mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Autism  

In 1985  Simon Baron-Cohen  , 
Alan M. Leslie  , and  Uta Frith
 suggested that children with  autism
 do not employ theory of mind and that autistic
children have particular difficulties with tasks requiring the child to
understand another person's beliefs.  [67]  These difficulties persist when
children are matched for verbal skills and they have been taken as a key
feature of autism.  [88]  Although in a 2019 review, Gernsbacher and Yergeau
argued that "the claim that autistic people lack a theory of mind is
empirically questionable", as there have been numerous failed replications of
classic ToM studies and the meta-analytical effect sizes of such replications
were minimal to small.  [68]

Many individuals classified as autistic have severe difficulty assigning
mental states to others, and some seem to lack theory of mind capabilities.
[89]  Researchers who study the relationship between autism and theory of mind
attempt to explain the connection in a variety of ways. One account assumes
that theory of mind plays a role in the attribution of mental states to others
and in childhood pretend play.  [90]  According to Leslie,  [90]  theory of
mind is the capacity to mentally represent thoughts, beliefs, and desires,
regardless of whether or not the circumstances involved are real. This might
explain why some autistic individuals show extreme deficits in both theory of
mind and pretend play. However, Hobson proposes a social-affective
justification,  [91]  in which deficits in theory of mind in autistic people
result from a distortion in understanding and responding to emotions. He
suggests that typically developing individuals, unlike autistic individuals,
Product is not available in this quantity.
The ability to consciously detect an image when presented at near-threshold
stimulus varies across presentations. One factor is "baseline shifts" due to
top down attention that modulates ongoing brain activity in sensory cortex
areas that affects the neural processing of subsequent perceptual judgments.
[22]  Such top down biasing can occur through two distinct processes: an
attention driven baseline shift in the  alpha waves  , and a decision bias reflected in  gamma waves  .  [23]
[53]  In this account, "system 1" is cognitively efficient and enables theory
of mind for a limited but useful set of circumstances. "System 2" is
cognitively effortful, but enables much more flexible theory of mind
abilities. Philosopher  Peter Carruthers
 "Peter Carruthers \(philosopher\)")
disagrees, arguing that the same core theory of mind abilities can be used in
both simple and complex ways.  [54]  The account has been criticized by Celia
Heyes who suggests that "system 1" theory of mind abilities do not require
representation of mental states of other people, and so are better thought of
as "sub-mentalizing".  [50]
*  Cognition 
*  Consciousness 
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* _ A Universe of Consciousness  _
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in animations of moving geometric shapes similar to those used in Heider and
Simmel (1944),  [125]  which typical humans automatically perceive as social
interactions laden with intention and emotion. Three studies found remarkably
similar patterns of activation during the perception of such animations versus
a random or deterministic motion control: mPFC, pSTS,  fusiform face area
 (FFA), and amygdala were
selectively engaged during the theory of mind condition.  [126]  Another study
presented subjects with an animation of two dots moving with a parameterized
degree of intentionality (quantifying the extent to which the dots chased each
other), and found that pSTS activation correlated with this parameter.  [127]

A separate body of research implicates the posterior superior temporal sulcus
in the perception of intentionality in human action. This area is also
involved in perceiving biological motion, including body, eye, mouth, and
point-light display motion.  [128]  One study found increased pSTS activation
while watching a human lift his hand versus having his hand pushed up by a
piston (intentional versus unintentional action).  [129]  Several studies
found increased pSTS activation when subjects perceive a human action that is
incongruent with the action expected from the actor's context and inferred
intention. Examples would be: a human performing a reach-to-grasp motion on
empty space next to an object, versus grasping the object;  [130]  a human
shifting eye gaze toward empty space next to a checkerboard target versus
shifting gaze toward the target;  [131]  an unladen human turning on a light
with his knee, versus turning on a light with his knee while carrying a pile
of books;  [132]  and a walking human pausing as he passes behind a bookshelf,
versus walking at a constant speed.  [133]  In these studies, actions in the
"congruent" case have a straightforward goal, and are easy to explain in terms
of the actor's intention. The incongruent actions, on the other hand, require
further explanation (why would someone twist empty space next to a gear?), and
apparently demand more processing in the STS. This region is distinct from the
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Brain mechanisms
21 languages
Theories  |
Empathy  —the recognition and understanding of the
states of mind of others, including their beliefs, desires, and particularly
emotions—is a related concept. Empathy is often characterized as the ability
to "put oneself into another's shoes". Recent  neuro-ethological
 studies of animal behavior suggest that rodents
may exhibit empathetic abilities.  [18]  While empathy is known as emotional
perspective-taking, theory of mind is defined as cognitive perspective-taking.
[19]

Research on theory of mind, in humans and animals, adults and children,
normally and atypically developing, has grown rapidly in the years since 
Premack  and Guy Woodruff's 1978 paper,
"Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?".  [12]  The field of  social
neuroscience  has also begun
to address this debate by imaging the brains of humans while they perform
tasks that require the understanding of an intention, belief, or other mental
state in others.

