# Clinical Manifestations of Inferior Vena Cava Injuries and the Progress of Emergency Treatment

Authors: Chao Liu; Hao Zhang; Shaotao Xiang; Liang Liu
Journal: Journal of Healthcare Engineering
 (2022)

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## Abstract

In this paper, clinical manifestations of inferior vena cava injuries and the progress of emergency treatment are presented. Inferior vena cava (IVC) is the large vein returning venous blood from the lower limbs and pelvic and abdominal cavities to the right atrium of the heart. The clinical manifestations of IVC injuries include shock, progressive hemorrhage, air embolism, retroperitoneal hematoma, active bleeding, and hemoperitoneum. The patients may be combined or not combined with injuries to other organs or even die. Routine examination methods for IVC injuries include general examination, color Doppler ultrasound, abdominal contrast-enhanced CT, magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI), and IVC angiography. These examinations are usually performed to confirm the diagnosis. Surgical treatment is the primary emergency treatment for this condition. Increasing the blood volume and symptomatic treatment are auxiliary treatments. The surgeries and repairs for IVC injuries are currently under investigation. Experimental results have verified the exceptional performance of the proposed scheme.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Inferior vena cava (IVC) injury remains one of the major challenges at the surgical department, as it involves considerable blood loss and causes high mortality. Besides, the mortality varies from one study center to another due to variabilities in the overall competence of hospitals, emergency treatment capacity, number of cases to be managed, and surgeons’ skills. However, the mortality associated with IVC injuries is generally higher at the medical study centers. Since homogeneity is lacking in the number of cases at different study centers, it is hardly possible to determine the mortality corrected by the number of patients with such conditions or further analyze other associated issues. Although the mortality of IVC injuries caused by different mechanisms varies little, the mortality is higher if the injuries are closer to the heart [1]. A review of the literature reports on IVC injuries from 2000 to 2020 reveals that nearly all are retrospective studies and case reports, and very few are randomized controlled trials. IVC injuries can be divided into three types, namely, iatrogenic (mechanism of injury: blunt trauma and penetrating trauma), noniatrogenic, and a special type of IVC injury. Iatrogenic IVC injury: injury of the great vessels is not uncommon as an intraoperative complication of the puncture during laparoscopy, an emerging technique used in recent years. The sites vulnerable to such injuries include IVC, abdominal aorta, and other organs. It has been reported that the incidence of complications associated with abdominal Trocar insertion is about 0.8 for every 1000 insertions performed [2]. Such conditions are more likely to happen at the departments of general surgery (the incidence being 0.5–5%) [3], hepatobiliary surgery, gynecology, chest surgery, and cardiology, where mature minimally invasive procedures, including radiofrequency ablation for atrial fibrillation, are performed [4–6]. Noniatrogenic IVC injuries: China has experienced rapid technological development in recent years, accompanied by a growing incidence of IVC injuries associated with complex trauma due to accidents. Noniatrogenic IVC injuries are unpredictable and uncontrollable and progress rapidly. Such injuries, which usually present with an irregular morphology, may be severe and considerably ruptured. A special type of IVC injuries: this type of IVC injury is mainly caused by tumor invasion. Its features are little known and require further investigation. Some researchers believe that iatrogenic IVC injuries are more predictable, controllable, and manageable. However, noniatrogenic and traumatic IVC injuries may be severe complex compound injuries, featured by irregular morphology, unpredictability, and uncontrollability [7–9].The total length of IVC is determined as 25.7–27.1 cm, with each segment varying slightly in inner diameter [10]. The average inner diameter of IVC extending from the confluence of the common iliac veins to the right atrium of the heart is about 2.2–2.7 cm [11] (see Table 1). Depending on the inner diameter, IVC is subdivided into three segments: segment I extends from the right atrium of the heart to the second hepatic hilum (segment I a from the right atrium of the heart to the diaphragm, and segment I b from the diaphragm to the second hepatic hilum); segment II extends from the second hepatic hilum to the renal vein; segment III extends from the renal vein to the confluence of the common iliac veins. Injuries to different segments of IVC present with various clinical manifestations, though some similarities may still be found. Correspondingly, the surgical procedures, mortality, and prognosis also vary.Table 1
Normal reference values for each segment of IVC [12].
IVC left-to-right diameter (cm)Anteroposterior diameter (cm)Segment I 1.0–1.32.0–2.4Segment II 0.9–1.21.9–2.1Segment III 0.9–1.11.7–1.9In this paper, clinical manifestations of inferior vena cava injuries and the progress of emergency treatment are presented. Inferior vena cava (IVC) is the large vein returning venous blood from the lower limbs and pelvic and abdominal cavities to the right atrium of the heart. The clinical manifestations of IVC injuries include shock, progressive hemorrhage, air embolism, retroperitoneal hematoma, active bleeding, and hemoperitoneum.The rest of the paper is organized as follows: In the subsequent section, clinical manifestations of IVC injuries are provided with a sufficiently detailed description and explanation. In Section3, complications, prognosis, and mortality predictors of IVC injuries are discussed in detail. In Section 4, laboratory tests for IVC injuries and how these tests are performed are presented in detail, whereas in Section 5, the progress of the diagnosis of IVC injuries and the differential diagnosis is described in detail. Finally, concluding remarks are given to summarize the paper.


