mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
The olfactory receptor neurons are located in a small region within the 
superior nasal cavity  . This region is
referred to as the  olfactory epithelium  and contains  bipolar sensory neurons
 . Each olfactory sensory neuron has 
dendrites  that extend from the  apical surface
 of the  epithelium
 into the  mucus 
lining the cavity. As airborne molecules are inhaled through the  nose
 , they pass over the olfactory epithelial
region and dissolve into the mucus. These odorant molecules bind to proteins
that keep them dissolved in the mucus and help transport them to the olfactory
dendrites. The odorant–protein complex binds to a receptor protein within the
cell membrane of an olfactory dendrite. These receptors are G protein–coupled,
and will produce a graded  membrane potential  in the  olfactory neurons
 .  [16]
###  Shame
##  Typical expressions
###  Fascination
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|  Sensation  |
* The 2004  Nobel Prize  in  Physiology or Medicine  (  announced  4 October 2004) was won by  Richard Axel  and  Linda Buck  for their work explaining olfaction, published first in a joint paper in 1991 that described the very large family of about one thousand genes for odorant receptors and how the receptors link to the brain.
*  Answers to several questions related to senses and human feeling from curious kids   Archived  2013-12-13 at the  Wayback Machine 
*  The Physiology of the Senses tutorial  —12 animated chapters on vision, hearing, touch, balance and memory.
##  Sources and further reading
###  Fear
All stimuli received by the  receptors  are  transduced  "Transduction
\(physiology\)") to an  action potential  , which is carried along one or more afferent  neurons
 towards a specific area (  cortex
 "Cortex \(anatomy\)") ) of the  brain
 . Just as different nerves are dedicated to sensory and
motors tasks, different areas of the brain (cortices) are similarly dedicated
to different  sensory  and perceptual
tasks. More complex processing is accomplished across primary cortical regions
that spread beyond the primary cortices. Every nerve,  sensory
 or  motor  , has its own signal transmission speed. For example, nerves in the
frog's legs have a 90 ft/s (99 km/h) signal transmission speed, while sensory
nerves in humans, transmit sensory information at speeds between 165 ft/s (181
km/h) and 330 ft/s (362 km/h).  [6]
##  Culture
Nociceptor  |
At the molecular level, visual stimuli cause changes in the photopigment
molecule that lead to changes in membrane potential of the photoreceptor cell.
A single unit of light is called a  photon  , which
is described in physics as a packet of energy with properties of both a
particle and a wave. The  energy  of a photon is
represented by its  wavelength  , with each
wavelength of visible light corresponding to a particular  color
 . Visible light is  electromagnetic radiation
 with a
wavelength between 380 and 720 nm. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
longer than 720 nm fall into the  infrared 
range, whereas wavelengths shorter than 380 nm fall into the  ultraviolet
 range. Light with a wavelength of 380 nm is
 blue  whereas light with a wavelength of 720 nm is dark
 red  . All other colors fall between red and blue at
various points along the wavelength scale.  [16]
Main article:  Multimodal integration
###  Hate
In the time of  William Shakespeare  , there were commonly reckoned to be five wits or five senses.
[82]  At that time, the words "sense" and "wit" were synonyms,  [82]  so the
senses were known as the five outward wits.  [83]  [84]  This traditional
concept of five senses is common today.
The inability to see is called  blindness  .
Blindness may result from damage to the eyeball, especially to the retina,
damage to the optic nerve that connects each eye to the brain, and/or from 
stroke  (  infarcts  in the
brain). Temporary or permanent blindness can be caused by poisons or
medications. People who are blind from degradation or damage to the visual
cortex, but still have functional eyes, are actually capable of some level of
vision and reaction to visual stimuli but not a conscious perception; this is
known as  blindsight  . People with
blindsight are usually not aware that they are reacting to visual sources, and
instead just unconsciously adapt their behavior to the stimulus.
###  Tenderness
Tactile  |
####  Somatosensory system (touch)  ") ]
Though life is not all abou
Receptor cells can be further categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli
they transduce. The different types of functional receptor cell types are 
mechanoreceptors  ,  photoreceptors
 ,  chemoreceptors
 (  osmoreceptor  ),  thermoreceptors 
,  electroreceptors  (in certain
mammals and fish), and  nociceptors  .
Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of
sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through a mechanoreceptor.
Photoreceptors convert light (visible  electromagnetic radiation
 ) into signals.
Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets
chemical stimuli, such as an object's taste or smell, while osmoreceptors
respond to a chemical solute concentrations of body fluids. Nociception (pain)
interprets the presence of tissue damage, from sensory information from
mechano-, chemo-, and thermoreceptors.  [18]  Another physical stimulus that
has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a 
thermoreceptor  that is either
sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body
temperature.  [16]
© 2024 Byther Farm
###  Philosophy
####  Negative Emotions
There is some disagreement as to whether the visual system consists of one,
two, or three submodalities. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two
submodalities, given that different receptors are responsible for the
perception of color and brightness. Some argue  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]  that 
stereopsis  , the perception of depth using
both eyes, also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded as a
cognitive (that is, post-sensory) function of the  visual cortex
 of the brain where patterns and objects
in  images  are  recognized
 and interpreted based on
previously learned information. This is called  visual memory
 .
Mechanoreceptors turn motion into electrical nerve pulses, which are located
in the inner ear. Since sound is vibration, propagating through a medium such
as air, the detection of these vibrations, that is the sense of the hearing,
is a mechanical sense because these vibrations are mechanically conducted from
the eardrum through a series of tiny bones to hair-like fibers in the  inner
ear  , which detect mechanical motion of the
fibers within a range of about 20 to 20,000  hertz  ,
[27]  with substantial variation between individuals. Hearing at high
frequencies declines with an increase in age. Inability to hear is called 
deafness  or hearing impairment. Sound can also be
detected as  vibrations conducted through the body
 by tactition. Lower
frequencies that can be heard are detected this way. Some deaf people are able
to determine the direction and location of vibrations picked up through the
feet.  [28]
Human  |
###  Indignation
*  Senses 
*  Perception 
*  Sensory systems
#  Sense
Main article:  Gustatory system
###  Doubt
*  Cilium 
*  TRP channels
####  Differential threshold
Signal detection theory quantifies the experience of the subject to the
presentation of a stimulus in the presence of  noise
 "Noise \(signal processing\)") . There is
internal noise and there is external noise when it comes to signal detection.
The internal noise originates from static in the nervous system. For example,
an individual with closed eyes in a dark room still sees something—a blotchy
pattern of grey with intermittent brighter flashes—this is internal noise.
External noise is the result of noise in the environment that can interfere
with the detection of the stimulus of interest. Noise is only a problem if the
magnitude of the noise is large enough to interfere with signal collection.
The  nervous system  calculates a
criterion, or an internal threshold, for the detection of a signal in the
presence of noise. If a signal is judged to be above the criterion, thus the
signal is differentiated from the noise, the signal is sensed and perceived.
Errors in signal detection can potentially lead to  false positives and false
negatives  . The sensory criterion might be shifted based on the
importance of the detecting the signal. Shifting of the criterion may
influence the likelihood of false positives and false negatives.  [6]
History  

