mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Today the _Mona Lisa_ is considered the most famous painting in the world, a 
destination painting  ,
but until the 20th century it was simply one among many highly regarded
artworks.  [141]  Once part of  King Francis I of France
 's collection,
the _Mona Lisa_ was among the first artworks to be exhibited in the Louvre,
which became a national museum after the French Revolution. Leonardo began to
be revered as a genius, and the painting's popularity grew in the mid-19th
century when French intelligentsia praised it as mysterious and a
representation of the  femme fatale  .
[142]  The  Baedeker  guide in 1878 called it
"the most celebrated work of Leonardo in the Louvre",  [143]  but the painting
was known more by the  intelligentsia  than the general public.  [144]
*  Museo leonardiano di Vinci 
*  Museo Ideale Leonardo da Vinci 
*  Leonardo3 Museum 
*  Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci (Milan)
Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the
many  physiological  assumptions made by
gestaltists  [55]  and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt
psychology.  [53]
Before the 1962–1963 tour, the painting was assessed for insurance at $100
million (equivalent to  $770 million  in 2023), making it, in practice, the 
most highly-valued painting
 in the world. The insurance was not purchased;
instead, more was spent on security.  [153]
Byzantine  |
An example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and
result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of
perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different
tuning or key.  [41]  An early theory of gestalt grouping principles in music
was composer-theorist  James Tenney  's
_Meta+Hodos_ (1961).  [42]   Auditory Scene Analysis
 as developed by 
Albert Bregman  further extends a
gestalt approach to the analysis of sound perception.
##  The _Mona Lisa_ illusion
Active inference  

The same principle of prediction error minimization has been used to provide
an account of behavior in which motor actions are not commands but descending
proprioceptive predictions. In this scheme of  active inference
 , classical reflex arcs are
coordinated so as to selectively sample sensory input in ways that better
fulfill predictions, thereby minimizing proprioceptive prediction errors.
[14]  Indeed, Adams et al. (2013) review evidence suggesting that this view of
hierarchical predictive coding in the motor system provides a principled and
neurally plausible framework for explaining the agranular organization of the
motor cortex.  [15]  This view suggests that “perceptual and motor systems
should not be regarded as separate but instead as a single active inference
machine that tries to predict its sensory input in all domains: visual,
auditory, somatosensory, interoceptive and, in the case of the motor system,
proprioceptive."  [15]
One historian of psychology, David J. Murray, has argued that Gestalt
psychologists first discovered many principles later championed by cognitive
psychology, including  schemas  "Schema
\(psychology\)") and  prototypes 
.  [56]  Another psychologist has argued that the Gestalt psychologists made a
lasting contribution by showing how the study of  illusions  can help scientists understand essential aspects of how the
visual system _normally_ functions, not merely how it breaks down.  [10]  : 16
Interoception  

Main article:  Interoception 

There have been several competing models for the role of predictive coding in
 interoception  .

In 2013, Anil Seth proposed that our subjective feeling states, otherwise
known as emotions, are generated by predictive models that are actively built
out of causal interoceptive appraisals.  [18]  In relation to how we attribute
internal states of others to causes, Sasha Ondobaka, James Kilner, and  Karl
Friston  (2015) proposed that the  free
energy principle 
requires the brain to produce a continuous series of predictions with the goal
of reducing the amount of prediction error that manifests as “free energy”.
[23]  These errors are then used to model anticipatory information about what
the state of the outside world will be and attributions of causes of that
world state, including understanding of causes of others’ behavior. This is
especially necessary because, to create these attributions, our multimodal
sensory systems need interoceptive predictions to organize themselves.
Therefore, Ondobaka posits that predictive coding is key to understanding
other people's internal states.

