mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
####  Visual system (vision)  ") ]
Main article:  Differential threshold
Sensory systems, or senses, are often divided into external (exteroception)
and internal (  interoception  )
sensory systems. Human external senses are based on the sensory organs of the
 eyes  ,  ears 
,  skin  ,  nose  ,  mouth  and the  vestibular
system  . Internal sensation
detects stimuli from internal organs and tissues. Internal senses possessed by
humans include  spatial orientation  ,  proprioception  (body position) and  nociception  (pain). Further internal senses lead to signals such as 
hunger  "Hunger \(physiology\)") ,  thirst
 ,  suffocation  ,
and  nausea  , or different involuntary behaviors,
such as  vomiting  .  [2]  [3]  [4]  Some animals
are able to detect  electrical 
and  magnetic fields  ,  air
moisture  , or  polarized light
 , while others sense and perceive
through alternative systems, such as  echolocation
 .  Sensory modalities  or
sub modalities are different ways sensory information is encoded or
transduced.  Multimodality  integrates different senses into one unified perceptual
experience. For example, information from one sense has the potential to
influence how information from another is perceived.  [5]  Sensation and
perception are studied by a variety of related fields, most notably 
psychophysics  ,  neurobiology
 ,  cognitive psychology
 , and  cognitive science
 .
#####  Location
###  Schadenfreude
Addiction "Amphetamine")
*  Cocaine 
* [ Methamphetamine ](/wiki/Methamphetamine
Main article:  Qualia
####  Infrared sensing
##  Sense of Vision
Within the structure of the  lingual papillae  are  taste buds  that
contain specialized gustatory receptor cells for the  transduction
 "Transduction \(physiology\)") of taste
stimuli. These receptor cells are sensitive to the chemicals contained within
foods that are ingested, and they release  neurotransmitters
 based on the amount of the
chemical in the food. Neurotransmitters from the gustatory cells can activate
 sensory neurons  in the  facial
 ,  glossopharyngeal
 , and  vagus
  cranial nerves  .  [16]
Olfactory  |
###  Lust
Things that please my sense of taste include
Magnetoception  (or
magnetoreception) is the ability to detect the direction one is facing based
on the Earth's  magnetic field  .
Directional awareness is most commonly observed in  birds  , which rely on their magnetic sense to navigate during migration.
[63]  [64]  [65]  [66]  It has also been observed in insects such as  bees
 . Cattle make use of magnetoception to align themselves in
a north–south direction.  [67]   Magnetotactic bacteria
 build miniature
magnets inside themselves and use them to determine their orientation relative
to the Earth's magnetic field.  [68]  [69]  There has been some recent
(tentative) research suggesting that the  Rhodopsin  in the human eye, which responds particularly well to blue light,
can facilitate magnetoception in humans.  [70]
Main article:  Sensory adaptation
##  Invitation
####  Positive Emotions
Machine perception is the capability of a  computer system
 to interpret  data  in a manner that is similar to the way humans use their senses to
relate to the world around them.  [14]  [15]  [81]  Computers take in and
respond to their environment through attached  hardware
 . Until recently, input was
limited to a keyboard, joystick or a mouse, but advances in technology, both
in hardware and software, have allowed computers to take in  sensory input
 "Stimulus \(physiology\)") in a way similar to
humans.  [14]  [15]
###  Amusement
The heat receptors are sensitive to infrared radiation and can occur in
specialized organs, for instance in  pit vipers  . The  thermoceptors  in the
skin are quite different from the  homeostatic  thermoceptors in the brain (  hypothalamus  ), which provide feedback on internal body temperature.
*  Eyes 
*  Ears 
*  Inner ear 
*  Nose 
*  Mouth 
*  Skin
###  Longing
---|---
 Perception  |
#  Sensory pleasure
###  Contempt
Biases and errors  |
###  Annoyance
External receptors that respond to stimuli from outside the body are called 
exteroceptors ") .  [2]  Human external sensation is
based on the sensory organs of the  eyes  , 
ears  ,  skin 
,  vestibular system  ,  nose
 , and  mouth  , which contribute, respectively, to the sensory perceptions of 
vision  ,  hearing
 ,  touch  ,  balance
 ,  smell  , and  taste  . Smell and taste are both
responsible for identifying molecules and thus both are types of 
chemoreceptors  . Both olfaction (smell)
and gustation (taste) require the transduction of chemical stimuli into
electrical potentials.  [5]  [6]
Treatment "Addiction") |

