mteb/BrightProPsychologyRetrieval huggingface dataset:
Apparatus and Stimuli

Stimuli and an example trial sequence are illustrated in Figure  1  . The
stimuli were black and white line drawings of a fixation dot, two 2.3° × 2.3°
squares presented 5.7° of visual angle to the left and right of fixation, and
a capital letter “X” (1°) serving as the target. The stimuli were shown on a
16-in CRT monitor.

FIGURE 1

**Figure 1. Example trial sequence.** Trials began with the presentation of a
fixation point for 750 ms. Then, one of the placeholders brightened for 80 ms.
After the variable cue-target interval (i.e., 106, 372, 638, or 931 ms in the
high across trials target probability condition or 106 or 931 ms in the low
across trials target probability condition), the target (a capital letter “X”)
appeared centered in either the left or right placeholder and remained present
on the screen until a response was made or 2000 ms had elapsed. The intertrial
interval was 652 ms. Note that the stimuli are not drawn to scale.
How to increase oxytocin

Low oxytocin levels have been linked to symptoms of depression, including 
postpartum depression  . Researchers have been studying whether giving
oxytocin in a pill or nasal spray might help to ease anxiety and depression,
but so far the results have been disappointing. In part, that's because it's
hard for this hormone to slip across the blood-brain barrier.

A more promising way to boost oxytocin naturally is with exercise. One study
noted a jump in oxytocin levels measured in participants' saliva after high-
intensity martial arts training. Music also seems to have the ability to
increase oxytocin levels, especially when people sing in a group, which adds
the element of bonding.

Just the simple act of touch seems boost oxytocin release. Giving someone a
massage, cuddling, making love, or giving someone a hug leads to higher levels
of this hormone and a greater sense of well-being.

_Oxytocin is just one of the four feel-good hormones. To learn more about the
others and how they work, head to the beginning of this series  . _

** Image: FatCamera/Getty Images  **
Oxytocin can help us bond with loved ones and can be released through
touch, music, and exercise.

June 13, 2023

* Reviewed by   Howard E. LeWine, MD  , Chief Medical Editor, Harvard Health Publishing
RNA profiles in Wikipedia  

The RNA expression profile of the GLUT4 Transporter (one of the main glucose
transporters found in the human body)

Profiles like these are found for almost all proteins listed in Wikipedia.
They are generated by organizations such as the  Genomics Institute of the
Novartis Research Foundation
 and the  European
Bioinformatics Institute  . Additional information can be found by searching
their databases (for an example of the GLUT4 transporter pictured here, see
citation).  [70]  These profiles indicate the level of DNA expression (and
hence RNA produced) of a certain protein in a certain tissue, and are color-
coded accordingly in the images located in the Protein Box on the right side
of each Wikipedia page.
Maternal_effect_genes "Drosophila
embryogenesis") . High intensity of blue color marks places with high
hunchback mRNA quantity.

Analysis of expression is not limited to quantification; localization can also
be determined. mRNA can be detected with a suitably labelled complementary
mRNA strand and protein can be detected via labelled antibodies. The probed
sample is then observed by microscopy to identify where the mRNA or protein
is.

 The three-dimensional
structure of  green fluorescent protein  . The residues in the centre of the "barrel" are
responsible for production of green light after exposing to higher energetic
blue light. From   PDB  : 
1EMA  ​.

By replacing the gene with a new version fused to a  green fluorescent
protein  (or
similar) marker, expression may be directly quantified in live cells. This is
done by imaging using a  fluorescence microscope
 . It is very
difficult to clone a GFP-fused protein into its native location in the genome
without affecting expression levels so this method often cannot be used to
measure endogenous gene expression. It is, however, widely used to measure the
expression of a gene artificially introduced into the cell, for example via an
 expression vector  . It is
important to note that by fusing a target protein to a fluorescent reporter
the protein's behavior, including its cellular localization and expression
level, can be significantly changed.