 Skinner
box

The first clue to the presence of a reward system in the brain came with an
accidental discovery by James Olds and Peter Milner in 1954. They discovered
that rats would perform behaviors such as pressing a bar, to administer a
brief burst of electrical stimulation to specific sites in their brains. This
phenomenon is called  intracranial self-stimulation
 or 
brain stimulation reward  . Typically, rats will press a lever hundreds or thousands of times
per hour to obtain this brain stimulation, stopping only when they are
exhausted. While trying to teach rats how to solve problems and run mazes,
stimulation of certain regions of the brain where the stimulation was found
seemed to give pleasure to the animals. They tried the same thing with humans
and the results were similar. The explanation to why animals engage in a
behavior that has no value to the survival of either themselves or their
species is that the brain stimulation is activating the system underlying
reward.  [93]

In a fundamental discovery made in 1954, researchers  James Olds
 and Peter Milner found that low-voltage
electrical stimulation of certain regions of the brain of the rat acted as a
reward in teaching the animals to run mazes and solve problems.  [94]  [ _
failed verification   _ ]  [95]  It seemed that stimulation of those
parts of the brain gave the animals pleasure,  [94]  and in later work humans
reported pleasurable sensations from such stimulation.  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]  When rats
were tested in  Skinner boxes  where they
could stimulate the reward system by pressing a lever, the rats pressed for
hours.  [95]  Research in the next two decades established that  dopamine
 is one of the main chemicals aiding neural
signaling in these regions, and dopamine was suggested to be the brain's
"pleasure chemical".  [96]

