mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Gestalt psychology differs from  Gestalt therapy  , which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
The founders of Gestalt therapy,  Fritz 
and  Laura Perls  , had worked with  Kurt
Goldstein  , a neurologist who had
applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism.
Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst
and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls.
[20]  The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is
disputed. On one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to
name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the Gestalt
psychologists would object to it;  [21]  on the other hand, Fritz and Laura
Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work.  [22]
####  Law of past experience
The _Mona Lisa_ digitally retouched to reduce the effects of aging;  the
unretouched image
 is slightly
darker.  [1]  [2]  [3]
###  Crucial Conversations
* **Bonington** : _ Francis I, Charles V and the Duchess of Étampes  _
* **Lewis** : _ Street Scene near the El Ghouri Mosque in Cairo  _
From Chapter 8: [
Research in 2003 by Professor  Margaret Livingstone
 of  Harvard University
 said that Mona Lisa's smile
disappears when observed with direct vision, known as  foveal  . Because of the way the human eye processes visual information, it
is less suited to pick up shadows directly; however,  peripheral vision
 can pick up shadows well.  [52]
*  Louvre Colonnade 
*  Lescot Wing 
*  Pavillon de Flore 
*  Pavillon de l'Horloge 
*  Louvre Pyramid 
*  Pyramide inversée 
*  Cour Carrée 
*  Medieval Louvre
Predictive coding

2 languages

*  Deutsch  
*  中文   "預測編碼 \(神經科學\) – Chinese")

[ Edit links
](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1315146
Copy of _Mona Lisa_ commonly attributed to  Salaì
High Renaissance
On 29 May 2022, a male activist, disguised as a woman in a wheelchair, threw 
cake  at the protective glass covering the painting in an
apparent attempt to raise awareness for  climate change
 .  [106]  The painting was not
damaged.  [107]  The man was arrested and placed in psychiatric care in the
police headquarters.  [108]  An investigation was opened after the Louvre
filed a complaint.  [109]  On 28 January 2024, two attackers from the
environmentalist group Riposte Alimentaire (Food Retaliation) threw soup at
the painting's protective glass, demanding the right to "healthy and
sustainable food" and criticizing the contemporary state of agriculture.
[110]
The _Mona Lisa_ has had many different decorative frames in its history, owing
to changes in taste over the centuries. In 1909, the art collector  Comtesse
de Béhague ") gave the portrait its current frame,  [121]  a Renaissance-
era work consistent with the historical period of the _Mona Lisa_ . The edges
of the painting have been trimmed at least once in its history to fit the
picture into various frames, but no part of the original paint layer has been
trimmed.  [75]
"La Joconde est Retrouvée" ("Mona Lisa is Found"), _ Le Petit Parisien
 _ , 13 December 1913
© 2005 - 2024,  Worldly Wisdom Ventures LLC
 . All rights reserved.
The Gestaltists were the first to document and demonstrate empirically many
facts about perception—including facts about the  perception of movement
 , the  perception of contour
 ,  perceptual constancy
 , and  perceptual
illusions  .  [14]  Wertheimer's discovery of the
 phi phenomenon  is one example of
such a contribution.  [28]
* This page was last edited on 29 March 2024, at 04:12  (UTC)  .
* Text is available under the  Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0   ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the  Terms of Use  and  Privacy Policy  . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the  Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.  , a non-profit organization.
#  Posts
Convergence  can be useful if you consciously
choose to spend time with people you’d like to become more like over time. If
you’d like to become less shy and more outgoing, spending time with social
people in social situations can’t help but influence your behavior. You won’t
become a social butterfly overnight, but you will naturally start to adopt the
behaviors and norms of the people you’re spending time with.
|   French  |
In the 1940s and 1950s,  laboratory  research
in  neurology  and what became known as 
cybernetics  on the mechanism of frogs' eyes
indicate that  perception  of 'gestalts' (in
particular gestalts _in motion_ ) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental
than 'seeing' as such:
* The 1915  _Mona Lisa_  "Mona Lisa \(opera\)") by German composer Max von Schillings.
