mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Public policy  

Main article:  Intelligence and public policy

In the United States, certain  public policies 
"Public policy \(law\)") and laws regarding military service,  [213]  [214]
education, public benefits,  [215]  capital punishment,  [106]  and employment
incorporate an individual's IQ into their decisions. However, in the case of
_ Griggs v. Duke Power Co.  _ in 1971, for the purpose of minimizing employment practices that
disparately impacted racial minorities, the  U.S. Supreme Court
 banned the use of IQ tests in employment, except when linked to job
performance via a  job analysis  .
Internationally, certain public policies, such as improving nutrition and
prohibiting  neurotoxins  , have as one of
their goals raising, or preventing a decline in, intelligence.

A diagnosis of  intellectual disability  is in part based on the results of IQ testing. 
Borderline intellectual functioning
 is the categorization of individuals of below-average cognitive
ability (an IQ of 71–85), although not as low as those with an intellectual
disability (70 or below).

In the United Kingdom, the [ eleven plus exam ](/wiki/Eleven_plus_exam "Eleven
](/)
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####  Frequency distribution
##  Central limit theorem
The  _t_ -distribution 
is a way of describing a set of observations where most observations fall
close to the  mean  , and the rest
of the observations make up the tails on either side. It is a type of  normal
distribution  used
for smaller sample sizes, where the  variance
 in the data is unknown.
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Because normally distributed variables are so common, many  statistical tests
 are designed for
normally distributed populations.
The results of these tests, which at the time reaffirmed contemporary racism
and nationalism, are considered controversial and dubious, having rested on
certain contested assumptions: that intelligence was heritable, innate, and
could be relegated to a single number, the tests were enacted systematically,
and test questions actually tested for innate intelligence rather than
subsuming environmental factors.  [36]  The tests also allowed for the
bolstering of  jingoist narratives  in the
context of increased immigration, which may have influenced the passing of the
 Immigration Restriction Act of 1924  .  [36]

 L.L. Thurstone  argued
for a model of intelligence that included seven unrelated factors (verbal
comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization,
associative memory, perceptual speed, reasoning, and induction). While not
widely used, Thurstone's model influenced later theories.  [30]

 David Wechsler  produced the first
version of his test in 1939. It gradually became more popular and overtook the
Stanford–Binet in the 1960s. It has been revised several times, as is common
for IQ tests, to incorporate new research. One explanation is that
psychologists and educators wanted more information than the single score from
the Binet. Wechsler's ten or more subtests provided this. Another is that the
Stanford–Binet test reflected mostly verbal abilities, while the Wechsler test
also reflected nonverbal abilities. The Stanford–Binet has also been revised
several times and is now similar to the Wechsler in several aspects, but the
Wechsler continues to be the most popular test in the United States.  [30]
Heritability  

See also:  Heritability of IQ  and  Environment and intelligence 

The general figure for the  heritability 
of IQ, according to an  American Psychological Association
 report, is 0.45 for children, and rises to around 0.75 for late
adolescents and adults.  [15]  Heritability measures for  _g_ factor
 "G factor \(psychometrics\)") in infancy
are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.9 in
adulthood.  [117]  [118]  One proposed explanation is that people with
different genes tend to reinforce the effects of those genes, for example by
seeking out different environments.  [15]  [119]
The central limit theorem shows the following:
Proteomics software for analysis of mass spec data
Precursors to IQ testing  

Historically, even before IQ tests were devised, there were attempts to
classify people into  intelligence  categories by observing their behavior in daily life.  [22]
[23]  Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for
validating classifications based primarily on IQ test scores. Both
intelligence classification by observation of behavior outside the testing
room and classification by IQ testing depend on the definition of
"intelligence" used in a particular case and on the  reliability
 "Reliability \(psychometrics\)") and
error of estimation in the classification procedure.

