mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Striatum and basal ganglia  

Further information on the striatum:  Striatum 

Further information on the basal ganglia:  Basal ganglia

.svg) Basal ganglia
(red) and related structures (blue) shown within the brain

The  dorsolateral  striatum is associated
with the acquisition of habits and is the main neuronal cell nucleus linked to
procedural memory. Connecting excitatory  afferent nerve fibers
 help in the regulation of
activity in the basal ganglia circuit. Essentially, two parallel information
processing pathways diverge from the striatum. Both acting in opposition to
each other in the control of movement, they allow for association with other
needed functional structures  [48]  One pathway is direct while the other is
indirect and all pathways work together to allow for a functional neural
feedback loop. Many looping circuits connect back at the striatum from other
areas of the brain; including those from the emotion-center linked limbic
cortex, the reward-center linked  ventral striatum  and other important motor regions related to movement.
[49]  The main looping circuit involved in the motor skill part of procedural
memory is usually called the cortex-basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex loop.  [50]

The striatum is unique because it lacks the  glutamate  -related neurons found throughout most of the brain. Instead, it
is categorized by a high concentration of a special type of  GABA
 related inhibiting cell known as the  medium spiny
neuron  .  [51]  The two
parallel pathways previously mentioned travel to and from the striatum and are
made up of these same special medium spiny neurons. These neurons are all
sensitive to different neurotransmitters and contain a variety of
corresponding receptors including dopamine receptors (  DRD1  ,  DRD2  ),  muscarinic receptors
 (M4) and  adenosine
receptors  (A2A). Separate
interneurons are known to communicate with striatal spiny neurons in the
presence of the  somatic nervous system  neurotransmitter  acetylcholine
 .  [52]

Current understanding of brain anatomy and physiology suggests that striatal
neural plasticity is what allows basal ganglia circuits to communicate between
structures and to functionally operate in procedural memory processing.  [53]
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##  Examples of Episodic Memory
OUR STAFF
Saul Mcleod
September 7, 2023 at 11:28 am
·  September 6, 2023
##  Memory & the Brain
CONTACT US
Expertise-induced amnesia  

  Sidney Crosby
 in Vancouver, playing for  Team Canada

This phenomenon is based on the assumption that reducing or diverting the
amount of  attention  paid to material being
encoded and stored will reduce the quality and quantity of the later retrieval
of that material in a form that is explicit and reportable. So, if a well
learned skill is stored as a procedural memory, and its retrieval and
subsequent performance is mostly unconscious and automatic, there is evidence
showing that the explicit recollection of what happened during the performance
will be reduced.  [38]  A recent example illustrates this concept nicely.
Immediately following  Sidney Crosby 
's overtime goal against the US, winning the  2010 Olympic
 Gold Medal for Canada in men's ice
hockey, a reporter with  TSN 
did an on-ice interview with Crosby: "Sid, if you can, just take us through
how that goal went in?" Crosby replied: "I don't really remember, I just shot
it – I think from around here. That's all I really remember. I think it went
5-hole, but, um, I didn't really see it to be honest."  [44]
###   Canine Cognition Unleashed: Dogs Exhibit Human-like Intelligence Factor
SUPPLEMENTS
Alcohol  

Further information on alcohol:  Alcohol beverage 

Further information on the effects of alcohol on memory:  Effect of Alcohol
on Memory 