 Ivan Pavlov  was a psychologist who used
the reward system to study  classical conditioning
 . Pavlov used the
reward system by rewarding dogs with food after they had heard a bell or
another stimulus. Pavlov was rewarding the dogs so that the dogs associated
food, the reward, with the bell, the stimulus.  [97]  Edward L. Thorndike used
the reward system to study operant conditioning. He began by putting cats in a
puzzle box and placing food outside of the box so that the cat wanted to
escape. The cats worked to get out of the puzzle box to get to the food.
Although the cats ate the food after they escaped the box, Thorndike learned
that the cats attempted to escape the box without the reward of food.
Thorndike used the rewards of food and freedom to stimulate the reward system
of the cats. Thorndike used this to see how the cats learned to escape the
box.  [98]  More recently,  Ivan De Araujo  and colleagues used nutrients inside the gut to stimulate the reward
system via the vagus nerve.  [99]
*  Aesthesis 
*  Apperception 
*  Attention 
*  Chemesthesis 
*  Extrasensory perception 
*  Entoptic phenomenon 
* Increased sensitivity:
*  Hyperacusis 
*  Hyperesthesia 
*  Supertaster 
*  Illusions 
*  Auditory illusion 
*  Optical illusion 
*  Touch illusion 
*  Multisensory integration 
*  Phantom limb 
*  Sensation and perception psychology 
*  Sense of direction 
*  Sensitivity (human)  "Sensitivity \(human\)")
*  Sensorium 
*  Sensory processing disorder 
*  Synesthesia  (  Ideasthesia  )
---|---
Photoreceptor  |
###  Sadness
###  Admiration
In the  brain  , olfaction is processed by
the  olfactory cortex  .
Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from most other neurons in that
they die and regenerate on a regular basis. The inability to smell is called 
anosmia  . Some neurons in the nose are specialized
to detect  pheromones  .  [41]  Loss of the
sense of smell can result in food tasting bland. A person with an impaired
sense of smell may require additional  spice  and 
seasoning  levels for food to be tasted. Anosmia
may also be related to some presentations of mild  depression
 "Depression \(mood\)") , because the loss of
enjoyment of food may lead to a general sense of despair. The ability of
olfactory neurons to replace themselves decreases with age, leading to age-
related anosmia. This explains why some elderly people salt their food more
than younger people do.  [16]
###  Relief
*  Visual impairment 
*  Alice in Wonderland syndrome 
*  Amaurosis 
*  Anopsia 
*  Color blindness 
*  Diplopia 
*  Hemeralopia  and  Nyctalopia 
*  Optic neuropathy 
*  Oscillopsia 
*  Palinopsia 
*  Papilledema 
*  Photophobia 
*  Photopsia 
*  Polyopia 
*  Scotoma 
*  Stereoblindness 
*  Visual snow
##  Sense of Taste
Schizophrenia  

 Schizophrenia  is associated with
deficits in motivation, commonly grouped under other negative symptoms such as
 reduced spontaneous speech  .
The experience of "liking" is frequently reported to be intact,  [86]  both
behaviorally and neurally, although results may be specific to certain
stimuli, such as monetary rewards.  [87]  Furthermore, implicit learning and
simple reward-related tasks are also intact in schizophrenia.  [88]  Rather,
deficits in the reward system are apparent during reward-related tasks that
are cognitively complex. These deficits are associated with both abnormal
striatal and OFC activity, as well as abnormalities in regions associated with
cognitive functions such as the  dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