In 2015,  Lisa Feldman Barrett  and W. Kyle Simmons proposed the Embodied Predictive Interoception
Coding model, a framework that unifies Bayesian active inference principles
with a physiological framework of corticocortical connections.  [19]  Using
this model, they posited that agranular visceromotor cortices are responsible
Raphael  's _ Young Woman with Unicorn
 _ , c. 1506
The Familiarity Trap
Further reading  

* Baker, L. (1987). _Saving Belief: A Critique of Physicalism_ , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.   ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  0-691-02050-7  .
* Broad, C. D. (1925). _The Mind and its Place in Nature._ London, Routledge & Kegan.   ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  0-415-22552-3  (2001 Reprint Ed.).
* Churchland, P.M. (1979). _Scientific Realism and the Plasticity of Mind._ New York, Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.   ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  0-521-33827-1  .
* Churchland, P.M. (1988). _Matter and Consciousness, revised Ed._ Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press.   ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  0-262-53074-0  .
* Rorty, Richard. "Mind-body Identity, Privacy and Categories" in _The Review of Metaphysics_ XIX:24-54. Reprinted Rosenthal, D.M. (ed.) 1971.
* Stich, S. (1996). _Deconstructing the Mind._ New York: Oxford University Press.   ISBN  "ISBN \(identifier\)")  0-19-512666-1  .
*  Michelson–Morley experiment 
*  Kennedy–Thorndike experiment 
*  Moessbauer rotor experiments 
*  Resonator experiments 
*  de Sitter double star experiment 
*  Hammar experiment 
*  Measurements of neutrino speed
Tests of special relativity
47 languages
The experienced beer drinker  

Dennett's second thought experiment involves beer. Many people think of beer
as an acquired taste: one's first sip is often unpleasant, but one gradually
comes to enjoy it. But wait, Dennett asks—what is the "it" here? Compare the
flavor of that first taste with the flavor now. Does the beer taste exactly
the same both then and now, only now you like that taste whereas before you
disliked it? Or is it that the way beer tastes gradually shifts—so that the
taste you did not like at the beginning is not the same taste you now like? In
fact most people simply cannot tell which is the correct analysis. But that is
to give up again on the idea that we have special and infallible access to our
qualia. Further, when forced to choose, many people feel that the second
analysis is more plausible. But then if one's reactions to an experience are
in any way constitutive of it, the experience is not so "intrinsic" after
all—and another qualia property falls.  [62]
*  Woolsthorpe Manor  (birthplace)
*  Cranbury Park  (home)
*  Early life 
*  Later life 
*  Apple tree 
*  Religious views 
*  Occult studies 
*  Scientific Revolution 
*  Copernican Revolution
Inverted qualia  

