# Retrospection of the Optimization Model for Designing the Power Train of a Formula Student Race Car

Authors: M. Naveen Kumar; Vishal Jagota; Mohammad Shabaz
Journal: Scientific Programming
 (2021)

---

## Abstract

This article describes the power train design specifics in Formula student race vehicles used in the famed SAE India championship. To facilitate the physical validation of the design of the power train system of a formula student race car category vehicle engine of 610 cc displacement bike engine (KTM 390 model), a detailed design has been proposed with an approach of easing manufacturing and assembly along with full-scale prototype manufacturing. Many procedures must be followed while selecting a power train, such as engine displacement, fuel type, cooling type, throttle actuation, and creating the gear system to obtain the needed power and torque under various loading situations. Keeping the rules in mind, a well-suited engine was selected for the race track and transmission train was selected which gives the maximum performance. Based on the requirement, a power train was designed with all considerations we need to follow. Aside from torque and power, we designed an air intake with fuel efficiency in mind. Wireless sensors and cloud computing were used to monitor transmission characteristics such as transmission temperature management and vibration. The current study describes the design of an air intake manifold with a maximum restrictor diameter of 20 mm.


---

## Body

## 1. Introduction

SUPRA SAE India is an annual national level Student Formula Category car competition conducted by Society of Automobile Engineers India (SAE India) with support from Maruti Suzuki. It is a global platform for undergraduate and postgraduate students to demonstrate their technical skills and talent by applying their engineering skills and competing with other institute participants in developing a student formula category vehicle according to defined instructions and safety precautions. The vibration decoupling rate and frequency of the powertrain mounting system are investigated utilizing rigid body dynamics and energy techniques to improve the powertrain mounting system’s vibration isolation capabilities, with the powertrain of a front wheel drive car as the research object [1, 2]. The subsystem transmits the power developed by the engine or motor of automobiles to the wheels of the motor vehicle to move the motor vehicle forward or backward. Power train is also called drive train/transmission. It consists of a group of components in a vehicle that delivers power to the driving wheels. Components present in the motor vehicle are engine, clutch, gear box, drive shaft, differential, axles, and cooling system. Connection of these components involves physical linking which may be present between the two ends of the vehicle, so it requires long drive connections (propeller shaft/drive shaft). The speed of the engine and wheels are different, so it must be matched with the appropriate gear ratio. A vehicle could be front wheel drive (FWD) or rear wheel drive (RWD) depending on which axle is given power from the engine. It impacts the BHP and torque figures according to different conditions [3, 4].The vehicle’s reliability was improved as a result of the power train simulation in this study. After knowing the requirements of the power train system, looking at both advantages and disadvantages of different parts, with the careful selection of the engine platform, KTM 390 was selected. Fuel efficiency is also a key role in racing events for that design of air intake with the restrictor diameter of 20 mm. The purpose of designing the power train without compromising the driver safety precautions is achieved and the power train of formula student race cars has been designed by following the SAE International rules. The sequence of design procedure followed for the same is given in Figure1.Figure 1
Block diagram for the design procedure for power train.


## 2. Design Considerations of Engine

The heart of a vehicle is the engine, which converts chemical energy (fuel energy) into mechanical energy [5]. According to the competition regulations, the engine used to power the automobile must be a four-stroke cylinder with a displacement of no more than 610 cc per cycle. If more than one engine is utilized, each engine’s displacement must be less than 610 cc, and all engines’ intake air must flow via a single air intake restrictor. Two-wheeler motorcycle engines such as the KTM390, CBR600, and Royal Enfield 350 are available for engine choice.In the proposed paper for the design of power train, various parameters were taken into consideration. As per the rules of SAE, engine was selected on the basis of high-power output under 610 cc segment considering less about the torque Figure2. Speed transmissions have been selected for the gear, train, and RPM and torque was evaluated for different gears and accordingly. There are multiple mechanisms available like belt, pulley drive, direct mesh gear system, and chain drive. Various drags such as aerodynamic drag as well as friction resistance were taken into consideration and their empirical relations according to the aerodynamics of the vehicle were evaluated. Apart from torque and power, the fuel efficiency factor was considered and the air intake runner was designed accordingly.Figure 2
Total tractive force acting on the vehicle.


### 2.1. Comparison of Engines

The comparative details and specification of the various engines have been presented in Table1 above.Table 1
Comparative analysis of various combustion engines.
Year202020152014201120101989Engine modelYamaha YZF R6Yamaha YZF R3KTM RC390Honda CBR250RYamaha WR250RRoyal enfield 500No. of cylindersInline 421111Displacement599 cc321 cc373.3 cc249.66 cc249 cc499 ccStroke42.5 mm44.16055 mm53.6 mm90 mmBore67 mm688976 mm77 mm84 mmC.R13.1 : 111.2 : 114.5 : 110.7 : 111.8 : 18.5 : 1Transmission6 speed6 speed6 speed6Speed6 speed5 speedTorque61.7 Nm @10500 rpm29.6 Nm @9000 rpm35.3 Nm @7000 rpm22.9 Nm @7000 rpm23.7 Nm @8000 rpm41.3 Nm @4000 rpmPower63.9 kW @14500 rpm42 kW @10750 rpm32 kW @9500 rpm19.4 kW @ 8500 rpm22.6 kW @10000 rpm20.2 kW @5250 rpmCooling systemLiquid coolingAir cooledFuel supplyFuel injectionAlthough these two engines have more power compared to other engines, the performance of engines purely depends on air-fuel mixture, so the design of air intake could definitely affect the performance. As a first time participating in Race Events (SUPRA SAEINDIA and Formula Bharath), we did not make complications. Yamaha YZF R6 contains 4 cylinders arranged in a line, we have ruled that air should go through a single intake and that the diameter should be within 20 mm. Keeping this in mind, making an air intake with four runners is complicated. Moreover, for Yamaha YZF R3, it consists of 2 cylinders, and the design of a single air intake with two runners is complicated. Another factor is considering the availability cost of the engine, we did not opt for these two engines. We know that Royal Enfield will produce more torque than power, but for racing events we need more power than torque. Engine displacement is more compared to the remaining three engines, but the output power is low when compared to KTM RC390. Honda CBR250R &Yamaha WR250R, these two engines contain a single cylinder, but the output power and torque are low compared to KTM RC390.


