mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Theoretical assumptions (philosophy)  ") ]

Kohlberg's stages of moral development are based on the assumption that humans
are inherently communicative, capable of reason and possess a desire to
understand others and the world around them. The stages of this model relate
to the qualitative moral _reasonings_ adopted by individuals and do not
translate directly into praise or blame of any individual's actions or
character. Arguing that his theory measures moral reasoning and not particular
moral conclusions, Kohlberg insists that the _form and structure_ of moral
arguments is independent of the _content_ of those arguments, a position he
calls "  formalism  "Formalism
\(philosophy\)") ".  [2]  [9]

Kohlberg's theory follows the notion that justice is the essential
characteristic of moral reasoning. Justice itself relies heavily upon the
notion of sound reasoning based on principles. Despite being a justice-
centered theory of morality, Kohlberg considered it to be compatible with
plausible formulations of  deontology  [21]  and  eudaimonia  .

Kohlberg's theory understands values as a critical component of "the right".
Whatever the right is, for Kohlberg, it must be universally valid among
societies (a position known as "  moral universalism
 "):  [9]  there can be no 
relativism  . Morals are not
natural features of the world; they are  prescriptive  . Nevertheless, moral judgments can be evaluated in logical
terms of truth and falsity.

According to Kohlberg, someone progressing to a higher stage of moral
reasoning cannot skip stages. For example, an individual cannot jump from
being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to being a proponent
of social contracts (stage five).  [17]  On encountering a moral dilemma and
finding their current level of moral reasoning unsatisfactory, an individual
will look to the next level. Realizing the limitations of the current stage of
thinking is the driving force behind moral development, as each progressive
stage is more adequate than the last.  [17]  The process is therefore
considered to be constructive, as it is initiated by the conscious
construction of the individual and is not in any meaningful sense a component
of the individual's innate dispositions or a result of past inductions.
Examples of applied moral dilemmas  

Kohlberg established the _Moral Judgement Interview_ in his original 1958
dissertation.  [7]  During the roughly 45-minute tape recorded  semi-
structured interview  ,
the interviewer uses moral dilemmas to determine which stage of moral
reasoning a person uses. The dilemmas are fictional short stories that
describe situations in which a person has to make a moral decision. The
participant is asked a systemic series of  open-ended questions  , like what they think the right course
of action is, as well as justifications as to why certain actions are right or
wrong. The form and structure of these replies are scored and not the content;
over a set of multiple moral dilemmas an overall score is derived.  [7]  [11]

A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the  druggist's
dilemma  : _Heinz Steals the Drug In
Europe._ Other stories on moral dilemma that Kohlberg used in his research
were about two young men trying to skip town, both steal money to leave town
but the question then becomes whose crime was worse out of the two. A boy,
Joe, saving up money for camp and must decide whether to use his money for
camp or give it to his father who wants to use the money to go on a trip with
his friends. And a story about Judy and Louise, two sisters, and whether
Louise should tell their mother the truth about Judy telling a lie to their
mother, that she didn't have money to spend on clothes because she went to a
concert.  [8]
###  1.1 Defining “Moral Reasoning”
David Perry QC
TAKE THE FREE QUIZ
##  Academic Tools
Two-way communication  

Graphical abstract of "Real-time dialogue between experimenters and dreamers
during REM sleep"

Teams of cognitive scientists have established real-time two-way communication
with people undergoing a lucid dream. During dreaming they were able to
consciously communicate with experimenters via eye movements or facial muscle
signals, were able to comprehend complex questions and use working memory.
Such interactive lucid dreaming could be a new approach for the scientific
exploration of the dream state and could have applications for learning and
creativity.  [45]  [46]  [47]  [48]  Researchers have also demonstrated that
individuals in a lucid dream can control and respond to feedback within a
virtual environment.  [49]
#  What Are the Health Benefits of Dreaming?
---
Stages of  sleep cycles  |