|  Detoxification  |

*  Alcohol detoxification 
*  Drug detoxification 

---|---
Behavioral
therapies  |

*  Cognitive behavioral therapy 
*  Relapse prevention 
*  Contingency management 
*  Community reinforcement approach and family training 
*  Motivational enhancement therapy 
*  Motivational interviewing 
*  Motivational therapy 
* [ Physical exercise ](/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise
Disorders  |
###  Satisfaction
Wikimedia Commons has media related to   Senses
 .
###  Pride
###  Worship
|   Sensory organs  |
*  Ageusia 
*  Hypergeusia 
*  Hypogeusia 
*  Parageusia
1.  Hunger  "Hunger \(motivational state\)") is governed by a set of brain structures (e.g., the  hypothalamus  ) that are responsible for  energy homeostasis  .  [45]
2.  Pulmonary stretch receptors  are found in the lungs and control the  respiratory rate  .
3.  Peripheral chemoreceptors  in the brain monitor the carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in the brain to give a perception of  suffocation  if carbon dioxide levels get too high.  [46]
4. The  chemoreceptor trigger zone  is an area of the  medulla  in the brain that receives inputs from  blood  -borne  drugs  or  hormones  , and communicates with the  vomiting center  .
5. Chemoreceptors in the circulatory system also measure salt levels and prompt thirst if they get too high; they can also respond to high  blood sugar  levels in diabetics.
6.  Cutaneous receptors  in the skin not only respond to touch, pressure, temperature and vibration, but also respond to vasodilation in the skin such as  blushing  .
7. Stretch receptors in the  gastrointestinal tract  sense gas distension that may result in colic pain.
8. Stimulation of sensory receptors in the  esophagus  result in sensations felt in the throat when  swallowing  ,  vomiting  , or during  acid reflux  .
9. Sensory receptors in  pharynx  mucosa, similar to touch receptors in the skin, sense foreign objects such as mucous and food that may result in a  gag reflex  and corresponding gagging sensation.
10. Stimulation of sensory receptors in the  urinary bladder  and  rectum  may result in perceptions of fullness.
11. Stimulation of stretch sensors that sense dilation of various blood vessels may result in pain, for example headache caused by vasodilation of brain arteries.
12. Cardioception refers to the perception of the activity of the heart.  [47]  [48]  [49]  [50]
13.  Opsins  and  direct DNA damage  in  melanocytes  and  keratinocytes  can sense  ultraviolet  radiation, which plays a role in pigmentation and  sunburn  .
14.  Baroreceptors  relay blood pressure information to the brain and maintain proper homeostatic blood pressure.
Post Tags:   #  gratitude   #  mindfulness   #  simplicity   #  thankful
Nonhuman  |
Byther Farm
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See also  