* Two 1930s films written about the theft, ( _ The Theft of the Mona Lisa  _ and _ Arsène Lupin  "Arsène Lupin \(1932 film\)") _ ).
* The 1950 song "  Mona Lisa  "Mona Lisa \(Nat King Cole song\)") " recorded by  Nat King Cole  .
* The 2011 song "  The Ballad of Mona Lisa  " by American rock band  Panic! at the Disco  .
* The 2022 mystery film _ Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery  _ depicts the destruction of the _Mona Lisa_ , which has been borrowed from its location by a billionaire.
More about Josh Kaufman →
Convergence  is useful if you consciously choose
to spend time with people you'd like to become more like. At the same time,
breaking away from groups that aren't serving you is painful but necessary to
grow.
Early commentators such as  Vasari  and  André
Félibien  praised the
picture for its  realism  "Realism \(arts\)") , but
by the Victorian era, writers began to regard the _Mona Lisa_ as imbued with a
sense of mystery and  romance  . In 1859, 
Théophile Gautier  wrote
that the _Mona Lisa_ was a "sphinx of beauty who smiles so mysteriously" and
that "Beneath the form expressed one feels a thought that is vague, infinite,
inexpressible. One is moved, troubled ... repressed desires, hopes that drive
one to despair, stir painfully."  Walter Pater  's famous essay of 1869 described the sitter as "older than the rocks
among which she sits; like the vampire, she has been dead many times, and
learned the secrets of the grave; and has been a diver in the deep seas, and
keeps their fallen day about her."  [130]
The painting was one of the first Italian portraits to depict the sitter in
front of an imaginary landscape,  [42]  and Leonardo was one of the first
painters to use  aerial perspective  .  [43]  The enigmatic woman is portrayed seated in what appears
to be an open loggia with dark pillar bases on either side. Behind her, a vast
landscape recedes to icy mountains, winding paths and a distant bridge, giving
only the slightest indications of human presence. Leonardo has chosen to place
the horizon line not at the neck, as he did with _Ginevra de' Benci_ , but on
a level with the eyes, thus linking the figure with the landscape and
emphasizing the mysterious nature of the painting.  [40]  The bridge in the
background was identified by Silvano Vincenti as the four-arched  Romito di
Laterina bridge 
from  Etruscan  \- 
Roman  times near  Laterina
 ,  Arezzo  over the 
Arno river  .  [44]  Other bridges with similar arches
suggested as possible locations had more arches.  [44]
Further information:  History of psychology § Gestalt psychology
Painting by Leonardo da Vinci
* Heider, Grace M. (1977). "More about Hull and Koffka". _American Psychologist_ . **32** (5). American Psychological Association: 383.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1037/0003-066x.32.5.383.a  .  ISSN  "ISSN \(identifier\)")  1935-990X  .
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Reification
The restored painting is from a slightly different perspective than the
original _Mona Lisa_ , leading to the  speculation
 that it
is part of the world's first  stereoscopic  pair.  [157]  [158]  However, a more recent report has
demonstrated that this stereoscopic pair in fact gives no reliable
stereoscopic depth.  [159]
##  Origin and history
Marguerite Agniel  "As Mona
Lisa" by  Robert Henri  , c. 1929
Multistability  (or  multistable
perception  ) is the
tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth between two
or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the 
Necker cube  and  Rubin's Figure/Vase
illusion  . Other examples include the 
three-legged blivet  , artist  M. C. Escher
 's artwork, and the appearance of
flashing  marquee  "Marquee \(sign\)") lights moving
first one direction and then suddenly the other.
*  Cultural references 
*  Namesakes 
*  Portraits of Leonardo 
*  Conservation-restoration of _The Last Supper_ 
*  _Mona Lisa_ replicas and reinterpretations 
*  High Renaissance 
*  Mathematics and art 
* _ The Lost Leonardo  _
Mary Henle  noted in her presidential
address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological
Association: "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt
psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with
notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies,
existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt
therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt
psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing';
whatever it is, it is _not_ Gestalt psychology."  [23]
In 2014, a  France 24  article suggested that
the painting could be sold to help ease the national debt, although it was
observed that the _Mona Lisa_ and other such art works were prohibited from
being sold by French heritage law, which states that, "Collections held in
museums that belong to public bodies are considered public property and cannot
be otherwise."  [154]
####  Law of similarity
This article is about the painting. For other uses, see  Mona Lisa
(disambiguation)  "Mona Lisa
\(disambiguation\)") .
