mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Learning  

Further information:  Associative learning 

Rewarding stimuli can drive  learning  in both
the form of  classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
 and  operant
conditioning (instrumental conditioning)  . In classical conditioning, a reward can act as an
unconditioned stimulus that, when associated with the conditioned stimulus,
causes the conditioned stimulus to elicit both musculoskeletal (in the form of
simple approach and avoidance behaviors) and vegetative responses. In operant
conditioning, a reward may act as a  reinforcer  in that it increases or supports actions that lead to itself.
[3]  Learned behaviors may or may not be sensitive to the value of the
outcomes they lead to; behaviors that are sensitive to the contingency of an
outcome on the performance of an action as well as the outcome value are 
goal-directed  , while elicited actions that are
insensitive to contingency or value are called  habits 
.  [52]  This distinction is thought to reflect two forms of learning, model
free and model based. Model free learning involves the simple caching and
updating of values. In contrast, model based learning involves the storage and
construction of an internal model of events that allows inference and flexible
prediction. Although pavlovian conditioning is generally assumed to be model-
free, the incentive salience assigned to a conditioned stimulus is flexible
with regard to changes in internal motivational states.  [53]

Distinct neural systems are responsible for learning associations between
stimuli and outcomes, actions and outcomes, and stimuli and responses.
Although classical conditioning is not limited to the reward system, the
enhancement of instrumental performance by stimuli (i.e.,  Pavlovian-
instrumental transfer  ) requires the nucleus accumbens. Habitual and goal
directed instrumental learning are dependent upon the lateral  striatum
 and the medial striatum, respectively.  [52]

