mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Sex  

Main article:  Sex differences in intelligence

With the advent of the concept of _g_ or  general intelligence
 , many researchers have
found that there are no significant sex differences in general intelligence,
[188]  [205]  [206]  though ability in particular types of intelligence does
vary.  [187]  [206]  Thus, while some test batteries show slightly greater
intelligence in males, others show greater intelligence in females.  [187]
[206]  In particular, studies have shown female subjects performing better on
tasks related to  verbal ability  ,  [188]  and males performing better on tasks related to
rotation of objects in space, often categorized as  spatial ability
 .  [207]  These differences remain,
as  Hunt (2011)  observes, "even though men and women are essentially equal in
general intelligence".

Some research indicates that male advantages on some  cognitive tests
 are minimized when controlling for
socioeconomic factors.  [187]  [205]  Other research has concluded that there
is slightly  larger variability  in male scores in certain areas compared to female scores, which
results in slightly more males than females in the  top
 and  bottom
 of the IQ
distribution.  [208]
Music  

Further information:  Mozart effect 

Musical training in childhood correlates with higher than average IQ.  [141]
[142]  However, a study of 10,500 twins found no effects on IQ, suggesting
that the correlation was caused by genetic confounders.  [143]  A meta-
analysis concluded that "Music training does not reliably enhance children and
young adolescents' cognitive or academic skills, and that previous positive
findings were probably due to confounding variables."  [144]

It is popularly thought that listening to classical music raises IQ. However,
multiple attempted replications (e.g.  [145]  ) have shown that this is at
best a short-term effect (lasting no longer than 10 to 15 minutes), and is not
related to IQ-increase.  [146]
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Social correlations
says that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a moderate
0.4 (one-sixth or 16% of the variance), the relationship increases with age,
and peaks at middle age when people have reached their maximum career
potential. In the book, _A Question of Intelligence_ ,  Daniel Seligman
 cites an IQ income correlation of
0.5 (25% of the variance).

A 2002 study  [169]  further examined the impact of non-IQ factors on income
and concluded that an individual's location, inherited wealth, race, and
schooling are more important as factors in determining income than IQ.
"JSTOR \(identifier\)")  1084961  . 
S2CID  "S2CID \(identifier\)")  147214993
 .

* Jensen, Arthur R. (1998).  _The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability_  . Human Evolution, Behavior, and Intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.  ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  978-0-275-96103-9   .  ISSN  "ISSN \(identifier\)")  1063-2158  .
•  Locurto, Charles (1999).  "A Balance Sheet on Persistence: Book Review of
Jensen on Intelligence-g-Factor"
 . _Psycoloquy_ .
**10** (59). 9.

* Jensen, Arthur R. (10 July 2006).  _Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences_  . Elsevier.  ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  978-0-08-044939-5   . Retrieved  7 July  2014  .
•  Wai, Jonathan (2008).  "Book Review: Jensen, A. R. (2006). Clocking the
mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
(ISBN 978-0-08-044939-5)"

(PDF)  . _Gifted Child Quarterly_ . **52** : 99.  doi
 "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1177/0016986207310434
 .  S2CID
 "S2CID \(identifier\)")  143666885
 .

* Jensen, Arthur R. (2011). "The Theory of Intelligence and Its Measurement". _Intelligence_ . **39** (4): 171–177.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1016/j.intell.2011.03.004  .  ISSN  "ISSN \(identifier\)")  0160-2896  .
* Johnson, Wendy (2012). "How Much Can We Boost IQ? An Updated Look at Jensen's (1969) Question and Answer". In Slater, Alan M.; Quinn, Paul C. (eds.). _Developmental Psychology: Revisiting the Classic Studies_ . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  978-0-85702-757-3   .
•  Gamboa, Camille (May 2013). [ "(Review) Developmental Psychology:
Revisiting the Classic Studies, [ed.] by Alan M. Slater and Paul C. Quinn"
](https://web.archive.org/web/20141010173731/http://www.cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk/pdfs/choice)
. _Choice_ . **50** (9). Archived from  the original
 on 10 October 2014.