The English statistician  Francis Galton  (1822–1911) made the first attempt at creating a standardized test
for rating a person's intelligence. A pioneer of  psychometrics
 and the application of statistical
methods to the study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human
traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by
which he did not mean [ genes ](/wiki/History_of_genetics
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Test bias or differential item functioning  

Differential item functioning (DIF), sometimes referred to as measurement
bias, is a phenomenon when participants from different groups (e.g. gender,
race, disability) with the same  latent abilities  give different answers to specific questions on the same IQ
test.  [98]  DIF analysis measures such specific items on a test alongside
measuring participants' latent abilities on other similar questions. A
consistent different group response to a specific question among similar types
of questions can indicate an effect of DIF. It does not count as differential
item functioning if both groups have an equally valid chance of giving
different responses to the same questions. Such bias can be a result of
culture, educational level and other factors that are independent of group
traits. DIF is only considered if test-takers from different groups _with the
same underlying latent  ability
level _ have a different chance of giving specific responses.  [99]  Such
questions are usually removed in order to make the test equally fair for both
groups. Common techniques for analyzing DIF are  item response theory
 (IRT) based methods,
Mantel-Haenszel, and  logistic regression  .  [99]

A 2005 study found that "differential validity in prediction suggests that the
 WAIS-R  test may contain cultural influences that reduce the
validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American
students,"  [100]  indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to
sampled white students. Other recent studies have questioned the culture-
If data from small samples do not closely follow this pattern, then other
distributions like the  t-distribution
 may be more appropriate.
Once you identify the distribution of your variable, you can apply appropriate
statistical tests.
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IQ testing and the eugenics movement in the United States  

 Eugenics  , a set of beliefs and practices aimed
at improving the  genetic  quality of the  human
population  by excluding people
and groups judged to be inferior and promoting those judged to be superior,
[40]  [41]  [42]  played a significant role in the history and culture of the
 United States  during the 
Progressive Era  , from the late
19th century until US involvement in  World War II  .  [43]  [44]

The  American eugenics movement  was rooted in the  biological determinist
 ideas of the British
Scientist  Sir Francis Galton  . In 1883, Galton first used the word eugenics to describe the
biological improvement of human genes and the concept of being "well-born".
[45]  [46]  He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired
primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through 
selective breeding  in order
for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for
humans to direct their own evolution.  [47]

 Henry H. Goddard  was a
eugenicist. In 1908, he published his own version, _The Binet and Simon Test
of Intellectual Capacity_ , and cordially promoted the test. He quickly
extended the use of the scale to the public schools (1913), to immigration ( [
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The problem of determining the causes underlying racial variation has been
discussed at length as a classic question of "  nature versus nurture
 ", for instance by  Alan S.
Kaufman  [196]  and  Nathan Brody
 .  [197]  Researchers such as
statistician  Bernie Devlin  have
argued that there are insufficient data to conclude that the black–white gap
is due to genetic influences.  [198]  Dickens and Flynn argued more positively
that their results refute the possibility of a genetic origin, concluding that
"the environment has been responsible" for observed differences.  [195]  A
review article published in 2012 by leading scholars on human intelligence
reached a similar conclusion, after reviewing the prior research literature,
that group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin.
[199]  More recently, geneticist and neuroscientist Kevin Mitchell has argued,
on the basis of basic principles of population genetics, that "systematic
genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations" are
"inherently and deeply implausible".  [200]

The effects of  stereotype threat  have been proposed as an explanation for differences in IQ test
performance between racial groups,  [201]  [202]  as have issues related to
cultural difference and access to education.  [203]  [204]
You can test the hypothesis that your data were sampled from a Normal
(Gaussian) distribution visually (with QQ-plots and histograms) or
statistically (with tests such as D'Agostino-Pearson and Kolmogorov-Smirnov).
However, it’s rare to need to test if your data are normal. Most likely you’re
fitting some type of statistical model to your data such as  ANOVA

,  linear regression  , and  nonlinear regression

. In these cases, the assumption is that the residuals, the deviations between
the model predictions and the observed data, are sampled from a normally
distribution. The residuals need to be approximately normally distributed to
get valid statistical inference such as  confidence intervals