The  enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay  works by using
antibodies immobilised on a  microtiter plate  to capture proteins of interest from samples added to the
well. Using a detection antibody conjugated to an enzyme or fluorophore the
quantity of bound protein can be accurately measured by  fluorometric
 or  colourimetric
 "Colorimetry \(chemical method\)")
detection. The detection process is very similar to that of a Western blot,
but by avoiding the gel steps more accurate quantification can be achieved.
Model systems for motor control  

All organisms face the computational challenges above, so neural circuits for
motor control have been studied in  humans 
, monkeys,  [10]  horses, cats,  [11]  mice,  [12]  fish  [13]  lamprey,  [14]
flies,  [15]  locusts,  [16]  and nematodes,  [17]  among many others.
Mammalian model systems like mice and monkeys offer the most straightforward
comparative models for human health and disease. They are widely used to study
the role of higher brain regions common to vertebrates, including the cerebral
cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia and deep brain medullary and reticular
circuits for motor control.  [18]  The  genetics and neurophysiology of motor
circuits  in the spine have also been studied in
mammalian model organisms, but protective vertebrae make it difficult to study
the functional role of spinal circuits in behaving animals. Here, larval and
adult fish have been useful in discovering the functional logic of the local
spinal circuits that coordinate motor neuron activity. Invertebrate model
organisms do not have the same brain regions as vertebrates, but their brains
must solve similar computational issues and thus are thought to have brain
regions homologous to those involved in motor control in the vertebrate
nervous system,  [19]  The organization of  arthropod  nervous systems into ganglia that control each leg as allowed
researchers to record from neurons dedicated to moving a specific leg during
behavior.

Model systems have also demonstrated the role of  central pattern generators
 in driving
rhythmic movements.  [14]  A central pattern generator is a neural network
that can generate rhythmic activity in the absence of an external control
signal, such as a signal descending from the brain or feedback signals from
sensors in the limbs (e.g.  proprioceptors  ). Evidence suggests that real CPGs exist in several key
motor control regions, such as the  stomachs of arthropods
 or the  pre-
Boetzinger complex 
that control breathing in humans. Furthermore, as a theoretical concept, CPGs
have been useful to frame the possible role of sensory feedback in motor
control.
Rotating snakes  

 Illusion similar
to _Rotating Snakes_

**Rotating snakes** is an optical illusion developed by Professor  Akiyoshi
Kitaoka  in 2003.  [1]  A type of
peripheral drift illusion, the "snakes" consist of several bands of color
which resemble coiled  serpents  . Although the image
is static, the snakes appear to be moving in circles. The speed of perceived
motion depends on the frequency of  microsaccadic  eye movements (Alexander & Martinez-Conde, 2019).
Zoomorphic language for things, ideas  

* A literary phrase such as "The roar of the ocean".
*  Waterwolf  , a  Dutch  terminology for the tendency of bodies of water in low-lying land to grow larger over time, causing death, loss of  livestock  and loss of land.
*  Sin  lurking like a beast waiting to devour  Cain  in  Genesis  .  [5]
Conversely, the “I don’t know” state that Freeman observed in animal
perception seems to be identified with chaotic itinerancy because of the
appearance of attractor ruins. An input of unknown odor gives rise to chaotic
transitions among learned odor states, and nearly stationary motion appears in
a neighborhood of a limit-cycle attractor that represents a learned odor
state. Thus, the learned state is weakly destabilized and expressed by an
attractor ruin. Only after learning, the trajectory converges to a new limit-
cycle attractor. The strongly chaotic activity of the ‘I don’t know’ basin of
attraction is required for trial-and-error Hebbian learning, because the
Hebbian synapses require pre- and post-synaptic activity, but it must be novel
to avoid reinforcing some existing attractor. Actually, Tsuda’s model
guarantees this trial-and-error Hebbian learning even for the period of
recalling memories by avoiding the  reinforcement  of existing attractors due to the continual transient
dynamics.
La Fontaine's _Le Renard et les Raisins_ 

  Pierre Julien
 's sculpture of  La Fontaine
 with attendant fox

The French fable of La Fontaine (III.11) is almost as concise and pointed as
the early versions of  Babrius  and Phaedrus and
certainly contributed to the story's popularity. A century after its
publication, this was the tale with which the sculptor  Pierre Julien
 chose to associate its creator in his
statue of La Fontaine (commissioned in 1782), now in the  Louvre
 . The poet is represented in a famous episode of his
life, when he was seen one morning by the  Duchess of Bouillon
 seated against a tree trunk
meditating. When she passed the same spot that evening he was still there in
exactly the same position. Julien has portrayed him in an ample cloak, with a
gnarled tree on which a vine with grapes is climbing. On his knee is the
manuscript of the poem; at his feet, a fox is seated on his hat with its paw
on a leather-  bound  volume, looking up at
him.