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###  Fame
At some point, the _Mona Lisa_ was removed from its original frame. The
unconstrained poplar panel warped freely with changes in humidity, and as a
result, a crack developed near the top of the panel, extending down to the
hairline of the figure. In the mid-18th century to early 19th century, two 
butterfly-shaped  walnut braces were
inserted into the back of the panel to a depth of about one third the
thickness of the panel. This intervention was skilfully executed, and
successfully stabilized the crack. Sometime between 1888 and 1905, or perhaps
during the picture's theft, the upper brace fell out. A later restorer glued
and lined the resulting socket and crack with cloth.  [119]  [120]
Northern  |
The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the  retina  in  mammals  and in  human beings  is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilised on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, "fixes" it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result, the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image "marks time" in the vicinity of this point.  [50]
###  Creation and date
*  Winaray  
*  吴语  
*  ייִדיש  
*  粵語  
*  中文
**The Personal MBA**
Theory of perception
Replicas  |
###  _Isleworth Mona Lisa_
_-_Louvre_779_-_Detail_\(right_landscape\).jpg)
Detail of the background (right side)
Research in 2008 by a geomorphology professor at  Urbino University
 and an artist-photographer
revealed that _Mona Lisa_ '  s landscape was similar to some views in the 
Montefeltro  region in the Italian provinces
of  Pesaro and Urbino  , and  Rimini  .  [53]  [54]
* _ Isleworth Mona Lisa  _ (16th century)
* _ Mona Lisa  "Mona Lisa \(Prado\)") _ (Prado,  c.  1503  –1516)
* _ Hermitage Mona Lisa  "Mona Lisa \(Hermitage\)") _ (  c.  1550  )
* _ L.H.O.O.Q.  _ (1919)
* _ Mini Lisa  _ (2013)
####  Multistability
In map design, principles of Prägnanz or grouping are crucial for implying a
conceptual order to the portrayed geographic features, thus facilitating the
intended use of the map.  [57]  The Law of Similarity is employed by selecting
similar  map symbols  for similar kinds of
features or features with similar properties; the Law of Proximity is crucial
to identifying geographic patterns and regions; and the Laws of Closure and
Continuity allow users to recognize features that may be obscured by other
features (such as when a road goes over a river).
Law of symmetry
1. ** ^  ** For more on the history of Gestalt psychology, see  Ash, M. G. (1995). _Gestalt psychology in German culture, 1890–1967: Holism and the quest for objectivity_ . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.  .
2. ** ^  ** For example,  Duncker, Karl (1935). _Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens_ [ _The psychology of productive thinking_ ] (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer.
3. ** ^  ** For example Duncker's "X-ray" problem; Ewert & Lambert's "disk" problem in 1932, later known as  Tower of Hanoi  .