*  Rapid eye movement (REM) 
*  Quiescent sleep 
*  Slow-wave 

 Brain waves  |

*  Alpha wave 
*  Beta wave 
*  Delta wave 
*  Gamma wave 
*  K-complex 
*  Mu rhythm 
*  PGO waves 
*  Sensorimotor rhythm 
*  Sleep spindle 
*  Theta wave 

 Sleep disorders  |

|   Anatomical  |

*  Bruxism 
*  Mouth breathing 
*  Sleep apnea 
*  Catathrenia 
*  Central hypoventilation syndrome 
*  Obesity hypoventilation syndrome 
*  Obstructive sleep apnea 
*  Periodic breathing 
*  Snoring 

---|---
 Dyssomnia  |

*  Excessive daytime sleepiness 
*  Hypersomnia 
*  Insomnia 
*  Kleine–Levin syndrome 
*  Narcolepsy 
*  Night eating syndrome 
*  Nocturia 
*  Sleep state misperception 

 Circadian rhythm
disorders
* ###  Take the Awe Quiz
*  v  
*  t  
*  e  

 Sigmund Freud 

---
Books  |

* _ On Aphasia  _ (1891)
* _ Studies on Hysteria  _ (1895)
*  _The Interpretation of Dreams_ (including _On Dreams_ )   (1899)
* _ The Psychopathology of Everyday Life  _ (1901)
* _ Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious  _ (1905)
* _ Totem and Taboo  _ (1913)
* _ Introduction to Psychoanalysis  _ (1916–17)
* _ The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement  _ (1917)
* _ Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego  _ (1921)
* _ The Ego and the Id  _ (1923)
* _ The Question of Lay Analysis  _ (1926)
* _ The Future of an Illusion  _ (1927)
* _ Civilization and Its Discontents  _ (1930)
* _ Moses and Monotheism  _ (1939)

Essays  |

* "  The Aetiology of Hysteria  " (1896)
* _ Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality  _ (1905)
* _ Delusion and Dream in Jensen's Gradiva  _ (1907)
* _ Creative Writers and Day-Dreaming  _ (1908)
* _ Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood  _ (1910)
* _ On Narcissism  _ (1914)
* _ The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement  _ (1914)
*  Some Character-Types Met with in Psycho-Analytic Work  (1915)
* _ Thoughts for the Times on War and Death  _ (1916)
* _ Mourning and Melancholia  _ (1918)
* _ Beyond the Pleasure Principle  _ (1920)
*  Medusa's Head  (1922)
* _ Dostoevsky and Parricide  _ (1928)

Case studies  |

*  "Dora"  (Ida Bauer)   "Dora \(case study\)")
*  Emma Eckstein 
*  Herbert Graf  ("Little Hans")  
*  Irma's injection 
*  "Anna O."  (  Bertha Pappenheim  )
*  "Rat Man" 
*  Sergei Pankejeff  ("Wolfman")  
*  Daniel Paul Schreber 

Original
concepts  |
*  Videos
Dreaming improves creative problem solving, too, according to  another study
 . Participants learned to
navigate a virtual maze using trial and error and aided by the placement of
unique objects—like Christmas trees—at certain junctions in the maze. After
this learning session, the group was split in two, with half napping and half
watching a video for 90 minutes. Nappers were occasionally awoken to ask about
the content of their dreams; those watching a video were also asked about
thoughts going through their minds.
Much of this I outline in my new book,  _Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of
Sleep and Dreams_

, which summarizes the many findings we have about sleep and its function in
our lives.
*  ** Tired Working Mother Sleep Saga  ** By  Christine Carter 
April 14, 2010
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_Medically Reviewed on 5/4/2022  _
* _ Print  _
*  _ Bookmark  _
*  Purpose in Life 
*  Happiness at Work 
*  Social Capital 
*  Connection to Humanity 
*  Altruism 
*  Gratitude 
*  Emotional Intelligence 
*  MORE...
###  MEET THE GREATER GOOD TOOLKIT FOR KIDS
**Dreams are stories and images that our minds conjure up as we sleep
 ** . They may be rather
vibrant and have the power to make you happy, sad, or afraid. Sometimes, they
may appear puzzling or totally sensible. Most of the time, recalling or
remembering the dreams the next day is highly unlikely, yet everyone does
dream.
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Treating nightmares  