### 2.2. Reasons behind Selection of KTM RC 390

By considering the budget and availability of spare parts for better maintenance of the engine, the engine displacement is under 610 cc, which will satisfy the rule. It contains a single cylinder, so it may not be that much complicated in the design of air intake. KTM390 cc engine is an oversquare engine, so it produces more power compared to the torque which is required in racing conditions. The KTM RC 390 model is a sports bicycle made by KTM. In this form, sold from the year 2020, the dry weight is 149.0 kg (328.5 pounds) and it is outfitted with a single-chamber, four-stroke engine. The motor delivers the extreme pinnacle yield force of 44.00 HP (32.1 kW)) and a greatest force of 35.00 Nm (3.6 kgf-m or 25.8 ft. Lbs). With this drive train, the KTM RC 390 is equipped for arriving at the extreme maximum velocity of. About case attributes, liable for street holding, taking care of conduct and ride solace, the KTM RC 390 has a steel lattice outline, and powder covered edges with front suspension being WP topsy turvy Ø 43 mm and at the back, it is outfitted with WP Monoshock. Stock tire sizes are 95/75-R17 on the front and 115/75-R17 on the back. Concerning the halting force, the KTM RC 390 stopping mechanism incorporates single plate; ABS; four-cylinder callipers; size 320 mm (12.6 inches) at the front and single circle; ABS; coasting plate; single-cylinder calliper; size 230 mm (9.1 inches) at the back. KTM RC390 engine specifications as per manufacturer have been given in Table2.Table 2
KTM RC390 engine specifications as per manufacturer.
ModelKTM RC390EngineFour-stroke, single cylinderCapacity373.4 ccBore × stroke89 × 60 mmCooling systemLiquid cooledSpark plugBosch VR 5 NEIgnitionFully electronic ignition systemStartingElectricMaximum power32 kw/43.5 HP @9500 rpmMaximum torque35.3 Nm/26 ft-lb @7000 rpmClutchWet multidisc clutch


### 2.3. Selection of Gear System and Drive System

We selected KTM 390 cc engine in which the gear box is inbuilt with 6 speed transmission. There are multiple mechanisms available like belt, pulley drive, direct mesh gear system, and chain drive. The transmission system has been integrated with temperature and vibration sensors for monitoring purposes. These sensors wirelessly transfer real-time data of the transmission sections, temperatures, and vibrations monitored by a mobile-based app during the transmission operations. Nowadays, the use of sensors in automobiles has grown from the safety point of concern of the driver [6, 7].


### 2.4. Comparison of Different Drive Systems

Drive system is critical from the design point of view. The comparative details of the different drive systems have been presented in Table3.Table 3
Comparison of different drive systems.
S. NoBelt driveGear driveChain drive1Main element are pulleys and beltMain element gearsMain element sprockets, chain2Chances of slipNo-slipNo-slip3Used for large centre distanceUsed for the short centre distanceUsed for the moderate centre distance4More space requiredLess space requiredModerate space required5Simple in design and manufacturingComplicated in design and manufacturingThe simplest in design and manufacturing6Failure in belt does not damage machineFailure in gear may cause serious break down in the machineFailure in a chain may not seriously damage the machine7Life time is lessMore life timeModerate life time8Lubrication not requiredRequires proper lubricationLubrication required9Mainly used for low-velocity ratioMainly used for high velocity ratioMainly used for moderate velocity ratio10Low installation costHigh installation costModerate installation costBy observing from Table3, the chain drive has been selected to make our transmission more efficient and reliable, i.e., driver sprocket, driven sprocket, and a chain.


## 2.1. Comparison of Engines

The comparative details and specification of the various engines have been presented in Table1 above.Table 1
Comparative analysis of various combustion engines.
Year202020152014201120101989Engine modelYamaha YZF R6Yamaha YZF R3KTM RC390Honda CBR250RYamaha WR250RRoyal enfield 500No. of cylindersInline 421111Displacement599 cc321 cc373.3 cc249.66 cc249 cc499 ccStroke42.5 mm44.16055 mm53.6 mm90 mmBore67 mm688976 mm77 mm84 mmC.R13.1 : 111.2 : 114.5 : 110.7 : 111.8 : 18.5 : 1Transmission6 speed6 speed6 speed6Speed6 speed5 speedTorque61.7 Nm @10500 rpm29.6 Nm @9000 rpm35.3 Nm @7000 rpm22.9 Nm @7000 rpm23.7 Nm @8000 rpm41.3 Nm @4000 rpmPower63.9 kW @14500 rpm42 kW @10750 rpm32 kW @9500 rpm19.4 kW @ 8500 rpm22.6 kW @10000 rpm20.2 kW @5250 rpmCooling systemLiquid coolingAir cooledFuel supplyFuel injectionAlthough these two engines have more power compared to other engines, the performance of engines purely depends on air-fuel mixture, so the design of air intake could definitely affect the performance. As a first time participating in Race Events (SUPRA SAEINDIA and Formula Bharath), we did not make complications. Yamaha YZF R6 contains 4 cylinders arranged in a line, we have ruled that air should go through a single intake and that the diameter should be within 20 mm. Keeping this in mind, making an air intake with four runners is complicated. Moreover, for Yamaha YZF R3, it consists of 2 cylinders, and the design of a single air intake with two runners is complicated. Another factor is considering the availability cost of the engine, we did not opt for these two engines. We know that Royal Enfield will produce more torque than power, but for racing events we need more power than torque. Engine displacement is more compared to the remaining three engines, but the output power is low when compared to KTM RC390. Honda CBR250R &Yamaha WR250R, these two engines contain a single cylinder, but the output power and torque are low compared to KTM RC390.


