mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
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Perceived risk  Further information:  Perceived risk 

Previous studies have indicated that explaining a hypothetical event makes the
event seem more likely through the creation of causal connections. However,
such effects could arise through the use of the availability heuristic; that
is, subjective likelihood is increased by an event becoming easier to imagine.
[28]

A study done asked those participating to pick between two illnesses. Those
doing the study wanted to know which disease they thought was more likely to
cause death. In the study, they asked participants to choose between a stroke
and asthma as to which one someone was more likely to die from. The
researchers concluded that it depended on what experiences were available to
them. If they knew someone or heard of someone that died from one of the
diseases that is the one they perceived to be a higher risk to die from.  [29]
Obtained funding: Strong, Pierce.
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In this study, we identified that over 58% of current smokers had smoking
cessation intention due to GWLs on cigarette package. Moreover, about 40% of
current smokers who had no plan to quit in a year reported smoking cessation
intention due to GWLs. The findings were in line with previous studies [  8
:43–9.") ,  23
 ]. Brewer, et al. [  24
:905–12.") ]
demonstrated that affixing GWLs on cigarette package encouraged about 40% of
2149 current smokers planned to quit, which was consistent with findings in
this study. GWLs increased smoking cessation intention by increasing attention
to the physical harm warnings, inducing emotional response, eliciting negative
reactions, avoidance of warning and considering the warning message. In light
of the sufficient evidence of GWLs for tobacco control, the fraction of
countries having GWLs increased significantly from 15% in 2007, to 55% in 2014
and to over 61% in 2017 [  13 :25.") ].
###  Follow BMC
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Anh Ngo, et al. [  12 :421.") ]
demonstrated that GWLs were associated with a 0.9–3 percentage point decrease
in adult smoking prevalence and with a reduction of 230–287 sticks of per
capita cigarette consumption. In this study, we noticed that 41.85% of smokers
in Shanghai had plan to quit smoking in a year, which was higher than that in
ITC China Survey in 2006 (26%), and Shanghai Tobacco Control Survey in 2013
(20%) [  20 :i12–7.") ]. Meanwhile, more
current smokers would consider to quit smoking due to GWLs, so we predicted
that the prevalence of tobacco smoking would decrease gradually if GWLs was
adopted in Shanghai, China. Whereas, we should notice that 47.92% of current
smokers in this study had previously tried to quit smoking but all relapsed.
The high percentage of smoking cessation intention were not equal to the high
percentage of actual cessation behavior in the future, so incorporating
tobacco control measures covering the repeated intervention and professional
counseling contrapuntally would promote the smoking cessation intention
transferring into actual cessation behavior.
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reinforcement learning agent experiments in an environment, taking actions and
being rewarded when the correct actions are taken. Over time, the agent learns
to take the actions that will maximize its reward. That’s a quick definition
of reinforcement learning, but taking a closer look at the concepts behind
reinforcement learning will help you gain a better, more intuitive
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Reinforcement learning is applied to various tasks in  natural language
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This method is similar to the  REINFORCE algorithm
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Instead, it closely resembles human  cognition
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without explicit programming or constant human involvement. This learning
method optimizes AI-driven systems by emulating natural intelligence.
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What is NIRS
Description  

 Oxygenated and deoxygenated
hemoglobin

fNIRS estimates the concentration of hemoglobin from changes in absorption of
near infrared light. As light moves or propagates through the head, it is
alternately scattered or absorbed by the tissue through which it travels.
Because hemoglobin is a significant absorber of near-infrared light, changes
in absorbed light can be used to reliably measure changes in hemoglobin
concentration. Different fNIRS techniques can also use the way in which light
propagates to estimate blood volume and oxygenation. The technique is safe,
non-invasive, and can be used with other imaging modalities.

fNIRS is a non-invasive imaging method involving the quantification of 
chromophore  concentration resolved from the
measurement of near infrared (NIR)  light  attenuation
or temporal or phasic changes. The technique takes advantage of the  optical
window  in which (a) skin, tissue, and bone are mostly transparent
to NIR light (700–900 nm spectral interval) and (b)  hemoglobin
 (Hb) and deoxygenated-hemoglobin (deoxy-Hb)
are strong absorbers of light.