During instrumental learning, opposing changes in the ratio of  AMPA
 to  NMDA  receptors and phosphorylated  ERK  occurs in the  D
1   -type and  D  2
 -type MSNs that
constitute the  direct and indirect pathways  ,
respectively.  [54]  [55]  These changes in synaptic plasticity and the
accompanying learning is dependent upon activation of striatal D1 and NMDA
receptors. The intracellular cascade activated by D1 receptors involves the
recruitment of  protein kinase A 
, and through resulting phosphorylation of  DARPP-32  , the inhibition of phosphatases that deactivate ERK. NMDA
receptors activate ERK through a different but interrelated  Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK
pathway  . Alone NMDA mediated
activation of ERK is self-limited, as NMDA activation also inhibits PKA
mediated inhibition of ERK deactivating phosphatases. However, when D1 and
NMDA cascades are co-activated, they work synergistically, and the resultant
activation of ERK regulates synaptic plasticity in the form of spine
restructuring, transport of AMPA receptors, regulation of [ CREB ](/wiki/CREB
####  discover the nuances of emotions
Blind people report they are able to navigate and in some cases identify an
object by interpreting reflected sounds (especially their own footsteps), a
phenomenon known as  human echolocation  .
###  General
In this painting by  Pietro Paolini 
, each individual represents one of the five senses.  [85]
"Five senses" redirects here. For other uses, see  Five senses
(disambiguation)  "Five senses
\(disambiguation\)") .
Like its negative counterpart  disgust
 , sensory pleasure
can be considered a primordial emotion. The things that give us sensory
pleasure are generally things that help us (or used to help us) survive and
thrive: identifying nutritious foods (e.g., fruits with bright colors), being
in protective company (e.g., sitting on a parent’s lap), or being in a safe
environment (e.g., locations with a wide view of the surroundings).
###  Affection
|   Visual  |
The **philosophy of perception** is concerned with the nature of perceptual
experience and the status of  perceptual data  , in particular how they relate to beliefs about, or knowledge of, the
world. Historical inquiries into the underlying mechanisms of sensation and
perception have led early researchers to subscribe to various philosophical
interpretations of perception and the  mind  , including  panpsychism  ,  dualism  , and  materialism  . The
majority of modern scientists who study sensation and perception take on a
materialistic view of the mind.  [6]
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1. No littering! Take your food wrappings, drink containers, newspapers and other potential litter home with you and dispose of it in your own trash or recycling carts, or use one of the 96-gallon bins provided in the city’s streets and parks.
2. Do not throw trash out of your window! Keep a litterbag in your car and dispose of your trash properly once at your destination.
3. Keep your yard clean and free of things that can blow into the street and become litter. You are responsible for any litter or debris that's in  stormwater pipes  or a stream in your yard.
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9. Properly dispose of  bulky household waste  items by taking them to your local waste  recycling center  or by calling the city's  bulky waste collection line  .
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Medically reviewed by  Nicole Washington, DO, MPH
Schizophrenia primarily involves symptoms of  psychosis
 , which disrupts the way your
brain processes information. This can lead to a disconnect from reality.
Outlook and support
Learn more about the five types of hallucinations.
DD and schizophrenia both include delusions, but schizophrenia has a wider
symptom scope.
* Chaudhury S. (2010). Hallucinations: Clinical aspects and management.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3105559
Marc S. Lener, MD
Examples of delusions include:
* Stępnicki, P., _et al_ . (2018). Current concepts and treatments of schizophrenia.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6222385/
* Horga G, et al. (2019). An integrative framework for perceptual disturbances in psychosis.
 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41583-019-0234-1
Schizophrenia hallucinations can also be multimodal, which means they involve
more than one of your senses. Some evidence suggests multimodal hallucinations
may be the most common type experienced with schizophrenia. In a   2016 study
 that included data from 750
people with a schizophrenia spectrum diagnosis:
Although there is currently no cure for schizophrenia, people can manage the
condition with treatment, including medication and talk therapy. Learn…
* What is schizophrenia? (2020).
 https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/schizophrenia/what-is-
schizophrenia
What are schizophrenic hallucinations?
Delusions  also reflect a disconnect from reality, but they only involve
thoughts, not sensory perceptions.
Hallucinations as a symptom of schizophrenia
Evidence consistently suggests auditory hallucinations happen most often with
schizophrenia. According to  2021 research
 ,
between 60 and 80 percent of people living with a schizophrenia spectrum
disorder hear sounds other people can’t hear, including music, the voice of a
loved one, or people speaking in a language you don’t recognize.
* Ganguly, P., _et al_ . (2018). Holistic management of schizophrenia symptoms using pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5999799/
*  major depression with psychotic features 
*  bipolar disorder 
*  postpartum psychosis 
* extreme  stress  or  grief 
*  progressive neurological conditions  , including  Parkinson’s disease  and  Alzheimer’s disease 
* a high  fever 
*  migraine 
*  seizures 
*  vision  or  hearing loss 
* sleep deprivation
Self-care  includes  :
* Waters, F., _et al._ (2017). Hallucinations: A systematic review of points of similarity and difference across diagnostic classes.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5216859/
Feb 4, 2022
Kelly Morrell
* Hany M, et al. (2021). Schizophrenia.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539864
Below, we’ll explore key features of hallucinations that occur with
schizophrenia and explain how they differ from  other schizophrenia symptoms
 . You’ll also find
more information on other potential causes, plus tips on getting professional
treatment and support.
* Kumar V, et al. (2017). Multimodal hallucinations in schizophrenia and its management.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5329998
Understanding the Difference Between Hallucinations vs. Delusions
Hallucinations  may feel
real to the individual experiencing them, with studies and brain scans showing
areas of the brain lighting up when they hear these voices.
The   National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)
 recommends the
following ways to offer help and support:
Is there a cure for schizophrenia?
Does Bipolar Disorder Cause Hallucinations?
Expressed emotion in schizophrenia refers to how family members and
caregivers express their feelings and emotions to a person with the condition.
Brain imaging studies  also
suggest people living with schizophrenia have increased activity in certain
parts of the brain, including the  hypothalamus
 and paralimbic
regions, and decreased activity in others, including the temporal lobes.
* **Visual hallucinations:** This can mean seeing physical objects or people that are not there. It can include loved ones who have died, imaginary characters, or distorted images.
*  **Auditory hallucinations:**  This can mean things a person hears, such as voices, music, crying, ringing, and unknown languages.
* ** Tactile hallucinations:  ** This includes feeling things that are not there, such as the sensation of something on the skin.
*  **Olfactory hallucinations:**  Also known as phantosmia, this refers to smelling things that are not there. Common examples include burnt toast or the smell of burning.
* **Gustatory hallucinations:** This refers to imaginary tastes, such as bitterness or sourness.
* Lim A, et al. (2016). Prevalence and classification of hallucinations in multiple sensory modalities in schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27349814
Crystal Raypole
The  National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI)
 offers numerous support groups for
those facing challenges with mental health.
* Thakur, T., _et al_ . (2022). Auditory hallucinations.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557633/
* Lim, A., _et al_ . (2016). Prevalence and classification of hallucinations in multiple sensory modalities in schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27349814/
Hallucinations and delusions are both a symptom of altered reality, but
they're very different things. Learn about their differences, how they're…
Emily Schalk
Learn more about schizophrenia.
*  epilepsy 
*  Parkinson’s disease 
*  psychosis 
*  depression
Experts  have also found
that people living with  conditions that primarily involve symptoms of
psychosis  have reduced
gray matter in areas of the brain.
* McCutcheon, R. A., _et al_ . (2019). Schizophrenia, dopamine and the striatum: From biology to symptoms.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6401206/
Another hallmark symptom of schizophrenia is delusions. Delusions are strong
beliefs  usually  not held by others
and can go hand in hand with hallucinations. However, hallucinations are
sensory, while delusions involve thoughts. Both are forms of  psychosis
 , which is a disconnect
from reality.
*  Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is not a common condition, affecting around   0.25–0.64%
 of people in
the United States. According to the National Health Service (NHS) in the
United Kingdom, hearing voices is the  most common