## 2. Clinical Manifestations of IVC Injuries

### 2.1. Mechanism of Injury and Pathogenic Factor

The mechanisms of injuries to IVC include blunt trauma (compression injuries to abdominal tissues due to external compression) and penetrating trauma (gunshot trauma, stabbing trauma, or others). Factors causing IVC injuries include complex trauma, intraoperative complications, and tumor invasion. Among them, complex trauma and intraoperative complications are more common. Hepatic, renal, and pancreatic cancers are the most common cancers invading IVC, which explain the poor prognosis of these cancers at an advanced stage [13]. Given the thin wall of the IVC, a physiological contraction difference following the smooth muscle injury is one reason for R, the combined fatal shock. An injured IVC is hard to be exposed, making the hemostasis and repair difficult. IVC injuries are generally combined with injuries to remaining vessels and the adjacent organs. Due to the above reasons, the mortality of IVC injuries is about 50%–60% [14].


### 2.2. Similarities in the Clinical Manifestations of IVC Injuries

There exist shock and progressive hemorrhage and tachycardia (bradycardia or even malignant arrhythmia in some severe cases), following acute prerenal insufficiency, hemoperitoneum, retroperitoneal hematoma, or active bleeding, with or without injuries to the abdominal cavity or other organs.


### 2.3. Clinical Manifestations in Injuries of Different IVC Segments

#### 2.3.1. Injury to the Segment I of IVC (from the Right Atrium of the Heart to the Second Hepatic Hilum)

This segment of IVC is protected by the thorax, liver, and diaphragmatic muscle in the front. However, the blood loss may be significant in segment I of IVC, as this segment passes through both the thoracic and abdominal cavities. As a result, hemopericardium, hemoperitoneum, and pericardial and abdominal effusion may occur simultaneously. Exposure and hemostasis are hard to be achieved for injuries to this segment of IVC in the presence of the diaphragm muscle. Besides, segment I of IVC is closer to the right atrium of the heart, resulting in higher mortality [1].


#### 2.3.2. Injury to Segment II of IVC

This segment is also known as the retrohepatic segment of IVC (extending from the second hepatic hilum to the renal vein). As for its anatomy, segment II of IVC is protected by the liver, gastroduodenal region, pancreas, colon, and mesentery in the front, which explains the lower incidence of traumatic injury to this segment, for example, a sharp instrument (knives and other long and pointed instruments) stabbing in the abdomen and penetrating the liver to reach the retroperitoneum, causing injury to this segment of IVC. Injuries to the segment II of IVC can also occur as intraoperative complications associated with various procedures, including left and righthemihepatectomy, duodenopancreatectomy, right hemicolectomy, nephrectomy, retroperitoneal tumor resection, and renal intervention. Any IVC injury occurring intraoperatively should be timely managed by the hemostatic procedure.


#### 2.3.3. Injury to Segment III of IVC (from the Renal Vein to the Confluence of the Common Iliac Veins)

This segment is easier to be exposed compared with segments I and II. Therefore, hemostasis is easier to achieve. Besides, this segment of IVC is protected by small intestines and the mesentery in the front. Injuries to this segment are usually associated with blunt or penetrating trauma caused by sharp instruments.


## 2.1. Mechanism of Injury and Pathogenic Factor

The mechanisms of injuries to IVC include blunt trauma (compression injuries to abdominal tissues due to external compression) and penetrating trauma (gunshot trauma, stabbing trauma, or others). Factors causing IVC injuries include complex trauma, intraoperative complications, and tumor invasion. Among them, complex trauma and intraoperative complications are more common. Hepatic, renal, and pancreatic cancers are the most common cancers invading IVC, which explain the poor prognosis of these cancers at an advanced stage [13]. Given the thin wall of the IVC, a physiological contraction difference following the smooth muscle injury is one reason for R, the combined fatal shock. An injured IVC is hard to be exposed, making the hemostasis and repair difficult. IVC injuries are generally combined with injuries to remaining vessels and the adjacent organs. Due to the above reasons, the mortality of IVC injuries is about 50%–60% [14].


## 2.2. Similarities in the Clinical Manifestations of IVC Injuries

There exist shock and progressive hemorrhage and tachycardia (bradycardia or even malignant arrhythmia in some severe cases), following acute prerenal insufficiency, hemoperitoneum, retroperitoneal hematoma, or active bleeding, with or without injuries to the abdominal cavity or other organs.


## 2.3. Clinical Manifestations in Injuries of Different IVC Segments

### 2.3.1. Injury to the Segment I of IVC (from the Right Atrium of the Heart to the Second Hepatic Hilum)

This segment of IVC is protected by the thorax, liver, and diaphragmatic muscle in the front. However, the blood loss may be significant in segment I of IVC, as this segment passes through both the thoracic and abdominal cavities. As a result, hemopericardium, hemoperitoneum, and pericardial and abdominal effusion may occur simultaneously. Exposure and hemostasis are hard to be achieved for injuries to this segment of IVC in the presence of the diaphragm muscle. Besides, segment I of IVC is closer to the right atrium of the heart, resulting in higher mortality [1].


### 2.3.2. Injury to Segment II of IVC

This segment is also known as the retrohepatic segment of IVC (extending from the second hepatic hilum to the renal vein). As for its anatomy, segment II of IVC is protected by the liver, gastroduodenal region, pancreas, colon, and mesentery in the front, which explains the lower incidence of traumatic injury to this segment, for example, a sharp instrument (knives and other long and pointed instruments) stabbing in the abdomen and penetrating the liver to reach the retroperitoneum, causing injury to this segment of IVC. Injuries to the segment II of IVC can also occur as intraoperative complications associated with various procedures, including left and righthemihepatectomy, duodenopancreatectomy, right hemicolectomy, nephrectomy, retroperitoneal tumor resection, and renal intervention. Any IVC injury occurring intraoperatively should be timely managed by the hemostatic procedure.