,  coefficient estimates  , and  p values
 .
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###  In public policy
* This page was last edited on 27 December 2023, at 05:11  (UTC)  .
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*  _The Left-Digit Effect in Price Cognition_ 
*  _Heuristics in Numerical Cognition_ 
*  _99-cent pricing hooks shoppers_ 
*  _Nine-ending Price and Consumer Behavior: An Evaluation in a New Context_  (PDF)
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#  7 pricing tricks that make you spend more
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Kaushik Basu  used  game theory
 in 1997 to argue that rational consumers
value their own time and effort at calculation. Such consumers process the
price from left to right and tend to mentally replace the last two digits of
the price with an estimate of the mean "cent component" of all goods in the
marketplace. In a sufficiently large marketplace, this implies that any
individual seller can charge the largest possible "cent component" (99¢)
without significantly affecting the average of cent components and without
changing customer behavior.  [7]  Ruffle and Shtudiner's (2006) laboratory
test shows considerable support for Basu's 99-cent pricing equilibrium,
particularly when other sellers' prices are observable.  [8]
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In its  2005 United Kingdom general election
 manifesto, the  Official Monster Raving Loony Party
 proposed the introduction of a 99-pence coin to "save on change".
[24]  [25]
Another phenomenon noted by economists is that a  price point
 for a product (such as $4.99) remains
stable for a long period of time, with companies slowly reducing the
_quantity_ of product in the package until consumers begin to notice. At this
time, the price will increase marginally (to $5.05) and then within an
exceptionally short time will increase to the next price point ($5.99, for
example).  [10]  [ _ full citation needed
 _ ]
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According to a 1997 study published in the _Marketing Bulletin_ ,
approximately 60% of prices in advertising material ended in the digit 9, 30%
ended in the digit 5, 7% ended in the digit 0 and the remaining seven digits
combined accounted for only slightly over 3% of prices evaluated.  [4]  In the
UK, before the withdrawal of the  halfpenny coin
 in 1969, prices often
ended in  11  \+  1  ⁄  2  d (elevenpence halfpenny: just under a shilling,
which was 12d); another example (before 1961) was £1/19/  11  \+  3  ⁄  4  d.
(one pound, nineteen shillings and elevenpence three farthings) which is one 
farthing  "Farthing \(British coin\)") under
£2. This is still seen today in gasoline (petrol) pricing ending in  9  ⁄  10
of the local currency's smallest denomination; for example in the US the price
of a gallon of gasoline almost always ends in US$0.009 (e.g. US$3.599).
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If you need to print a warehouse label to be read by a barcode scanner within
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Price ending has also been used by retailers to highlight sale or clearance
items for administrative purposes. A retailer might end all regular prices in
95 and all sale prices in 50. This makes it easy for a buyer to identify which
items are discounted when looking at a report.  [ _ citation needed
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The theory of psychological pricing is controversial. Some studies show that
buyers, even young children, have a very sophisticated understanding of true
cost and  relative value  "Relative value
\(economics\)") and that, to the limits of the accuracy of the test, they
behave rationally. Other researchers claim that this ignores the non-rational
nature of the phenomenon and that acceptance of the theory requires belief in
a subconscious level of thought processes, a belief that economic models tend
to deny or ignore. Results from research using modern scanner data are mixed.
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##  99 Your Phone
##  ​4. 10 for $10 trick
#  Psychological pricing
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Stiving and Winer (1997) examined the left-digit effect using scanner panel
models. They proposed that 9-ending prices can influence consumer behavior
through two distinct processes: image effects and level effects. Image effect
suggests that 99-ending prices are associated with images of sales promotions.
Level effect captures the magnitude underestimation caused by anchoring on
leftmost digits of prices. Their results suggest that both of these effects
account for the influence of 9-ending prices in grocery stores.  [13]  Manning
and Sprott (2009) demonstrated that left-digit anchoring can influence 
consumer choices  using experimental
studies.  [1]
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First published on October 12, 2015 / 1:39 PM EDT
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In the former  Czechoslovakia  ,
people called this pricing "baťovská cena" ("Baťa's price"), referring to 
Tomáš Baťa
 , a Czech manufacturer of footwear. He began to widely use this
practice in 1920.  [23]
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Last edited on 27 December 2023, at 05:11
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Others have suggested that fractional pricing was first adopted as a control
on employee theft. For cash transactions with a round price, there is a chance
that a dishonest cashier will pocket the bill rather than record the sale. For
cash transactions with a just-below price, the cashier must nearly always make
change for the customer. This generally means opening the  cash register
 which creates a record of the sale in
the register and reduces the risk of the cashier  stealing  from the store owner.  [22]
**Why isn’t the price higher?**
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##  ​2. Dollars without cents
#  Create your own price tags
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##  ​1. Prices ending in 9, 99 or 95
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