* Johnson, Wendy; Turkheimer, E.; Gottesman, Irving; Bouchard, Thomas (2009).  "Beyond Heritability: Twin Studies in Behavioral Research"  (PDF)  . _Current Directions in Psychological Science_ . **18** (4): 217–220.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01639.x  .  PMC  "PMC \(identifier\)")  2899491  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  20625474  . Retrieved  29 June  2010  .
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Bertillon,_Galton_and_criminology "Craniometry") .  [27]
He set up the first mental testing center in the world in 1882 and he
published "Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development" in 1883, in which
he set out his theories. After gathering data on a variety of physical
variables, he was unable to show any such correlation, and he eventually
abandoned this research.  [28]  [29]

 Psychologist  Alfred Binet
 , co-developer of the  Stanford–Binet
test 

French psychologist  Alfred Binet  ,
together with Victor Henri and  Théodore Simon  , had more success in 1905, when they published the 
Binet–Simon test  , which focused on verbal abilities. It
was intended to identify "mental retardation" in school children,  [30]  but
in specific contradistinction to claims made by psychiatrists that these
children were "sick" (not "slow") and should therefore be removed from school
and cared for in asylums.  [31]  The score on the Binet–Simon scale would
reveal the child's  mental age  . For
example, a six-year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by six-
year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a mental age that matched his
chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985). Binet thought that intelligence was
multifaceted, but came under the control of practical judgment.

In Binet's view, there were limitations with the scale and he stressed what he
211. ** ^  ** Nisbett, Richard E.; Aronson, Joshua; Blair, Clancy; Dickens, William; Flynn, James; Halpern, Diane F.; Turkheimer, Eric (2012). "Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments". _American Psychologist_ . **67** (2): 130–159.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1037/a0026699  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  22233090  .  S2CID  "S2CID \(identifier\)")  7001642  .
212. ** ^  ** Jensen 1998  , p. 531.
213. ** ^  ** Kavanagh, Jennifer (2005).  Determinants of Productivity for Military Personnel  (PDF)  (Report). Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.  ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  0-8330-3754-4   . Retrieved  1 July  2017  .
214. ** ^  ** Kilburn, M. Rebecca; Hanser, Lawrence M.; Klerman, Jacob A. (2009).  Estimating AFQT Scores for National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) Respondents  (PDF)  (Report). Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation  . Retrieved  1 July  2017  .
215. ** ^  **  "12.00-Mental Disorders-Adult"  . _www.ssa.gov_ . U. S. Social Security Administration  . Retrieved  1 July  2017  .
216. ** ^  ** Solomon, Deborah (12 December 2004).  "The Science of Second-Guessing"  . _The New York Times_ .
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Citations  

1. ** ^  ** Braaten, Ellen B.; Norman, Dennis (1 November 2006).  "Intelligence (IQ) Testing"  . _Pediatrics in Review_ . **27** (11): 403–408.  doi  "Doi \(identifier\)") :  10.1542/pir.27-11-403  .  ISSN  "ISSN \(identifier\)")  0191-9601  .  PMID  "PMID \(identifier\)")  17079505  . Retrieved  22 January  2020  .
2. ** ^  ** Stern 1914  , pp. 70–84 (1914 English translation), pp. 48–58 (1912 original German edition).
3. ** ^  ** "intelligence quotient (IQ)". [ _Glossary of Important Assessment and Measurement Terms_ ](https://web.archive.org/web/20170722194028/http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061
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Brain anatomy  

Main article:  Neuroscience and intelligence

Several neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in
humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size,
shape, and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features
that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount
of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray
matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose
metabolic rate.  [147]
High-IQ societies  

Main article:  High-IQ society 

There are social organizations, some international, which limit membership to
people who have scores as high as or higher than the 98th percentile (two
standard deviations above the mean) on some IQ test or equivalent.  Mensa
International  is perhaps
the best known of these. The largest 99.9th percentile (three standard
deviations above the mean) society is the  Triple Nine Society
 .
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* Around 68% of values are within 1  standard deviation  of the mean.
* Around 95% of values are within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
* Around 99.7% of values are within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
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1047  195
1.  Raven's Progressive Matrices 
2.  Cattell Culture Fair III 
3.  Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales 
4.  Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities ") [74]  [75]
5.  Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test  [76]
6.  Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II 
7.  Das–Naglieri cognitive assessment system 
8.  Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test 
9.  Wide Range Intelligence Test 

