mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
**Last Updated:** September 2015
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Direct perception  

**Direct perception** in the cognitive sense is related to the philosophical
notion of  naïve or direct realism  in that it is predicated on the assumption that what we perceive is
what is actually in the world. James J. Gibson is credited with recasting
direct perception as [ ecological perception
](/wiki/Ecological_psychology
Structure  

In terms of development, the human  central nervous system
 is often classified
based on the original three primitive  vesicles
 "Vesicle \(embryology\)") from which it
develops: These primary vesicles form in the normal development of the 
neural tube  of the  embryo  and initially include the  prosencephalon  ,  mesencephalon  ,
and  rhombencephalon  , in rostral
to caudal (from head to tail) orientation. Later in development of the nervous
system each section itself turns into smaller components. During development,
the cells that migrate tangentially to form the basal ganglia are directed by
the lateral and medial  ganglionic eminences  .  [13]  The following table demonstrates this
developmental classification and traces it to the anatomic structures found in
the basal ganglia.  [2]  [4]  [14]  The structures relevant to the basal
ganglia are shown in **bold** .

Primary division of the  neural tube  |
Secondary subdivision  |  Final segments in a human adult
---|---|---
 Prosencephalon  |

1.  Telencephalon 
2.  Diencephalon 

|

1. On each side of the brain: the cerebral cortices, **caudate** , **putamen** , **Globus pallidus** , **ventral pallidum**
2. Thalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus, **subthalamic nucleus**

 Mesencephalon  |

1. Mesencephalon

|

1. Mesencephalon (midbrain): **substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)** , **substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr)**

 Rhombencephalon  |

1.  Metencephalon 
2.  Myelencephalon 

|

1. Pons and cerebellum
2. Medulla

Video of relevant anatomy    Coronal
 slices of
human brain showing the basal ganglia. White matter is shown in dark gray,
gray matter is shown in light gray.
Anterior:  striatum  ,  globus pallidus
 (GPe and GPi)
Posterior:  subthalamic nucleus  (STN),  substantia nigra  (SN)

The basal ganglia form a fundamental component of the  cerebrum
 . In contrast to the  cortical
 layer that lines the surface of the
forebrain, the basal ganglia are a collection of distinct masses of  gray
matter  lying deep in the brain not far from
the junction of the  thalamus  . They lie to the
side of and surround the thalamus.  [15]  Like most parts of the brain, the
basal ganglia consist of left and right sides that are virtual mirror images
of each other.

In terms of anatomy, the basal ganglia are divided into four distinct
structures, depending on how [ superior
](/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location
Derek W. Yip  1  ,   Forshing Lui
 2
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Multi-component movements  

Some studies observed that the CNS can split a complex movement into sub-
movements. The initial sub-movement tends to be fast and imprecise in order to
bring the limb endpoint into vicinity of the target as soon as possible. Then,
the final sub-movement tends to be slow and precise in order to correct for
accumulated error by the first initial sub-movement and to successfully reach
the target.  [61]  [62]  A later study further explored how the CNS selects a
temporary target of the initial sub-movement in different conditions. For
example, when the actual target size decreases and thus complexity increases,
the temporary target of the initial sub-movement moves away from the actual
target in order to give more space for the final corrective action. Longer
reaching distances have a similar effect, since more error is accumulated in
the initial sub-movement and thus requiring more complex final correction. In
less complex conditions, when the final actual target is large and the
movement is short, the CNS tends to use a single movement, without splitting
it into multiple competents.  [63]
*  Functional anatomy of the mental representation of upper extremity movements in healthy subjects.
Coordination  

A core motor control issue is coordinating the various components of the 
motor system  to act in unison to produce
movement.

Peripheral neurons receive input from the  central nervous system
 and innervate the
muscles. In turn, muscles generate forces which actuate joints. Getting the
pieces to work together is a challenging problem for the motor system and how
this problem is resolved is an active area of study in motor control research.
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Inverse models  

 Inverse models
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Terminology  

The nomenclature of the basal ganglia system and its components has always
been problematic. Early anatomists, seeing the macroscopic anatomical
structure but knowing nothing of the cellular architecture or neurochemistry,
grouped together components that are now believed to have distinct functions
(such as the internal and external segments of the globus pallidus), and gave
distinct names to components that are now thought to be functionally parts of
a single structure (such as the caudate nucleus and putamen).

The term "basal" comes from the fact that most of its elements are located in
the basal part of the forebrain. The term  ganglia  is a misnomer: In modern usage, neural clusters are called
"ganglia" only in the  peripheral nervous system
 ; in the 
central nervous system  they are called "nuclei". For this reason, the basal ganglia are also
occasionally known as the "basal nuclei".  [51]   Terminologia anatomica
 (1998), the
international authority for anatomical naming, retained "nuclei basales", but
this is not commonly used.

