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Negativity bias

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Research points to a correlation between political affiliation and negativity
bias,  [47]  [48]  where conservatives are more sensitive to negative stimuli
and therefore tend to lean towards right-leaning ideology which considers
threat reduction and social-order to be its main focus.  [49]  Individuals
with lower negativity bias tend to lean towards liberal political policies
such as pluralism and are accepting of diverse social groups which by proxy
could threaten social structure and cause greater risk of unrest.  [50]
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Decision-making  

Studies of the negativity bias have also been related to research within the
domain of  decision-making  ,
specifically as it relates to  risk aversion
 "Risk aversion \(psychology\)") or  loss
aversion  . When presented with a
situation in which a person stands to either gain something or lose something
depending on the outcome, potential costs were argued to be more heavily
considered than potential gains.  [44]  [1]  [37]  [45]  The greater
consideration of losses (i.e. negative outcomes) is in line with the principle
of negative potency as proposed by Rozin and Royzman.  [4]  This issue of
negativity and loss aversion as it relates to decision-making is most notably
addressed by Drs.  Daniel Kahneman's  and  Amos Tversky's  
prospect theory  .

However, it is worth noting that Rozin and Royzman were never able to find
loss aversion in decision making.  [4]  They wrote, "in particular, strict
gain and loss of money does not reliably demonstrate loss aversion". This is
consistent with the findings of a recent review of more than 40 studies of
loss aversion focusing on decision problems with equal sized gains and losses.
[46]  In their review, Yechiam and Hochman (2013) did find a positive effect
of losses on performance, autonomic arousal, and response time in decision
tasks, which they suggested is due to the effect of losses on attention. This
was labeled by them as loss attention.  [46]
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Attribution of Intentions  

Studies reported in a paper in the _Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General_ by Carey Morewedge (2009) found that people exhibit a _**negativity
bias** _ _**in attribution of external agency** _ , such that they are more
likely to attribute negative outcomes to the intentions of another person than
similar neutral and positive outcomes.  [25]  In laboratory experiments,
Morewedge found that participants were more likely to believe that a partner
had influenced the outcome of a gamble in when the participants lost money
than won money, even when the probability of winning and losing money was held
even. This bias is not limited to adults. Children also appear to be more
likely to attribute negative events to intentional causes than similarly
positive events.  [26]
September 27, 2023 at 4:40 am
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*  _Theory and Research_  Information on theoretical aspect of negativity bias.
*  _Negativity Bias – description_  Video.

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 Biases 

---

 Cognitive biases 

|

*  Acquiescence 
*  Ambiguity 
*  Anchoring  "Anchoring \(cognitive bias\)")
*  Attentional 
*  Attribution 
*  Actor–observer 
*  Correspondence 
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Cognition  

As addressed by negative differentiation,  [4]  negative information seems to
require greater information processing resources and activity than does
positive information; people tend to think and reason more about negative
events than positive events.  [8]  [27]  Neurological differences also point
to greater processing of negative information: participants exhibit greater
event-related potentials when reading about, or viewing photographs of, people
performing negative acts that were incongruent with their traits than when
reading about incongruent positive acts.  [28]  [29]  [30]  This additional
processing leads to differences between positive and negative information in
attention, learning, and memory.
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It noted with concern the "attitude of the Russian authorities" in response to
the plane crash in which the head of the Wagner Group,  _Yevgeny Prigozhin_
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6. Mental Models
Attention  

A number of studies have suggested that negativity is essentially an attention
magnet. For example, when tasked with forming an impression of presented
target individuals, participants spent longer looking at negative photographs
than they did looking at positive photographs.  [10]  Similarly, participants
registered more eye blinks when studying negative words than positive words
[31]  (blinking rate has been positively linked to cognitive activity  [32]
[33]  ). Also, people were found to show greater orienting responses following
negative than positive outcomes, including larger increases in pupil diameter,
heart rate, and peripheral arterial tone  [34]  [35]

Importantly, this preferential attendance to negative information is evident
even when the affective nature of the stimuli is irrelevant to the task
itself. The automatic vigilance hypothesis has been investigated using a
modified  Stroop task  .  [36]
Participants were presented with a series of positive and negative personality
traits in several different colors; as each trait appeared on the screen,
participants were to name the color as quickly as possible. Even though the
positive and negative elements of the words were immaterial to the color-
naming task, participants were slower to name the color of negative traits
than they were positive traits. This difference in response latencies
indicates that greater attention was devoted to processing the trait itself
when it was negative.