### 2.3.3. Injury to Segment III of IVC (from the Renal Vein to the Confluence of the Common Iliac Veins)

This segment is easier to be exposed compared with segments I and II. Therefore, hemostasis is easier to achieve. Besides, this segment of IVC is protected by small intestines and the mesentery in the front. Injuries to this segment are usually associated with blunt or penetrating trauma caused by sharp instruments.


## 2.3.1. Injury to the Segment I of IVC (from the Right Atrium of the Heart to the Second Hepatic Hilum)

This segment of IVC is protected by the thorax, liver, and diaphragmatic muscle in the front. However, the blood loss may be significant in segment I of IVC, as this segment passes through both the thoracic and abdominal cavities. As a result, hemopericardium, hemoperitoneum, and pericardial and abdominal effusion may occur simultaneously. Exposure and hemostasis are hard to be achieved for injuries to this segment of IVC in the presence of the diaphragm muscle. Besides, segment I of IVC is closer to the right atrium of the heart, resulting in higher mortality [1].


## 2.3.2. Injury to Segment II of IVC

This segment is also known as the retrohepatic segment of IVC (extending from the second hepatic hilum to the renal vein). As for its anatomy, segment II of IVC is protected by the liver, gastroduodenal region, pancreas, colon, and mesentery in the front, which explains the lower incidence of traumatic injury to this segment, for example, a sharp instrument (knives and other long and pointed instruments) stabbing in the abdomen and penetrating the liver to reach the retroperitoneum, causing injury to this segment of IVC. Injuries to the segment II of IVC can also occur as intraoperative complications associated with various procedures, including left and righthemihepatectomy, duodenopancreatectomy, right hemicolectomy, nephrectomy, retroperitoneal tumor resection, and renal intervention. Any IVC injury occurring intraoperatively should be timely managed by the hemostatic procedure.


## 2.3.3. Injury to Segment III of IVC (from the Renal Vein to the Confluence of the Common Iliac Veins)

This segment is easier to be exposed compared with segments I and II. Therefore, hemostasis is easier to achieve. Besides, this segment of IVC is protected by small intestines and the mesentery in the front. Injuries to this segment are usually associated with blunt or penetrating trauma caused by sharp instruments.


## 3. Complications, Prognosis, and Mortality Predictors of IVC Injuries

### 3.1. Complications of IVC Injuries

Some common complications include air embolism, hemorrhagic shock, acute renal failure (ARF), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), diffuse intravascular coagulation (DIC), and pericardial tamponade.


### 3.2. Prognosis of IVC Injuries

IVC injuries are divided into iatrogenic, noniatrogenic, and a special type. Medical institutions at all levels encounter patients with IVC injuries. However, the mortality varies depending on the competence and emergency treatment capacity of the medical centers, volume of blood in the blood bank, and surgeons’ skills. Presently, the mortality cannot be comprehensively compared due to the lack of homogeneity in the emergency treatment capacity and measures taken at different medical centers. The three segments of IVC can be arranged as follows in descending order of the mortality of IVC injuries: segment I > II > III (P<0.001) [1].


### 3.3. Mortality Predictors in IVC Injuries

The medical center with which Michael Cudworth is affiliated once conducted a retrospective study of 36 patients with ICV injuries within a time period of 7 years. The mortality among these patients was 56%. Significant variables identified by the logistic regression were further assessed. It was found that the Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score (p=0.026) was an independent predictor of mortality in traumatic IVC injuries; GCS (p=0.026), need for thoracotomy (p=0.027), and IVC ligation (p=0.012) were important mortality predictors [15]. The higher the GCS score, the worse the prognosis and the higher the mortality would be. Thoracotomy is usually indicated for injuries to segment I of IVC. The closer the injuries to the right atrium of the heart, the higher the mortality will be. Patients requiring ligation of IVC usually have a poor prognosis. They are faced with the risk of ascites, lower extremity edema, congestion, and edema of all organs below the level of ligation. Such patients may also suffer from infection and humid gangrene or even die. Studies have shown that the GCS score, intraoperative hemodynamic status, and the presence of free blood in the abdominal cavity are factors that influence the patients’ conditions [16].


## 3.1. Complications of IVC Injuries

Some common complications include air embolism, hemorrhagic shock, acute renal failure (ARF), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), diffuse intravascular coagulation (DIC), and pericardial tamponade.


## 3.2. Prognosis of IVC Injuries

IVC injuries are divided into iatrogenic, noniatrogenic, and a special type. Medical institutions at all levels encounter patients with IVC injuries. However, the mortality varies depending on the competence and emergency treatment capacity of the medical centers, volume of blood in the blood bank, and surgeons’ skills. Presently, the mortality cannot be comprehensively compared due to the lack of homogeneity in the emergency treatment capacity and measures taken at different medical centers. The three segments of IVC can be arranged as follows in descending order of the mortality of IVC injuries: segment I > II > III (P<0.001) [1].


## 3.3. Mortality Predictors in IVC Injuries

The medical center with which Michael Cudworth is affiliated once conducted a retrospective study of 36 patients with ICV injuries within a time period of 7 years. The mortality among these patients was 56%. Significant variables identified by the logistic regression were further assessed. It was found that the Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score (p=0.026) was an independent predictor of mortality in traumatic IVC injuries; GCS (p=0.026), need for thoracotomy (p=0.027), and IVC ligation (p=0.012) were important mortality predictors [15]. The higher the GCS score, the worse the prognosis and the higher the mortality would be. Thoracotomy is usually indicated for injuries to segment I of IVC. The closer the injuries to the right atrium of the heart, the higher the mortality will be. Patients requiring ligation of IVC usually have a poor prognosis. They are faced with the risk of ascites, lower extremity edema, congestion, and edema of all organs below the level of ligation. Such patients may also suffer from infection and humid gangrene or even die. Studies have shown that the GCS score, intraoperative hemodynamic status, and the presence of free blood in the abdominal cavity are factors that influence the patients’ conditions [16].


