mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
As a functional aspect  

Functionally, memory span is used to measure the number of discrete units over
which the individual can successively distribute his attention and still
organize them into a working unit. To generalize, it refers to the ability of
an individual to reproduce immediately, after one presentation, a series of
discrete stimuli in their original order.  [1]

Experiments in memory span have found that the more familiar a person is with
the type of subject matter presented to them, the more they will remember it
in a novel setting. For example, a person will better remember a sequence in
their first-language than their second-language; a person will also remember a
sequence of words better than they would a sequence of nonsense syllables.
[2]

According to a theory by  Alan Baddeley  and  Graham Hitch  , working
memory is under the influence of  three key mechanisms
 : the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the
phonological loop. A mechanism called the episodic buffer was later added to
the model. The phonological loop is the mechanism that facilitates learning
and memory by storing information (in the articulatory loop) and refreshing or
rehearsing it in our memory (in the acoustic store).  [3]  The phonological
similarity effect is when items in a list have similar features (e.g. similar
sound), they are more difficult to remember. Likewise, the more different the
items in a list are, the easier it is to recall them.  [4]  Memory span tasks
since the formulation of Baddeley and Hitch's theory have been helpful as
support for the phonological loop as part of the working memory.  [5]  [6]
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As a structural aspect  

A structural definition of memory span is difficult to give, for one
immediately is faced by the distinctions between the prerequisites for memory
span, and the actual processes involved. "Associability” is required in memory
span. This term refers to the ability of the subject to group the series of
elements together: to perceive relationships among the series in order to
better reproduce them. Still another process involved in memory span is that
of imagery. The subject, in order to be able to reproduce the series
presented, must be able to image the series. The actual reproducing of the
series of stimuli involves the process of memory. If the individual possessed
no memory at all, reproduction of the series would be impossible. It is also
known that memory span and memory are different in the length of time over
which reproduction is possible. Memory span is transitory; memory is fairly
permanent. In addition, the amount of material involved in memory span is
ordinarily much less than the amount of material involved in memory.
Reproduction of the series also involves certain other "reproduction factors,"
such as language ability and arithmetical proficiency.  [7]
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Digit-span  

A digit-span task is used to measure  working memory  's number storage capacity. Participants see or hear a
sequence of numerical digits and are tasked to recall the sequence correctly,
with increasingly longer sequences being tested in each trial. The
participant's span is the longest number of sequential digits that can
accurately be remembered. Digit-span tasks can be given forwards or backwards,
meaning that once the sequence is presented, the participant is asked to
either recall the sequence in normal or reverse order.  [8]  Digit-span tasks
are the most commonly used test for memory span, partially because performance
on a digit-span task cannot be affected by factors such as semantics,
frequency of appearance in daily life, complexity, etc.  [2]

Memory span
---

This is a graphical representation of typical results that might be obtained
from performing a forward/backward digit span recall task on participants in
several different age groups. The numbers on the y-axis indicate number of
digits successfully recalled.

 MeSH  |  
D011581 

Verbal working memory is involved in many everyday tasks, such as remembering
a friend's telephone number while entering it into a phone and understanding
long and difficult sentences.  [9]  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]  Verbal
working memory is also thought to be one of the elements underlying
intelligence (often referred to as '  IQ  ,' meaning " 
intelligence quotient 
"); thus, the digit span task is a common component of many IQ tests,
including the widely used  Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS). Performance on the digit span task is also closely linked to language
learning abilities; improving verbal memory capacities may therefore aid
mastery of a new language.  [10]  [11]  [12]
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Memory span

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Extrinsic factors  

1. Characteristics of materials used: If the material is all closely related, it will be more easily reproduced than if it is unrelated. This relationship of the material is called the "coefficient of associability."  [14]  For example, in spoken word-span tasks if the words presented are phonologically similar a lower span is elicited than if the task uses phonologically different words.  [15]
2. Addition of non-target elements: the addition of irrelevant stimuli between target stimuli reduces performance on memory span tasks. If the irrelevant stimuli is a repeated syllable (i.e. ba, ba, ba) the span is reduced (articulatory suppression effect)  [15]
3. Rhythm of presentation: Closely related to the problem of presenting the stimuli in groups, is the presentation of the stimuli in rhythmic fashion. Most investigators point out that the stimuli used in testing memory span should be presented with as little rhythm as possible. The effect of rhythm is to group the units in the series, again enabling the individual to secure a span higher than his "true" one.  [ _ citation needed   _ ]
4. Rate of presentation: The speed with which the stimuli are presented has an effect on memory span score. When listening to auditory stimuli, the impact of speed is mediated by whether the subject is actively or passively listening. Active listeners score better with faster stimuli presentation. Passive listeners score better as time increases.  [16]
5. Modality of presentation: Studies have shown a consistent increase in memory span for lists presented auditorally over ones presented visually.  [17]  This can be seen in performance on memory span tasks for signed-languages, which typically yield lower spans than spoken-languages.  [18]
6. Time required to vocalize responses: Memory span is approximately equal to the number of items which an individual can articulate in two seconds.  [19]  With that in mind, memory span is consistently higher for short words than for long words.  [20]  This factor helps account for cross-linguistic differences on digit memory span tasks.  [21]
7. Method of scoring responses: The method of scoring responses also has an effect upon the perceived memory span of the individual. Variations in scoring are common and should be considered when looking at data.
8. Distraction: Interference negatively effects performance on memory span tasks. Since distraction is harder to ignore at a young age, it is possible that interference may have a role in the differences of scores based on age.  [22]
Validity of the MemTrax Memory Test
MemTrax Machine Learning, Using AI to Model Mild Cognitive Impairment
The memory span procedure  