It has been suggested that those who suffer from  nightmares
 could benefit from the ability to be aware they
are indeed dreaming. A pilot study performed in 2006 showed that lucid
dreaming therapy treatment was successful in reducing nightmare frequency.
This treatment consisted of exposure to the idea, mastery of the technique,
and lucidity exercises. It was not clear what aspects of the treatment were
responsible for the success of overcoming nightmares, though the treatment as
a whole was said to be successful.  [59]

Australian psychologist Milan Colic has explored the application of principles
from  narrative therapy  to
clients' lucid dreams, to reduce the impact not only of nightmares during
sleep but also depression, self-mutilation, and other problems in waking life.
[60]  Colic found that therapeutic conversations could reduce the distressing
content of dreams, while understandings about life—and even characters—from
lucid dreams could be applied to their lives with marked therapeutic benefits.
[61]

Psychotherapists have applied lucid dreaming as a part of therapy. Studies
have shown that, by inducing a lucid dream, recurrent nightmares can be
alleviated. It is unclear whether this alleviation is due to lucidity or the
ability to alter the dream itself. A 2006 study performed by Victor Spoormaker
and Van den Bout evaluated the validity of lucid dreaming treatment (LDT) in
chronic nightmare sufferers.  [62]  LDT is composed of exposure, mastery and
lucidity exercises. Results of lucid dreaming treatment revealed that the
nightmare frequency of the treatment groups had decreased. In another study,
Spoormaker, Van den Bout, and Meijer (2003) investigated lucid dreaming
treatment for nightmares by testing eight subjects who received a one-hour
individual session, which consisted of lucid dreaming exercises.  [63]  The
results of the study revealed that the nightmare frequency had decreased and
the sleep quality had slightly increased.

Holzinger, Klösch, and Saletu managed a psychotherapy study under the working
name of ‘Cognition during dreaming—a therapeutic intervention in nightmares’,
which included 40 subjects, men and women, 18–50 years old, whose life quality
was significantly altered by nightmares.  [64]  The test subjects were
administered Gestalt group therapy and 24 of them were also taught to enter
the state of lucid dreaming by Holzinger. This was purposefully taught in
order to change the course of their nightmares. The subjects then reported the
diminishment of their nightmare prevalence from 2–3 times a week to 2–3 times
per month.
#####  You May Also Enjoy
―Dr. Matthew Walker
|   Oneiromancy  |

*  Spirit spouse 
*  Dream guide 
*  Oneironautics 
*  Psychonautics 
*  Yoga nidra  /  Dream yoga 

---|---
 Dream interpretation  |

*  Psychoanalytic dream interpretation 
*  Embodied imagination 
*  Guided imagery 
*  Dream dictionary 

 Cognitive neuroscience of dreams  |

*  Thought recording and reproduction device 
*  Activation-synthesis hypothesis 
*  Sleep medicine 

 Dreamwork  |

*  Dream art 
*  Dream diary 
*  Dream incubation 
*  Dream sharing 

 Sleep induction  |

*  Lullaby 
*  Hypnosis 
*  Oneirogen 

Ancient books  |

* _ On Dreams  _
* _ Oneirocritica  _
* _ Interpretation of Dreams  "Interpretation of Dreams \(Antiphon\)") _