While the  effects of alcohol  "Alcohol \(drug\)")
have been studied immensely, even with respect to memory, there is limited
research examining the effects of alcohol on procedural memory. Research
conducted by Pitel A. L. et al. suggests that alcoholism impairs the ability
to acquire semantic concepts. In this study, while semantic concepts were
understood, procedural memory was often not automated. A potential reason for
this finding is that poor learning strategies are used by alcoholics compared
to non-alcoholics.  [76]
1. _ Ullman, MT (2004).  _  _ "Contributions of memory circuits to language: the declarative/procedural model"  _  _ . Cognition.  _ **_92_ ** _ (1–2): 231–70.  _  _ doi  _ ) _ :  _  _ 10.1016/j.cognition.2003.10.008  _  _ .  _  _ PMID  _ ) _ _  _ 15037131  _  _ .  _  _ S2CID  _ ) _ _  _ 14611894  _  _ .  _
2. Tulving E. 1972. Episodic and semantic memory. In Organization of Memory, ed. E Tulving, W Donaldson, pp. 381–403. New York: Academic
3. _ Ell, Shawn; Zilioli, Monica (2012), "Categorical Learning", in Seel, Norbert M. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, Springer US, pp. 509–512,  _  _ doi  _ ) _ :  _  _ 10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_98  _  _ ,  _  _ ISBN  _ ) _ _  _ 978-1-4419-1428-6  _ 
4.  _ McRae, Ken  _  _ ; Jones, Michael (2013). Reisberg, Daniel (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 206–216.  _  _ ISBN  _ ) _ _  _ 9780195376746  _  _ .  _
5. _ Tulving, Endel (2002). "Episodic Memory: From Mind to Brain". Annual Review of Psychology.  _ **_53_ ** _ : 1–25.  _  _ doi  _ ) _ :  _  _ 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114  _  _ .  _  _ PMID  _ ) _ _  _ 11752477  _  _ .  _
6. _Saumier, D.; Chertkow, H. (2002). "Semantic Memory". Current Science._ **_2_ ** _(6): 516–522._  _doi_ ) _:_  _10.1007/s11910-002-0039-9_  _._  _PMID_ ) __  _12359106_  _._  _S2CID_ ) __  _14184578_  _._
Episodic memory is a past-oriented memory which will allow you to re-
experience the same via the process of recalling. It has several distinct
interactive components that allow it to do its task purposely. This whole
process can be explained easily through a single term named ‘retrieval’. The
areas of the brain which are involved in this process are frontal cortices,
temporal and parietal region, cerebellum, diencephalon and hippocampus. The
process of retrieval can be altered through genetic makeup and regular
retaining capacity of an individual.
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*  Introduction 
*  Parts of the Brain 
*  Neurons & Synapses
Ioanna Stavraki
Alzheimer's disease and dementia  

Further information on Alzheimer's disease:  Alzheimer's

Further information on dementia:  Dementia 

Normal brain

Alzheimer patient

 PET scan  of normal (left) and Alzheimer's
patient brain (right)

Current Research indicates that procedural memory problems in  Alzheimer's
 may be caused by changes in enzyme
activity in memory-integrating brain regions such as the hippocampus. The
specific enzyme linked to these changes is called  acetylcholinesterase
 (AchE) which may be
affected by a genetic predisposition in an immune-system brain receptor called
the histamine H1 receptor. The same current scientific information also looks
at how  dopamine  ,  serotonin  and  acetylcholine 
neurotransmitter levels vary in the cerebellum of patients that have this
disease. Modern findings advance the idea that the  histamine
 system may be responsible for the cognitive
deficits found in Alzheimer's and for the potential procedural memory problems
that may develop as a result of the  psychopathology  .  [61]
Disorders  

Disorders have been important for the understanding of memory systems. The
memory abilities and inhibitions of patients with various diseases played a
major role in establishing the distinction that long-term memory consists of
different types of memory, more specifically declarative memory and procedural
memory. Furthermore, they have been important for illuminating the structures
of the brain that comprise the neural network of procedural memory.
##  Role of the Hippocampus in Memory Formation
September 7, 2023 at 9:07 am
brain research   Memory 
 neurobiology   Neuroscience
  sequential
memory  
Stockholm University
##  Boost Your Brain's Performance
##  Episodic Vs Semantic Memory
Psychostimulants  

Further information on psychostimulants:  Psychostimulant

Most  psychostimulants  work by
activating dopamine receptors causing increased focus or pleasure. The usage
of psychostimulants has become more widespread in the medical world for
treating conditions like  ADHD  . Psychostimulants have
been shown to be used more frequently today amongst students and other social
demographics as a means to study more efficiently or have been abused for
their pleasurable side effects.  [80]  Research suggests that when not abused,
psychostimulants aid in the acquisition of procedural learning. Studies have
shown that psychostimulants like  d-amphetamine  facilitates lower response times and increased procedural
learning when compared to control participants and participants who have been
administered the  antipsychotic  
haloperidol  on procedural learning tasks.
[81]  While improvements in procedural memory were evident when participants
were administered traces of psychostimulants, many researchers have found that
procedural memory is hampered when psychostimulants are abused.  [82]  This
introduces the idea that for optimal procedural learning, dopamine levels must
be balanced.
Rising to the occasion  