An alternative account of theory of mind is given in  operant
 psychology and provides 
empirical evidence  for a
functional account of both perspective-taking and empathy. The most developed
operant approach is founded on research on derived relational responding  [ _[
jargon  ](/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style
#  About The Academy
Depression and dysphoria  

Individuals in a  major depressive episode  , a disorder characterized by social impairment,
show deficits in theory of mind decoding.  [111]  Theory of mind decoding is
the ability to use information available in the immediate environment (e.g.,
facial expression, tone of voice, body posture) to accurately label the mental
states of others. The opposite pattern, enhanced theory of mind, is observed
in individuals vulnerable to depression, including those individuals with past
 major depressive disorder (MDD)  ,  [112]  dysphoric individuals,  [113]  and individuals
with a maternal history of MDD.  [114]
E-Learning & Workshops
##  Humanity Awareness
Activity in  extrastriate regions  V3 and LO was identical across the two groups, suggesting intact
lower-level visual processing in the subjects with autism. The study also
reported less functional connectivity between STS and V3 in the autism group.
However decreased temporal correlation between activity in STS and V3 would be
expected simply from the lack of an evoked response in STS to intent-laden
animations in subjects with autism. A more informative analysis would be to
compute functional connectivity after regressing out evoked responses from
all-time series.

A subsequent study, using the incongruent/congruent gaze-shift paradigm
described above, found that in high-functioning adults with autism, posterior
STS (pSTS) activation was undifferentiated while they watched a human shift
gaze toward a target and then toward adjacent empty space.  [146]  The lack of
additional STS processing in the incongruent state may suggest that these
subjects fail to form an expectation of what the actor should do given
contextual information, or that feedback about the violation of this
expectation does not reach STS. Both explanations involve an impairment or
deficit in the ability to link eye gaze shifts with intentional explanations.
This study also found a significant anticorrelation between STS activation in
the incongruent-congruent contrast and social subscale score on the  Autism
Diagnostic Interview-Revised  , but not scores on the other
subscales.

An fMRI study demonstrated that the right  temporoparietal junction
 (rTPJ) of higher-
functioning adults with autism was not more selectively activated for
mentalizing judgments when compared to physical judgments about self and
other.  [147]  rTPJ selectivity for mentalizing was also related to individual
Main article:  Self-awareness
|  Philosophy  |
Unexpected contents  

Other tasks have been developed to try to extend the false-belief task. In the
"unexpected contents" or "smarties" task, experimenters ask children what they
believe to be the contents of a box that looks as though it holds  Smarties
 . After the child guesses "Smarties", it is shown
that the box in fact contained pencils. The experimenter then re-closes the
box and asks the child what she thinks another person, who has not been shown
the true contents of the box, will think is inside. The child passes the task
if he/she responds that another person will think that "Smarties" exist in the
box, but fails the task if she responds that another person will think that
the box contains pencils. Gopnik & Astington found that children pass this
test at age four or five years.  [73]
Empirical investigation  

Whether children younger than three or four years old have a theory of mind is
a topic of debate among researchers. It is a challenging question, due to the
difficulty of assessing what pre-linguistic children understand about others
and the world. Tasks used in research into the development of theory of mind
must take into account the _ umwelt  _ [62]  of the
pre-verbal child.
#  Society
*  Anil Seth 
*  Antonio Damasio 
*  Benjamin Libet 
*  Bernard Baars 
*  Christof Koch 
*  Francis Crick 
*  Francisco Varela 
*  Gerald Edelman 
*  Giulio Tononi 
*  Karl Pribram 
*  Lawrence Weiskrantz 
*  Michael Gazzaniga 
*  Michael Graziano 
*  Patrick Wilken 
*  Roger Sperry 
*  Stanislas Dehaene 
*  Steven Laureys 
*  Stuart Hameroff 
*  Wolf Singer
Developmental language disorder  