## 4. Laboratory Tests for IVC Injuries

### 4.1. Findings of Routine Examinations

A progressive decline in the hemoglobin level occurs. At an early stage, the white blood cell count may be elevated or normal, with an increased neutrophil percentage and left shift. The white blood cell count also decreases when there is a massive hemorrhage. The platelet changes should be interpreted based on blood loss. There will be an increase in the creatinine level and a decrease in GRR, accompanied by prerenal acute renal failure. At the later stage, the patients may have an elevation in the levels of lactic acid, AST, ALT, and myocardial enzymes due to shock and tissue hypoperfusion and suffer from serum electrolyte and acid-base imbalance. PT and ATT will be prolonged if MODS and DIC happen, with an increase in fibrin degradation products. At an early stage, the patients may be found with tachycardia upon ECG. Severe tissue hypoxia occurs when hemorrhage becomes uncontrollable or hemostasis can hardly be achieved. In that case, ECG at the later stage may reveal bradycardia, atrioventricular block, ventricular fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia, and other signs of malignant arrhythmia.


### 4.2. Diagnostic Abdominal Paracentesis

Diagnostic abdominal paracentesis may find unclotted blood in patients with hemoperitoneum. However, a positive finding of abdominal paracentesis only indicates the happening of abdominal hemorrhage, but not the organs experiencing the hemorrhage. This technique can help in the diagnosis of IVC rupture and the resulting hemorrhage.


### 4.3. Color Doppler Ultrasound

The color Doppler ultrasound can help in the diagnosis and treatment guidance. Color Doppler ultrasound may indicate the amount of seroperitoneum in hemoperitoneum and abdominal effusion and therefore has a specific value in assessing blood volume loss. This technique may also be helpful for estimating blood loss and the blood transfusion volume. When there is low blood flow due to IVC injury and hemorrhage, the inner diameter of IVC narrows. This change can be corrected by fluid replacement and dilatation, blood transfusion, and hemostasis. Chinese researchers Liu and Kang et al. showed a rapid assessment of blood volume status and volume reactivity and an evaluation of the patients’ response after fluid resuscitation should last throughout the course of fluid management in MODS patients [17]. Bedside cardiac ultrasonography measures static (inner diameter of the heart and blood flow rate) and dynamic indicators (IVC variability, and the blood flow rate in the left ventricular outflow tract and aorta) to evaluate the blood volume status and volume reactivity before fluid resuscitation. The assessment results provide guidance for fluid resuscitation in patients with shock related to IVC injuries. At present, bedside ultrasonography has already been used during emergency treatment in China. The ultrasound-based measurement of the diameter and inner diameter of IVC has high importance for assessing blood volume status and volume reactivity before and after treatment.


### 4.4. Contrast-Enhanced CT of the Chest and Abdomen

This examination can locate the segment of IVC where the injury occurs and assess the severity of the injury and the rupture size. It can also be used to determine whether there are injuries to other vessels or organs and whether the contrast agent leaks out of the injured site.


### 4.5. IVC Angiography

This technique can also locate the segment of IVC where the injury occurs, assess the rupture size, and determine whether the contrast agent leaks out of the injured site. IVC angiography is also applicable to determine the diameter and the orientation of IVC, thereby laying down the basis for confirming the diagnosis of IVC injuries. However, this examination may cause allergy, nephrotoxicity, and neurotoxicity, which have restricted its usage.


### 4.6. Exploratory Laparotomy

Exploratory laparotomy may be indicated based on the patients’ clinical manifestations and the results of auxiliary examinations. Appropriate treatments can be administered according to the assessment of IVC injuries following intraoperative exploration.


### 4.7. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging (MRSI)

This examination is an emerging high-tech method of radiological examination. MRSI has the unique benefits of noninvasiveness and absence of ionizing radiation-induced injuries or bony artifacts. It also allows for clearer observation of anatomical changes and small injuries to IVC. Moreover, there is no need to use a contrast agent to visualize the vessels.


## 4.1. Findings of Routine Examinations

A progressive decline in the hemoglobin level occurs. At an early stage, the white blood cell count may be elevated or normal, with an increased neutrophil percentage and left shift. The white blood cell count also decreases when there is a massive hemorrhage. The platelet changes should be interpreted based on blood loss. There will be an increase in the creatinine level and a decrease in GRR, accompanied by prerenal acute renal failure. At the later stage, the patients may have an elevation in the levels of lactic acid, AST, ALT, and myocardial enzymes due to shock and tissue hypoperfusion and suffer from serum electrolyte and acid-base imbalance. PT and ATT will be prolonged if MODS and DIC happen, with an increase in fibrin degradation products. At an early stage, the patients may be found with tachycardia upon ECG. Severe tissue hypoxia occurs when hemorrhage becomes uncontrollable or hemostasis can hardly be achieved. In that case, ECG at the later stage may reveal bradycardia, atrioventricular block, ventricular fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia, and other signs of malignant arrhythmia.


## 4.2. Diagnostic Abdominal Paracentesis

Diagnostic abdominal paracentesis may find unclotted blood in patients with hemoperitoneum. However, a positive finding of abdominal paracentesis only indicates the happening of abdominal hemorrhage, but not the organs experiencing the hemorrhage. This technique can help in the diagnosis of IVC rupture and the resulting hemorrhage.