If choking on skill-based or co-ordination oriented tasks requires the
pressure of the situation to cause the performer's increased conscious
attention to his or her process of performance, then the reverse can also be
true. A relatively unexplored area of scientific research is the concept of
"rising to the occasion." One common misconception is that a person must be an
expert in order to have consistent success under pressure. On the contrary,
implicit knowledge has been hypothesized to only partially mediate the
relationship between expertise and performance.  [42]  It works closely with a
perceived control of the task, and can often trump expertise if the performer
embodies procedural comfort within the domain. Traditionally, "rising to the
occasion" or being "clutch" has been used in reference to sporting feats of
particular excellence given the magnitude of the event, however there is
increasing awareness to the phenomenon in our everyday life. How one performs
under circumstances that do not necessarily present immediate or grave
consequence, but do require the performer to actively access a conscious
mechanism to perform in unfamiliar or uncomfortable settings, is a concept
that may prove educationally beneficial across a variety of disciplines and
activities.  [43]
*  Attention 
*  Consolidation 
*  Neuroanatomy 

Types  |

|   Sensory  |

*  Echoic 
*  Eidetic 
*  Eyewitness 
*  Haptic 
*  Iconic 
*  Motor learning 
*  Visual 

---|---
 Short-term  |

* "  The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two  "
*  Working memory 

 Long-term  |

*  Active recall 
*  Autobiographical 
*  Explicit 
*  Declarative 
*  Episodic 
*  Semantic 
*  Flashbulb 
*  Hyperthymesia 
*  Implicit 
*  Meaningful learning 
*  Personal-event 
* Procedural
*  Rote learning 
*  Selective retention 
*  Tip of the tongue 

 Forgetting  |

*  Amnesia 
*  anterograde 
*  childhood 
*  post-traumatic 
*  psychogenic 
*  retrograde 
*  selective 
*  transient global 
*  Decay theory
Language  

Language works because of the brain's ability to retrieve pieces of
information from memory and then combine those pieces into a larger, more
complex unit based on context. The latter part of this process is called
unification.  [100]  Results of several studies provide evidence that suggests
procedural memory is not only responsible for sequential unification, but for
syntactic priming and grammatical processing as well.

One study used patients with  Korsakoff’s syndrome
 to show that
procedural memory subserves  syntactic priming  . Although Korsakoff's patients have deficits in
declarative memory, their nondeclarative memory is preserved, allowing them to
successfully complete syntactic priming tasks, as in the study. This result
proves syntactic priming is a nondeclarative memory function. These patients
were also capable of forming proper grammatical sentences, suggesting that
procedural memory is responsible for grammatical processing in addition to
syntactic priming.  [101]

Another study's results support the hypothesis that procedural memory
subserves grammar. The study involved a series of tests for two groups: one
typically developing (TD) group and one group with developmental language
disorder (DLD). Those with DLD have difficulty with proper grammar usage, due
to deficits in procedural memory function. Overall, the TD group performed
better on each task and displayed better speed in grammatical processing than
the DLD group. Therefore, this study shows that grammatical processing is a
function of procedural memory.  [102]

According to a study carried out in 2010 by  Dalhousie University
 researchers, spoken
languages which require the use of helping words or suffixes, rather than word
order, to explain subject-object relationships rely on procedural memory.
Word-order dependent languages rely on short-term memory for equivalent tasks.
[103]
#  Episodic and Semantic Memory
Choice reaction task  

Choice reaction tasks have been used to assess working memory.  [26]  It has
been determined to be useful in gauging procedural working memory by asking
participants to follow stimulus-reaction rules.  [27]
Cognitive phase  