*  Carrot and stick 
*  Compliance (psychology)  "Compliance \(psychology\)")
*  Experience machine 
*  Frisson 
*  Motivation 
*  Norm of reciprocity 
*  Wirehead (science fiction)  "Wirehead \(science fiction\)")
*  Multimodal integration 
*  Awareness 
*  Consciousness 
*  Cognition 
*  Feeling 
*  Motion perception 
*  Qualia
###  Disgust
###  Multimodal perception
*  Photomorphogenesis 
*  Gravitropism
*  Asomatognosia 
*  Phantom limb syndrome 
*  Somatoparaphrenia 
*  Supernumerary phantom limb
Chemoreceptor  |
Magnitude estimation  is a  psychophysical 
method in which subjects assign perceived values of given stimuli. The
relationship between stimulus intensity and perceptive intensity is described
by  Steven's power law  .
[6]
####  Smell
Gustatory  |
###  Boredom
###  Determination
The semicircular canals are three ring-like extensions of the vestibule. One
is oriented in the horizontal plane, whereas the other two are oriented in the
vertical plane. The  anterior  and posterior vertical canals are oriented at
approximately 45 degrees relative to the  sagittal plane
 . The base of each semicircular
canal, where it meets with the vestibule, connects to an enlarged region known
as the  ampulla  . The ampulla
contains the hair cells that respond to rotational movement, such as turning
the head while saying "no". The stereocilia of these hair cells extend into
the  cupula  , a membrane that
attaches to the top of the ampulla. As the head rotates in a plane parallel to
the semicircular canal, the fluid lags, deflecting the cupula in the direction
opposite to the head movement. The semicircular canals contain several
ampullae, with some oriented horizontally and others oriented vertically. By
comparing the relative movements of both the horizontal and vertical ampullae,
the vestibular system can detect the direction of most head movements within
three-dimensional (  3D  ) space.  [16]
###  Excitement
Main article:  Animal echolocation
###  Awe
75 languages
####  Taste
Sensory organs are  organs  "Organ \(anatomy\)")
that sense and  transduce  "Transduction
\(physiology\)") stimuli. Humans have various sensory organs (i.e. eyes, ears,
skin, nose, and mouth) that correspond to a respective  visual system
 (sense of vision),  auditory system
 (sense of hearing),  somatosensory
system  (sense of touch),
 olfactory system  (sense of
smell), and  gustatory system 
(sense of taste). Those systems, in turn, contribute to  vision
 ,  hearing  ,  touch  ,  smell  , and the ability to  taste 
.  [5]  [6]  Internal sensation, or interoception, detects stimuli from
internal organs and tissues. Many internal sensory and perceptual systems
exist in humans, including the  vestibular system  (sense of balance) sensed by the  inner ear
 and providing the perception of  spatial
orientation  ;  proprioception
 (body position); and  nociception
 (pain). Further internal  chemoreception
 \- and  osmoreception
 -based sensory systems lead to various
perceptions, such as  hunger  "Hunger
\(physiology\)") ,  thirst  ,  suffocation
 , and  nausea  ,
or different involuntary behaviors, such as  vomiting  .  [2]  [3]  [4]
Lairesse's _Allegory of the Five Senses_
###  Inspiration
####  Olfactory system (smell)  ") ]
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#####  Visual perception in psychology
####  Structural receptor types
Differential threshold or just noticeable difference (JDS) is the smallest
detectable difference between two stimuli, or the smallest difference in
stimuli that can be judged to be different from each other.  [6]   Weber's
Law  is an empirical law that states that
the difference threshold is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus.
[6]  According to Weber's Law, bigger stimuli require larger differences to be
noticed.  [5]
and  drug reward  or intracranial self-
stimulation can exert more powerful activation of central reward mechanisms
because they activate the reward center directly rather than through the 
peripheral nerves  .  [8]  [29]
[30]  Third, when animals are administered addictive drugs or engage in
naturally rewarding behaviors, such as feeding or sexual activity, there is a
marked release of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens.  [8]  However,
dopamine is not the only reward compound in the brain.
*  Aura  "Aura \(symptom\)")
*  Agnosia 
*  Allochiria 
*  Derealization 
*  Hallucination 
*  HSAN 
*  Sensory processing disorder 
*  Synesthesia
Thermoreceptor  |
](https://bytherfarm.com/)
Human power
exponents and Steven's Power Law
###  Serenity
The ability to sense  infrared  thermal radiation
evolved independently in various families of  snakes 
. Essentially, it allows these reptiles to "see" radiant heat at  wavelengths
 between 5 and 30  μm 
to a degree of accuracy such that a blind  rattlesnake  can target vulnerable body parts of the prey at which it
strikes.  [76]  It was previously thought that the organs evolved primarily as
prey detectors, but it is now believed that it may also be used in
thermoregulatory decision making.  [77]  The facial pit underwent  parallel
evolution  in  pitvipers
 and some  boas  and 
pythons  , having evolved once in pitvipers and
multiple times in boas and pythons.  [78]  [ _ verification needed
 _ ]  The 
electrophysiology  of the
structure is similar between the two lineages, but they differ in gross
structural  anatomy  . Most superficially,
pitvipers possess one large pit organ on either side of the head, between the
eye and the nostril (  Loreal pit  ), while
boas and pythons have three or more comparatively smaller pits lining the
upper and sometimes the lower lip, in or between the scales. Those of the
pitvipers are the more advanced, having a suspended sensory membrane as
opposed to a simple pit structure. Within the family  Viperidae
 , the pit organ is seen only in the subfamily
Crotalinae: the pitvipers. The organ is used extensively to detect and target
 endothermic  prey such as rodents and birds,
and it was previously assumed that the organ evolved specifically for that
purpose. However, recent evidence shows that the pit organ may also be used
for thermoregulation. According to Krochmal et al., pitvipers can use their
pits for thermoregulatory decision-making while true vipers (vipers who do not
contain heat-sensing pits) cannot.
Electroreception  (or
electroception) is the ability to detect  electric fields
 . Several species of fish,  sharks
 , and rays have the capacity to sense changes in
electric fields in their immediate vicinity. For cartilaginous fish this
occurs through a specialized organ called the  Ampullae of Lorenzini
 . Some fish passively
sense changing nearby electric fields; some generate their own weak electric
fields, and sense the pattern of field potentials over their body surface; and
some use these electric field generating and sensing capacities for social 
communication  . The mechanisms by which
electroceptive fish construct a spatial representation from very small
differences in field potentials involve comparisons of spike latencies from
different parts of the fish's body.
Main article:  Infrared sensing in snakes
##  Human sensation
Humans  respond more strongly to  multimodal stimuli
 compared to the
sum of each single modality together, an effect called the _superadditive
effect of multisensory integration_ .  [5]  Neurons that respond to both
visual and auditory stimuli have been identified in the  superior temporal
sulcus  .  [20]
Additionally, multimodal "what" and "where" pathways have been proposed for
auditory and tactile stimuli.  [22]
###  Loneliness
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Vestibular  |
###  Happy-for
Music-induced "Euphoria") ) in human
subjects.  [101]  [102]  This research demonstrated that increased dopamine
neurotransmission acts as a _ sine qua non  _ condition for pleasurable hedonic reactions to music in humans.  [101]
[102]