The first thought experiment Dennett uses to demonstrate that qualia lack the
listed necessary properties to exist involves  inverted qualia
 : consider two people who have
different qualia but the same external physical behavior. But now the qualia
supporter can present an "intrapersonal" variation. Suppose a neurosurgeon
works on your brain and you discover that grass now looks red. Would this not
be a case where we could confirm the reality of qualia—by noticing how the
qualia have changed while every other aspect of our conscious experience
remains the same? Not quite, Dennett replies via the next "  intuition pump
 " (his term for an intuition-based
thought experiment), "alternative neurosurgery". There are two different ways
the neurosurgeon might have accomplished the inversion. First, they might have
tinkered with something "early on", so that signals from the eye when you look
at grass contain the information "red" rather than "green". This would result
in genuine qualia inversion. But they might instead have tinkered with your
memory. Here your qualia would remain the same, but your memory would be
altered so that your current green experience would contradict your earlier
memories of grass. You would still feel that the color of grass had changed,
but here the qualia have not changed, but your memories have. Would you be
able to tell which of these scenarios is correct? No: your perceptual
experience tells you that something has changed but not whether your qualia
have changed. Dennett concludes, since (by hypothesis) the two surgical
procedures can yield exactly the same introspective effects while only one
inverts the qualia, nothing in the subject's experience can favor one
hypothesis over the other. So unless he seeks outside help, the state of his
own qualia must be as unknowable to him as the state of anyone else's. It is
questionable, in short, that we have direct, infallible access to our
conscious experience.  [62]
**Citations**
** 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aether
 **
The work of Lorentz was mathematically perfected by  Henri Poincaré
 , who formulated on many
occasions the  Principle of Relativity  and tried to harmonize it with electrodynamics. He
declared simultaneity only a convenient convention which depends on the speed
of light, whereby the constancy of the speed of light would be a useful 
postulate  for making the laws of nature as
simple as possible. In 1900 and 1904  [A 14]  [A 15]  he physically
interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of clock synchronization by
light signals. In June and July 1905  [A 16]  [A 17]  he declared the
relativity principle a general law of nature, including gravitation. He
corrected some mistakes of Lorentz and proved the Lorentz covariance of the
electromagnetic equations. However, he used the notion of an aether as a
perfectly undetectable medium and distinguished between apparent and real
time, so most historians of science argue that he failed to invent special
relativity.  [B 7]  [B 9]  [B 3]
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A mental state is occurrent if it is active or causally efficacious within the
owner's mind. Non-occurrent states are called standing or dispositional
states. They exist somewhere in the back of one's mind but currently play no
active role in any mental processes.  [63]  [64]  This distinction is
sometimes identified with the distinction between phenomenally conscious and
unconscious mental states.  [65]  [66]  It seems to be the case that the two
distinctions overlap but do not fully match despite the fact that all
conscious states are occurrent. This is the case because unconscious states
may become causally active while remaining unconscious. A repressed desire may
affect the agent's behavior while remaining unconscious, which would be an
example of an unconscious occurring mental state.  [65]  [66]  [67]  The
distinction between occurrent and standing is especially relevant for 
beliefs  and  desires
 . At any moment, there seems
to be a great number of things we believe or things we want that are not
relevant to our current situation. These states remain inactive in the back of
one's head even though one has them.  [65]  [67]  For example, while Ann is
engaged in her favorite computer game, she still believes that dogs have four
legs and desires to get a pet dog on her next birthday. But these two states
play no active role in her current state of mind.  [65]  Another example comes
from  dreamless   sleep  when
most or all of our mental states are standing states.  [63]
####  Second order experiments
*  Catherine Barton  (niece)
*  John Conduitt  (nephew-in-law)
*  Isaac Barrow  (professor)
*  William Clarke  "William Clarke \(apothecary\)") (mentor)
*  Benjamin Pulleyn  (tutor)
*  John Keill  (disciple)
*  William Stukeley  (friend)
*  William Jones  "William Jones \(mathematician\)") (friend)
*  Abraham de Moivre  (friend)
Main article:  Aether drag hypothesis
Similarly the  Sagnac effect  ,
observed by G. Sagnac in 1913, was immediately seen to be fully consistent
with special relativity.  [E 29]  [E 30]  In fact, the 
Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment
 in 1925 was proposed specifically as a
test to confirm the relativity theory, although it was also recognized that
such tests, which merely measure absolute rotation, are also consistent with
non-relativistic theories.  [12]
###  Classification according to Brentano
Christiaan Huygens  's _
Treatise on Light  _ (1690)
hypothesized that light is a wave propagating through an aether. He and 
Isaac Newton  could only envision light
waves as being  longitudinal  ,
propagating like sound and other  mechanical waves  in  fluids  . However, longitudinal
waves necessarily have only one form for a given propagation direction, rather
than two  polarizations  "Polarization
\(waves\)") like a  transverse wave  . Thus, longitudinal waves can not explain  birefringence
 , in which two polarizations of light
are refracted differently by a crystal. In addition, Newton rejected light as
waves in a medium because such a medium would have to extend everywhere in
space, and would thereby "disturb and retard the Motions of those great
Bodies" (the planets and comets) and thus "as it [light's medium] is of no
use, and hinders the Operation of Nature, and makes her languish, so there is
no evidence for its Existence, and therefore it ought to be rejected".  [4]
who deny the existence of  propositional attitudes
 (a subclass of 
intentional states  ), and with 
Daniel Dennett  , who is generally
considered an eliminativist about  qualia  and
phenomenal aspects of consciousness. One way to summarize the difference
between the Churchlands' view and Dennett's is that the Churchlands are
eliminativists about propositional attitudes, but  reductionists
 about qualia, while Dennett is an anti-
reductionist about propositional attitudes and an eliminativist about qualia.
[4]  [25]  [26]  [27]