 Gustave Doré  's illustration of
the fable for the 1870 edition  [13]  pictures a young man in a garden who is
looking towards the steps to a mansion in the distance on which several young
women are congregated. An older man is holding up his thumb and forefinger,
indicating that they are only little girls. The meaning of this transposition
to the human situation hinges on the double meaning of 'unripe' ( _vert_ ) in
French, which could also be used of a sexually immature female. From this
emerges the story's subtext, of which a literal translation reads:

> The gallant would gladly have made a meal of them
>  But as he was unable to succeed, says he:
>  'They are unripe and only fit for green boys.'

There is the same sexual ambiguity in the  Greek  of Babrius. The phrase there is "  όμφακες εισίν  " (
_omphakes eisin_ ), the word  _omphax_ [14]  having both the literal meaning
of an unripe grape and the metaphorical usage of a girl not yet ripe for
marriage.
The forest as a tool in psychoanalysis

**The forest is a scenario with a very clear mystical-emotional component in
any culture.** Carl Jung himself explained this in his book “ _The Archetypes
and The Collective Unconscious_ “. He showed that in these scenarios you can
find out hidden dangers and fears in our lives. In a way, traveling through
them sometimes means a return to that ancestral past where we rediscover the
deepest part of our beings.

**In psychoanalysis, the forest is considered as the reflection of the
subconscious  ** . It is that symbolic relationship that
sometimes manifests itself in our dreams, where many of our phobias arise.
These include the fear of darkness, of sinking or falling into a hole, or the
fear of insects or wild animals.

> _“The clearest way to reach the universe is through a wild forest.”_
>
> _-John Muir-_
In the context of  materialist 
understandings of  psychology  ,
eliminativism is the opposite of  reductive materialism
 , arguing that mental
states as conventionally understood _do_ exist, and  directly correspond to
the physical state of the nervous system  .  [9]  An intermediate position, revisionary materialism, often
argues the mental state in question will prove to be _somewhat_ reducible to
physical phenomena—with some changes needed to the commonsense concept.  [1]
[10]

Since eliminative materialism arguably claims that future research will fail
to find a neuronal basis for various mental phenomena, it may need to wait for
science to progress further. One might question the position on these grounds,
but philosophers like Churchland argue that eliminativism is often necessary
in order to open the minds of thinkers to new evidence and better
explanations.  [9]  Views closely related to eliminativism include
illusionism  and  quietism
Causes  

See also:  Influential factors

The causes of TOTs are largely unknown but numerous explanations have been
offered. These explanations mainly fall within the realms of two overarching
viewpoints: the  direct-access view  and the  inferential view  .  [2]
Samples of Active Learning Activities

In a “traditional” class, it is common for only some students in a given
course to participate in asking or responding to questions. In contrast, a
class with successful active learning activities provide an opportunity for
all students in a class to think and engage with course material and practice
skills for learning, applying, synthesizing, or summarizing that material.

*  Classroom Assessment/Activities Techniques - CATs Guide 
*  Active Learning Strategies for Large Group Instruction 
*  Sample Activity from Mechanical Engineering
Neurological  

There is limited knowledge regarding the neurobiology that drives excoriation
disorder, and there have been few neuroimaging studies of those with
excoriation disorder.  [11]

Those individuals that have excoriation disorder along with other diagnosed
conditions report differing motivations for their picking. Those with both OCD
and excoriation disorder report that they will pick their skin due to
perceived contamination of the skin, while those with both  body dysmorphic
disorder  (BDD)
and excoriation disorder reportedly pick to fix perceived imperfections in the
skin.  [3]