## 2.2. Reasons behind Selection of KTM RC 390

By considering the budget and availability of spare parts for better maintenance of the engine, the engine displacement is under 610 cc, which will satisfy the rule. It contains a single cylinder, so it may not be that much complicated in the design of air intake. KTM390 cc engine is an oversquare engine, so it produces more power compared to the torque which is required in racing conditions. The KTM RC 390 model is a sports bicycle made by KTM. In this form, sold from the year 2020, the dry weight is 149.0 kg (328.5 pounds) and it is outfitted with a single-chamber, four-stroke engine. The motor delivers the extreme pinnacle yield force of 44.00 HP (32.1 kW)) and a greatest force of 35.00 Nm (3.6 kgf-m or 25.8 ft. Lbs). With this drive train, the KTM RC 390 is equipped for arriving at the extreme maximum velocity of. About case attributes, liable for street holding, taking care of conduct and ride solace, the KTM RC 390 has a steel lattice outline, and powder covered edges with front suspension being WP topsy turvy Ø 43 mm and at the back, it is outfitted with WP Monoshock. Stock tire sizes are 95/75-R17 on the front and 115/75-R17 on the back. Concerning the halting force, the KTM RC 390 stopping mechanism incorporates single plate; ABS; four-cylinder callipers; size 320 mm (12.6 inches) at the front and single circle; ABS; coasting plate; single-cylinder calliper; size 230 mm (9.1 inches) at the back. KTM RC390 engine specifications as per manufacturer have been given in Table2.Table 2
KTM RC390 engine specifications as per manufacturer.
ModelKTM RC390EngineFour-stroke, single cylinderCapacity373.4 ccBore × stroke89 × 60 mmCooling systemLiquid cooledSpark plugBosch VR 5 NEIgnitionFully electronic ignition systemStartingElectricMaximum power32 kw/43.5 HP @9500 rpmMaximum torque35.3 Nm/26 ft-lb @7000 rpmClutchWet multidisc clutch


## 2.3. Selection of Gear System and Drive System

We selected KTM 390 cc engine in which the gear box is inbuilt with 6 speed transmission. There are multiple mechanisms available like belt, pulley drive, direct mesh gear system, and chain drive. The transmission system has been integrated with temperature and vibration sensors for monitoring purposes. These sensors wirelessly transfer real-time data of the transmission sections, temperatures, and vibrations monitored by a mobile-based app during the transmission operations. Nowadays, the use of sensors in automobiles has grown from the safety point of concern of the driver [6, 7].


## 2.4. Comparison of Different Drive Systems

Drive system is critical from the design point of view. The comparative details of the different drive systems have been presented in Table3.Table 3
Comparison of different drive systems.
S. NoBelt driveGear driveChain drive1Main element are pulleys and beltMain element gearsMain element sprockets, chain2Chances of slipNo-slipNo-slip3Used for large centre distanceUsed for the short centre distanceUsed for the moderate centre distance4More space requiredLess space requiredModerate space required5Simple in design and manufacturingComplicated in design and manufacturingThe simplest in design and manufacturing6Failure in belt does not damage machineFailure in gear may cause serious break down in the machineFailure in a chain may not seriously damage the machine7Life time is lessMore life timeModerate life time8Lubrication not requiredRequires proper lubricationLubrication required9Mainly used for low-velocity ratioMainly used for high velocity ratioMainly used for moderate velocity ratio10Low installation costHigh installation costModerate installation costBy observing from Table3, the chain drive has been selected to make our transmission more efficient and reliable, i.e., driver sprocket, driven sprocket, and a chain.


## 3. Design and Results

### 3.1. Calculation of Forces

Let us assume the mass of the vehicle(M) is 350 kg (total weight of the vehicle including driver), wheel radius is 0.26 m, velocity of the vehicle (v) is 60kmph (assumption), and rolling resistance coefficient (fr) is 0.02, this varies based on the type of road and tire, gradient angle (α) is 25° (maximum gradient angle in Formula Race Tracks) depends on the road, drag coefficient (Cd) is 0.7 (typical values for formula 1 car in range 0.7–1.1) depends on the car, frontal area (A) is 0.617 m2 (calculate from design), density of air (ρ) is 1.225 kg/m3, and gravity (g) is 9.81 m/s2. Typical values of rolling resistance coefficient have been presented in Table 4.Table 4
Rolling resistance coefficient.
C- rolling resistance coefficient value for different conditions0.006–0.01Truck tire on asphalt0.01–0.015Ordinary car tires on concrete, new asphalt, cobbles small new0.02Car tires on tar or asphalt0.02Car tires on gravel-rolled new0.03Car tires on cobbles-large worn0.04–0.08Car tire on solid sand, gravel loose worn, soil medium hard0.2–0.4Car tire on loose sand


#### 3.1.1. Forces Calculation

We know that in a vehicle several forces are pulling on it. The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analyzing the forces acting on it. The different powers pulling up on a vehicle are shown in Figure3.Figure 3
Different forces on the vehicle.


#### 3.1.2. Aerodynamic Drag

When a vehicle is travelling at a particular speed, the forward motion of a vehicle encounters an air force opposing its motion [8, 9]. This force is called aerodynamic drag. Observe Figure 3. Streamlined drag majorly affects the consistent state Vmax execution as it is the significant power to defeat at extremely high velocity and it is for the most part seen to be correspondingly significant for forceful track driving. The outcomes show that, for a 10% increment in drag coefficient, the warm impact around the Nurburgring is irrelevant with an expansion of just 0.2°C in liquid temperature and 0.5 s for lap time. There are two purposes behind this. Initially, the normal speed around the Nurburgring for the vehicles considered is around 85 mph and there are not many spots where the speed surpasses 120 mph. Indeed, even on the long straight where the drag turns out to be considerable, the speed is typically restricted (not by drag) to 155 mph. Furthermore, the vehicles are considered to have up to 500 hp accessible, so the drag power at the normal speed requires just a little extent of force accessible (around 10–15%), a large portion of which is utilized to defeat vehicle inactivity power during the speed increase. For lower fueled vehicles, which would spend a substantial extent of the lap at a speed restricted by drag, the impact would be a lot more noteworthy. Figure 4 shows how the drag force effects the motion of vehicle.Figure 4
Drag force effects on the motion of the vehicle.Aerodynamic drag force can be defined mathematicallyFd: 1/2 ∗ Cd ∗ A ∗ ρ ∗ v2 = 73.424 N, whereas Cd is the coefficient of drag, A is the frontal area (m2), ρ is the  density of air (kg/m3), and v is the speed of vehicle (m/s).