Absorption spectra for oxy-Hb and deoxy-Hb for near-infrared wavelengths

There are six different ways for infrared light to interact with the brain
tissue: direct transmission, diffuse transmission, specular reflection,
diffuse reflection, scattering, and absorption. fNIRS focuses primarily on
absorption: differences in the absorption spectra of deoxy-Hb and oxy-Hb allow
the measurement of relative changes in hemoglobin concentration through the
use of light attenuation at multiple  wavelengths  . Two or more wavelengths are selected, with one wavelength
above and one below the  isosbestic  point of 810 nm—at which deoxy-Hb and oxy-Hb have identical absorption
 coefficients  . Using the modified  Beer-
Lambert law  (mBLL),
relative changes in concentration can be calculated as a function of total
photon path length.  [3]

Typically, the light emitter and detector are placed ipsilaterally (each
emitter/detector pair on the same side) on the subject's skull so recorded
measurements are due to back-scattered (reflected) light following elliptical
pathways.  [4]  fNIRS is most sensitive to hemodynamic changes which occur
nearest to the scalp  [5]  and these superficial artifacts are often addressed
using additional light detectors located closer to the light source (short-
separation detectors).  [6]
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Generally,  all our portable devices weigh less than 300 g

to keep extra weight and pressure on the subject’s head as minimal as
possible. The control units can either be attached to the headcaps of the
subject, or, by using a body belt or armbands, to other parts of the body of
the subject or caregiver. This enables free movement without using other
fixation solutions, e.g., backpacks, and makes the measurement completely
wireless.
Music and the brain  

fNIRS with a pianist

fNIRS can be used to monitor musicians' brain activity while playing musical
instruments.  [34]  [35]  [36]  [37]
Frequency domain  

Frequency domain (FD) system comprises NIR laser sources which provide an
amplitude-modulated sinusoid at frequencies near 100 MHz. FD-fNIRS measures
attenuation, phase shift and the average path length of light through the
tissue. Multi-Distance, which is a part of the FD-fNIRS, is insensitive to
differences in skin color—giving constant results regardless of subject
variation.

Changes in the back-scattered signal's amplitude and phase provide a direct
measurement of absorption and scattering coefficients of the tissue, thus
obviating the need for information about photon path-length; and from the
coefficients we determine the changes in the concentration of hemodynamic
parameters.

Because of the need for modulated lasers as well as phasic measurements, FD
system-based devices are more technically complex (therefore more expensive
and much less portable) than CW-based ones. However, the system is capable of
providing absolute concentrations of HbO and HbR.
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Time domain  

Time domain (TD) system introduces a short NIR pulse with a pulse length
usually in the order of  picoseconds  —around
70 ps. Through time-of-flight measurements, photon path-length may be directly
observed by dividing resolved time by the speed of light. Information about
hemodynamic changes can be found in the attenuation, decay, and time profile
of the back-scattered signal. For this photon-counting technology is
introduced, which counts 1 photon for every 100 pulses to maintain linearity.
TD-fNIRS does have a slow sampling rate as well as a limited number of
wavelengths. Because of the need for a photon-counting device, high-speed
detection, and high-speed emitters, time-resolved methods are the most
expensive and technically complicated.

TD-based devices have the highest depth sensitivity and are capable of
presenting most accurate values of baseline hemoglobin concentration and
oxygenation.
Hyperscanning  

See also: [ Neural synchrony § Hyperscanning
](/wiki/Neural_synchrony
NIRS devices
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##  fNIRS in Neuromarketing
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Optical technique for monitoring brain activity

 fNIRS with a
Gowerlabs NTS system

**Functional near-infrared spectroscopy** ( **fNIRS** ) is an optical brain
monitoring technique which uses  near-infrared spectroscopy  for the purpose of 
functional neuroimaging  .  [1]  Using fNIRS, brain activity is measured by using near-
infrared light to estimate cortical  hemodynamic activity
 which occur in response
to neural activity. Alongside  EEG  , fNIRS is one of the
most common non-invasive neuroimaging techniques which can be used in portable
contexts. The signal is often compared with the  BOLD  signal
measured by  fMRI  and is capable of measuring changes both in oxy-
and deoxyhemoglobin concentration,  [2]  but can only measure from regions
near the cortical surface. fNIRS may also be referred to as Optical Topography
(OT) and is sometimes referred to simply as NIRS.
Fields of use
In 2018,  **Lee et al**

. already highlighted the advantages of the fNIRS in Neuromarketing, proposing
**its integration among the most effective neuromarketing methods** . In
response to Lee et all, a  **study**

including two small fNIRS experiments demonstrated the great opportunities
that lie behind the **fNIRS** application in the **neuromarketing field** . in
particular, the authors of the study shared the following highlights:
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Muscle oxygenation measuring