Aside from studies of eye blinks and color naming, Baumeister and colleagues
noted in their review of bad events versus good events  [2]  that there is
also easily accessible, real-world evidence for this attentional bias: bad
news sells more papers and the bulk of successful novels are full of negative
events and turmoil. When taken in conjunction with the laboratory-based
experiments, there is strong support for the notion that negative information
generally has a stronger pull on attention than does positive information.
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Explanations  

 Paul Rozin  and Edward Royzman proposed four
elements of the negativity bias in order to explain its manifestation:
negative potency, steeper negative gradients, negativity dominance, and
negative differentiation.  [4]

**Negative potency** refers to the notion that, while possibly of equal
magnitude or emotionality, negative and positive items/events/etc. are not
equally salient. Rozin and Royzman note that this characteristic of the
negativity bias is only empirically demonstrable in situations with inherent
measurability, such as comparing how positively or negatively a change in
temperature is interpreted.

With respect to positive and negative gradients, it appears to be the case
that negative events are thought to be perceived as increasingly more negative
than positive events are increasingly positive the closer one gets (spatially
or temporally) to the  affective  "Affect
\(psychology\)") event itself. In other words, there is a **steeper negative
gradient** than positive gradient. For example, the negative experience of an
impending dental surgery is perceived as increasingly more negative the closer
one gets to the date of surgery than the positive experience of an impending
party is perceived as increasingly more positive the closer one gets to the
date of celebration (assuming for the sake of this example that these events
are equally positive and negative). Rozin and Royzman argue that this
characteristic is distinct from that of negative potency because there appears
to be evidence of steeper negative slopes relative to positive slopes even
when potency itself is low.

**Negativity dominance** describes the tendency for the combination of
positive and negative items/events/etc. to skew towards an overall more
negative interpretation than would be suggested by the summation of the
individual positive and negative components. Phrasing in more  Gestalt
 -friendly terms, the whole is
more negative than the sum of its parts.

**Negative differentiation** is consistent with evidence suggesting that the
conceptualization of negativity is more elaborate and complex than that of
positivity. For instance, research indicates that negative vocabulary is more
richly descriptive of the affective experience than that of positive
vocabulary.  [5]  Furthermore, there appear to be more terms employed to
indicate negative emotions than positive emotions.  [6]  [7]  The notion of
negative differentiation is consistent with the  mobilization-minimization
hypothesis ") ,  [8]  which posits that negative
events, as a consequence of this complexity, require a greater mobilization of
cognitive resources to deal with the affective experience and a greater effort
to minimize the consequences.
Memory_biases "List of cognitive biases")

*  v  
*  t  ")
*  e  

 Media  "Media \(communication\)") and  human
factors 

---

*  Cognitive psychology 
*  Externality 
*  Evolutionary psychology 
*  Behavioral modernity 
*  Cognition 
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*  Media psychology 
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Media practices  |

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*  "If it bleeds, it leads" 
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*  Spiking  "Spike \(journalism\)")
*  Tabloid television 
*  Yellow journalism 

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Hello Muthal ji,
Learning and memory  

Learning and memory are direct consequences of attentional processing: the
more attention is directed or devoted toward something, the more likely it is
that it will be later learned and remembered. Research concerning the effects
of punishment and reward on learning suggests that punishment for incorrect
responses is more effective in enhancing learning than are rewards for correct
responses—learning occurs more quickly following bad events than good events.
[37]  [38]

Drs. Pratto and John addressed the effects of  affective
 "Affect \(psychology\)") information on
incidental memory as well as attention using their modified Stroop paradigm
(see section concerning "Attention"). Not only were participants slower to
name the colors of negative traits, they also exhibited better incidental
memory for the presented negative traits than they did for the positive
traits, regardless of the proportion of negative to positive traits in the
stimuli set.  [36]

Intentional memory is also impacted by the stimuli's negative or positive
quality. When studying both positive and negative behaviors, participants tend
to recall more negative behaviors during a later memory test than they do
positive behaviors, even after controlling for serial position effects.  [39]
[40]  There is also evidence that people exhibit better  recognition memory
 and source memory for
negative information.  [31]  [41]

When asked to recall a recent emotional event, people tend to report negative
events more often than they report positive events,  [42]  and this is thought
to be because these negative memories are more salient than are the positive
memories. People also tend to underestimate how frequently they experience
positive affect, in that they more often forget the positively emotional
experiences than they forget negatively emotional experiences.  [43]
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 Statistical biases  "Bias \(statistics\)") |

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Those fears are shared by Ashley Nunes, who studies transportation safety and
regulatory policy at MIT. "Limiting our perception of safety to fatal crashes
alone narrows our appraisal of risk," he said in an article for Canadian
newspaper  _The Globe and Mail_
 in 2018.
See also  

*  Pollyanna hypothesis  [24]
*  Positivity effect 
*  Positivity offset 
*  Prospect theory 
* Automatic vigilance hypothesis  [36]  [65]
* Leniency effect  [66]
* Positive–negative asymmetry  [3]  [5]
*  List of biases in judgment and decision making
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In both cases, propeller aircraft crashed on domestic flights, resulting in 86
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