#### 3.1.3. Gradient Force

The resistance force acts on a vehicle when a vehicle drives over gradient. It depends on the weight of the vehicle and the angle of road inclination. It always acts towards down. Observe Figure5 to see how the gradient forces effect the motion of vehicle.Figure 5
Gradient forces effect motion of vehicle.In short, moving obstruction is the power needed to keep your vehicle’s tires moving at a given speed. Tire makers evaluate it by moving a tire against a considerable tube-shaped drum and estimating the power in question. The outcome is the tire’s moving opposition coefficient (RRC). Tires change shape as they pivot, and the piece of the tire in touch with the street is distorted before it gets back to its casual state. The energy needed to misshape a tire is more noteworthy than what has expected to return it to its unique shape: a wonder known as “hysteresis.” This energy is disseminated as warmth, and this warmth assumes a significant part in the moving opposition. In the event that you have at any point when accelerating a bike on an underinflated tire, you have first-hand involvement in hysteresis. To voyage at a consistent speed, you need to place more mechanical energy into the framework, accelerating more earnestly than if the tire had been expanded to its legitimate level. That is on the grounds that underinflated tires have heaps of hysteresis, making seriously moving opposition. Things being what they are, with the chance that underinflated tires have high moving obstruction, why not just overinflate them to decrease their moving opposition? If that works, however, there is a cost to pay. For a certain something, the ride quality endures, turning out to be progressively cruel as tire pressures rise. All the more critically, the higher the pressing factor, the more modest the “impression,” which is the contact fixed between your tires and the street surface. A more modest contact fix can mean less foothold, which means diminished slowing down and cornering execution, particularly on wet surfaces.Gradient force can be defined mathematicallyFg: Mg sinα = 1451.05 N, whereas M is the mass of the vehicle (kg), g  is the gravity (m/s2), and α is gradient angle.


#### 3.1.4. Rolling Resistance

The force resisting the motion of the vehicle when it is moving on a road is called rolling resistance. Rolling resistance is also called rolling friction. Observe Figure6 to see how the rolling friction acts on tire.Figure 6
Rolling friction acts tire.Rolling resistance can be defined mathematicallyFr: frMg = 68.67 N, whereas fr is the rolling resistance coefficient, M is the mass of the vehicle (kg), and g is the gravity (m/s2).Mathematical formulas used to calculate the forces are:Drag force:Fd: 1/2 ∗ Cd ∗ A ∗ ρ∗ v2.Drag force is the force acting on the front side.A is the frontal area on which air drags, ρ is the air velocity, and v is the velocity of air. All factors depend on each other.Gradient forceFg: Mg sinα.Gradient force is depending on the road angle.M is the mass of the vehicle, α is the gradient angle, and g is the gravity. Every factor is related to others.Resistance forceFr: frMgResistance force is the force between tires and road. Mass of the vehicle and gravity are related to road.With the addition of all forces, we will get all forces acting on the vehicle.


#### 3.1.5. Total Tractive Force

The amount of total force applied by the drive wheels to the ground is called total tractive force and has been shown in Figure2.Total tractive force is defined as the sum of all forcesFd + Fg + Fr = 1593.144 N.Torque at the wheels can be calculated by using the below mathematical formula.Torque at wheels = total tractive force ∗ wheel radius ∗ resistance factor = 463.92 Nm.


### 3.2. Gear Ratio Calculation

Gear ratio helps us to find the desired output of power and torque [10, 11]. By considering each primary drive ratio in the engine gear box from the manufacturer and the secondary drive ratio (chain gear ratio), we calculated the torque and power.Primary drive ratio: 30 : 80 = 2.66 : 1.Secondary drive ratio: 15 : 45 = 3 : 1.Overall gear ratio = secondary drive ratio ∗ primary drive ratio ∗ individual gear ratio.


#### 3.2.1. Overall Gear Ratio

In Table5, we mentioned the individual and overall gear ratio for different gears. With the help of the below equation, we will find the overall gear ratio.Table 5
Individual and overall gear ratio at different gears.
GearsIndividual ratiosOverall gear ratios1st2.666621.222nd1.857114.813rd1.421111.344th1.142809.115th0.956507.636th0.840006.70Overall gear ratio = primary drive ratio ∗ secondary drive ratio ∗ individual gear ratio.


#### 3.2.2. RPM and Torque at Different Gear Ratios

Below the comparison of RPM and torque are the actual engine crankshaft RPM (engine speed) and torque. Output RPM here is an engine RPM not vehicle RPM. Usually, the engine torque increases with the increase of RPM. This torque can be compromised with speed by shifting gears. In the 1st gear, we get RPM around 2648, whereas the torque is 93.3 N-M, and RPM increases from 1st gear to 6th gear, whereas the torque increases from 1st gear to 2nd gear and decreases from 3rd to 6th gear. You can clearly observe this relation in Figure 7. In Figure 7 we can observe clearly that the torque increases from gear 1 to gear 2 in addition to a gradual decrease from gear 2 to gear 6. We know that the torque at 2 ng gear is more when compared to all gears. Torque and RPM were inversely proportional. If we clearly observe between gear 1 and gear 2, there is a sudden decrease in the RPM and a sudden increase in torque. From gear 2 onwards, there is a gradual increase in RPM and a gradual decrease in torque. By observing this, we can clearly understand that there is an inverse proportion between torque and RPM.Figure 7
The RPM and torque values for differential gear.Torque for each individual gear can be calculated by using the below mathematical formula.(1)Torque=maximun engine torque∗Overall gear ratio.After calculating the torque from the above equation, at 1st gear, the torque is high whereas moving towards higher gear torque reduces. In the 1st gear, the torque is around 750 N-m and in the 6th the gear is around 240 N-m. Observe the comparison to see how the torque decreases when we move towards the higher gear in Figure 8.Figure 8
Torque ratios for differential gear systems.Revolutions per minute can be calculated for each gear by using the following mathematical formula:(2)RPM=Engine rpmoverall gear ratio.Vehicle RPM is low at the 2nd gear because we get more torque at the 2nd gear, the RPM of the vehicle gradually increases from 2nd gear to the final gear, but it decreases from 1st gear to 2nd gear. You can see the theoretical values from Table 6. Theoretical values for Engine RPM. Overall gear ratio and gear RPM.Table 6
Theoretical values for engine RPM. Overall gear ratio and gear RPM.
Engine rpmOverall gear ratiosGear rpm262521.22123141314.8195184911.34163229709.11252274507.63359312606.70466


#### 3.2.3. Acceleration Calculation

We can calculate the acceleration for each gear by using the following mathematical formula:(3)Acceleration=torquewheel radius∗mass of vehicle.Acceleration is decreasing when we start shifting to higher gears and at 1st gear acceleration is 8.231 m/s2 whereas at top gear it is 2.6 m/s2. Observe the relation between torque v/s acceleration at different gears given in Figure 9. From Figure 9, we came to know the relation between the torque and acceleration. With the help of the diagram, we can observe that at initial gear both torque and acceleration are more. With the increase of gears, both torque and acceleration are decreases. Least torque and acceleration at top gear and more torque and acceleration are available at the 1st gear.Figure 9
The relation between torque v/s acceleration at different gears.From Figure10, we can observe how the acceleration decreases while we are moving towards higher gear.Figure 10
The relation between acceleration and different gears.


