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4/1/2024  tremendous content  tremendous content  Melania Trump Is Back —
But Maybe Not for Long  By  Margaret Hartmann  While she’s technically no
longer “missing,” Melania still hasn’t decided whether she wants to help with
Donald Trump’s 2024 campaign.
  4/1/2024  early and often  early and often  Has the Havana
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anti-abortion movement’s demands for IVF restrictions and fetal-personhood
protections could destroy Republicans at the ballot box.
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34. creepy men  Oct. 7, 2016
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of our shooters sent in a set of photos they claimed __ was Ashley Tisdale. It
kind of looked like her. But she has a mask on and a knit cap.”
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9. chalamet watch  June 23, 2020
Kevin Spacey Emerges to Hand-Deliver Pizza to Paparazzi Ahead of Arraignment
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Kanye West Is Just Going to Be Super-Duper Nice to Paparazzi Until They Go
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Meghan and Harry Caught in ‘Near Catastrophic’ Car Chase with Paparazzi

Accusing paps of being “highly aggressive” in the Manhattan streets on May 16.
####   A Royal Expert Claims Prince William and Kate Middleton “Suggested”
Meghan Markle and Prince Harry Bring Their Kids for a Visit
Justin Bieber Wants to Know Why This Paparazzo Was So Mean to Him
 The photographer reportedly cursed at him after he
hit a man with his car.
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23. gallery  July 12, 2017
4/3/2024  early and often  early and often  The Real Reason RFK Jr. Called
Biden a Worse Threat Than Trump  By  Ed Kilgore  Kennedy needs more voters to
turn against both major-party candidates, and Biden supporters seem like an
easier target.    4/3/2024  road trip  road trip
Antony Blinken Stranded by Boeing Again  By  Matt Stieb  Months after getting
stuck at Davos, the secretary of State had to drive from Paris to Brussels
after unexpected issues with his 737.
  4/3/2024  social studies  social studies  What Led a New York
Midwife to Fake 12,499 Vaccine Records?  By  James D. Walsh  And what,
exactly, did parents know?    4/3/2024  the
national interest  the national interest  Republican Russia Hawks in Denial
Over Trump’s Hatred for NATO, Ukraine  By  Jonathan Chait  Trump just wants to
strengthen NATO, you see.    4/3/2024  early and often
early and often  Trump’s Most Unhinged Plans for His Second Term  By  Margaret
Hartmann  He’s openly plotting to persecute his enemies, assume kinglike
powers, and deport millions of people. But at least we’ll all have flying
cars!    4/3/2024  politics  politics  Eric Adams, NYPD Brass Flip Out
Over a Column Criticizing Them Over Crime  By  Nia Prater  Top NYPD members
went after a _Daily News_ columnist in an example of the department’s more
aggressive social-media strategy.
  4/3/2024  that happened  that happened  The Time
Trump Stared Directly at the Sun During an Eclipse  By  Margaret Hartmann
Trump looking right at the last solar eclipse was so iconically idiotic that
Taylor Swift may have written a song about it.
 
4/2/2024  early and often  early and often  Will the Abortion Vote Help
Democrats Flip Florida in 2024?  By  Ed Kilgore  Ballot measures on abortion
and cannabis legalization could drive Democratic turnout in Trump’s home
state.    4/2/2024  the money game  the money game  Elon Musk’s Tesla
Empire Is Facing ‘Unmitigated Disaster’  By  Kevin T. Dugan  Tesla came to
dominance during a short period when everything went right. Can it ever regain
its glory days?
By  Zoe Haylock
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Did Kim Kardashian Stage Her Post-Robbery Paparazzi Photos?
 Kim is a master of her own image.
15. aughts drama  Aug. 2, 2018
####   I Was Scrolling Through A Facebook Mum's Group. One Comment Ended My
Marriage
####   New Video Shows Unarmed, Kidnapped Girl Being Gunned Down by Police
19. July 28, 2017
31. paparazzi  Dec. 22, 2016
12. green juice  May 31, 2019
By  Karen Brill
####   3 Singapore Blue-Chip Stocks That You Can Buy and Pass Down to Your
Children
RIP Da Silvano, Rihanna’s Favorite Restaurant
 Da Silvano was a staple in paparazzi photos of the pop star.
By  Dayna Evans
The Gay Prince of New York  [Gawker]
LAX Is Getting Its Own Celebrity Terminal, So Wave Good-bye to Shots Like
These   Famous people can pay $1,800 to use it.
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Chrissy Teigen Tweets About Paparazzi’s Incredibly Racist John Legend
Question   “Paparazzi at JFK just asked me ‘if we evolved from monkeys,
why is John Legend still around?’”
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Nice Guy Daniel Radcliffe Gives the Paparazzi Fantasy-Football Advice
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sounds like a compliment but it’s not.
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George Clooney Threatens to Sue Paparazzi for Taking Photos of His Twins
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In a 2010 study in the Journal of Social and Personal Psychology, researchers
detailed experiments that they said suggested people could  predict the
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Inconsistency in moral judgments  