## 4.3. Color Doppler Ultrasound

The color Doppler ultrasound can help in the diagnosis and treatment guidance. Color Doppler ultrasound may indicate the amount of seroperitoneum in hemoperitoneum and abdominal effusion and therefore has a specific value in assessing blood volume loss. This technique may also be helpful for estimating blood loss and the blood transfusion volume. When there is low blood flow due to IVC injury and hemorrhage, the inner diameter of IVC narrows. This change can be corrected by fluid replacement and dilatation, blood transfusion, and hemostasis. Chinese researchers Liu and Kang et al. showed a rapid assessment of blood volume status and volume reactivity and an evaluation of the patients’ response after fluid resuscitation should last throughout the course of fluid management in MODS patients [17]. Bedside cardiac ultrasonography measures static (inner diameter of the heart and blood flow rate) and dynamic indicators (IVC variability, and the blood flow rate in the left ventricular outflow tract and aorta) to evaluate the blood volume status and volume reactivity before fluid resuscitation. The assessment results provide guidance for fluid resuscitation in patients with shock related to IVC injuries. At present, bedside ultrasonography has already been used during emergency treatment in China. The ultrasound-based measurement of the diameter and inner diameter of IVC has high importance for assessing blood volume status and volume reactivity before and after treatment.


## 4.4. Contrast-Enhanced CT of the Chest and Abdomen

This examination can locate the segment of IVC where the injury occurs and assess the severity of the injury and the rupture size. It can also be used to determine whether there are injuries to other vessels or organs and whether the contrast agent leaks out of the injured site.


## 4.5. IVC Angiography

This technique can also locate the segment of IVC where the injury occurs, assess the rupture size, and determine whether the contrast agent leaks out of the injured site. IVC angiography is also applicable to determine the diameter and the orientation of IVC, thereby laying down the basis for confirming the diagnosis of IVC injuries. However, this examination may cause allergy, nephrotoxicity, and neurotoxicity, which have restricted its usage.


## 4.6. Exploratory Laparotomy

Exploratory laparotomy may be indicated based on the patients’ clinical manifestations and the results of auxiliary examinations. Appropriate treatments can be administered according to the assessment of IVC injuries following intraoperative exploration.


## 4.7. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging (MRSI)

This examination is an emerging high-tech method of radiological examination. MRSI has the unique benefits of noninvasiveness and absence of ionizing radiation-induced injuries or bony artifacts. It also allows for clearer observation of anatomical changes and small injuries to IVC. Moreover, there is no need to use a contrast agent to visualize the vessels.


## 5. Progress of the Diagnosis of IVC Injuries and the Differential Diagnosis

### 5.1. Diagnostic Basis

The patients have a history of complex trauma being stabbed by sharp instruments, currently receiving surgeries, or having malignant abdominal tumors.Paleness, poor peripheral circulation, positive shifting dullness in the abdomen, abdominal bulging, tachycardia (bradycardia in some severe cases), hypourocrinia following acute prerenal insufficiency, hemorrhagic shock, hemoperitoneum, retroperitoneal hematoma, or active bleeding, with or without injuries to the abdominal cavity or other organs.Routine blood tests reveal a progressive decline in the levels of hemoglobin, lactic acid, AST, and ALT, but a relative elevation of the creatinine level. Unclotted blood is found by the abdominal puncture. Color Doppler ultrasound indicates a narrowing of the inner diameter of IVC and hemoperitoneum. The static indicators of color sonography reveal a narrowing of the inner diameter and a reduction in the blood flow rate of the heart. The dynamic indicators reveal a decrease in the blood flow rate and the blood flow through the left ventricular outflow tract. The diagnosis is confirmed if the contrast-enhanced CT of the chest and abdomen or IVC angiography indicates the leak of the contrast agent from IVC.


### 5.2. Differential Diagnosis

Hemorrhage and shock caused by IVC injuries are nonspecific manifestations, making the differential diagnosis difficult. There may be the need to differentiate between IVC injuries and all other diseases of the abdominal organs that can lead to hemorrhage. For example, IVC injuries may need to be differentiated from liver and spleen rupture, renal and renal vascular pedicle injuries, injuries to the abdominal aorta or other arteries and veins, pancreatic injury, and mesenteric laceration and tear.


## 5.1. Diagnostic Basis

The patients have a history of complex trauma being stabbed by sharp instruments, currently receiving surgeries, or having malignant abdominal tumors.Paleness, poor peripheral circulation, positive shifting dullness in the abdomen, abdominal bulging, tachycardia (bradycardia in some severe cases), hypourocrinia following acute prerenal insufficiency, hemorrhagic shock, hemoperitoneum, retroperitoneal hematoma, or active bleeding, with or without injuries to the abdominal cavity or other organs.Routine blood tests reveal a progressive decline in the levels of hemoglobin, lactic acid, AST, and ALT, but a relative elevation of the creatinine level. Unclotted blood is found by the abdominal puncture. Color Doppler ultrasound indicates a narrowing of the inner diameter of IVC and hemoperitoneum. The static indicators of color sonography reveal a narrowing of the inner diameter and a reduction in the blood flow rate of the heart. The dynamic indicators reveal a decrease in the blood flow rate and the blood flow through the left ventricular outflow tract. The diagnosis is confirmed if the contrast-enhanced CT of the chest and abdomen or IVC angiography indicates the leak of the contrast agent from IVC.