(DLPFC).  [89]
###  Anger
Main article:  Philosophy of perception
*  Proprioception 
*  Hunger  "Hunger \(physiology\)")
*  Thirst 
*  Suffocation 
*  Nausea
Salty and sour taste submodalities are triggered by the  cations
  Na  \+   and  H  \+
 , respectively. The other taste
modalities result from food molecules binding to a  G protein–coupled
receptor  . A
G protein signal transduction system ultimately leads to  depolarization
 of the gustatory cell. The sweet
taste is the sensitivity of gustatory cells to the presence of  glucose
 (or  sugar substitutes  ) dissolved in the  saliva  .
Bitter taste is similar to sweet in that food molecules bind to G
protein–coupled receptors. The taste known as umami is often referred to as
the savory taste. Like sweet and bitter, it is based on the activation of G
protein–coupled receptors by a specific molecule.  [16]
The traditional five senses are enumerated as the "five material faculties" (
_ _pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ avakanti_ _ ) in Hindu literature. They appear in
allegorical representation as early as in the  Katha Upanishad
 (roughly 6th century BC), as five
horses drawing the "  chariot  " of the body,
guided by the mind as "chariot driver".
Each  sense organ  (eyes or nose, for
instance) requires a minimal amount of stimulation in order to detect a
stimulus. This minimum amount of stimulus is called the absolute threshold.
[5]  The absolute threshold is defined as the minimum amount of stimulation
necessary for the detection of a stimulus 50% of the time.  [6]  Absolute
threshold is measured by using a method called  signal detection
 . This process involves
presenting stimuli of varying intensities to a subject in order to determine
the level at which the subject can reliably detect stimulation in a given
sense.  [5]
*  Pareidolia
Main article:  Sensory modalities
##  Nonhuman animal sensation and perception
###  Signal detection theory
###  Confusion
|   Mechanoreceptor  |
* Author
* Recent Posts
###  Elevation
####  Vomeronasal organ
Proprioception  |
##
Touch
###  Non-human analogues
COLOPHON
The vestibular sense, or sense of balance (equilibrium), is the sense that
contributes to the perception of balance (equilibrium), spatial orientation,
direction, or acceleration (  equilibrioception  ). Along with audition, the  inner ear  is responsible for encoding information about equilibrium. A
similar  mechanoreceptor  —a hair
cell with  stereocilia  "Stereocilia \(inner
ear\)") —senses head position, head movement, and whether our bodies are in
motion. These cells are located within the  vestibule
 of the inner ear. Head
position is sensed by the  utricle  "Utricle \(ear\)")
and  saccule  , whereas head movement is sensed by
the  semicircular canals  .
The neural signals generated in the  vestibular ganglion
 are transmitted through the
 vestibulocochlear nerve  to the  brain stem  and  cerebellum
 .  [16]
Many invertebrates have a  statocyst  , which
is a sensor for acceleration and orientation that works very differently from
the mammalian's semi-circular canals.
Mood disorders  

Certain types of depression are associated with reduced motivation, as
assessed by willingness to expend effort for reward. These abnormalities have
been tentatively linked to reduced activity in areas of the striatum, and
while dopaminergic abnormalities are hypothesized to play a role, most studies
probing dopamine function in depression have reported inconsistent results.
[78]  [79]  Although postmortem and neuroimaging studies have found
abnormalities in numerous regions of the reward system, few findings are
consistently replicated. Some studies have reported reduced NAcc, hippocampus,
medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) activity, as
well as elevated  basolateral amygdala  and  subgenual cingulate cortex (sgACC)
 activity during tasks related to
reward or positive stimuli. These neuroimaging abnormalities are complemented
by little post mortem research, but what little research has been done
suggests reduced excitatory synapses in the mPFC.  [80]  Reduced activity in
the mPFC during reward related tasks appears to be localized to more dorsal
regions(i.e. the  pregenual cingulate cortex  ), while the more ventral sgACC is hyperactive in
depression.  [81]

Attempts to investigate underlying neural circuitry in animal models has also
yielded conflicting results. Two paradigms are commonly used to simulate
depression, chronic social defeat (CSDS), and chronic mild stress (CMS),
although many exist. CSDS produces reduced preference for sucrose, reduced
social interactions, and increased immobility in the forced swim test. CMS
similarly reduces sucrose preference, and behavioral despair as assessed by
tail suspension and forced swim tests. Animals susceptible to CSDS exhibit
increased phasic VTA firing, and inhibition of VTA-NAcc projections attenuates
behavioral deficits induced by CSDS.  [82]  However, inhibition of VTA-  mPFC
projections exacerbates social withdrawal. On the other hand, CMS associated
reductions in sucrose preference and immobility were attenuated and
exacerbated by VTA excitation and inhibition, respectively.  [83]  [84]
Although these differences may be attributable to different stimulation
protocols or poor translational paradigms, variable results may also lie in
the heterogenous functionality of reward related regions.  [85]

