Name  |  Description
---|---
 Availability bias  |  Greater
likelihood of recalling recent, nearby, or otherwise immediately available
examples, and the imputation of importance to those examples over others.
 Bizarreness effect  |
Bizarre material is better remembered than common material.
 Boundary extension  |
Remembering the background of an image as being larger or more expansive than
the foreground  [151]
 Childhood amnesia  |  The
retention of few memories from before the age of four.
 Choice-supportive bias  |  The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually
were.  [152]
 Confirmation bias  |  The
tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information in a way that
confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses. See also under  § Confirmation bias  .
Conservatism  or Regressive bias  |  Tendency to remember high values and high
likelihoods/probabilities/frequencies as lower than they actually were and low
ones as higher than they actually were. Based on the evidence, memories are
not extreme enough.  [153]  [154]
Consistency bias  |  Incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and
behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour.  [155]
Continued influence effect  |  Misinformation continues to influence memory
and reasoning about an event, despite the misinformation having been
corrected.  [156]   cf.  _ misinformation effect
 _ , where the original
memory is affected by incorrect information received later.
 Context effect 
|  That cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-
context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories
(e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at
home, and vice versa).
 Cross-race effect  |  The
tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identifying members of a
race other than their own.
 Egocentric bias  |  Recalling the
past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being
better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really
was.
 Euphoric recall  |  The tendency
of people to remember past experiences in a positive light, while overlooking
negative experiences associated with that event.
 Fading affect bias  |  A
bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more
quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.  [157]
 Generation effect  (Self-
generation effect)  |  That self-generated information is remembered best. For
instance, people are better able to recall memories of statements that they
have generated than similar statements generated by others.
Gender differences in eyewitness memory  |  The tendency for a witness to
remember more details about someone of the same gender.
 Google effect  |  The tendency to
forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search
engines.
 Hindsight bias  ("I-knew-it-all-
along" effect)  |  The inclination to see past events as having been
predictable.
Humor effect  |  That humorous items are more easily remembered than non-
humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the
increased cognitive processing time to understand the humor, or the emotional
arousal caused by the humor.  [158]
 Illusory correlation  |
Inaccurately seeing a relationship between two events related by coincidence.
[159]  See also under  Apophenia § Notes 
 Illusory truth effect 
(Illusion-of-truth effect)  |  People are more likely to identify as true
statements those they have previously heard (even if they cannot consciously
remember having heard them), regardless of the actual validity of the
statement. In other words, a person is more likely to believe a familiar
statement than an unfamiliar one. See also under  Truthiness § Notes

Lag effect  |  The phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is
spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a
single session. See also  spacing effect  .
 Leveling and sharpening  |  Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a
recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective
recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in
relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling.
Both biases may be reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-
telling of a memory.  [160]
 Levels-of-processing effect  |  That different methods of encoding information into
memory have different levels of effectiveness.  [161]
List-length effect  |  A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a
longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of
items remembered increases as well.  [162]
 Memory inhibition  |  Being
shown some items from a list makes it harder to retrieve the other items
(e.g., Slamecka, 1968).
 Misinformation effect 
|  Memory becoming less accurate because of interference from _post-event
information_ .  [163]   cf.  _ continued influence effect
 _ , where
misinformation about an event, despite later being corrected, continues to
influence memory about the event.
 Modality effect  |  That memory
recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were
received via speech than when they were received through writing.
 Mood-congruent memory bias  (state-dependent memory)  |  The improved recall of information
congruent with one's current mood.
 Negativity bias  or Negativity
effect  |  Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater  recall
 "Recall \(memory\)") of unpleasant memories compared
with positive memories.  [164]  [115]  (see also actor-observer bias,  group
attribution error  ,
positivity effect, and  negativity effect  ).  [129]
 Next-in-line effect  |
When taking turns speaking in a group using a predetermined order (e.g. going
clockwise around a room, taking numbers, etc.) people tend to have diminished
recall for the words of the person who spoke immediately before them.  [165]
 Part-list cueing effect  |  That being shown some items from a list and later retrieving one
item causes it to become harder to retrieve the other items.  [166]
 Peak–end rule  |  That people
seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at
its peak (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.