## 5.2. Differential Diagnosis

Hemorrhage and shock caused by IVC injuries are nonspecific manifestations, making the differential diagnosis difficult. There may be the need to differentiate between IVC injuries and all other diseases of the abdominal organs that can lead to hemorrhage. For example, IVC injuries may need to be differentiated from liver and spleen rupture, renal and renal vascular pedicle injuries, injuries to the abdominal aorta or other arteries and veins, pancreatic injury, and mesenteric laceration and tear.


## 6. An Overview of the Emergency Treatment for IVC Injuries

### 6.1. Progress of Treatment

IVC injuries are usually treated in a comprehensive manner. The primary treatments are supportive and symptomatic to prevent hemorrhagic shock, DIC, MODS, and ARF. Emergency treatment is generally intended to control the hemorrhage.


#### 6.1.1. Fast Fluid Replacement and Dilatation

Whether the IVC injury is confirmed or not, fast fluid replacement and dilation should be administered if there is hemoperitoneum. Besides, blood products should be transfused timely according to the hemoperitoneum volume as indicated by the color Doppler ultrasound. In the meantime, measures should be taken to maintain electrolyte balance and acid-base balance. All of these measures are important to prevent and treat hemorrhagic shock.


#### 6.1.2. Supportive and Symptomatic Treatments

Sufficient oxygen supplementation should be administered to maintain the respiratory tract unobstructed, along with pain relief, ECG monitoring, and urine volume monitoring. Vasoactive drugs can be prescribed if necessary.


#### 6.1.3. Prevention and Treatment of Complications Such as MODS, ARF, and DIC Should Be Prioritized

Transfusion of blood products is the prerequisite for timely and sufficient fluid replacement and dilatation. Renal dialysis or continuous renal replacement therapy can be given if necessary in case of ARF.


#### 6.1.4. Surgical Treatment

Anatomically, IVC is subdivided into 3 segments. For injuries to each segment, the general treatment, emergency fluid replacement, and measures to prevent complications are similar. However, the surgical methods used for injuries to different segments of IVC vary, and so does the mortality. A multidisciplinary surgery is indicated when IVC injuries are combined with injuries to other organs. In that case, a multidisciplinary consultation should be held to settle on the plan for comprehensive surgical treatment.For injuries to segment I of IVC that extends from the right atrium of the heart to the second hepatic hilum, the surgery may have to be performed under left one-lung ventilation. Presently, two surgical pathways are under investigation. The first is the combination of thoracotomy plus laparotomy to access the mediastinum and the abdominal cavity. Then, the pericardium and the abdominal cavity are opened to expose the injured segment of the IVC, which is then blocked before IVC repair. The second approach, also the novel one, involves a right diaphragmatic incision to access the mediastinum and expose the segment of IVC extending from the right atrium of the heart to the second hepatic hilum. IVC repair is performed after the blocking. However, a large number of clinical trials are still needed for this approach (as shown in Figure1).Figure 1
Inferior vena cava bypass surgery.Another type of injury is that to segment II of IVC, which extends from the second hepatic hilum to the renal vein. This segment is also known as the retrohepatic segment of IVC. There are many reports showing that the modified whole liver blood flow blocking plus gauze packing can improve the cure rate for injuries to this segment and reduce mortality. David Zargaran et al. screened out 85 qualified medical records from a total of 483 in patients with injuries to segment II of IVC. The Z-score showed that the mortality at an earlier time was 100% and later decreased to 52% due to treatment progress. Wu et al. and many others also suggested the high efficacy of modified whole liver blood flow blocking plus gauze packing. This procedure reduced mortality and intraoperative blood loss and allowed for a clearer vision, making the repair easier to perform [18]. For injuries occurring to segment II of IVC, IVC repair may be combined with hepatectomy if necessary (as shown in Figure 2).Figure 2
Repair of inferior vena cava injury above the level of the renal vein.Injuries to segment III of IVC, which extends from the renal vein to the confluence of the common iliac veins, are easier to be exposed than those in segments I and II. Hemostasis is also easier to be achieved. IVC repair is done after exposing this segment and blocking the IVC at both ends. The surgical approach usually used for injuries to this segment allows for the incision of lateral peritoneum to access and dissociate Toldt’s gap until reaching the injured site, where the repair is done (as shown in Figure3).Figure 3
Repair of inferior vena cava injury below the level of the renal vein.


#### 6.1.5. Surgical Method

The repair can be directly performed if the IVC rupture is small. If the IVC rupture is large, the lacerated and torn part can be repaired by autotransplantation of the round ligament of the liver and peritoneum [19–21]. If the IVC is severed, most patients are already dead before surgery. A small portion of patients indicated for such repair are those receiving liver transplantation. For these patients, the IVC to be resected can be exposed in advance. In the meantime, the surgeons have to prepare artificial blood vessels for anastomosis. Case reports have been published at different medical study centers which use autotransplantation of round ligament of the liver, great saphenous vein, and peritoneum for IVC repair or artificial blood vessels for anastomosis. Relevant researches are being carried out. Lv et al. reported a successful case of using autologous peritoneum to repair IVC rupture [22]. Ligation of IVC may also be considered in case of severe IVC injuries. Zhu et al. reported one successful case of severe IVC injury, which was treated by ligation of IVC. Active measures should be adopted to manage postoperative complications associated with ligation of IVC [23]. However, there are no follow-up data for the above case. Some scholars have recommended extracorporeal circulation at some qualified medical centers to offer safe and effective technical supports for the emergency treatment of IVC injuries. Extracorporeal circulation can maximally prevent cardiopulmonary arrest and circulatory collapse, thereby improving the salvage success rate [24].