Another criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that people frequently demonstrate
significant inconsistency in their moral judgements.  [33]  This often occurs
in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving and business situations where
participants have been shown to reason at a subpar stage, typically using more
self-interested reasoning (stage two) than authority and social order
obedience reasoning (stage four).  [33]  [34]  Kohlberg's theory is generally
considered to be incompatible with inconsistencies in moral reasoning.  [33]
Carpendale has argued that Kohlberg's theory should be modified to focus on
the view that the process of moral reasoning involves integrating varying
perspectives of a moral dilemma rather than simply fixating on applying rules.
[34]  This view would allow for inconsistency in moral reasoning since
individuals may be hampered by their inability to consider different
perspectives.  [33]  Krebs and Denton have also attempted to modify Kohlberg's
theory to account for conflicting findings but eventually concluded that the
theory cannot account for how most individuals make moral decisions in their
everyday lives.  [35]   Immanuel Kant 
"predicted" and rebutted that argument when he considered such actions as
opening an exception for ourselves in the  categorical imperative
 .
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Further stages  

In his empirical studies of individuals throughout their life, Kohlberg
observed that some had apparently undergone moral stage regression. This could
be resolved either by allowing for moral regression or by extending the
theory. Kohlberg chose the latter, postulating the existence of sub-stages in
which the emerging stage has not yet been fully integrated into the
personality.  [10]  In particular Kohlberg noted a stage 4½ or 4+, a
transition from stage four to five, that shared characteristics of both.  [10]
In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary nature of law
and order reasoning; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by
society to viewing society itself as culpable. This stage is often mistaken
for the moral relativism of stage two, as the individual views those interests
of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong.
[10]  Kohlberg noted that this was often observed in students entering
college.  [10]  [17]

Kohlberg suggested that there may be a seventh stage—Transcendental Morality,
or Morality of Cosmic Orientation—which linked religion with moral reasoning.
[23]  Kohlberg's difficulties in obtaining  empirical evidence
 for even a sixth stage,  [17]
however, led him to emphasize the speculative nature of his seventh stage.
[8]
Cross-cultural generalizability  

Kohlberg's stages are not culturally neutral, as demonstrated by its use for
several cultures (particularly in the case of the highest developmental
stages).  [1]  [27]  Although they progress through the stages in the same
order, individuals in different cultures seem to do so at different rates.
[28]  Kohlberg has responded by saying that although cultures inculcate
different beliefs, his stages correspond to underlying modes of reasoning,
rather than to beliefs.  [1]  [29]  Most cultures do place some value of life,
truth, and law, but to assert that these values are virtually universal
requires more research.  [27]  While there had been some research done to
support Kohlberg's assumption of universality for his stages of moral
development, there are still plenty of caveats and variations yet to be
understood and researched. Regarding universality, stages 1, 2, and 3 of
Kohlberg's theory can be seen as universal stages cross culturally, only until
stages 4 and 5 does universality begin to be scrutinized.  [30]  According to
Snarey and Kelio, Kohlberg's theory of moral development is not represented in
ideas like Gemeinschaft of the communitive feeling.  [31]  While there had
been criticism directed towards the cross-cultural universality of Kohlberg's
theory, Carolyn Edwards argued that the dilemma interview method, the standard
scoring system, and the cognitive-development theory are all valid and
productive in teaching and understanding of moral reasoning across all
cultures.  [32]
the parcels had been lost inside the warehouse, or
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development