Berridge developed the  incentive salience  hypothesis to address the _wanting_ aspect of rewards.
It explains the compulsive use of drugs by drug addicts even when the drug no
longer produces euphoria, and the cravings experienced even after the
individual has finished going through withdrawal. Some addicts respond to
certain stimuli involving neural changes caused by drugs. This sensitization
in the brain is similar to the effect of dopamine because _wanting_ and
_liking_ reactions occur. Human and animal brains and behaviors experience
similar changes regarding reward systems because these systems are so
prominent.  [100]
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Once the gustatory cells are activated by the taste molecules, they release 
neurotransmitters  onto the 
dendrites  of sensory neurons. These neurons are
part of the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves, as well as a component
within the vagus nerve dedicated to the  gag reflex  . The facial nerve connects to taste buds in the anterior
third of the tongue. The glossopharyngeal nerve connects to taste buds in the
posterior two thirds of the tongue. The vagus nerve connects to taste buds in
the extreme posterior of the tongue, verging on the  pharynx  , which are more sensitive to  noxious stimuli
 such as bitterness.  [16]
Pressure detection uses the organ of Weber, a system consisting of three
appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the  gas bladder
 to the middle ear. It can be used to
regulate the buoyancy of the fish. Fish like the  weather fish
 and other loaches are also known to
respond to low pressure areas but they lack a swim bladder.
Wikiquote has quotations related to _** Senses
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###  Sensory neuroscience and the biology of perception
###  Disappointment
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) _
Perception occurs when  nerves  that lead from the 
sensory organs  (e.g.
eye) to the brain are stimulated, even if that stimulation is unrelated to the
target signal of the sensory organ. For example, in the case of the eye, it
does not matter whether light or something else stimulates the optic nerve,
that stimulation will results in visual perception, even if there was no
visual stimulus to begin with. (To prove this point to yourself (and if you
are a human), close your eyes (preferably in a dark room) and press gently on
the outside corner of one eye through the eyelid. You will see a visual spot
toward the inside of your visual field, near your nose.)  [6]
###  Gratitude
*  Robotic sensing 
*  Computer vision 
*  Machine hearing
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Multimodal  |
External links  

Wikimedia Commons has media related to   Reward system
 .

*  Scholarpedia Reward 
*  Scholarpedia Reward signals 

*  v  
*  t  
*  e  

 Reinforcement  disorders:  addiction
 and  dependence 

---
 Addiction  |

|  Drug  |

*  Alcohol  "Alcohol \(drug\)")
* [ Amphetamine ](/wiki/Amphetamine
##  Emotion
##  Sense of Smell
*  Optic (II) 
*  Vestibulocochlear (VIII) 
*  Olfactory (I) 
*  Facial (VII) 
*  Glossopharyngeal (IX) 
*  Trigeminal (V) 
*  Spinal
Main article:  Visual system
Many animals (  salamanders  ,  reptiles
 ,  mammals  ) have a 
vomeronasal organ  [54]  that is
connected with the mouth cavity. In mammals it is mainly used to detect 
pheromones  of marked territory, trails, and
sexual state. Reptiles like  snakes  and  monitor
lizards  make extensive use of it as a
smelling organ by transferring scent molecules to the vomeronasal organ with
the tips of the forked tongue. In reptiles the vomeronasal organ is commonly
referred to as Jacobson's organ. In mammals, it is often associated with a
special behavior called  flehmen  characterized by
uplifting of the lips. The organ is  vestigial in humans
 , because associated neurons
have not been found that give any sensory input in humans.  [55]
##  Definitions