*  v  
*  t  
*  e  

 Sleep  and  sleep disorders
####  Sleep Quiz
632: Lucid Dreaming" ](https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4632) . _ Skeptoid
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#####   Greater Good
wants to know: Do you think this article will influence your opinions or
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#####  About the Author
Images: Getty
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2 MIN READ
Keep Up with the GGSC Happiness Calendar  Be a force for good this month
Dreams can occur at any time while sleeping. However, your most vivid dreams
occur during rapid eye movement sleep  when your brain is most
active. According to some specialists, you dream four to six times every
night.
####  Popular Health Centers
** Matthew Walker  ** is a professor of
psychology and neuroscience at the University of California, Berkeley, and the
director of the university’s  Center for Human Sleep Science
 .
*  Podcasts
* ##   Three Ways to Navigate Difficult Emotions
Learn  why sleep is key to peak performance

.
Suggested applications
####  What Is the Meaning of Vivid Dreams?
Six health benefits of dreaming include:
Sleep itself is a different story. Scientists have known for a while now that
shorter sleep is tied to dangerous diseases,  like heart disease and stroke
 . There is
mounting evidence that sleep deprivation leads to a  higher risk of obesity

and  Alzheimer’s disease

. Large population studies reflect a saddening truth—the  shorter your sleep,
the shorter your life 
. Not only that, sleep helps us to  hold onto our memories
 and to  learn
 facts and skills faster,
making it important for everyone including infants, students, athletes,
pilots, and doctors.
*  Complex  "Complex \(psychology\)")
*  Electra complex 
*  Inner child 
*  Personal unconscious 

---|---
 Jungian archetypes  |

*  Anima and animus 
*  Apollo 
*  Persona  "Persona \(psychology\)")
*  Self 
*  Shadow  "Shadow \(psychology\)")
*  Trickster 
*  Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman 
*  Wounded healer 

Other  |

*  Active imagination 
*  Enantiodromia 
*  Extraversion and introversion 
*  Individuation 
* _ Participation mystique  _

 Publications  |

|  Early  |

* _ Psychology of the Unconscious  _ (1912)
* _ Psychological Types  _ (1921)
* _ Modern Man in Search of a Soul  _ (1933)

---|---
Later  |

* _ Psychology and Alchemy  _ (1944)
* _ Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self  _ (1951)
* _ Answer to Job  _ (1954)
* _ Mysterium Coniunctionis  _ (1956)

Posthumous  |

* _ Memories, Dreams, Reflections  _ (1961)
* _ Man and His Symbols  _ (1964)
* _ The Red Book: Liber Novus  "The Red Book \(Jung\)") _ (2009)
* _ Seven Sermons to the Dead  _ (1916)
* _ Black Books  "Black Books \(Jung\)") _ (2020)
*  ** Eight Ways to Help Teens Get More Sleep  ** By  Christine Carter 
October 12, 2016
Risks  

Though lucid dreaming can be beneficial to a number of aspects of life, some
risks have been suggested. Those who have never had a lucid dream may not
understand what is happening when they experience it for the first time.  [ _
citation needed   _ ]  This could cause those individuals to feel a variety of
different emotions as they are going through a completely new psychological
experience. Feelings of stress, worry, or confusion could arise. On the other
hand, the feeling of empowerment could also come up as they realize that they
are now in control of their dreams.  [68]  Someone struggling with certain
mental illnesses could find it hard to be able to tell the difference between
reality and the actual dream (  psychosis  ).
[69]  [70]

A very small percentage of people may experience  sleep paralysis
 , which can sometimes be confused
with lucid dreaming. Although from the outside, both seem to be quite similar,
there are a few distinct differences that can help differentiate them. A
person usually experiences sleep paralysis when they partially wake up in 
REM atonia  , a state in which said person is
partially paralyzed and cannot move their limbs. When in sleep paralysis,
people may also experience hallucinations. Although said hallucinations cannot
cause physical damage, they may still be frightening. There are three common
types of hallucinations:  [71]  an intruder in the same room, a crushing
feeling on one's chest or back, and a feeling of flying or levitating. About
7.6% of the general population have experienced sleep paralysis at least once.
[72]  Exiting sleep paralysis to a waking state can be achieved by intently
focusing on a part of the body, such as a finger, and wiggling it, continuing
the action of moving to then the hand, the arm, and so on, until the person is
fully awake.  [ _ citation needed   _ ]

