribution \(psychology\)") – The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events
*  Black swan theory  – Theory of response to surprise events
*  Chronostasis  – Distortion in the perception of time
*  Cognitive distortion  – Exaggerated or irrational thought pattern
*  Defence mechanism  – Unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from negative stimuli
*  Dysrationalia  – Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence
*  Fear, uncertainty, and doubt  – Tactic used to influence opinion
*  Heuristics in judgment and decision making  – Simple strategies or mental processes involved in making quick decisions  Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
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*  List of common misconceptions 
*  List of fallacies  – List of faulty argument types
*  List of maladaptive schemas  – List on psychotherapy topic
*  List of psychological effects 
*  Media bias  – Bias within the mass media
*  Mind projection fallacy  – Informal fallacy that the way one sees the world reflects the way the world really is
*  Motivated reasoning  – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions
*  Observational error  , also known as Systematic bias – Difference between a measured value of a quantity and its true value
*  Outline of public relations  – Overview of and topical guide to public relations
*  Outline of thought  – Overview of and topical guide to thought
*  Pollyanna principle  – Tendency to remember pleasant things better
*  Positive feedback  – Feedback loop that increases an initial small effect
*  Propaganda  – Communication used to influence opinion
*  Publication bias  – Higher probability of publishing results showing a significant finding
*  Recall bias  – Type of cognitive bias
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* _ Thinking, Fast and Slow  – 2011 book by Daniel Kahneman _
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Main article:  Framing effect (psychology)
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###  Framing effect
In  psychology  , the  misattribution of
memory  or source
misattribution is the misidentification of the origin of a  memory
 by the person making the  memory recall
 "Recall \(memory\)") . Misattribution is likely to
occur when individuals are unable to monitor and control the influence of
their attitudes, toward their judgments, at the time of retrieval.  [146]
Misattribution is divided into three components:  cryptomnesia
 ,  false memories  , and  source confusion  . It was originally noted as one of  Daniel
Schacter  's  seven sins of memory
 .  [147]
*  Availability cascade  , a self-reinforcing process in which a  collective belief  gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true").  [134]  See also  availability heuristic  .
*  Bandwagon effect  , the tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to  groupthink  and  herd behavior  .  [135]
*  Courtesy bias  , the tendency to give an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true opinion, so as to avoid offending anyone.  [136]
*  Groupthink  , the psychological  phenomenon  that occurs within a  group of people  in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional  decision-making  outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without  critical evaluation  of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences.
*  Groupshift  , the tendency for decisions to be more risk-seeking or risk-averse than the group as a whole, if the group is already biased in that direction
*  Social desirability bias  , the tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours.  [137]  See also:  § Courtesy bias  .
*  Truth bias  is people's inclination towards believing, to some degree, the communication of another person, regardless of whether or not that person is actually lying or being untruthful.  [138]  [139]
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*  Actor-observer bias  , the tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (see also  Fundamental attribution error  ), and for explanations of one's own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality).
*  Defensive attribution hypothesis  , a tendency to attribute more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational  similarity #Social_psychological_approaches "Similarity \(psychology\)") to the victim increases.
*  Extrinsic incentives bias  , an exception to the _fundamental attribution error_ , where people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself
*  Fundamental attribution error  , the tendency for people to overemphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior  [115]  (see also actor-observer bias,  group attribution error  , positivity effect, and  negativity effect  ).  [129]
*  Group attribution error  , the biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.
*  Hostile attribution bias  , the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.  [130]
*  Intentionality bias ") , the tendency to judge human action to be intentional rather than accidental.  [131]
*  Just-world hypothesis  , the tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).
*  Moral luck  , the tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.
*  Puritanical bias  , the tendency to attribute cause of an undesirable outcome or wrongdoing by an individual to a moral deficiency or lack of self-control rather than taking into account the impact of broader societal determinants .  [132]
*  Self-serving bias  , the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (see also  group-serving bias  ).  [133]
*  Ultimate attribution error  , similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the group.
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For common errors in  logic  , see  List of fallacies
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#  List of cognitive biases
*  Contrast effect  , the enhancement or reduction of a certain stimulus's perception when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object.  [57]
*  Decoy effect  , where preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is completely dominated by option B (inferior in all respects) and partially dominated by option A.  [58]
*  Default effect  , the tendency to favor the default option when given a choice between several options.  [59]
*  Denomination effect  , the tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g., coins) rather than large amounts (e.g., bills).  [60]
*  Distinction bias  , the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.  [61]
*  Domain neglect bias ") , the tendency to neglect relevant domain knowledge while solving interdisciplinary problems.  [62]
*  Context neglect bias ") , the tendency to neglect the human context of technological challenges  [63]
In  psychology  and  cognitive science
 , a memory bias is a 
cognitive bias  that either enhances
or impairs the recall of a  memory  (either the
chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it
takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a
reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including:
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Cognitive biases  are systematic
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*  Common source bias  , the tendency to combine or compare research studies from the same source, or from sources that use the same methodologies or data.  [13]
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