The International Basal Ganglia Society (IBAGS)  [52]  informally considers
the basal ganglia to be made up of the  striatum 
, the pallidum (with two nuclei), the  substantia nigra
 (with its two distinct parts),
and the  subthalamic nucleus  , whereas Terminologia anatomica excludes the last two. Some
neurologists have included the  centromedian nucleus
 of the thalamus as part
of the basal ganglia,  [53]  [54]  and some have also included the 
pedunculopontine nucleus  .  [55]
Neurotransmitters  

The basal ganglia contains many afferent  glutamatergic
 "Glutamate \(neurotransmitter\)")
inputs, with predominantly  GABAergic  efferent
fibers, modulatory  cholinergic 
pathways, significant dopamine in the pathways originating in the  ventral
tegmental area  and 
substantia nigra  , as well as
various  neuropeptides  . Neuropeptides
found in the basal ganglia include  substance P  ,  neurokinin A  , 
cholecystokinin  ,  neurotensin
 ,  neurokinin B  ,  neuropeptide Y  ,
 somatostatin  ,  dynorphin
 ,  enkephaline  . Other neuromodulators found in the basal ganglia include 
nitric oxide  ,  carbon monoxide
 , and  phenylethylamine
 .  [30]
* PMID:  **31194345**
* Bookshelf ID:   NBK542188
**Editors:**
2022 Sep 12  .
* Study Guide
The cerebellum is hard to miss when you're looking at a brain. Cerebellum is
Latin for "little brain", and indeed the cerebellum looks a bit like a smaller
version of our brain. It protrudes from the back and bottom of the  cerebral
cortex  .
You can see it when looking at a side view of a brain as the most posterior
and inferior portion of the brain (see picture to the right).
Functional connectivity  

The functional connectivity, measured by regional co-activation during
functional neuroimaging studies, is broadly consistent with the parallel
processing models of basal ganglia function. The putamen was generally
coactivated with motor areas such as the  supplementary motor area
 , caudal 
anterior cingulate cortex  and  primary motor cortex  , while the caudate and rostral putamen were more
frequently coactivated with the rostral ACC and DLPFC. The ventral striatum
was significantly associated with the amygdala and hippocampus, which although
was not included in the first formulations of basal ganglia models, has been
an addition to more recent models.  [31]
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##  Excerpt
Other animals  

See also:  Primate basal ganglia system 

The basal ganglia form one of the basic components of the  forebrain
 , and can be recognized in all species
of vertebrates.  [56]  Even in the lamprey (generally considered one of the
most primitive of vertebrates), striatal, pallidal, and nigral elements can be
identified on the basis of anatomy and histochemistry.  [57]

The names given to the various nuclei of the basal ganglia are different in
different species. In  cats  and  rodents  the internal globus pallidus is known as the _entopeduncular
nucleus_ .  [58]  In  birds  the striatum is called the
_paleostriatum augmentatum_ and the external globus pallidus is called the
_paleostriatum primitivum_ .

A clear emergent issue in comparative anatomy of the basal ganglia is the
development of this system through phylogeny as a convergent cortically re-
entrant loop in conjunction with the development and expansion of the cortical
mantle. There is controversy, however, regarding the extent to which
convergent selective processing occurs versus segregated parallel processing
within re-entrant closed loops of the basal ganglia. Regardless, the
transformation of the basal ganglia into a cortically re-entrant system in
mammalian evolution occurs through a re-direction of pallidal (or
"paleostriatum primitivum") output from midbrain targets such as the superior
colliculus, as occurs in  sauropsid  brain, to
specific regions of the ventral thalamus and from there back to specified
regions of the cerebral cortex that form a subset of those cortical regions
projecting into the striatum. The abrupt rostral re-direction of the pathway
from the internal segment of the globus pallidus into the ventral thalamus—via
the path of the  ansa lenticularis  —could be viewed as a footprint of this evolutionary
transformation of basal ganglia outflow and targeted influence.
Subject:  1 selected item: 31194345 - PubMed
Synergies  