Long-term risks with lucid dreaming have not been extensively studied,  [73]
[74]  [75]  although many people have been lucid dreaming for many years
without any adverse effects.  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]
Further reading  

* Blanken, C.M. den and Meijer, E.J.G. "An Historical View of Dreams and the Ways to Direct Them; Practical Observations by Marie-Jean-Léon-Lecoq, le Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys". _Lucidity Letter_ , 7 (2) 67–78; 1988. Revised Edition in: _Lucidity_ , 10 (1&2) 311–22; 1991.
* Conesa, Jorge (May 1–4, 2003). _Sleep Paralysis Signaling (SPS) as a Natural Cueing Method for the Generation and Maintenance of Lucid Dreaming_ . The 83rd Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association. Vancouver, BC, Canada.
* Conesa, Jorge (2002).  "Isolated Sleep Paralysis and Lucid Dreaming: Ten-year longitudinal case study and related dream frequencies, types, and categories"  . _Sleep and Hypnosis_ . **4** (4): 132–42.  Archived  from the original on 2021-03-20  . Retrieved  2007-12-18  .
*  Dunning, Brian  "Brian Dunning \(author\)") (July 17, 2018). [ "Skeptoid
####  Does COVID-19 Cause Weird Dreams?
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20th century  

  Frederik van Eeden
 and  Marquis d'Hervey de
Saint Denys  , pioneers of lucid
dreaming

In 1913, Dutch psychiatrist and writer  Frederik (Willem) van Eeden
 (1860–1932)
coined the term "lucid dream" in an article entitled "A Study of Dreams".
[22]  [14]  [21]

Some have suggested that the term is a misnomer because Van Eeden was
referring to a phenomenon more specific than a lucid dream.  [23]  Van Eeden
intended the term lucid to denote "having insight", as in the phrase _a lucid
interval_ applied to someone in temporary remission from a  psychosis
 , rather than as a reference to the perceptual
quality of the experience, which may or may not be clear and vivid.  [24]
* ###  Related Articles
STRONG WOMEN
*  Jordan Peterson 
*  Joseph L. Henderson 
*  Laurens van der Post 
*  Sonu Shamdasani 
*  June Singer 
*  Anthony Stevens  "Anthony Stevens \(Jungian analyst\)")
*  Marion Woodman 

Houses  |

*  Bollingen Tower 
*  C. G. Jung House Museum 

Organizations  |

*  Bollingen Foundation 
*  C. G. Jung Institute in Zürich 
*  Eranos 
*  Int'l Assoc. for Analytical Psychology 
*  Int'l Assoc. for Jungian Studies 
*  Jungian Society for Scholarly Studies 
*  Philemon Foundation 
*  Psychology Club Zürich 

Popular culture  |

* _ A Dangerous Method  _
*  _Synchronicity_ (album  "Synchronicity \(The Police album\)")
*  song 1 
*  2) 
*  Shadow Man  "Shadow Man \(song\)")
* _ The Soul Keeper  _
*  Persona (series)  "Persona \(series\)")
* _ Soul  "Soul \(2020 film\)") _

Other  |

*  Archetypal literary criticism 
*  Archetypal pedagogy 
*  Bollingen Prize 
*  Burghölzli 
* _ I Ching  _
* _ The Secret of the Golden Flower  _