In a typical test of memory span, a list of random numbers or letters is read
out loud or presented on a computer screen at the rate of one per second. The
test begins with two to three numbers, increasing until the person commits
errors. Recognizable patterns (for example 2, 4, 6, 8) should be avoided. At
the end of a sequence, the person being tested is asked to recall the items in
order. The average digit span for normal adults without error is  seven plus
or minus two  .
[32]  However, memory span can be expanded dramatically - in one case to 80
digits - by learning a sophisticated  mnemonic 
system of recoding rules by which substrings of 5 to 10 digits are translated
into one new chunk.  [33]  In December 2015, Lance Tschirhart entered the
Guinness Book of World Records for memorizing a sequence of 456 digits spoken
aloud at the rate of one per second at the World Memory Championship in
Chengdu, China.

In a backward digit span task, the procedure is largely the same, except that
subjects being tested are asked to recall the digits in backward order (e.g.,
if presented with the following string of numbers "1 5 9 2 3," the subject
would be asked to recall the digits in reverse order; in the case, the correct
response would be "3 2 9 5 1").

Other memory span tests focus on both a processing task and a memory storage
task. Generally, the task involves alternating between a task that requires
mental processing and cognition, and a word or digit that needs to be
memorized. For example, the processing question might involve the participant
checking if an arithmetic problem is correct, or reading a sentence and
answering a comprehension question about its meaning. The participant would
then be presented with a word to memorize, before moving on to the next
processing question. When the exercise is complete, the participant will try
to recall as many words as possible. When Daneman and Carpenter investigated
this method in 1980, they found a strong correlation between the number of
words memorized and the comprehension performance for the processing
questions. In other words, those who had a high memory span score and could
recall many of the words also performed well on the processing questions.
[34]
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Factors  

There are a number of factors which affect memory span. Some of the factors
are extrinsic, or present in the testing situation itself. These factors, if
not carefully controlled, cause the memory span test to be statistically
unreliable. While the existence of many of these factors have been recognized,
extensive studies on their importance have yet to be done. Some of these
extrinsic factors include stimulus grouping, response grouping, presentation
rate, and S-R compatibility.  [13]

Other factors are intrinsic in the individual, and it is these factors which
are the basis of "true" memory span. Though numerous factors affect memory
span, the test is one that shows surprisingly high reliability. Results
obtained by different investigators show that the reliability coefficients for
memory span are quite high.  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]
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/courses/579b8212e4b0b1bce3727cce/player?pageId=a9e05cfadf556d7d312437b5af6498c546d3a8770-e40cc85d69c345b08c596d531a9501b3&assignmentId=ced9193a-95f1-46fe-ba59-e5e7c95bb871) . _Pearson_ . Pearson Education Inc  . Retrieved  3 September  2016  .
35. ** ^  ** Perfetti, C. A.; Goldman, S. R. (1976). "Discourse memory and reading comprehension skill". _Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior _ . **15** : 33–42.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1016/s0022-5371(76)90004-9  .
36. ** ^  ** Daneman, M.; Carpenter, P. A. (1980). "Individual differences in working memory and reading". _Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior_ . **19** (4): 450–466.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6  .  S2CID  "S2CID \(identifier\)")  144899071  .
37. ** ^  ** Turner, M. L.; Engle, R. W. (1989). "Is working memory capacity task dependent?". _Journal of Memory and Language_ . **28** (2): 127–154.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1016/0749-596x(89)90040-5  .
38. ** ^  ** Kane, M. J.; Hambrick, D. Z.; Tuholski, S. W.; Wilhelm, O.; Payne, T. W.; Engle, R. W. (2004). "The generality of working-memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuo-spatial memory span and reasoning". _Journal of Experimental Psychology: General_ . **133** (2): 189–217.  CiteSeerX  "CiteSeerX \(identifier\)")  10.1.1.517.3056  .  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.189  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  15149250  .  S2CID  "S2CID \(identifier\)")  266965  .
39. ** ^  ** Conway, A. R. A.; Kane, M. J.; Bunting, M. F.; Hambrick, D. Z.; Wilhelm, O.; Engle, R. W. (2005).  "Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user's guide"  . _Psychonomic Bulletin & Review _ . **12** (5): 769–786.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :   10.3758/bf03196772  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  16523997  .
40. ** ^  ** May, C.P.; Hasher, L.; Kane, M.J. (1999).  "The role of interference in memory span"  . _Memory & Cognition _ . **27** (5): 759–767.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :   10.3758/bf03198529  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  10540805  .