IQ scales are  ordinally scaled  .
[77]  [78]  [79]  [80]  [81]  The  raw score 
of the norming  sample  "Sample \(statistics\)")
is usually (rank order)  transformed
 "Data transformation
\(statistics\)") to a  normal distribution  with mean 100 and  standard deviation
 15\.  [4]  While one 
standard deviation  is 15
points, and two SDs are 30 points, and so on, this does not imply that mental
ability is linearly related to IQ, such that IQ 50 would mean half the
cognitive ability of IQ 100. In particular, IQ points are not percentage
points.
Income  

It has been suggested that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score
measures something with decreasing marginal value" and it "is important to
have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much".
[164]  [165]

The link from IQ to wealth is much less strong than that from IQ to job
performance. Some studies indicate that IQ is unrelated to net worth.  [166]
[167]  The American Psychological Association's 1995 report _ Intelligence:
Knowns and Unknowns  _ stated that IQ scores accounted for about a quarter of
the social status variance and one-sixth of the income variance. Statistical
controls for parental SES eliminate about a quarter of this predictive power.
Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that
influence social outcomes.  [15]   Charles Murray
 "Charles Murray \(political
scientist\)") (1998) showed a more substantial effect of IQ on income
independent of family background.  [168]  In a meta-analysis, Strenze (2006)
reviewed much of the literature and estimated the correlation between IQ and
income to be about 0.23.  [21]

Some studies assert that IQ only accounts for (explains) a sixth of the
variation in income because many studies are based on young adults, many of
whom have not yet reached their peak earning capacity, or even their
education. On pg 568 of _ The g Factor
 _ ,  Arthur Jensen
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In establishing a causal direction to the link between IQ and work
performance, longitudinal studies by Watkins and others suggest that IQ exerts
a causal influence on future academic achievement, whereas academic
achievement does not substantially influence future IQ scores.  [160]  Treena
Eileen Rohde and Lee Anne Thompson write that general cognitive ability, but
not specific ability scores, predict academic achievement, with the exception
that processing speed and spatial ability predict performance on the SAT math
beyond the effect of general cognitive ability.  [161]

However, large-scale longitudinal studies indicate an increase in IQ
translates into an increase in performance at all levels of IQ: i.e. ability
and job performance are  monotonically  linked at all IQ levels.  [162]  [163]
Interventions  

In general, educational interventions, as those described below, have shown
short-term effects on IQ, but long-term follow-up is often missing. For
example, in the US, very large intervention programs such as the  Head Start
Program  have not produced
lasting gains in IQ scores. Even when students improve their scores on
standardized tests, they do not always improve their cognitive abilities, such
as memory, attention and speed.  [138]  More intensive, but much smaller
projects, such as the  Abecedarian Project  , have reported lasting effects, often on socioeconomic
status variables, rather than IQ.  [15]

Recent studies have shown that training in using one's  working memory
 may increase IQ. A study on young
adults published in April 2008 by a team from the Universities of Michigan and
Bern supports the possibility of the transfer of fluid intelligence from
specifically designed  working memory training
 .  [139]  Further
research will be needed to determine nature, extent and duration of the
proposed transfer. Among other questions, it remains to be seen whether the
results extend to other kinds of fluid intelligence tests than the matrix test
used in the study, and if so, whether, after training, fluid intelligence
measures retain their correlation with educational and occupational
achievement or if the value of fluid intelligence for predicting performance
on other tasks changes. It is also unclear whether the training is durable for
extended periods of time.  [140]
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 Human intelligence   topics

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Types  |

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Crime  

The American Psychological Association's 1995 report _Intelligence: Knowns and
Unknowns_ stated that the [ correlation between IQ and crime
](/wiki/Correlates_of_crime
Intelligence quotient

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](/wiki/Mercury_\(element\) "Mercury \(element\)") , and organochlorides).
Improvements in nutrition, and in public policy in general, have been
implicated in IQ increases.  [151]