A motor _[ synergy ](/wiki/Motor_coordination
Copyright EBM Consult, LLC
Directional_terms "Anatomical terms of
location") they are (in other words depending on how close to the top of the
head they are): Two of them, the  striatum  and
the  pallidum  , are relatively large; the other
two, the substantia nigra and the  subthalamic nucleus
 , are smaller. In the
illustration to the right, two  coronal  sections of the human brain show the location
of the basal ganglia components. Of note, and not seen in this section, the
subthalamic nucleus and substantia nigra lie farther back (  posteriorly
 "Posterior \(anatomy\)") ) in the brain than the
striatum and pallidum.
Search Within
[  StatPearls [Internet]  NCBI Bookshelf
](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542188 "See full text options at NCBI
Bookshelf")
Editors & Reviewers
Pallidum  

The _pallidum_ consists of a large structure called the  globus pallidus
 ("pale globe") together with a
smaller ventral extension called the  ventral pallidum
 . The globus pallidus appears as
a single neural mass, but can be divided into two functionally distinct parts,
called the internal (or medial) and external (lateral) segments, abbreviated
GPi and GPe.  [2]  Both segments contain primarily GABAergic neurons, which
therefore have inhibitory effects on their targets. The two segments
participate in distinct  neural circuits  . The GPe receives input mainly from the striatum, and projects to
the subthalamic nucleus. The GPi receives signals from the striatum via the
"direct" and "indirect" pathways. Pallidal neurons operate using a
disinhibition principle. These neurons fire at steady high rates in the
absence of input, and signals from the striatum cause them to pause or reduce
their rate of firing. Because pallidal neurons themselves have inhibitory
effects on their targets, the net effect of striatal input to the pallidum is
a reduction of the tonic inhibition exerted by pallidal cells on their targets
(disinhibition) with an increased rate of firing in the targets.
#  Know your brain: Cerebellum
The cerebellum also seems to be important to the learning of motor movements.
When we repeat a motor movement over and over again, we gradually learn to
execute it more smoothly and precisely. This learning process is based in part
on the strengthening of  synapses
 in the
cerebellum.
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Closed loop control  

The classical definition of a closed loop system for human movement comes from
Jack A. Adams (1971).  [22]  [23]  A reference of the desired output is
compared to the actual output via error detection mechanisms; using feedback,
the error is corrected for. Most movements that are carried out during day-to-
day activity are formed using a continual process of accessing sensory
information and using it to more accurately continue the motion. This type of
motor control is called  feedback control  , as it relies on sensory feedback to control movements. Feedback
control is a situated form of motor control, relying on sensory information
about performance and specific sensory input from the environment in which the
movement is carried out. This sensory input, while processed, does not
necessarily cause conscious awareness of the action. _Closed loop control_
[24]  : 186  is a feedback based mechanism of motor control, where any act on
the environment creates some sort of change that affects future performance
through feedback. Closed loop motor control is best suited to continuously
controlled actions, but does not work quickly enough for ballistic actions.
Ballistic actions are actions that continue to the end without thinking about
it, even when they no longer are appropriate.  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]  Because
feedback control relies on sensory information, it is as slow as sensory
processing. These movements are subject to a speed-accuracy trade-off, because
sensory processing is being used to control the movement, the faster the
movement is carried out, the less accurate it becomes.
Subthalamic nucleus  

Main article:  Subthalamic nucleus 

The subthalamic nucleus is a  diencephalic  gray matter portion of the basal ganglia, and the only portion
of the ganglia that produces an excitatory neurotransmitter,  glutamate
 . The role of the subthalamic nucleus is to
stimulate the SNr-GPi complex and it is part of the  indirect pathway
 . The
subthalamic nucleus receives inhibitory input from the external part of the
globus pallidus and sends excitatory input to the GPi.
* **Anatomy:**  _Dermatomes - Full Body_ 
* **Anatomy:**  _Dermatomes - Head and Face_ 
* **Anatomy:**  _Dermatomes - Hand_ 
* **Anatomy:**  _Cavernous Sinus_ 
* **Anatomy & Pathology: **  _Stroke vs. Bell's Palsy_ 
* **Anatomy & Pathology: **  _Epidural vs. Subdural Hematoma_ 
* **EBM Focused Topic:**  _Endovascular Treatment of Acute Ischemic Stroke_
Research in athletes  

* Gray R (2011). "Links Between Attention, Performance Pressure, and Movement in Skilled Motor Action". _Current Directions in Psychological Science_ . **20** (5): 301–306.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1177/0963721411416572  .  S2CID  "S2CID \(identifier\)")  15905566  .
* Mikheev M, Mohr C, Afanasiev S, Landis T, Thut G (2002). "Motor control and cerebral hemispheric specialization in highly qualified judo wrestlers". _Neuropsychologia_ . **40** (8): 1209–1219.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00227-5  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  11931924  .  S2CID  "S2CID \(identifier\)")  7825661  .
* Paul M, Ganesan S, Sandhu J, Simon J (2012).  "Effect of Sensory Motor Rhythm Neurofeedback on Psycho-physiological, Electroencephalographic Measures and Performance of Archery Players"  . _Ibnosina Journal of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences _ . **4** (2): 32–39.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :   10.4103/1947-489X.210753  .