 A countless number of potential
procedures

At this point in Fitts' (1954) model of skill acquisition individuals come to
understand what an observed skill is composed of. Attention at this point in
the process is significant for the acquisition of skill. This process involves
breaking down the desired skill to be learned into parts and understanding how
these parts come together as a whole for the correct performance of the task.
The way an individual organizes these parts is known as  schemas
 "Schema \(psychology\)") . Schemas are important
in directing the acquisition process and the way an individual comes to choose
schemas is described by  metacognition 
.  [9]  [10]
4.  **Taya Daileu** says:
##  Memory Processes
History  

The difference between procedural and  declarative memory
 systems were first explored
and understood with simple  semantics  .
Psychologists and  philosophers  began
writing about memory over two centuries ago. "Mechanical memory" was first
noted in 1804 by  Maine de Biran  . 
William James  , within his famous book:
_ The Principles of Psychology  _ (1890), suggested that there was a difference
between memory and habit.  Cognitive psychology  disregarded the influence of learning on memory
systems in its early years, and this greatly limited the research conducted in
procedural learning up until the 20th century.  [1]  The turn of the century
brought a clearer understanding of the functions and structures involved in
procedural memory acquisition, storage, and retrieval processes.

McDougall  [ _[ who?
](/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch
Serial reaction time task  

This task involves having participants retain and learn procedural skills that
assess specific memory for procedural-motor skill.  [23]  These skills are
measured by observing the speed and accuracy of the participant's ability to
retain and acquire new skills. The  reaction time  is the time it takes for the participant to respond to the
designated cue presented to them.  [24]  Participants with Alzheimer's disease
and amnesia demonstrate a long retention time which indicates that they are
able to retain the skill and demonstrate effective performance of the task at
a later point in time.  [24]
*  Introduction 
*  Sensory Memory 
*  Short-term (Working Memory 
*  Long-Term Memory 
*  Explicit & Implicit 
*  Declarative & Procedural 
*  Episodic & Semantic 
*  Retrospective & Prospective
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Julia Simkus
**Author:**  Gunilla Nordin 
**Source:**  Stockholm University 
**Contact:** Gunilla Nordin – Stockholm University
**Image:** The image is credited to Neuroscience News
The semantic memory focuses much on the factual and conceptual knowledge about
the world and the way it expressed in terms of words. So basically, it
supports the ability to interact in terms of language. This includes knowledge
about the language and conceptual information. Rather general knowledge also
counts in the same.
Haddi Browne
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)  ") ]

Further information on human immunodeficiency virus:  HIV 

Neural systems used by procedural memory are commonly targeted by  Human
Immunodeficiency Virus  ; the striatum being the structure most notably
affected.  [64]  MRI studies have even shown white matter irregularity and
basal ganglia subcortical atrophy in these vital areas necessary for both
procedural memory and motor-skill.  [65]  Applied research using various
procedural memory tasks such as the Rotary pursuit, Mirror star tracing and
Weather prediction tasks have shown that HIV positive individuals perform
worse than HIV negative participants suggesting that poorer overall
performance on tasks is due to the specific changes in the brain caused by the
disease.  [66]
+447438296273
Unsupported_attributions
"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch") _ ]  (1923) first made the
distinction between  explicit  and
implicit memory. In the 1970s procedural and declarative knowledge was
distinguished in literature on  artificial intelligence
 . Studies in the
1970s divided and moved towards two areas of work: one focusing on animal
studies and the other to amnesic patients. The first convincing experimental
evidence for a dissociation between  declarative memory
 ("knowing what") and non-
declarative or procedural ("knowing how") memory was from Milner (1962), by
demonstrating that a severely amnesic patient,  Henry Molaison
 , formerly known as patient H.M.,
could learn a hand–eye coordination skill (mirror drawing) in the absence of
any memory of having practiced the task before. Although this finding
indicated that memory was not made up of a single system positioned in one
place in the brain, at the time, others agreed that motor skills are likely a
special case that represented a less cognitive form of memory. However, by
refining and improving experimental measures, there has been extensive
research using amnesic patients with varying locations and degrees of
structural damage. Increased work with amnesic patients led to the finding
that they were able to retain and learn tasks other than motor skills.
However, these findings had shortcomings in how they were perceived as amnesic
patients sometimes fell short on normal levels of performance and therefore 
amnesia  was viewed as strictly a retrieval deficit.
Further studies with amnesic patients found a larger domain of normally
functioning memory for skill abilities. For example, using a mirror reading
task, amnesic patients showed performance at a normal rate, even though they
are unable to remember some of the words that they were reading. In the 1980s
much was discovered about the anatomy physiology of the mechanisms involved in
procedural memory. The  cerebellum  , 
hippocampus  ,  neostriatum
 , and  basal ganglia  were identified as being involved in memory acquisition
tasks.  [2]
**Key Facts:**
Autonomous phase  