More recently, Brian Tomasik and  Jacy Reese Anthis  have made various arguments for eliminativism.  [28]
[29]  Elizabeth Irvine has argued that both science and folk psychology do not
treat  mental states  as having
phenomenal properties so the hard problem "may not be a genuine problem for
non-philosophers (despite its overwhelming obviousness to philosophers), and
questions about consciousness may well 'shatter' into more specific questions
about particular capacities."  [30]  In 2022, Anthis published _Consciousness
Semanticism: A Precise Eliminativist Theory of Consciousness_ , which asserts
that "formal argumentation from precise semantics" dissolves the hard problem
because of the contradiction between precision implied in philosophical theory
and the vagueness in its definition, which implies there is no fact of the
matter for phenomenological consciousness.  [8]
*  One-way speed of light 
*  Test theories of special relativity 
*  Standard-Model Extension
*  CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)  "Category:CS1 Portuguese-language sources \(pt\)")
*  Articles with short description 
*  Short description is different from Wikidata
However, a transverse wave apparently required the propagating medium to
behave as a solid, as opposed to a fluid. The idea of a solid that did not
interact with other matter seemed a bit odd, and  Augustin-Louis Cauchy
 suggested that perhaps
there was some sort of "dragging", or "entrainment", but this made the
aberration measurements difficult to understand. He also suggested that the
_absence_ of longitudinal waves suggested that the aether had negative
compressibility.  George Green  "George
Green \(mathematician\)") pointed out that such a fluid would be unstable. 
George Gabriel Stokes 
became a champion of the entrainment interpretation, developing a model in
which the aether might, like pine pitch, be  dilatant  (fluid at slow speeds and rigid at fast speeds). Thus the Earth
could move through it fairly freely, but it would be rigid enough to support
light.
These "aether-wind" experiments led to a flurry of efforts to "save" aether by
assigning to it ever more complex properties, while only few scientists, like
 Emil Cohn  or  Alfred Bucherer
 , considered the possibility of the
abandonment of the aether hypothesis. Of particular interest was the
possibility of "aether entrainment" or "aether drag", which would lower the
magnitude of the measurement, perhaps enough to explain the results of the
Michelson–Morley experiment. However, as noted earlier, aether dragging
already had problems of its own, notably aberration. In addition, the
interference experiments of  Lodge 
(1893, 1897) and  Ludwig Zehnder 
(1895), aimed to show whether the aether is dragged by various, rotating
masses, showed no aether drag.  [E 24]  [E 25]  [E 26]  A more precise
measurement was made in the  Hammar experiment  (1935), which ran a complete MM experiment with one of
the "legs" placed between two massive lead blocks.  [E 27]  If the aether was
dragged by mass then this experiment would have been able to detect the drag
caused by the lead, but again the null result was achieved. The theory was
again modified, this time to suggest that the entrainment only worked for very
large masses or those masses with large magnetic fields. This too was shown to
be incorrect by the  Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment
 , which detected the Sagnac effect due to
Earth's rotation (see  Aether drag hypothesis  ).
Isaac Newton contended that light is made up of numerous small particles. This
can explain such features as light's ability to travel in straight lines and 
reflect  "Reflection \(physics\)") off surfaces.
Newton imagined light particles as non-spherical "corpuscles", with different
"sides" that give rise to birefringence. But the particle theory of light can
not satisfactorily explain  refraction  and 
diffraction  .  [5]  To explain refraction,
Newton's Third Book of _ Opticks  _ (1st ed. 1704,
4th ed. 1730) postulated an "aethereal medium" transmitting vibrations faster
than light, by which light, when overtaken, is put into "Fits of easy
Reflexion and easy Transmission", which caused refraction and diffraction.
Newton believed that these vibrations were related to heat radiation:
There is a great variety of types of mental states, which can be classified
according to various distinctions. These types include _perception_ , _belief_
, _desire_ , _intention_ , _emotion_ and _memory_ . Many of the proposed
distinctions for these types have significant overlaps and some may even be
identical. _Sensory states_ involve sense impressions, which are absent in