 Cognitive epidemiology  is a field of research that examines the associations between
intelligence test scores and health. Researchers in the field argue that
intelligence measured at an early age is an important predictor of later
health and mortality differences.  [14]
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Validity as a measure of intelligence  

Reliability and validity are very different concepts. While reliability
reflects reproducibility, validity refers to whether the test measures what it
purports to measure.  [85]  While IQ tests are generally considered to measure
some forms of intelligence, they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of
broader definitions of  human intelligence  inclusive of, for example,  creativity  and  social intelligence  . For this reason, psychologist Wayne Weiten argues that their
 construct validity  must be
carefully qualified, and not be overstated.  [85]  According to Weiten, "IQ
tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in
academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader
sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable."  [85]

Some scientists have disputed the value of IQ as a measure of intelligence
altogether. In _ The Mismeasure of Man  _ (1981, expanded edition 1996),  evolutionary biologist
  Stephen Jay Gould
 compared IQ testing with the
now-discredited practice of determining intelligence via  craniometry
 , arguing that both are based on the
fallacy of  reification  "Reification
\(fallacy\)") , "our tendency to convert abstract concepts into entities".
[91]  Gould's argument sparked a great deal of debate,  [92]  [93]  and the
book is listed as one of _ Discover Magazine 
"Discover \(magazine\)") _ '  s "25 Greatest Science Books of All Time".  [94]
Post-Mendel,_pre-re-
discovery "History of genetics") , although he did develop several  pre-
Mendelian  theories of
particulate inheritance).  [24]  [25]  [26]  He hypothesized that there should
exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as 
reflexes  , muscle grip, and [ head size
](/wiki/Craniometry
In research, to get a good idea of a  population
 mean, ideally
you’d collect data from multiple  random samples
 within the
population. A **sampling distribution of the mean** is the distribution of the
means of these different samples.
United States military selection in World War I  

During World War I, the Army needed a way to evaluate and assign recruits to
appropriate tasks. This led to the development of several mental tests by 
Robert Yerkes  , who worked with major
hereditarians of American psychometrics—including Terman, Goddard—to write the
test.  [36]  The testing generated controversy and much public debate in the
United States. Nonverbal or "performance" tests were developed for those who
could not speak English or were suspected of malingering.  [30]  Based on
Goddard's translation of the Binet–Simon test, the tests had an impact in
screening men for officer training:

> ...the tests did have a strong impact in some areas, particularly in
> screening men for officer training. At the start of the war, the army and
> national guard maintained nine thousand officers. By the end, two hundred
> thousand officers presided, and two- thirds of them had started their
> careers in training camps where the tests were applied. In some camps, no
> man scoring below C could be considered for officer training.  [36]

In total 1.75 million men were tested, making the results the first mass-
produced written tests of intelligence, though considered dubious and non-
usable, for reasons including high variability of test implementation
throughout different camps and questions testing for familiarity with American
culture rather than intelligence.  [36]  After the war, positive publicity
promoted by army psychologists helped to make psychology a respected field.
[37]  Subsequently, there was an increase in jobs and funding in psychology in
the United States.  [38]  Group intelligence tests were developed and became
widely used in schools and industry.  [39]
Probability of _x_ > 1380 = 1 – 0.937 = **0.063**
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 distributions

are common (especially in biology)
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Morbidity "Disease") and  mortality
 ,  [13]  [14]  parental  social
status  ,  [15]  and  perinatal
environment  .  [16]  While the  heritability of IQ
 has been investigated for
nearly a century, there is still debate about the significance of heritability
estimates  [17]  [18]  and the mechanisms of inheritance.  [19]

IQ scores are used for educational placement, assessment of  intellectual
disability  , and
evaluating job applicants. In research contexts, they have been studied as
predictors of  job performance
 "Performance rating \(work
measurement\)") [20]  and  income  .  [21]  They are
also used to study distributions of psychometric intelligence in populations
and the  correlations  between it and other variables. Raw scores on IQ tests for many
populations have been rising at an average rate that scales to three IQ points
per decade since the early 20th century, a phenomenon called the  Flynn
effect  . Investigation of different
patterns of increases in subtest scores can also inform current research on
human intelligence.