 Optogenetic  stimulation of the mPFC as a
whole produces antidepressant effects. This effect appears localized to the
rodent homologue of the pgACC (the prelimbic cortex), as stimulation of the
rodent homologue of the sgACC (the infralimbic cortex) produces no behavioral
effects. Furthermore, deep brain stimulation in the infralimbic cortex, which
is thought to have an inhibitory effect, also produces an antidepressant
effect. This finding is congruent with the observation that pharmacological
inhibition of the infralimbic cortex attenuates depressive behaviors.  [85]
*  Taste receptor 
*  Olfactory receptor 
*  Osmoreceptor
Main article:  Fourier analysis
The only orders of mammals that are known to demonstrate electroception are
the  dolphin  and  monotreme  orders. Among these mammals, the  platypus  [71]  has the most acute sense of electroception.
A **sense** is a  biological system  used by an organism for **sensation** , the process of gathering 
information  about the surroundings through
the detection of  stimuli  "Stimulus
\(physiology\)") . Although, in some cultures, five human senses were
traditionally identified as such (namely  sight  ,  smell  ,  touch
 ,  taste  , and  hearing  ), many more are now
recognized.  [1]  Senses used by non-human organisms are even greater in
variety and number. During sensation, sense organs collect various stimuli
(such as a sound or smell) for  transduction
 "Transduction \(physiology\)") , meaning
transformation into a form that can be understood by the brain. Sensation and
 perception  are fundamental to nearly every
aspect of an organism's  cognition  , 
behavior  and  thought 
.
Sensation  and  perception
###  Reluctance
Current detection is a detection system of water currents, consisting mostly
of  vortices  , found in the  lateral line
 of fish and aquatic forms of amphibians.
The lateral line is also sensitive to low-frequency vibrations. The
mechanoreceptors are  hair cells  , the same
mechanoreceptors for vestibular sense and hearing. It is used primarily for
navigation, hunting, and schooling. The receptors of the  electrical sense
 are modified hair cells of the
lateral line system.
The three types of cone  opsins  , being sensitive to
different wavelengths of light, provide us with color vision. By comparing the
activity of the three different cones, the brain can extract color information
from visual stimuli. For example, a bright blue light that has a wavelength of
approximately 450 nm would activate the "red" cones minimally, the "green"
cones marginally, and the "blue" cones predominantly. The relative activation
of the three different cones is calculated by the brain, which perceives the
color as blue. However, cones cannot react to low-intensity light, and rods do
not sense the color of light. Therefore, our low-light vision is—in essence—in
 grayscale  . In other words, in a dark room,
everything appears as a shade of  gray  . If you think
that you can see colors in the dark, it is most likely because your brain
knows what color something is and is relying on that memory.  [16]
##  Sound
##  Celebrating the Senses
*  Stimulus  "Stimulus \(physiology\)")
*  Sensory receptor 
*  Transduction (physiology)  "Transduction \(physiology\)")
*  Sensory processing 
*  Active sensory system
Main article:  Sensory receptor
####  Spatial orientation
The  perception of time  is also
sometimes called a sense, though not tied to a specific receptor.
###  Embarrassment
Nonhuman animals experience sensation and perception, with varying levels of
similarity to and difference from humans and other animal species. For
example, other mammals in general have a stronger sense of smell than humans.
Some animal species lack one or more human sensory system analogues and some
have sensory systems that are not found in humans, while others process and
interpret the same sensory information in very different ways. For example,
some animals are able to detect  electrical fields  [7]  and  magnetic fields  ,  [8]   air moisture 
,  [9]  or  polarized light  .
[10]  Others sense and perceive through alternative systems such as 
echolocation  .  [11]  [12]
Recent theory suggests that plants and  artificial agents
 such as  robots  may be able to detect and interpret environmental information in an
analogous manner to animals.  [13]  [14]  [15]
###  Envy
Internal  |
---|---
 Auditory  |