mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
* some cochlear (ear) implants
* some types of clips used for brain  aneurysms 
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A  standard MRI scan
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processing to generate highly detailed 3D pictures of the inside of your body.
It doesn’t use radiation like an X-ray or computed tomography (CT) scan, so
there’s no radiation to worry about.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an imaging scan that shows
activity in  specific areas of the brain
 . In medical
settings, fMRI mainly helps plan brain surgeries and similar procedures.
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Early studies on the effectiveness of psychotherapy tended to use pretest-
posttest designs. In a classic 1952 article, researcher Hans Eysenck
summarized the results of 24 such studies showing that about two thirds of
patients improved between the pretest and the posttest (Eysenck, 1952)  [3]  .
But Eysenck also compared these results with archival data from state hospital
and insurance company records showing that similar patients recovered at about
the same rate  _ without  _ receiving psychotherapy. This parallel suggested
to Eysenck that the improvement that patients showed in the pretest-posttest
studies might be no more than spontaneous remission. Note that Eysenck did not
conclude that psychotherapy was ineffective. He merely concluded that there
was no evidence that it was, and he wrote of “the necessity of properly
planned and executed experimental studies into this important field” (p. 323).
You can read the entire article here:  Classics in the History of Psychology
 .
Quasi-experimental research is a  quantitative research
 method. It involves
numerical data collection and statistical analysis. Quasi-experimental
research compares groups with different circumstances or treatments to find
cause-and-effect links.
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For example, in a study by   David Card and Alan Krueger
 , they compared the
effect of increasing the minimum wage in a particular region to the employment
rate. They found that the minimum wage increase in New Jersey did not lead to
job losses.
Because they allow better control for confounding variables than other forms
of studies, they have higher external validity than most genuine experiments
and higher  internal validity  (less than true experiments) than other non-experimental research.
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A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental
design but lacks the key ingredient – random assignment. My mentor, Don
Campbell, often referred to them as “queasy” experiments because they give the
experimental purists a queasy feeling. With respect to  internal validity
 , they often appear to be inferior to randomized
experiments. But there is something compelling about these designs; taken as a
group, they are easily more frequently implemented than their randomized
cousins.
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Simply put, a quasi-experiment is not a real experiment. A quasi-experiment
does not feature randomly allocated groups since the main component of a real
experiment is randomly assigned groups. Why is it so crucial to have randomly
allocated groups, given that they constitute the only distinction between
quasi-experimental and actual  experimental research
 ?
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The second design I’ll focus on is the  regression-discontinuity design
 . I’m not including it just because I
did my dissertation on it and wrote a book about it (although those were
certainly factors weighing in its favor!). I include it because I believe it
is an important and often misunderstood alternative to randomized experiments
because its distinguishing characteristic – assignment to treatment using a
cutoff score on a pretreatment variable – allows us to assign to the program
those who need or deserve it most. At first glance, the regression
discontinuity design strikes most people as biased because of  regression to
the mean  . After all, we’re assigning low
scorers to one group and high scorers to the other. In the discussion of the 
statistical analysis of the regression discontinuity design  , I’ll show you why this isn’t the case.
###  **Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs**
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Finally, I’ll briefly present an assortment of  other quasi-experiments
 that have specific applicability or
noteworthy features, including the Proxy Pretest Design, Double Pretest
Design, Nonequivalent Dependent Variables Design, Pattern Matching Design, and
the Regression Point Displacement design. I had the distinct honor of co-
authoring a paper with Donald T. Campbell that first described the Regression
Point Displacement Design. At the time of his death in Spring 1996, we had
gone through about five drafts each over a five year period. The  paper
 includes numerous examples of
this newest of quasi-experiments, and provides a detailed description of the 
statistical analysis of the regression point displacement design
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A study by the   Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia
 used a quasi-
experimental design to assess the effectiveness of a new program for
preventing childhood obesity. The study found that the program was effective
in reducing the risk of obesity, but it was also expensive.
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##  What are quasi-experimental research designs?
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However, it is important to be aware of the potential threats to the internal
validity of the pretest-postest design. One threat is   selection bias
 , which happens when the group is
not homogenous.
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I’m not going to try to cover the quasi-experimental designs comprehensively.
Instead, I’ll present two of the classic quasi-experimental designs in some
detail and show how we analyze them. Probably the most commonly used quasi-
experimental design (and it may be the most commonly used of all designs) is
the  nonequivalent groups design  . In its
simplest form it requires a pretest and posttest for a treated and comparison
group. It’s identical to the  Analysis of Covariance  design except that the groups are not created through random
assignment. You will see that the lack of random assignment, and the potential
nonequivalence between the groups, complicates the  statistical analysis of
the nonequivalent groups design  .
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Let’s use an example to illustrate our point. Let’s assume we want to discover
how new psychological therapy affects depressed patients. In a genuine trial,
you’d split half of the psych ward into treatment groups, With half getting
the new psychotherapy therapy and the other half receiving standard 
depression treatment  .
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According to Psychology Today,  Confirmation bias
 occurs from the direct influence of desire on beliefs. When
people would like a certain idea/concept to be true, they end up believing it
to be true. They are motivated by wishful thinking. This error leads the
individual to stop gathering information when the evidence gathered so far
confirms the views (prejudices) one would like to be true.
Measuring attention using the Posner cuing paradigm: the role of across and
within trial target probabilities

 Dana A. Hayward

*  Jelena Ristic

*

* Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

Numerous studies conducted within the recent decades have utilized the Posner
cuing paradigm for eliciting, measuring, and theoretically characterizing
attentional orienting. However, the data from recent studies suggest that the
Posner cuing task might not provide an unambiguous measure of attention, as
reflexive spatial orienting has been found to interact with extraneous
processes engaged by the task's typical structure, i.e., the probability of
target presence across trials, which affects tonic alertness, and the
probability of target presence within trials, which affects voluntary temporal
preparation. To understand the contribution of each of these two processes to
the measurement of attentional orienting we assessed their individual and
combined effects on reflexive attention elicited by a spatially nonpredictive
peripheral cue. Our results revealed that the magnitude of spatial orienting
was modulated by joint changes in the global probability of target presence
across trials and the local probability of target presence within trials,
while the time course of spatial orienting was susceptible to changes in the
probability of target presence across trials. These data thus raise important
questions about the choice of task parameters within the Posner cuing paradigm
and their role in both the measurement and theoretical attributions of the
observed attentional effects.