Studies have shown a linkage between  dopamine 
and the urge to pick. Drugs such as  cocaine  and 
methamphetamine  , which increase
the pharmacological effects of dopamine, have been shown to cause
uncontrollable picking in users. These drugs can create the sensation of 
formication  , which feels like something is
crawling on or under the skin.  [3]  Thus, excoriation disorder could result
from a dysfunction in the dopamine reward functions.  [3]

There may be another neurological explanation for excoriation disorder:
individuals with the condition have less motor-inhibitory control, but show no
sign of a difference in  cognitive flexibility  when compared to individuals without the condition.
Motor-inhibitory control is a function of the right-lateralized 
frontostriatal circuit  , which includes the right inferior frontal and bilateral  anterior
cingulate cortices  . The impairment of motor-inhibitory control is similar to the
neurological conditions of those who have problems suppressing inappropriate
behaviors, such as using methamphetamine.  [3]
Causes  

There have been many different theories regarding the causes of excoriation
disorder, including biological and environmental factors.  [10]

A common hypothesis is that excoriation disorder is often a coping mechanism
to deal with elevated levels of turmoil, boredom, anxiety, or stress within
the individual, and that the individual has an impaired stress response.  [3]
[8]  A review of behavioral studies found support in this hypothesis, in that
skin-picking appears to be maintained by automatic reinforcement within the
individual.  [8]

In contrast to neurological theories, there are some  psychologists
 who believe that picking behavior can be
a result of repressed rage felt toward  authoritarian parents
 .  [3]  A similar theory holds
that overbearing parents can cause the behavior to develop in their children.
[3]
Signs and symptoms  

Compulsive picking of the knuckles (via mouth) illustrating potentially
temporary disfiguration of the  distal and proximal joints
 of the  middle  and  little
 fingers.   The fingers have been compulsively picked and chewed in
someone with excoriation disorder and  dermatophagia  .   Compulsive picking of
the face using nail pliers and tweezers

Episodes of skin picking are often preceded or accompanied by tension,
anxiety, or stress.  [6]  In some cases, following picking, the affected
person may feel depressed.  [5]  During these moments, there is commonly a
compulsive urge to pick, squeeze, or scratch at a surface or region of the
body, often at the location of a perceived skin defect. When picking, one may
feel a sense of relief or satisfaction.  [7]

The region most commonly picked is the face,  [3]  [6]  [5]  but other
frequent locations include the arms, legs, back, gums, neck, shoulders, scalp,
abdomen, chest, and extremities such as the fingernails, cuticles, toenails,
etc. Most patients with excoriation disorder report having a primary area of
the body that they focus their picking on, but they will often move to other
areas of the body to allow their primary picking area to heal.  [3]
Individuals with excoriation disorder vary in their picking behaviour; some do
it briefly multiple times a day, while others can do one picking session that
can last for hours.  [8]  The most common way to pick is to use the fingers
although a significant minority of people use tools such as tweezers or
needles.  [9]

Skin picking often occurs as a result of some other triggering cause.  [5]
Some common triggers are feeling or examining irregularities on the skin, and
feeling anxiety or other negative feelings. This anxiety most commonly stems
from a type of OCD, which can range in severity and often goes undiagnosed.
[9]

Complications arising from excoriation disorder include infection at the site
of picking, tissue damage, and  sepsis  . Damage from
picking can be so severe as to require  skin grafting  , and severe picking can cause  epidermal abscesses
 . Severe cases of excoriation disorder can cause
life-threatening injuries. For example, in one reported case, a woman picked a
hole through the bridge of her nose, which required surgery to fix, and a
48-year-old woman picked through the skin on her neck, exposing the  carotid
artery  . Pain in the
neck or back can arise due to prolonged bent-over positions while engaging in
the behavior. Besides physical injuries, excoriation disorder can cause severe
physical scarring and disfigurement.  [3]

Excoriation disorder can cause feelings of intense helplessness, guilt, shame,
and embarrassment in individuals, and this greatly increases the risk of 
self-harm  .  [3]  Studies have shown that
excoriation disorder presented  suicidal ideation  in 12% of individuals with this condition,  suicide
attempts  in 11.5% of individuals
with this condition, and psychiatric hospitalizations in 15% of individuals
with this condition.  [3]
What a dream expert has to say about déjà rêvé.