### 3.3. Transmission Design

#### 3.3.1. Sprocket Calculations

By taking consideration of the gear ratio 3 : 1 and the sprocket of the KTM390 engine with (driver sprocket) 15 teeth, the number of teeth in the rear sprocket (driven sprocket) is(4)3∗15=45⋅teeth.Sprocket diameter is calculated by the standard diameter of roller chain sprockets [12]. Details of driver and driving sprocket are given in Table 7.Table 7
Details of driver and driving sprocket.
SprocketNumber of teethOutside diameterPitch diameterCalliper diameterDriver sprocket153.3153.0062.590Driven sprocket459.3138.9608.554


#### 3.3.2. Differential Specifications

Usually in such competitions it is preferable to use a chain differential as the power is transmitted to the axles by chain drive. We manufacture a sprocket made of 7075 aluminium and die steel with teeth of 45. The real-time monitoring of temperature and vibration data by cloud computing and mobile platform app has shown that during the transmission operations the temperature and vibrations were well between the safe limits of operation.


### 3.4. Design of Air Intake

#### 3.4.1. Consideration of Rules for Air Intake

Design of power train involves a lot of observations like to implement a system which moves the vehicle. The torque delivered by the engine is not sufficient to move the vehicle because the engine is designed for two-wheeler, while it is used for 4-wheeler. We will calculate the torque required to move our vehicle. Torque required is more when compared to the torque delivered by engine. Power train is designed to match the torque that requires moving the vehicle. To pass air into the cylinder, we design the air intake with the restrictor diameter of 20 mm. While designing the air intake, we need to be careful in the design of plenum and runner because the air intake is the combination of restrictor, runner, and plenum. Design of one part affects the dimensions of other parts.A rarefaction wave flows upstream from the intake valve to the intake runner because there is low pressure downstream when it opens. From the open end, this wave reflects as a compression wave and returns to the pipe. When the intake valve opens, the rarefaction wave begins, and the compression wave must arrive precisely before the valve closes [13]. Maximum restrictor diameter is 20 mm, any portion of the air intake should be covered for side and back sway crashes, and any piece of the air consumption framework that is under 350 mm (13.8 inches) over the ground. The whole intake runner (Figure 11) has been divided into three pieces, two of which are located within the engine block and one of which is constructed. The fabricated intake portion goes within the engine block from upstream to downstream [14].Figure 11
Diagram of intake runner.


#### 3.4.2. Restrictor

Given that the diameter of the restrictor (Figure12) is maximum 20 mm, the diameter at the inlet portion is 46 mm, which is the diameter of the throttle body of KTM 390 cc, and the diameter at the outlet is depending on our design of plenum, converging, and diverging angles of the restrictor, if we observe the restrictor clearly, we have two sections named as converging section and diverging section. Mostly used converging angle is 12 degrees whereas diverging angle is 6 degrees.Figure 12
Diagram of restrictor.


#### 3.4.3. Plenum

Plenum is a large cavity at the top of runner. It acts as a reservoir and stores air until it is ready to send to the cylinders. The main advantage over the usage of the plenum is evenly distributing the air into the runner. It is mostly preferable for Multi cylinder engines [15]. The volume of the plenum is almost 3 times the volume of the engine. Engine performance impact is based on the volume of the plenum.


#### 3.4.4. Runner

Runner is the connection between the plenum and the engine cylinder. If the engine contains more than one cylinder, then runners are used to equally distribute the air into the plenum. The length of the runner is depending on the speed of the pressure wave and the cam duration, and the bending angle of the runner depends on the pressure wave.


### 3.5. Analysis

The method which was used while designing the power train is a conventional method, but all selections from engine selection to final drive follows certain technical rules, economically low, efficient and our availability. In any project one need to consider initially technical ways then efficient is important after that it should be economical cheaper then finally the part should be available. A power train was designed for formula student vehicle with KTM 390 engine. The final gear drive ratio is 3 : 1 (Driven: Drive) and chain differential was selected, because in FSAE Competitions we will transfer power through chain drive. To pass air into the engine we used air intake with restrictor diameter of 20 mm and plenum volume should be three time the engine volume. The diameter of air intake at engine end should be 46 mm because the diameter of KTM 390 engine throttle is 46 mm.


## 3.1. Calculation of Forces

Let us assume the mass of the vehicle(M) is 350 kg (total weight of the vehicle including driver), wheel radius is 0.26 m, velocity of the vehicle (v) is 60kmph (assumption), and rolling resistance coefficient (fr) is 0.02, this varies based on the type of road and tire, gradient angle (α) is 25° (maximum gradient angle in Formula Race Tracks) depends on the road, drag coefficient (Cd) is 0.7 (typical values for formula 1 car in range 0.7–1.1) depends on the car, frontal area (A) is 0.617 m2 (calculate from design), density of air (ρ) is 1.225 kg/m3, and gravity (g) is 9.81 m/s2. Typical values of rolling resistance coefficient have been presented in Table 4.Table 4
Rolling resistance coefficient.
C- rolling resistance coefficient value for different conditions0.006–0.01Truck tire on asphalt0.01–0.015Ordinary car tires on concrete, new asphalt, cobbles small new0.02Car tires on tar or asphalt0.02Car tires on gravel-rolled new0.03Car tires on cobbles-large worn0.04–0.08Car tire on solid sand, gravel loose worn, soil medium hard0.2–0.4Car tire on loose sand


### 3.1.1. Forces Calculation

We know that in a vehicle several forces are pulling on it. The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analyzing the forces acting on it. The different powers pulling up on a vehicle are shown in Figure3.Figure 3
Different forces on the vehicle.