The painting's global fame and popularity partly stem from its 1911 theft by 
Vincenzo Peruggia  , who
attributed his actions to Italian patriotism—a belief it should belong to
Italy. The theft and subsequent recovery in 1914 generated unprecedented
publicity for an  art theft  , and led to the
publication of many cultural depictions such as the 1915 opera  _Mona Lisa_
 "Mona Lisa \(opera\)") , two early 1930s films (
_ The Theft of the Mona Lisa  _ and _ Arsène Lupin 
"Arsène Lupin \(1932 film\)") _ ) and the song "  Mona Lisa
 "Mona Lisa \(Nat King Cole song\)") "
recorded by  Nat King Cole  —one of the
most successful songs of the 1950s.  [12]
*  Animal testing 
*  Archival research 
*  Behavior epigenetics 
*  Case study 
*  Content analysis 
*  Experiments 
*  Human subject research 
*  Interviews  "Interview \(research\)")
*  Neuroimaging 
*  Observation 
*  Psychophysics 
*  Qualitative research 
*  Quantitative research 
*  Self-report inventory 
*  Statistical surveys
###  Gestalt therapy
On screen  |
](/working-with-others/)
Perception  

The empirical evidence for predictive coding is most robust for perceptual
processing. As early as 1999, Rao and Ballard proposed a hierarchical  visual
processing  model in which
higher-order visual cortical area sends down predictions and the feedforward
connections carry the residual errors between the predictions and the actual
lower-level activities.  [6]  According to this model, each level in the
hierarchical model network (except the lowest level, which represents the
image) attempts to predict the responses at the next lower level via feedback
connections, and the error signal is used to correct the estimate of the input
signal at each level concurrently.  [6]  Emberson et al. established the top-
down modulation in infants using a cross-modal audiovisual omission paradigm,
determining that even infant brains have expectation about future sensory
input that is carried downstream from visual cortices and are capable of
expectation-based feedback.  [22]  Functional near-infrared spectroscopy
(fNIRS) data showed that infant  occipital cortex  responded to unexpected visual omission (with no visual
information input) but not to expected visual omission. These results
establish that in a hierarchically organized perception system, higher-order
neurons send down predictions to lower-order neurons, which in turn sends back
up the prediction error signal.
---
Principal proponents  |
In 2014, 9.3 million people visited the Louvre.  [151]  Former director 
Henri Loyrette  reckoned that "80
percent of the people only want to see the _Mona Lisa_ ."  [152]
##  Legacy
Origins  

Theoretical ancestors to predictive coding date back as early as 1860 with 
Helmholtz  's concept of  unconscious inference
 .  [4]  Unconscious
inference refers to the idea that the human brain fills in visual information
to make sense of a scene. For example, if something is relatively smaller than
another object in the visual field, the brain uses that information as a
likely cue of depth, such that the perceiver ultimately (and involuntarily)
experiences depth. The understanding of perception as the interaction between
sensory stimuli (bottom-up) and conceptual knowledge (top-down) continued to
be established by  Jerome Bruner  who,
starting in the 1940s, studied the ways in which needs, motivations and
expectations influence perception, research that came to be known as 'New
Look' psychology. In 1981,  McClelland
 "James McClelland \(psychologist\)")
and  Rumelhart  in their seminal
paper  [5]  examined the interaction between processing features (lines and
contours) which form letters, which in turn form words. While the features
suggest the presence of a word, they found that when letters were situated in
the context of a word, people were able to identify them faster than when they
were situated in a non-word without semantic context. McClelland and
Rumelhart's parallel processing model describes perception as the meeting of
top-down (conceptual) and bottom-up (sensory) elements.

In the late 1990s, the idea of top-down and bottom-up processing was
translated into a computational model of vision by  Rao  and  Ballard  .  [6]
###  Cultural depictions
*  France 
*  BnF data 
*  Germany 
*  Israel 
*  United States 
*  Japan 
*  Czech Republic
Challenges  

As a mechanistic theory, predictive coding has not been mapped out
physiologically on the neuronal level. One of the biggest challenges to the
theory has been the imprecision of exactly how prediction error minimization
works.  [26]  In some studies, the increase in  BOLD  signal has
been interpreted as error signal while in others it indicates changes in the
input representation.  [26]  A crucial question that needs to be addressed is
what exactly constitutes error signal and how it is computed at each level of
information processing.  [27]  Another challenge that has been posed is
predictive coding's computational tractability. According to Kwisthout and van
Rooij, the subcomputation in each level of the predictive coding framework
potentially hides a computationally intractable problem, which amounts to
“intractable hurdles” that computational modelers have yet to overcome.  [28]
Ransom and Fazelpour (2015) indicate "Three Problems for the Predictive Coding
Theory of Attention".  [29]

Future research could focus on clarifying the neurophysiological mechanism and
computational model of predictive coding.  [ _[ according to whom?