*   Commons 
*   Wikiquote 
*   Wikisource texts 
*   All articles
In  another study  ,
I and my colleagues taught participants a series of relational facts—such as,
A>B, B>C, C>D, and so on—and tested their understanding by asking them
questions (e.g., _Is B >D or not? _ ). Afterwards, we compared their
performance on this test before and after a full night’s sleep, and also after
they’d had a 60- to 90-minute nap that included REM sleep. Those who’d slept
or had a long nap performed much better on this test than when they were
awake, as if they’d put together disparate pieces of a jigsaw puzzle in their
sleep.
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*  ** The Sleepless See Threats Everywhere  ** By  Yasmin Anwar 
July 22, 2015
##   How Undocumented Therapists Are Serving Other Immigrants
*  Altruism 
*  Awe 
*  Bridging Differences 
*  Compassion 
*  Empathy 
*  Diversity 
*  Forgiveness 
*  Gratitude 
*  Happiness 
*  Intellectual Humility 
*  Mindfulness 
*  Purpose 
*  Social Connection
In  one study  , we tested
this by waking up participants during the night—during both non-REM sleep and
dreaming sleep—and gave them very short tests: solving anagram puzzles, where
you try to unscramble letters to form a word (e.g., OSEOG = GOOSE). First,
participants were tested beforehand, just to familiarize them with the test.
Then, we monitored their sleep and woke them up at different points of the
night to perform the test. When woken during non-REM sleep, they were not
particularly creative—they could solve very few puzzles. But, when we woke up
participants during REM sleep, they were able to solve 15-35 percent more
puzzles than when they were awake. Not only that, participants woken while
dreaming reported that the solution just “popped” into their heads, as if it
were effortless.
This essay was adapted from Matthew Walker's new book,  _Why We Sleep:
Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams_  (Scribner, 2017, 368 pages).
*  Health A-Z
Copyright 2023 Calm. All rights reserved
*  Psychoanalysis 
*  Id, ego and superego 
*  Libido 
*  Preconscious 
*  Ego ideal 
*  censorship  "Censorship \(psychoanalysis\)")
*  Free association  "Free association \(psychology\)")
*  Transference 
*  Psychosexual development 
*  Oral stage 
*  Anal stage 
*  Phallic stage 
*  Latency stage 
*  Genital stage 
*  Oedipus complex 
*  Father complex 
*  Deferred obedience 
*  Reality principle 
*  Seduction theory 

Related  |

*  Bibliography 
*  complete works 
*  Archives 
*  Vienna home and museum  "Sigmund Freud Museum \(Vienna\)")
*  London home and museum 
*  1971 statue 
*  Interment  "Freud Corner \(Golders Green Crematorium\)")
*  Freudian slip 
*  Humor 
*  Inner circle  "Inner circle \(psychoanalysis\)")
*  Neo-Freudianism 
*  Views on homosexuality 
*  Religious views 

Cultural
depictions  |

* _ Freud: The Secret Passion  _ (1962 film)
* _ The Visitor  "The Visitor \(play\)") _ (1993 play)
* _ Mahler on the Couch  _ (2010 film)
* _ A Dangerous Method  _ (2011 film)
* _ Freud  "Freud \(TV series\)") _ (2020 TV series)

 Family  |

*  Martha Bernays (wife) 
*  Anna Freud (daughter) 
*  Ernst L. Freud (son) 
*  Clement Freud (grandson) 
*  Lucian Freud (grandson) 
*  Walter Freud (grandson)
Alternative theories  

Other researchers suggest that lucid dreaming is not a state of sleep, but of
brief wakefulness, or "micro-awakening".  [50]  [51]  Experiments by  Stephen
LaBerge  used "perception of the
outside world" as a criterion for  wakefulness  while studying lucid dreamers, and their sleep state was
corroborated with physiological measurements.  [27]  LaBerge's subjects
experienced their lucid dream while in a state of REM, which critics felt may
mean that the subjects are fully awake. J. Allen Hobson responded that lucid
dreaming must be a state of both waking and dreaming.  [52]

Philosopher  Norman Malcolm  was a
proponent of dream skepticism.  [53]  He has argued against the possibility of
checking the accuracy of dream reports, pointing out that "the only criterion
of the truth of a statement that someone has had a certain dream is,
essentially, his saying so."  [54]
* ##   The Benefits and Drawbacks of Intuitive Thinking
####  KEYS TO WELL-BEING
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