hallucination that a person with schizophrenia experiences.
The neurotransmitter  dopamine  may also play a part.   Evidence
 links positive symptoms of
psychosis, like hallucinations, to high levels of dopamine in the mesolimbic
pathway. This pathway has a key role in your brain’s reward system.  
Research from 2019 
also points to dopamine imbalances within the nigrostriatal pathway, which is
important for motor function.
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 William Blanton/Stocksy
Some   studies  show an
increase in brain activity of those experiencing hallucinations, particularly
in certain parts such as the hypothalamus and paralimbic regions. Another 
2021 study
 found a
link to spontaneous activation in the brain, triggering sensory experiences.
* Living with schizophrenia. (2019).
 https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/living-with/
Flat affect is considered a negative symptom in schizophrenia, characterized
by diminished emotional expression.
Get more details about schizophrenia and its symptoms.
* Hare SM. (2021). Hallucinations: A functional network model of how sensory representations become selected for conscious awareness in schizophrenia.
 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2021.733038/full
Learn more about treatment for schizophrenia.
* Schizophrenia. (2022).
 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schizophrenia
According to the  NHS  , the exact causes of schizophrenia
are unknown. Hallucinations likely result from irregularities within the
brain, including chemistry, structure, experiences, and more.
What causes hallucinations?
Experts aren’t entirely certain why hallucinations happen, with 
schizophrenia  or any
other condition.
Visual hallucinations also happen with schizophrenia, though less commonly
than auditory hallucinations. Some   2010 research
 suggests many people
see surreal things like distorted people, body parts or objects superimposed
on real people or objects, or strange and unusual objects they can’t identify.
But you might also see things like animals, demons, or lights.
Treatment for schizophrenic hallucinations   involves
 managing symptoms
such as hallucinations so they can have minimal effect on daily living.
* Pienkos E, et al. (2019). Hallucinations beyond voices: A conceptual review of the phenomenology of altered perception in psychosis.

https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/45/Supplement_1/S67/5305661
Last medically reviewed on February 28, 2023
Medically reviewed by  Joslyn Jelinek, LCSW
Even if you don’t know much about schizophrenia, you might know this mental
health condition commonly involves  hallucinations
 .
* Chaudhury, S. (2010). Hallucinations: Clinical aspects and management.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3105559/
Treatment for schizophrenic hallucinations   can include
 antipsychotic
medications and therapy such as  cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
 . With treatment and
support, those with schizophrenia can effectively manage their symptoms and
live healthy, fulfilling lives.
Time:  2024/03/30 23:06:59
What is high functioning schizophrenia?
Message ID:  939871625
* Mueser KT, et al. (1990). Hallucinations in schizophrenia.
 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2399817
Some people may refer to someone with mild symptoms of schizophrenia as
"high functioning." This is not a medical diagnosis. Learn more here.
Is There a Relationship Between Schizophrenia and OCD?
Last medically reviewed on February 4, 2022
Schizophrenic hallucinations are   psychotic symptoms
 where a person can
see, hear, smell, taste, or feel things that are not there. Older research
from 2010 suggests that   70%
 of those with
schizophrenia experience hallucinations.
Keep in mind, though, that  a good therapist
 will offer
compassionate support, not judgment, as they help you explore your symptoms
and possible triggers or causes.
* Support and education. (n.d.).
 https://www.nami.org/Support-Education
2020 research suggests that up to  80%
 of
people with schizophrenia experience auditory hallucinations. Many will
experience multiple types at the same time, known as multimodal. A 2016 study
involving 750 participants with schizophrenia found that  53%

experienced multimodal hallucinations.
Medically reviewed by  Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD
* Impact of the DSM-IV to DSM-5 changes on the national survey on drug use and health. (n.d.).
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519704/table/ch3.t22/
* Encourage a person to get treatment.
* Try not to dissuade or discourage a person’s hallucinations, as they may seem real to them.
* Try not to encourage delusions.
* Always be respectful and supportive, particularly when hallucinations seem frightening or distressing.
* Always involve a mental health professional, such as a  psychiatrist  or  psychologist  with experience in dealing with schizophrenia.
* after   withdrawing from drinking alcohol 
* a side effect of medications that treat conditions such as  epilepsy  or  Parkinson’s disease 
* alongside conditions such as  depression  or  bipolar disorder 
* when experiencing  migraine 
* when experiencing  fever 
* when experiencing  sleep deprivation
* Waters F, et al. (2017). Hallucinations: A systematic review of points of similarity and difference across diagnostic classes.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5216859
* Psychotherapies. (2023).
 https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/psychotherapies
While it might seem fairly obvious that hallucinogenic drugs can also cause
hallucinations, know that other substances can, too. For example, according to
a   2012 study 
, you could experience hallucinations after drinking heavily or  during
alcohol withdrawal  .
Many people automatically link hallucinations to schizophrenia, and it’s true
that many people living with schizophrenia do have them. Older   research
from 2010  estimates
about 70 percent of people living with schizophrenia experience
hallucinations.
* Hany, M., _et al_ . (2022). Schizophrenia.
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539864/
Psychosis is a condition in which one loses touch with reality.
Schizophrenia is a mental health disorder that includes periods of psychosis
and other…
These symptoms include:
Learn more about potential treatments for schizophrenia.
Medically reviewed by  Matthew Boland, PhD
If you or someone you know is having thoughts of suicide, a prevention hotline
can help. The   988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline
 is available 24 hours a day at 988. During a
crisis, people who are hard of hearing can use their preferred relay service
or dial 711 and then 988.