Persistence  |  The unwanted recurrence of memories of a  traumatic event
 .
 Picture superiority effect  |  The notion that concepts that are learned by viewing
pictures are more easily and frequently recalled than are concepts that are
learned by viewing their written word form counterparts.  [167]  [168]  [169]
[170]  [171]  [172]
Placement bias  |  Tendency to remember ourselves to be better than others at
tasks at which we rate ourselves above average (also  Illusory superiority
 or  Better-than-average
effect  )  [77]  and tendency to remember ourselves to be
worse than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves below average (also 
Worse-than-average effect  ).  [173]
Positivity effect (  Socioemotional selectivity theory

)  |  That older adults favor positive over negative information in their
memories. See also  euphoric recall 
 Primacy effect  |  Where an item at
the beginning of a list is more easily recalled. A form of  serial position
effect  . See also 
recency effect  and  suffix effect
 .
Processing difficulty effect  |  That information that takes longer to read
and is thought about more (processed with more difficulty) is more easily
remembered.  [174]  See also  levels-of-processing effect  .
 Recency effect  |  A form of 
serial position effect  where an item at the end of a list is easier to recall. This can be
disrupted by the  suffix effect  . See
also  primacy effect  .
 Reminiscence bump  |  The
recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than
personal events from other lifetime periods.  [175]
 Repetition blindness  |
Unexpected difficulty in remembering more than one instance of a visual
sequence
 Rosy retrospection  |  The
remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.
 Saying is believing effect
") |  Communicating a socially
tuned message to an audience can lead to a bias of identifying the tuned
message as one's own thoughts.  [176]
 Self-relevance effect 
|  That memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar
information relating to others.
 Serial position effect  |  That items near the end of a sequence are the easiest to recall,
followed by the items at the beginning of a sequence; items in the middle are
the least likely to be remembered.  [177]  See also  recency effect
 ,  primacy effect
 and  suffix effect
 .
 Spacing effect  |  That information
is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a long span of time
rather than a short one.
 Spotlight effect  |  The
tendency to overestimate the amount that other people notice one's appearance
or behavior.
Stereotype bias or stereotypical bias  |  Memory distorted towards stereotypes
(e.g., racial or gender).
Suffix effect  |  Diminishment of the  recency effect  because a sound item is appended to the list that the
subject is _not_ required to recall.  [178]  [179]  A form of  serial
position effect  . 
Cf.   recency effect  and  primacy effect  .
 Subadditivity effect  |
The tendency to estimate that the likelihood of a remembered event is less
than the sum of its (more than two) mutually exclusive components.  [180]
 Tachypsychia  |  When time perceived by
the individual either lengthens, making events appear to slow down, or
contracts.  [181]
 Telescoping effect  |  The
tendency to displace recent events backwards in time and remote events forward
in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events, more
recent.
 Testing effect  |  The fact that one
more easily recall information one has read by rewriting it instead of
rereading it.  [182]  Frequent testing of material that has been committed to
memory improves memory recall.
 Tip of the tongue  phenomenon
|  When a subject is able to recall parts of an item, or related information,
but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an
instance of "blocking" where multiple similar memories are being recalled and
interfere with each other.  [148]
Travis syndrome  |  Overestimating the significance of the present.  [183]  It
is related to  chronological snobbery  with possibly an  appeal to novelty
  logical fallacy
 being part of the bias.
Verbatim effect  |  That the "gist" of what someone has said is better
remembered than the verbatim wording.  [184]  This is because memories are
representations, not exact copies.
 von Restorff effect  |
That an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items.
[185]
 Zeigarnik effect  |  That
uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.