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My Lords,
IN THE CAUSE
####  What I'm Learning About Myself at 29
Formal elements  

Progress through Kohlberg's stages happens due to the individual's increasing
competence, psychologically and in balancing conflicting social-value claims.
The process of resolving conflicting claims to reach an equilibrium is called
"justice operation." Kohlberg identifies two of these justice operations: " 
equality  ," which involves impartial
regard for persons, and "  reciprocity  ", which means regard for the role of personal merit. For
Kohlberg, the most adequate result of both operations is "reversibility," in
which a moral or dutiful act within a particular situation is evaluated in
terms of whether or not the act would be satisfactory even if particular
persons were to switch roles within that situation (also known colloquially as
"moral  musical chairs  ").  [2]

Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development. Specifically important
are the individual's "view of persons" and their "social perspective level",
each of which becomes more complex and mature with each advancing stage. The
"view of persons" can be understood as the individual's grasp of the
psychology of other persons; it may be pictured as a spectrum, with stage one
having no view of other persons at all, and stage six being entirely  socio-
centric  .  [2]  The social perspective
level involves the understanding of the social universe, differing from the
view of persons in that it involves an appreciation of social norms.
USA (Main Site)  Philosophy, Stanford University
Reasoning vs. intuition  

Main article:  Social intuitionism 

Other psychologists have questioned the assumption that moral action is
primarily a result of  formal reasoning  . Social intuitionists such as  Jonathan Haidt
 argue that individuals often make
moral judgments without weighing concerns such as fairness, law,  human
rights  or ethical values. Thus the
arguments analyzed by Kohlberg and other  rationalist  psychologists could be considered _ post hoc
 _ rationalizations of
intuitive decisions; moral reasoning may be less relevant to moral action than
Kohlberg's theory suggests.  [13]
© Sophie Cliff 2023
The issue
__ Entry Navigation
###  Acknowledgments
(ii) reversal
Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054
Robert Lockie
Ratio
Equity before ‘Equity’
About   My Book   Sprinkles of Joy   Work with me   1:1 Coaching  
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#  Moral Reasoning
16 FEBRUARY 2009
Continued relevance  

Kohlberg's body of work on the stages of moral development has been utilized
by others working in the field. One example is the _ Defining Issues Test
 _ ( _DIT_ ) created in
1979 by  James Rest  ,  [39]  originally as a
pencil-and-paper alternative to the Moral Judgement Interview.  [40]  Heavily
influenced by the six-stage model, it made efforts to improve the  validity
 criteria by using a  quantitative
 test, the  Likert
scale  , to rate moral dilemmas similar to
Kohlberg's.  [41]  It also used a large body of Kohlbergian theory such as the
idea of "post-conventional thinking".  [42]  [43]  In 1999 the _DIT_ was
revised as the _DIT-2_ ;  [40]  the test continues to be used in many areas
where moral testing is required,  [44]  such as divinity, politics, and
medicine.  [45]  [46]  [47]
Lord Brown of Eaton-under-Heywood
Stages  

Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two
stages each: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional.  [9]  [10]
[11]  Following Piaget's constructivist requirements for a [ stage model
](/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development
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Conventional  

The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of  adolescents
 and adults. To reason in a conventional way
is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and
expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages
of moral development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance
of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an
individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no
consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions
is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.  [9]  [10]  [11]

In **Stage three** (good intentions as determined by social consensus), the
self enters society by conforming to social standards. Individuals are
receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's
views. They try to be a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these
expectations,  [5]  having learned that being regarded as good benefits the
self. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating
its consequences in terms of a person's  relationships
 , which now
begin to include things like respect, gratitude, and the "  golden rule
 ". "I want to be liked
and thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like me."
Conforming to the rules for one's social role is not yet fully understood. The
intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage;
one may feel more forgiving if one thinks that "they mean well".  [5]

In **Stage four** (authority and social order obedience driven), it is
important to obey laws,  dicta  , and  social
conventions  because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four
is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A
central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong. If one person
violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty
to uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally
wrong;  culpability  is thus a significant
factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones. Most
active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.  [5]
The nature of the “presumption”
OPINIONS OF THE LORDS OF APPEAL FOR JUDGMENT
Lord Carswell