](/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch
Gestalt psychology is often associated with the adage, "The whole is greater
than the sum of its parts". In Gestalt theory, information is perceived as
wholes rather than disparate parts which are then processed summatively. As
used in Gestalt psychology, the German word _Gestalt_ (   /  ɡ  ə  ˈ  ʃ  t  æ
l  t  ,  \-  ˈ  ʃ  t  ɑː  l  t  / 
 _gə- SHTA(H)LT  _  ,  [4]  [5]  German:  [ [ɡəˈʃtalt]
](/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German "Help:IPA/Standard German")   ⓘ  ; meaning "form"  [6]  ) is interpreted as "pattern" or
"configuration".  [7]
###  Contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology
Because the _Mona Lisa_ '  s poplar  support  "Support
\(art\)") expands and contracts with changes in humidity, the picture has
experienced some warping. In response to warping and swelling experienced
during its storage during World War II, and to prepare the picture for an
exhibit to honour the anniversary of Leonardo's 500th birthday, the _Mona
Lisa_ was fitted in 1951 with a flexible oak frame with beech crosspieces.
This flexible frame, which is used in addition to the decorative frame
described below, exerts pressure on the panel to keep it from warping further.
In 1970, the beech  crosspieces  were
switched to maple after it was found that the  beechwood  had been infested with insects. In 2004–05, a conservation and
study team replaced the maple crosspieces with sycamore ones, and an
additional metal crosspiece was added for scientific measurement of the
panel's warp.  [ _ citation needed   _ ]
The _Mona Lisa_ bears a strong resemblance to many Renaissance depictions of
the  Virgin Mary  , who was at that time
seen as an ideal for womanhood.  [37]  The woman sits markedly upright in a
"pozzetto" armchair with her arms folded, a sign of her reserved posture. Her
gaze is fixed on the observer. The woman appears alive to an unusual extent,
which Leonardo achieved by his method of not drawing outlines ( _ sfumato
 _ ). The soft blending creates an ambiguous mood
"mainly in two features: the corners of the mouth, and the corners of the
eyes".  [38]
Retrieved from " 
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mona_Lisa&oldid=1216115497
 "
*  Art patronage of Julius II 
*  Jacob Burckhardt 
*  Johann Joachim Winckelmann 
*  Leonardeschi 
*  Giorgio Vasari 
* _ The Lives  _
##  Title and subject
*  Mona Lisa 
*  1500s paintings 
*  16th-century portraits 
*  Paintings by Leonardo da Vinci 
*  Paintings in the Louvre by Italian artists 
*  Portraits of women 
*  Portrait paintings in the Louvre 
*  Recovered works of art 
*  Stolen works of art 
*  Vandalized works of art
](/review/how-to-win-friends/) [
####  Music
_-_Louvre_779_-_Detail_\(hands\).jpg)
Detail of Lisa's hands, her right hand resting on her left. Leonardo chose
this gesture rather than a wedding ring to depict Lisa as a virtuous woman and
faithful wife.  [41]
* _ The Theft of the Mona Lisa  _ (1931)
* _ Arsène Lupin  "Arsène Lupin \(1932 film\)") _ (1932)
* _ The Mona Lisa Has Been Stolen  _ (1966)
* _ City of Death  _ (1979)
* _ Mona Lisa Descending a Staircase  _ (1992)
* _ Mona Lisa's Revenge  _ (2009)
* _ Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery  _ (2022)
Law of
similarity
by  Josh Kaufman  , #1
bestselling business author
Based on the principles, phenomenon experimental analysis was derived, which
asserts that any psychological research should take phenomena as a starting
point and not be solely focused on sensory qualities. A related principle is
that of the biotic experiment, which establishes the need to conduct real
experiments that sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory
experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in
real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher 
fidelity  , what would be habitual for a subject.
[27]
*  Lëtzebuergesch  
*  Lietuvių  
*  Limburgs  
*  Magyar   "Mona Lisa \(festmény\) – Hungarian")
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*  ਪੰਜਾਬੀ  
*  پنجابی  
*  پښتو  
*  ភាសាខ្មែរ  
*  Polski  
*  Português  
*  Qaraqalpaqsha  
*  Ripoarisch   "Mona Lisa \(Beld\) – Colognian")
*  Română
](/review/crucial-conversations/) [