### 3.1.2. Aerodynamic Drag

When a vehicle is travelling at a particular speed, the forward motion of a vehicle encounters an air force opposing its motion [8, 9]. This force is called aerodynamic drag. Observe Figure 3. Streamlined drag majorly affects the consistent state Vmax execution as it is the significant power to defeat at extremely high velocity and it is for the most part seen to be correspondingly significant for forceful track driving. The outcomes show that, for a 10% increment in drag coefficient, the warm impact around the Nurburgring is irrelevant with an expansion of just 0.2°C in liquid temperature and 0.5 s for lap time. There are two purposes behind this. Initially, the normal speed around the Nurburgring for the vehicles considered is around 85 mph and there are not many spots where the speed surpasses 120 mph. Indeed, even on the long straight where the drag turns out to be considerable, the speed is typically restricted (not by drag) to 155 mph. Furthermore, the vehicles are considered to have up to 500 hp accessible, so the drag power at the normal speed requires just a little extent of force accessible (around 10–15%), a large portion of which is utilized to defeat vehicle inactivity power during the speed increase. For lower fueled vehicles, which would spend a substantial extent of the lap at a speed restricted by drag, the impact would be a lot more noteworthy. Figure 4 shows how the drag force effects the motion of vehicle.Figure 4
Drag force effects on the motion of the vehicle.Aerodynamic drag force can be defined mathematicallyFd: 1/2 ∗ Cd ∗ A ∗ ρ ∗ v2 = 73.424 N, whereas Cd is the coefficient of drag, A is the frontal area (m2), ρ is the  density of air (kg/m3), and v is the speed of vehicle (m/s).


### 3.1.3. Gradient Force

The resistance force acts on a vehicle when a vehicle drives over gradient. It depends on the weight of the vehicle and the angle of road inclination. It always acts towards down. Observe Figure5 to see how the gradient forces effect the motion of vehicle.Figure 5
Gradient forces effect motion of vehicle.In short, moving obstruction is the power needed to keep your vehicle’s tires moving at a given speed. Tire makers evaluate it by moving a tire against a considerable tube-shaped drum and estimating the power in question. The outcome is the tire’s moving opposition coefficient (RRC). Tires change shape as they pivot, and the piece of the tire in touch with the street is distorted before it gets back to its casual state. The energy needed to misshape a tire is more noteworthy than what has expected to return it to its unique shape: a wonder known as “hysteresis.” This energy is disseminated as warmth, and this warmth assumes a significant part in the moving opposition. In the event that you have at any point when accelerating a bike on an underinflated tire, you have first-hand involvement in hysteresis. To voyage at a consistent speed, you need to place more mechanical energy into the framework, accelerating more earnestly than if the tire had been expanded to its legitimate level. That is on the grounds that underinflated tires have heaps of hysteresis, making seriously moving opposition. Things being what they are, with the chance that underinflated tires have high moving obstruction, why not just overinflate them to decrease their moving opposition? If that works, however, there is a cost to pay. For a certain something, the ride quality endures, turning out to be progressively cruel as tire pressures rise. All the more critically, the higher the pressing factor, the more modest the “impression,” which is the contact fixed between your tires and the street surface. A more modest contact fix can mean less foothold, which means diminished slowing down and cornering execution, particularly on wet surfaces.Gradient force can be defined mathematicallyFg: Mg sinα = 1451.05 N, whereas M is the mass of the vehicle (kg), g  is the gravity (m/s2), and α is gradient angle.


### 3.1.4. Rolling Resistance

The force resisting the motion of the vehicle when it is moving on a road is called rolling resistance. Rolling resistance is also called rolling friction. Observe Figure6 to see how the rolling friction acts on tire.Figure 6
Rolling friction acts tire.Rolling resistance can be defined mathematicallyFr: frMg = 68.67 N, whereas fr is the rolling resistance coefficient, M is the mass of the vehicle (kg), and g is the gravity (m/s2).Mathematical formulas used to calculate the forces are:Drag force:Fd: 1/2 ∗ Cd ∗ A ∗ ρ∗ v2.Drag force is the force acting on the front side.A is the frontal area on which air drags, ρ is the air velocity, and v is the velocity of air. All factors depend on each other.Gradient forceFg: Mg sinα.Gradient force is depending on the road angle.M is the mass of the vehicle, α is the gradient angle, and g is the gravity. Every factor is related to others.Resistance forceFr: frMgResistance force is the force between tires and road. Mass of the vehicle and gravity are related to road.With the addition of all forces, we will get all forces acting on the vehicle.


### 3.1.5. Total Tractive Force

The amount of total force applied by the drive wheels to the ground is called total tractive force and has been shown in Figure2.Total tractive force is defined as the sum of all forcesFd + Fg + Fr = 1593.144 N.Torque at the wheels can be calculated by using the below mathematical formula.Torque at wheels = total tractive force ∗ wheel radius ∗ resistance factor = 463.92 Nm.


## 3.1.1. Forces Calculation

We know that in a vehicle several forces are pulling on it. The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analyzing the forces acting on it. The different powers pulling up on a vehicle are shown in Figure3.Figure 3
Different forces on the vehicle.


## 3.1.2. Aerodynamic Drag

When a vehicle is travelling at a particular speed, the forward motion of a vehicle encounters an air force opposing its motion [8, 9]. This force is called aerodynamic drag. Observe Figure 3. Streamlined drag majorly affects the consistent state Vmax execution as it is the significant power to defeat at extremely high velocity and it is for the most part seen to be correspondingly significant for forceful track driving. The outcomes show that, for a 10% increment in drag coefficient, the warm impact around the Nurburgring is irrelevant with an expansion of just 0.2°C in liquid temperature and 0.5 s for lap time. There are two purposes behind this. Initially, the normal speed around the Nurburgring for the vehicles considered is around 85 mph and there are not many spots where the speed surpasses 120 mph. Indeed, even on the long straight where the drag turns out to be considerable, the speed is typically restricted (not by drag) to 155 mph. Furthermore, the vehicles are considered to have up to 500 hp accessible, so the drag power at the normal speed requires just a little extent of force accessible (around 10–15%), a large portion of which is utilized to defeat vehicle inactivity power during the speed increase. For lower fueled vehicles, which would spend a substantial extent of the lap at a speed restricted by drag, the impact would be a lot more noteworthy. Figure 4 shows how the drag force effects the motion of vehicle.Figure 4
Drag force effects on the motion of the vehicle.Aerodynamic drag force can be defined mathematicallyFd: 1/2 ∗ Cd ∗ A ∗ ρ ∗ v2 = 73.424 N, whereas Cd is the coefficient of drag, A is the frontal area (m2), ρ is the  density of air (kg/m3), and v is the speed of vehicle (m/s).