Children diagnosed with  developmental language disorder

(DLD) exhibit much lower scores on reading and writing sections of
standardized tests, yet have a normal nonverbal IQ. These language deficits
can be any specific deficits in lexical semantics, syntax, or pragmatics, or a
combination of multiple problems. Such children often exhibit poorer social
skills than normally developing children, and seem to have problems decoding
beliefs in others. A recent meta-analysis confirmed that children with DLD
have substantially lower scores on theory of mind tasks compared to typically
developing children.  [115]  This strengthens the claim that language
development is related to theory of mind.
variation on clinical measures of social impairment: individuals whose rTPJ
was increasingly more active for mentalizing compared to physical judgments
were less socially impaired, while those who showed little to no difference in
response to mentalizing or physical judgments were the most socially impaired.
This evidence builds on work in typical development that suggests rTPJ is
critical for representing mental state information, irrespective of whether it
is about oneself or others. It also points to an explanation at the neural
level for the pervasive  mind-blindness  difficulties in autism that are evident throughout the lifespan.
[148]
These categories are not mutually exclusive, as there can be significant
overlap in what a particular type of awareness might be considered. Rather,
these categories serve to help understand what knowledge might be conveyed by
a particular type of awareness or how that knowledge might be conveyed.
Workspace awareness is of particular interest to the  CSCW  community,
due to the transition of workspaces from physical to virtual environments.
*  Species complex 
*  Species problem 
*  Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 
*  Trivers–Willard hypothesis 

Theoretical positions  |

*  Cultural selection theory 
*  Determinism  /  indeterminism 
*  Biological determinism 
*  Connectionism 
*  Cultural determinism 
*  Environmental determinism 
*  Nature versus nurture 
*  Psychological nativism 
*  Social constructionism 
*  Social determinism 
*  Standard social science model 
*  Functionalism  "Functionalism \(philosophy of mind\)")
*  Memetics 
*  Multilineal evolution 
*  Neo-Darwinism 
*  Neoevolutionism 
*  Sociocultural evolution 
*  Unilineal evolution
*  Attention 
*  Higher nervous activity 
*  Intention 
*  Learning 
*  Mental fatigue 
*  Mental set  "Set \(psychology\)")
*  Thinking 
*  Volition  "Volition \(psychology\)")
Methodological problems  

With the methods used to test theory of mind, it has been experimentally shown
that very simple robots that only react by reflexes and are not built to have
any complex cognition at all can pass the tests for having theory of mind
abilities that psychology textbooks assume to be exclusive to humans older
than four or five years. Whether or not such a robot passes or fails the test
is influenced by completely non-cognitive factors such as placement of objects
and the structure of the robot body influencing how the reflexes are
conducted. It has therefore been suggested that theory of mind tests may not
actually test cognitive abilities.  [83]

Furthermore, early research into theory of mind in autistic children  [67]  is
argued to constitute [ epistemological violence
](/wiki/Epistemic_injustice
#  Humanity Awareness
#  ABOUT THE BARRETT MODEL
In autism  

Several neuroimaging studies have looked at the neural basis for theory of
mind impairment in subjects with  Asperger syndrome  and  high-functioning autism  (HFA). The first PET study of
theory of mind in autism (also the first neuroimaging study using a task-
induced activation paradigm in autism) replicated a prior study in
neurotypical individuals, which employed a story-comprehension task.  [143]
This study found displaced and diminished  mPFC  activation in subjects with autism. However, because the
study used only six subjects with autism, and because the spatial resolution
of PET imaging is relatively poor, these results should be considered
preliminary.

A subsequent fMRI study scanned normally developing adults and adults with HFA
while performing a "reading the mind in the eyes" task: viewing a photo of a
human's eyes and choosing which of two adjectives better describes the
person's mental state, versus a gender discrimination control.  [144]  The
authors found activity in  orbitofrontal cortex  , STS, and amygdala in normal subjects, and found less
amygdala activation and abnormal STS activation in subjects with autism.

A more recent PET study looked at brain activity in individuals with HFA and
Asperger syndrome while viewing Heider-Simmel animations (see above) versus a
random motion control.  [145]  In contrast to normally-developing subjects,
those with autism showed little STS or FFA activation, and less  mPFC
 and amygdala activation.
#  Books
The term of location awareness still is gaining momentum with the growth of
ubiquitous computing. First defined by networked work positions (  network
location awareness
") ), it has been extended to mobile
phones and other mobile communicable entities. The term covers a common
interest in whereabouts of remote entities, especially individuals and their
cohesion in operation. The term of context awareness is a superset including
the concept of location awareness. It extends the awareness to context
features of an operational target as well as to the context of an operational
area.
#  Awareness
##  Awareness versus attention
empathizing, especially if true imitation is no longer employed by adults. A
test of imitation by Alexandra Horowitz found that adult subjects imitated an
experimenter demonstrating a novel task far less closely than children did.
Horowitz points out that the precise psychological state underlying imitation
is unclear and cannot, by itself, be used to draw conclusions about the mental
states of humans.  [32]