_non-sensory states_ . _Propositional attitudes_ are mental states that have
propositional contents, in contrast to _non-propositional states_ . _
Intentional  states _ refer to or are
about objects or states of affairs, a feature which _non-intentional states_
lack. A mental state is _ conscious  _ if it
belongs to a phenomenal experience. _ Unconscious  mental states _ are also part of the mind but they lack
this phenomenal dimension. _Occurrent mental states_ are active or causally
efficacious within the owner's mind while _non-occurrent or standing states_
exist somewhere in the back of one's mind but do not currently play an active
role in any  mental processes  .
Certain mental states are rationally evaluable: they are either _ rational
 or  irrational 
_ depending on whether they obey the norms of rationality. But other states
are _arational_ : they are outside the domain of rationality. A well-known
classification is due to Franz Brentano, who distinguishes three basic
categories of mental states: _presentations_ , _judgments_ , and _phenomena of
love and hate_ .
A simple example concerns the model on which aether was originally built:
sound. The speed of propagation for mechanical waves, the  speed of sound
 , is defined by the mechanical
properties of the medium. Sound travels 4.3 times faster in water than in air.
This explains why a person hearing an explosion underwater and quickly
surfacing can hear it again as the slower travelling sound arrives through the
air. Similarly, a traveller on an  airliner  can
still carry on a conversation with another traveller because the sound of
words is travelling along with the air inside the aircraft. This effect is
basic to all Newtonian dynamics, which says that everything from sound to the
trajectory of a thrown baseball should all remain the same in the aircraft
flying (at least at a constant speed) as if still sitting on the ground. This
is the basis of the Galilean transformation, and the concept of frame of
reference.
###  Special relativity
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A **mental state** , or a **mental property** , is a state of  mind
 of a person. Mental states comprise a diverse class,
including perception, pain/pleasure experience, belief, desire, intention,
emotion, and memory. There is controversy concerning the exact definition of
the term. According to _ epistemic approaches  _ , the essential mark of mental states is that their subject
has privileged epistemic access while others can only infer their existence
from outward signs. _ Consciousness-based approaches  _ hold that all mental states are either conscious themselves
or stand in the right relation to conscious states. _ Intentionality-based
approaches  _ , on the other hand, see
the power of minds to refer to objects and represent the  world
 as the mark of the mental. According
to _ functionalist approaches 
"Functionalism \(philosophy of mind\)") _ , mental states are defined in terms
of their role in the causal network independent of their intrinsic properties.
Some philosophers deny all the aforementioned approaches by holding that the
term "mental" refers to a cluster of loosely related ideas without an
underlying unifying feature shared by all. Various overlapping classifications
of mental states have been proposed. Important distinctions group mental
phenomena together according to whether they are _sensory_ , _propositional_ ,
_intentional_ , _conscious_ or _occurrent_ . Sensory states involve sense
impressions like visual perceptions or bodily pains. Propositional attitudes,
like beliefs and desires, are relations a subject has to a proposition. The
characteristic of intentional states is that they refer to or are about
objects or states of affairs. Conscious states are part of the phenomenal
experience while occurrent states are causally efficacious within the owner's
mind, with or without consciousness. An influential classification of mental
states is due to Franz Brentano, who argues that there are only three basic
kinds: presentations, judgments, and phenomena of love and hate.
**Luminiferous aether** or **ether** [1]  ( _luminiferous_ meaning 'light-
bearing') was the postulated  medium  for the propagation of  light  .
[2]  It was invoked to explain the ability of the apparently  wave
 -based light to propagate through empty space (a  vacuum
 ), something that waves should not be able to do. The
assumption of a spatial plenum (space completely filled with matter) of
luminiferous aether, rather than a spatial vacuum, provided the theoretical
medium that was required by wave theories of light.
#  Mental state
General  |
Main article:  Lorentz ether theory
*  Aether theories