## 3.1.3. Gradient Force

The resistance force acts on a vehicle when a vehicle drives over gradient. It depends on the weight of the vehicle and the angle of road inclination. It always acts towards down. Observe Figure5 to see how the gradient forces effect the motion of vehicle.Figure 5
Gradient forces effect motion of vehicle.In short, moving obstruction is the power needed to keep your vehicle’s tires moving at a given speed. Tire makers evaluate it by moving a tire against a considerable tube-shaped drum and estimating the power in question. The outcome is the tire’s moving opposition coefficient (RRC). Tires change shape as they pivot, and the piece of the tire in touch with the street is distorted before it gets back to its casual state. The energy needed to misshape a tire is more noteworthy than what has expected to return it to its unique shape: a wonder known as “hysteresis.” This energy is disseminated as warmth, and this warmth assumes a significant part in the moving opposition. In the event that you have at any point when accelerating a bike on an underinflated tire, you have first-hand involvement in hysteresis. To voyage at a consistent speed, you need to place more mechanical energy into the framework, accelerating more earnestly than if the tire had been expanded to its legitimate level. That is on the grounds that underinflated tires have heaps of hysteresis, making seriously moving opposition. Things being what they are, with the chance that underinflated tires have high moving obstruction, why not just overinflate them to decrease their moving opposition? If that works, however, there is a cost to pay. For a certain something, the ride quality endures, turning out to be progressively cruel as tire pressures rise. All the more critically, the higher the pressing factor, the more modest the “impression,” which is the contact fixed between your tires and the street surface. A more modest contact fix can mean less foothold, which means diminished slowing down and cornering execution, particularly on wet surfaces.Gradient force can be defined mathematicallyFg: Mg sinα = 1451.05 N, whereas M is the mass of the vehicle (kg), g  is the gravity (m/s2), and α is gradient angle.


## 3.1.4. Rolling Resistance

The force resisting the motion of the vehicle when it is moving on a road is called rolling resistance. Rolling resistance is also called rolling friction. Observe Figure6 to see how the rolling friction acts on tire.Figure 6
Rolling friction acts tire.Rolling resistance can be defined mathematicallyFr: frMg = 68.67 N, whereas fr is the rolling resistance coefficient, M is the mass of the vehicle (kg), and g is the gravity (m/s2).Mathematical formulas used to calculate the forces are:Drag force:Fd: 1/2 ∗ Cd ∗ A ∗ ρ∗ v2.Drag force is the force acting on the front side.A is the frontal area on which air drags, ρ is the air velocity, and v is the velocity of air. All factors depend on each other.Gradient forceFg: Mg sinα.Gradient force is depending on the road angle.M is the mass of the vehicle, α is the gradient angle, and g is the gravity. Every factor is related to others.Resistance forceFr: frMgResistance force is the force between tires and road. Mass of the vehicle and gravity are related to road.With the addition of all forces, we will get all forces acting on the vehicle.


## 3.1.5. Total Tractive Force

The amount of total force applied by the drive wheels to the ground is called total tractive force and has been shown in Figure2.Total tractive force is defined as the sum of all forcesFd + Fg + Fr = 1593.144 N.Torque at the wheels can be calculated by using the below mathematical formula.Torque at wheels = total tractive force ∗ wheel radius ∗ resistance factor = 463.92 Nm.


## 3.2. Gear Ratio Calculation

Gear ratio helps us to find the desired output of power and torque [10, 11]. By considering each primary drive ratio in the engine gear box from the manufacturer and the secondary drive ratio (chain gear ratio), we calculated the torque and power.Primary drive ratio: 30 : 80 = 2.66 : 1.Secondary drive ratio: 15 : 45 = 3 : 1.Overall gear ratio = secondary drive ratio ∗ primary drive ratio ∗ individual gear ratio.


### 3.2.1. Overall Gear Ratio

In Table5, we mentioned the individual and overall gear ratio for different gears. With the help of the below equation, we will find the overall gear ratio.Table 5
Individual and overall gear ratio at different gears.
GearsIndividual ratiosOverall gear ratios1st2.666621.222nd1.857114.813rd1.421111.344th1.142809.115th0.956507.636th0.840006.70Overall gear ratio = primary drive ratio ∗ secondary drive ratio ∗ individual gear ratio.


### 3.2.2. RPM and Torque at Different Gear Ratios

Below the comparison of RPM and torque are the actual engine crankshaft RPM (engine speed) and torque. Output RPM here is an engine RPM not vehicle RPM. Usually, the engine torque increases with the increase of RPM. This torque can be compromised with speed by shifting gears. In the 1st gear, we get RPM around 2648, whereas the torque is 93.3 N-M, and RPM increases from 1st gear to 6th gear, whereas the torque increases from 1st gear to 2nd gear and decreases from 3rd to 6th gear. You can clearly observe this relation in Figure 7. In Figure 7 we can observe clearly that the torque increases from gear 1 to gear 2 in addition to a gradual decrease from gear 2 to gear 6. We know that the torque at 2 ng gear is more when compared to all gears. Torque and RPM were inversely proportional. If we clearly observe between gear 1 and gear 2, there is a sudden decrease in the RPM and a sudden increase in torque. From gear 2 onwards, there is a gradual increase in RPM and a gradual decrease in torque. By observing this, we can clearly understand that there is an inverse proportion between torque and RPM.Figure 7
The RPM and torque values for differential gear.Torque for each individual gear can be calculated by using the below mathematical formula.(1)Torque=maximun engine torque∗Overall gear ratio.After calculating the torque from the above equation, at 1st gear, the torque is high whereas moving towards higher gear torque reduces. In the 1st gear, the torque is around 750 N-m and in the 6th the gear is around 240 N-m. Observe the comparison to see how the torque decreases when we move towards the higher gear in Figure 8.Figure 8
Torque ratios for differential gear systems.Revolutions per minute can be calculated for each gear by using the following mathematical formula:(2)RPM=Engine rpmoverall gear ratio.Vehicle RPM is low at the 2nd gear because we get more torque at the 2nd gear, the RPM of the vehicle gradually increases from 2nd gear to the final gear, but it decreases from 1st gear to 2nd gear. You can see the theoretical values from Table 6. Theoretical values for Engine RPM. Overall gear ratio and gear RPM.Table 6
Theoretical values for engine RPM. Overall gear ratio and gear RPM.
Engine rpmOverall gear ratiosGear rpm262521.22123141314.8195184911.34163229709.11252274507.63359312606.70466