While much research has been done on infants, theory of mind develops
continuously throughout childhood and into late adolescence as the  synapses
 in the prefrontal cortex develop. The prefrontal
cortex is thought to be involved in planning and decision-making.  [33]
Children seem to develop theory of mind skills sequentially. The first skill
to develop is the ability to recognize that others have diverse desires.
Children are able to recognize that others have diverse beliefs soon after.
The next skill to develop is recognizing that others have access to different
knowledge bases. Finally, children are able to understand that others may have
false beliefs and that others are capable of hiding emotions. While this
sequence represents the general trend in skill acquisition, it seems that more
emphasis is placed on some skills in certain cultures, leading to more valued
skills to develop before those that are considered not as important. For
example, in  individualistic 
cultures such as the United States, a greater emphasis is placed on the
ability to recognize that others have different opinions and beliefs. In a 
collectivistic  culture, such as
China, this skill may not be as important and therefore may not develop until
later.  [34]
---
 Cognition  |
* A report by the United Nations states that the world is not on track to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, which aim to create a more sustainable future for everyone.
* The World Economic Forum reports that the current economic system is unsustainable and must be transformed to create a more sustainable future.
* The World Wildlife Fund reports that global wildlife populations have declined by 68% since 1970, indicating the need for a more sustainable approach to human activity.
* A study by the University of Oxford found that plant-based diets are more sustainable than meat-based diets, due to the environmental impact of animal agriculture.
* The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that urgent action is needed to limit global warming to 1.5°C and avoid the worst impacts of climate change, which threaten the sustainability of human civilization.
* The World Health Organization reports that air pollution is responsible for approximately 7 million premature deaths each year, indicating the need for sustainable solutions to reduce pollution.
* A study by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation found that a  circular economy  , in which waste is minimized and resources are kept in use for as long as possible, could create significant economic and environmental benefits.
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Popular ideas about  consciousness 
suggest the phenomenon describes a condition of being aware of oneself (self-
awareness).  [14]  Modern  systems theory  , which offers insights into how the world works through an
understanding that all systems follow system rules, approach self-awareness
within its understanding of how large complex living systems work. According
to  Gregory Bateson  , the mind is
the dynamics of  self-organization  and that awareness is crucial in the existence of this process.
[15]  [16]  Modern systems theory maintains that humans, as living systems,
have not only awareness of their environment but also self-awareness
particularly with their capability for  logic  and
curiosity.  [17]
* ** Evolutionary psychologists  **
*  ** Evolutionary psychology  **
*  ** Psychology portal  **
*  ** Evolutionary biology portal  **

*  v  
*  t  
*  e  

 Philosophy of mind 

---
 Philosophers  |

*  Anscombe 
*  Austin 
*  Aquinas 
*  Bain  "Alexander Bain \(philosopher\)")
*  Bergson 
*  Block 
*  Brentano 
*  Broad 
*  Burge 
*  Chalmers 
*  Churchland 
*  Dennett 
*  Dharmakirti
###  Changes in awareness
##   One world, one practice: mindfulness for social and environmental change
*  Attention schema theory 
*  Dynamic core hypothesis 
*  Damasio's theory of consciousness 
*  Electromagnetic theories of consciousness 
*  Global workspace theory 
*  Higher-order theories of consciousness 
*  Holonomic brain theory 
*  Integrated information theory 
*  Lamme's recurrent feedback hypothesis 
*  Multiple drafts model 
*  Orchestrated objective reduction
are born with a set of skills (such as social referencing ability) that later
lets them comprehend and react to other people's feelings. Other scholars
emphasize that autism involves a specific developmental delay, so that
autistic children vary in their deficiencies, because they experience
difficulty in different stages of growth. Very early setbacks can alter proper
advancement of joint-attention behaviors, which may lead to a failure to form
a full theory of mind.  [89]

It has been speculated that theory of mind exists on a  continuum
 "Continuum \(theory\)") as opposed to the
traditional view of a discrete presence or absence.  [78]  While some research
has suggested that some autistic populations are unable to attribute mental
states to others,  [2]  recent evidence points to the possibility of coping
mechanisms that facilitate the attribution of mental states.  [92]  A binary
view regarding theory of mind contributes to the  stigmatization
 of autistic adults who do possess perspective-taking
capacity, as the assumption that autistic people do not have empathy can
become a rationale for  dehumanization  .  [93]

Tine et al. report that autistic children score substantially lower on
measures of social theory of mind (i.e., "reasoning about _others '  _ mental
states", p. 1) in comparison to children diagnosed with  Asperger syndrome
 .  [94]

Generally, children with more advanced theory of mind abilities display more
advanced social skills, greater adaptability to new situations, and greater
cooperation with others. As a result, these children are typically well-liked.
However, "children may use their mind-reading abilities to manipulate, outwit,
tease, or trick their peers."  [95]  Individuals possessing inferior theory of
Mental processes