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##  Task format
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Agitate: The  test below is a well  researched test, a great way to measure your
cognition, but what if you want to improve?
Intrinsic factors  

There are certain intrinsic factors specific to each individual that may
affect the extent, or span, of one's working memory.

Age

An individual's age affects their working memory span. During childhood and
adolescent development, memory span improves with age. After adulthood is
reached, memory span slowly decreases as an individual progresses towards old
age. The decline in memory span with old age has been associated with a
decrease of working memory storage and processing, and the  age difference in
working memory  becomes greater as
the memory tasks performed become more difficult.  [23]  Generally, the
decline in working memory and memory span tasks in old age is attributed to a
decline in overall cognitive control. One of the key aspects of working memory
is the ability to inhibit distractions and to focus on stimulus cues. As a
person ages, these abilities diminish, which reduces effective memory.  [24]

Practice of music

Musical training improves the verbal memory span, but there is no consensus
among researchers if it improves visual working memory capacity. The more
training received the better the memory improvement.  [25]  [26]  Preschoolers
given short-term musical training showed improvement in their executive
function and verbal memory span.  [27]  Sixty to eighty-five year-olds who
received piano lessons showed a decrease of age-based memory decline, as well
as improved executive function and working memory.  [28]  Musicians also
perform significantly better on the rhythm span test (the results of which
correlate significantly with results of the digit span test).  [29]  [30]
Musicians perform better on verbal tone-based memory span tasks than non-
musicians; however they do not perform better than non-musicians if the tones
in a verbal task are across multiple words.  [31]
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The role of interference  

There is the possibility that susceptibility to  proactive interference
 (PI) affects
performance on memory span measures. For older adults, span estimates
increased with each PI-reducing manipulation; for younger adults, scores
increased when multiple PI manipulations were combined or when PI-reducing
manipulations were used in paradigms in which within-task PI was especially
high. It is suggested that PI critically influences span performance. There
might be the possibility that interference-proneness may influence cognitive
behaviors previously thought to be governed by capacity.

PI-reducing procedures did act to improve span scores in many instances. The
impact of PI is greater for older adults than for younger adults. Older adults
showed relatively poor span performance when PI was maximal. By contrast,
younger adults improved only when PI reductions were combined, suggesting that
they are relatively resistant to PI. The fact that PI contributes to span
performance raises a number of interesting possibilities with respect to
previously held assumptions based on memory span performance. Working memory
span tasks may measure interference-proneness in addition to capacity for both
older and younger adults, suggest that resistance to interference may also
affect performance on many cognitive tasks. Indeed, other studies show that
individual differences in susceptibility to PI are predictive of scores on
standard achievement tests.  [40]
From simple span to complex span  

Research in the 1970s has shown that memory span with digits and words is only
weakly related to performance in complex cognitive tasks such as text
comprehension, which are assumed to depend on short-term memory.  [35]  This
questioned the interpretation of memory span as a measure of the capacity of a
central  short-term memory  or
 working memory  . Daneman and
Carpenter introduced an extended version of the memory span task which they
called  reading span  .  [36]

The reading span task was the first instance of the family of _complex span_
tasks, which differ from the traditional _simple span_ tasks by adding a
processing demand to the requirement to remember a list of items. In complex
span tasks encoding of the memory items (e.g., words) alternates with brief
processing episodes (e.g., reading sentences). For example, the operation span
task combines verification of brief mathematical equations such as "2+6/2 =
5?" with memory for a word or a letter that follows immediately after each
equation.  [37]  Complex-span tasks have also been shown to be closely related
to many other aspects of complex cognitive performance besides language
comprehension, among other things to measures of fluid intelligence.  [38]
[39]
There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, as the human benchmark
 test  can measure different abilities in different people. However,
the human benchmark test is designed to be as accurate as possible, and has
been used in a number of research institutions.
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