If you're someone who believes in  dream interpretation
 , the idea that dreams can somehow predict the future is
certainly fascinating to consider.

"  Dreaming is a phenomenon  where time does not follow the
strict linear rules of the day world," Ellis explains to mbg. "In dreams, we
often have a mix of past, present, and possible future. Dreams that predict
the future are called precognitive dreams, a close cousin of the déjà rêvé
phenomenon."

Ellis herself has encountered these dreams in her own clinical practice, and
she says she keeps an open mind about them.

"In many cultures, and tracing as far back as recorded history allows, dreams
have been understood as  sources of spiritual guidance
 from a source
of far greater knowledge than we normally possess," she notes, "including
information about possible or probable future events."

One of her clients, she adds, swears they had a recurring dream of a specific
road that one day appeared in real life, "prompting them to stop their car in
time to avoid what they are convinced would have been a fatal crash."

Ellis has also experienced what she describes as another category of déjà
rêvé: dreaming of something you've already dreamed about. "I often find myself
in a particular dream world that is familiar from many prior dream visits,"
she says. "It can feel as if we are indeed living another, parallel life as we
sleep."
Features  

Zuckerman's research has found that high sensation seekers tend to seek high
levels of stimulation in their daily lives. The scale predicts how well people
tolerate sensory deprivation sessions. Sensation seeking increases with age
from childhood to adolescence. Studies indicate it increases between 10-15
years and remains stable or declines thereafter.  [13]  However, boredom
susceptibility remains stable across the life span, unlike the other facets of
sensation seeking.  [8]

Substantial gender differences have been found in sensation seeking, with
males scoring significantly higher than females.  [8]  In American samples,
males significantly outscored females in total sensation seeking, thrill and
adventure seeking, boredom susceptibility, and disinhibition. Studies in
Australia, Canada, and Spain found similar gender differences in total
sensation seeking, thrill and adventure seeking and boredom susceptibility.

Marital status is also related to sensation seeking, as studies have found
that divorced males tend to be higher in the trait compared to single or
married men.  [8]
Relationship to personality models  

Zuckerman began researching the personality trait he came to call "sensation
seeking" in 1969. Zuckerman argues that sensation-seeking is one of a handful
of "core traits" that can be used to describe human personality. Although
other researchers including  Eysenck  ,
and  Costa and McCrae  considered the trait to be related to  extraversion
 ,  factor-analytic
 studies conducted by Zuckerman
suggested that sensation seeking is relatively independent of other major
dimensions of personality. A number of studies have found positive
correlations between sensation seeking, especially the experience seeking
component, and  openness to experience  .  [8]  Additionally, negative correlations have
been found between  agreeableness  from
the  NEO-PI-R  and total sensation seeking, and
the boredom susceptibility and disinhibition subscales. The  honesty-humility
 factor of the  HEXACO
 model has been shown to be negatively correlated with
sensation seeking and  risk  taking behaviors.  [9]

In Zuckerman's  alternative five 
model of personality, sensation seeking has been incorporated as a facet of
the broader trait of _impulsive sensation seeking_ .  [10]  Within Eysenck's 
"Big Three"  model of personality, impulsive sensation seeking is most
strongly related to  psychoticism  and
within the  Big Five personality traits  it is primarily related to (low) 
conscientiousness  . Sensation-
seeking has a strong correlation with the  novelty seeking
 scale of  Cloninger
 's  Temperament and
Character Inventory  .  [1]  Furthermore, he presents evidence  [11]
[12]  that this characteristic is influenced by genes. So, sensation-seeking
parents are likely to have sensation-seeking children.  [ _ citation needed
 _ ]
Major empirical findings
Major theoretical approaches  

The major three approaches to social facilitation are the activation,
evaluation, and attention theories. The activation theory describes how our
arousal relates to social facilitation. The evaluation theory discusses how
being assessed by an audience affects to social facilitation. The attention
theory takes into account the effect of distractions in the environment on
social facilitation.