## 6.1. Progress of Treatment

IVC injuries are usually treated in a comprehensive manner. The primary treatments are supportive and symptomatic to prevent hemorrhagic shock, DIC, MODS, and ARF. Emergency treatment is generally intended to control the hemorrhage.


### 6.1.1. Fast Fluid Replacement and Dilatation

Whether the IVC injury is confirmed or not, fast fluid replacement and dilation should be administered if there is hemoperitoneum. Besides, blood products should be transfused timely according to the hemoperitoneum volume as indicated by the color Doppler ultrasound. In the meantime, measures should be taken to maintain electrolyte balance and acid-base balance. All of these measures are important to prevent and treat hemorrhagic shock.


### 6.1.2. Supportive and Symptomatic Treatments

Sufficient oxygen supplementation should be administered to maintain the respiratory tract unobstructed, along with pain relief, ECG monitoring, and urine volume monitoring. Vasoactive drugs can be prescribed if necessary.


### 6.1.3. Prevention and Treatment of Complications Such as MODS, ARF, and DIC Should Be Prioritized

Transfusion of blood products is the prerequisite for timely and sufficient fluid replacement and dilatation. Renal dialysis or continuous renal replacement therapy can be given if necessary in case of ARF.


### 6.1.4. Surgical Treatment

Anatomically, IVC is subdivided into 3 segments. For injuries to each segment, the general treatment, emergency fluid replacement, and measures to prevent complications are similar. However, the surgical methods used for injuries to different segments of IVC vary, and so does the mortality. A multidisciplinary surgery is indicated when IVC injuries are combined with injuries to other organs. In that case, a multidisciplinary consultation should be held to settle on the plan for comprehensive surgical treatment.For injuries to segment I of IVC that extends from the right atrium of the heart to the second hepatic hilum, the surgery may have to be performed under left one-lung ventilation. Presently, two surgical pathways are under investigation. The first is the combination of thoracotomy plus laparotomy to access the mediastinum and the abdominal cavity. Then, the pericardium and the abdominal cavity are opened to expose the injured segment of the IVC, which is then blocked before IVC repair. The second approach, also the novel one, involves a right diaphragmatic incision to access the mediastinum and expose the segment of IVC extending from the right atrium of the heart to the second hepatic hilum. IVC repair is performed after the blocking. However, a large number of clinical trials are still needed for this approach (as shown in Figure1).Figure 1
Inferior vena cava bypass surgery.Another type of injury is that to segment II of IVC, which extends from the second hepatic hilum to the renal vein. This segment is also known as the retrohepatic segment of IVC. There are many reports showing that the modified whole liver blood flow blocking plus gauze packing can improve the cure rate for injuries to this segment and reduce mortality. David Zargaran et al. screened out 85 qualified medical records from a total of 483 in patients with injuries to segment II of IVC. The Z-score showed that the mortality at an earlier time was 100% and later decreased to 52% due to treatment progress. Wu et al. and many others also suggested the high efficacy of modified whole liver blood flow blocking plus gauze packing. This procedure reduced mortality and intraoperative blood loss and allowed for a clearer vision, making the repair easier to perform [18]. For injuries occurring to segment II of IVC, IVC repair may be combined with hepatectomy if necessary (as shown in Figure 2).Figure 2
Repair of inferior vena cava injury above the level of the renal vein.Injuries to segment III of IVC, which extends from the renal vein to the confluence of the common iliac veins, are easier to be exposed than those in segments I and II. Hemostasis is also easier to be achieved. IVC repair is done after exposing this segment and blocking the IVC at both ends. The surgical approach usually used for injuries to this segment allows for the incision of lateral peritoneum to access and dissociate Toldt’s gap until reaching the injured site, where the repair is done (as shown in Figure3).Figure 3
Repair of inferior vena cava injury below the level of the renal vein.


### 6.1.5. Surgical Method

The repair can be directly performed if the IVC rupture is small. If the IVC rupture is large, the lacerated and torn part can be repaired by autotransplantation of the round ligament of the liver and peritoneum [19–21]. If the IVC is severed, most patients are already dead before surgery. A small portion of patients indicated for such repair are those receiving liver transplantation. For these patients, the IVC to be resected can be exposed in advance. In the meantime, the surgeons have to prepare artificial blood vessels for anastomosis. Case reports have been published at different medical study centers which use autotransplantation of round ligament of the liver, great saphenous vein, and peritoneum for IVC repair or artificial blood vessels for anastomosis. Relevant researches are being carried out. Lv et al. reported a successful case of using autologous peritoneum to repair IVC rupture [22]. Ligation of IVC may also be considered in case of severe IVC injuries. Zhu et al. reported one successful case of severe IVC injury, which was treated by ligation of IVC. Active measures should be adopted to manage postoperative complications associated with ligation of IVC [23]. However, there are no follow-up data for the above case. Some scholars have recommended extracorporeal circulation at some qualified medical centers to offer safe and effective technical supports for the emergency treatment of IVC injuries. Extracorporeal circulation can maximally prevent cardiopulmonary arrest and circulatory collapse, thereby improving the salvage success rate [24].


## 6.1.1. Fast Fluid Replacement and Dilatation

Whether the IVC injury is confirmed or not, fast fluid replacement and dilation should be administered if there is hemoperitoneum. Besides, blood products should be transfused timely according to the hemoperitoneum volume as indicated by the color Doppler ultrasound. In the meantime, measures should be taken to maintain electrolyte balance and acid-base balance. All of these measures are important to prevent and treat hemorrhagic shock.