This is the final phase in Fitts' (1954) model, and it involves perfecting
skill acquisition. The ability to discriminate important from unimportant
stimuli are made quicker and less thought process is required because the
skill has become automated. Important to this phase of the model is experience
and factual knowledge store for the observed skill.  [9]  [10]
Practice and the power law of learning  

 Practice  "Practice \(learning
method\)") can be an effective way to learn new skills if knowledge of the
result, more commonly known as  feedback  , is involved.  [13]  [14]  There is an observed
phenomenon known as the  power law of learning  , which predicts the rate of skill acquisition over
practice time. The power law of learning says that learning occurs at the
fastest rate in the beginning then drastically tapers off. The rate at which
practice loses its ability to sharpen execution is independent from the skill
being practiced and the type of animal learning the skill. For example,
participants in a reading speed study made the greatest leap in the first days
of the experiment, while additional days of practice saw only slight
improvement.  [15]

The power law of learning can be overcome if the subject is shown a more
effective way to accomplish the task. A study subject was shown a film
comparing his task performance, kicking a target as rapidly as possible, with
that of a known way of minimizing kicking time. Though the subject had reached
the limit of his ability to improve through practice as predicted by the power
law of learning, viewing the film resulted in a breakthrough in his ability
that defied the power law of learning. Viewing the film is an example of 
observational learning  , which effectively gives the viewer new memories of a technique to
draw upon for his or her future performances of the task.  [16]
##  3Rs associated with memory-making
Karina González
5.  ** Keiland Cooper | University of Californina  ** says:
Neuroscience News  
__
Neuroscience News
Divided attention  

There are several factors that contribute to the exceptional performance of a
skill: memory capacities,  [28]  [29]  knowledge structures,  [30]  problem-
solving abilities,  [31]  and attentional abilities.  [32]  They all play key
roles, each with its own degree of importance based on the procedures and
skills required, the context, and the intended goals of the performance. Using
these individualized abilities to compare how experts and novices differ
regarding both cognitive and sensorimotor skills has provided a wealth of
insight into what makes an expert excellent, and conversely, what sorts of
mechanisms novices lack. Evidence suggests that an often overlooked condition
for skill excellence is attentional mechanisms involved in the effective
utilization and deployment of procedural memory during the real-time execution
of skills. Research suggests that early in skill learning, execution is
controlled by a set of unintegrated procedural steps that are held in working
memory and attended to one-by-one in a step-by-step fashion.  [33]  [34]  [35]
The problem with this is that attention is a limited resource. Therefore, this
step-by-step process of controlling task performance occupies attentional
capacity which in turn reduces the performer's ability to focus on other
aspects of the performance, such as decision making, fine motor-skills, self-
monitoring of energy level and "seeing the field or ice or court". However,
with practice,  procedural knowledge  develops, which operates largely outside of working memory, and
thus allows for skills to be executed more automatically.  [34]  [36]  This,
of course, has a very positive effect on overall performance by freeing the
mind of the need to closely monitor and attend to the more basic, mechanical
skills, so that attention can be paid to other processes.  [32]
Schizophrenia  

Further information on schizophrenia:  Schizophrenia 

MRI studies have shown that  schizophrenic  patients not currently taking related medication have a
smaller putamen; part of the striatum that plays a very important role in
procedural memory.  [73]  Further studies on the brain reveal that
schizophrenics have improper basal ganglia communication with the surrounding
extrapyramidal system that is known to be closely involved with the motor
system and in the coordination of movement.  [74]  The most recent belief is
that functional problems in the striatum of schizophrenic patients are not
significant enough to seriously impair procedural learning, however, research
shows that the impairment will be significant enough to cause problems
improving performance on a task between practice intervals.  [75]
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