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Although the cerebellum is involved in a number of brain functions, it is best
known for its part in the modulation of movement. When we make a voluntary
movement, the signal to initiate that movement originates in the  motor
cortices  .
Before the signal is sent to our muscles, however, it is sent to the
cerebellum.
Reflexes  

In some cases the coordination of motor components is hard-wired, consisting
of fixed neuromuscular pathways that are called  _reflexes_  . Reflexes are typically characterized as automatic and fixed motor
responses, and they occur on a much faster time scale than what is possible
for reactions that depend on perceptual processing.  [27]  Reflexes play a
fundamental role in stabilizing the motor system, providing almost immediate
compensation for small perturbations and maintaining fixed execution patterns.
Some reflex loops are routed solely through the spinal cord without receiving
input from the brain, and thus do not require attention or conscious control.
Others involve lower brain areas and can be influenced by prior instructions
or intentions, but they remain independent of perceptual processing and online
control.

The simplest reflex is the _[ monosynaptic reflex
](/wiki/Reflex_arc
Monosynaptic_vs._polysynaptic "Reflex arc") _ or short-loop
reflex, such as the monosynaptic stretch response. In this example,  Ia
afferent  neurons are activated by  muscle
spindles  when they deform due to the
stretching of the muscle. In the spinal cord, these afferent neurons synapse
directly onto  alpha motor neurons  that regulate the contraction of the same muscle.  [28]  Thus, any
stretching of a muscle automatically signals a reflexive contraction of that
muscle, without any central control. As the name and the description implies,
monosynaptic reflexes depend on a single synaptic connection between an
afferent sensory neuron and efferent motor neuron. In general the actions of
monosynaptic reflexes are fixed and cannot be controlled or influenced by
intention or instruction. However, there is some evidence to suggest that the
 gain  "Gain \(electronics\)") or magnitude of
these reflexes can be adjusted by context and experience.  [29]

_Polysynaptic reflexes_ or long-loop reflexes are reflex arcs which involve
more than a single synaptic connection in the spinal cord. These loops may
include cortical regions of the brain as well, and are thus slower than their
monosynaptic counterparts due to the greater travel time. However, actions
controlled by polysynaptic reflex loops are still faster than actions which
require perceptual processing.  [30]  : 171, 578  While the actions of short-
loop reflexes are fixed, polysynaptic reflexes can often be regulated by
instruction or prior experience.  [31]  A common example of a long loop reflex
is the  asymmetrical tonic neck reflex  observed in infants.
Show all 11 references
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Individual movement optimization  

There are several mathematical models that describe how the central nervous
system (CNS) derives reaching movements of limbs and eyes. The minimum jerk
model states that the CNS minimizes  jerk  "Jerk
\(physics\)") of a limb endpoint trajectory over the time of reaching, which
results in a smooth trajectory.  [53]  However, this model is based solely on
the kinematics of movement and does not consider the underlying dynamics of
the musculoskeletal system. Hence, the minimum torque-change model was
introduced as an alternative, where the CNS minimizes the joint  torque
 change over the time of reaching.  [54]

Later it was argued that there is no clear explanation about how could the CNS
actually estimate complex quantities such as jerk or torque change and then
integrate them over the duration of a trajectory. In response, model based on
signal-dependent noise was proposed instead, which states that the CNS selects
a trajectory by minimizing the variance of the final position of the limb
endpoint. Since there is a motor noise in the neural system that is
proportional to the activation of the muscles, the faster movements induce
more motor noise and are thus less precise.  [55]  This is also in line with
the  Fitts' Law  and speed-accuracy trade-
off.  [56]   Optimal control 
theory was used to further extend the model based on signal-dependent noise,
where the CNS optimizes an objective function that consists of a term related
to accuracy and additionally a term related to metabolic cost of movement.
[57]

Another type of models is based on cost-benefit trade-off, where the objective
function includes metabolic cost of movement and a subjective reward related
to reaching the target accurately. In this case the reward for a successful
reach within the desired target is discounted by the duration of reaching,
since the gained reward is perceived less valuable when spending more time on
it.  [58]  [59]  However, these models were deterministic and did not account
for motor noise, which is an essential property of stochastic motor control
that results in speed-accuracy trade-off. To address that, a new model was
later proposed to incorporate the motor noise and to unify cost-benefit and
speed-accuracy trade-offs.  [60]
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