## 6.1.2. Supportive and Symptomatic Treatments

Sufficient oxygen supplementation should be administered to maintain the respiratory tract unobstructed, along with pain relief, ECG monitoring, and urine volume monitoring. Vasoactive drugs can be prescribed if necessary.


## 6.1.3. Prevention and Treatment of Complications Such as MODS, ARF, and DIC Should Be Prioritized

Transfusion of blood products is the prerequisite for timely and sufficient fluid replacement and dilatation. Renal dialysis or continuous renal replacement therapy can be given if necessary in case of ARF.


## 6.1.4. Surgical Treatment

Anatomically, IVC is subdivided into 3 segments. For injuries to each segment, the general treatment, emergency fluid replacement, and measures to prevent complications are similar. However, the surgical methods used for injuries to different segments of IVC vary, and so does the mortality. A multidisciplinary surgery is indicated when IVC injuries are combined with injuries to other organs. In that case, a multidisciplinary consultation should be held to settle on the plan for comprehensive surgical treatment.For injuries to segment I of IVC that extends from the right atrium of the heart to the second hepatic hilum, the surgery may have to be performed under left one-lung ventilation. Presently, two surgical pathways are under investigation. The first is the combination of thoracotomy plus laparotomy to access the mediastinum and the abdominal cavity. Then, the pericardium and the abdominal cavity are opened to expose the injured segment of the IVC, which is then blocked before IVC repair. The second approach, also the novel one, involves a right diaphragmatic incision to access the mediastinum and expose the segment of IVC extending from the right atrium of the heart to the second hepatic hilum. IVC repair is performed after the blocking. However, a large number of clinical trials are still needed for this approach (as shown in Figure1).Figure 1
Inferior vena cava bypass surgery.Another type of injury is that to segment II of IVC, which extends from the second hepatic hilum to the renal vein. This segment is also known as the retrohepatic segment of IVC. There are many reports showing that the modified whole liver blood flow blocking plus gauze packing can improve the cure rate for injuries to this segment and reduce mortality. David Zargaran et al. screened out 85 qualified medical records from a total of 483 in patients with injuries to segment II of IVC. The Z-score showed that the mortality at an earlier time was 100% and later decreased to 52% due to treatment progress. Wu et al. and many others also suggested the high efficacy of modified whole liver blood flow blocking plus gauze packing. This procedure reduced mortality and intraoperative blood loss and allowed for a clearer vision, making the repair easier to perform [18]. For injuries occurring to segment II of IVC, IVC repair may be combined with hepatectomy if necessary (as shown in Figure 2).Figure 2
Repair of inferior vena cava injury above the level of the renal vein.Injuries to segment III of IVC, which extends from the renal vein to the confluence of the common iliac veins, are easier to be exposed than those in segments I and II. Hemostasis is also easier to be achieved. IVC repair is done after exposing this segment and blocking the IVC at both ends. The surgical approach usually used for injuries to this segment allows for the incision of lateral peritoneum to access and dissociate Toldt’s gap until reaching the injured site, where the repair is done (as shown in Figure3).Figure 3
Repair of inferior vena cava injury below the level of the renal vein.


## 6.1.5. Surgical Method

The repair can be directly performed if the IVC rupture is small. If the IVC rupture is large, the lacerated and torn part can be repaired by autotransplantation of the round ligament of the liver and peritoneum [19–21]. If the IVC is severed, most patients are already dead before surgery. A small portion of patients indicated for such repair are those receiving liver transplantation. For these patients, the IVC to be resected can be exposed in advance. In the meantime, the surgeons have to prepare artificial blood vessels for anastomosis. Case reports have been published at different medical study centers which use autotransplantation of round ligament of the liver, great saphenous vein, and peritoneum for IVC repair or artificial blood vessels for anastomosis. Relevant researches are being carried out. Lv et al. reported a successful case of using autologous peritoneum to repair IVC rupture [22]. Ligation of IVC may also be considered in case of severe IVC injuries. Zhu et al. reported one successful case of severe IVC injury, which was treated by ligation of IVC. Active measures should be adopted to manage postoperative complications associated with ligation of IVC [23]. However, there are no follow-up data for the above case. Some scholars have recommended extracorporeal circulation at some qualified medical centers to offer safe and effective technical supports for the emergency treatment of IVC injuries. Extracorporeal circulation can maximally prevent cardiopulmonary arrest and circulatory collapse, thereby improving the salvage success rate [24].


## 7. Conclusion

IVC injuries are complex but common trauma at all levels of trauma centers. IVC injuries may progress rapidly, and the injured site may be hard to be exposed. The mortality is usually high as a result of considerable blood loss. IVC injury is a condition that deserves further investigation. At present, the medical study centers may vary in their opinions and practice concerning the general treatment, surgery, and repair for IVC injuries. Case reports have been published at different medical study centers, which use autotransplantation of round ligament of the liver, great saphenous vein, and peritoneum for IVC repair or artificial blood vessels for anastomosis. More studies are being carried out in this respect. It has been found that extracorporeal circulation can improve the salvage success rate. IVC injury, a common disease at trauma centers, may progress rapidly. It mainly presents with hemorrhagic shock and has a high mortality. Several surgical approaches and repair procedures have been developed for IVC injuries. However, the recent studies on IVC injuries are limited, and the clinicians have not yet attached due importance to this disease. In the future, more experimental trials in human subjects will be needed. Autotransplantation of round ligament of the liver, great saphenous vein, and peritoneum for IVC repair or using artificial blood vessels for anastomosis may become the mainstream procedures for IVC repair. The postoperative complications and the associated treatment measures will be experimentally explored in a larger number of cases.



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*Source: 9475522-2022-01-30.xml*