### 3.2.3. Acceleration Calculation

We can calculate the acceleration for each gear by using the following mathematical formula:(3)Acceleration=torquewheel radius∗mass of vehicle.Acceleration is decreasing when we start shifting to higher gears and at 1st gear acceleration is 8.231 m/s2 whereas at top gear it is 2.6 m/s2. Observe the relation between torque v/s acceleration at different gears given in Figure 9. From Figure 9, we came to know the relation between the torque and acceleration. With the help of the diagram, we can observe that at initial gear both torque and acceleration are more. With the increase of gears, both torque and acceleration are decreases. Least torque and acceleration at top gear and more torque and acceleration are available at the 1st gear.Figure 9
The relation between torque v/s acceleration at different gears.From Figure10, we can observe how the acceleration decreases while we are moving towards higher gear.Figure 10
The relation between acceleration and different gears.


## 3.2.1. Overall Gear Ratio

In Table5, we mentioned the individual and overall gear ratio for different gears. With the help of the below equation, we will find the overall gear ratio.Table 5
Individual and overall gear ratio at different gears.
GearsIndividual ratiosOverall gear ratios1st2.666621.222nd1.857114.813rd1.421111.344th1.142809.115th0.956507.636th0.840006.70Overall gear ratio = primary drive ratio ∗ secondary drive ratio ∗ individual gear ratio.


## 3.2.2. RPM and Torque at Different Gear Ratios

Below the comparison of RPM and torque are the actual engine crankshaft RPM (engine speed) and torque. Output RPM here is an engine RPM not vehicle RPM. Usually, the engine torque increases with the increase of RPM. This torque can be compromised with speed by shifting gears. In the 1st gear, we get RPM around 2648, whereas the torque is 93.3 N-M, and RPM increases from 1st gear to 6th gear, whereas the torque increases from 1st gear to 2nd gear and decreases from 3rd to 6th gear. You can clearly observe this relation in Figure 7. In Figure 7 we can observe clearly that the torque increases from gear 1 to gear 2 in addition to a gradual decrease from gear 2 to gear 6. We know that the torque at 2 ng gear is more when compared to all gears. Torque and RPM were inversely proportional. If we clearly observe between gear 1 and gear 2, there is a sudden decrease in the RPM and a sudden increase in torque. From gear 2 onwards, there is a gradual increase in RPM and a gradual decrease in torque. By observing this, we can clearly understand that there is an inverse proportion between torque and RPM.Figure 7
The RPM and torque values for differential gear.Torque for each individual gear can be calculated by using the below mathematical formula.(1)Torque=maximun engine torque∗Overall gear ratio.After calculating the torque from the above equation, at 1st gear, the torque is high whereas moving towards higher gear torque reduces. In the 1st gear, the torque is around 750 N-m and in the 6th the gear is around 240 N-m. Observe the comparison to see how the torque decreases when we move towards the higher gear in Figure 8.Figure 8
Torque ratios for differential gear systems.Revolutions per minute can be calculated for each gear by using the following mathematical formula:(2)RPM=Engine rpmoverall gear ratio.Vehicle RPM is low at the 2nd gear because we get more torque at the 2nd gear, the RPM of the vehicle gradually increases from 2nd gear to the final gear, but it decreases from 1st gear to 2nd gear. You can see the theoretical values from Table 6. Theoretical values for Engine RPM. Overall gear ratio and gear RPM.Table 6
Theoretical values for engine RPM. Overall gear ratio and gear RPM.
Engine rpmOverall gear ratiosGear rpm262521.22123141314.8195184911.34163229709.11252274507.63359312606.70466


## 3.2.3. Acceleration Calculation

We can calculate the acceleration for each gear by using the following mathematical formula:(3)Acceleration=torquewheel radius∗mass of vehicle.Acceleration is decreasing when we start shifting to higher gears and at 1st gear acceleration is 8.231 m/s2 whereas at top gear it is 2.6 m/s2. Observe the relation between torque v/s acceleration at different gears given in Figure 9. From Figure 9, we came to know the relation between the torque and acceleration. With the help of the diagram, we can observe that at initial gear both torque and acceleration are more. With the increase of gears, both torque and acceleration are decreases. Least torque and acceleration at top gear and more torque and acceleration are available at the 1st gear.Figure 9
The relation between torque v/s acceleration at different gears.From Figure10, we can observe how the acceleration decreases while we are moving towards higher gear.Figure 10
The relation between acceleration and different gears.


## 3.3. Transmission Design

### 3.3.1. Sprocket Calculations

By taking consideration of the gear ratio 3 : 1 and the sprocket of the KTM390 engine with (driver sprocket) 15 teeth, the number of teeth in the rear sprocket (driven sprocket) is(4)3∗15=45⋅teeth.Sprocket diameter is calculated by the standard diameter of roller chain sprockets [12]. Details of driver and driving sprocket are given in Table 7.Table 7
Details of driver and driving sprocket.
SprocketNumber of teethOutside diameterPitch diameterCalliper diameterDriver sprocket153.3153.0062.590Driven sprocket459.3138.9608.554


### 3.3.2. Differential Specifications

Usually in such competitions it is preferable to use a chain differential as the power is transmitted to the axles by chain drive. We manufacture a sprocket made of 7075 aluminium and die steel with teeth of 45. The real-time monitoring of temperature and vibration data by cloud computing and mobile platform app has shown that during the transmission operations the temperature and vibrations were well between the safe limits of operation.


## 3.3.1. Sprocket Calculations

By taking consideration of the gear ratio 3 : 1 and the sprocket of the KTM390 engine with (driver sprocket) 15 teeth, the number of teeth in the rear sprocket (driven sprocket) is(4)3∗15=45⋅teeth.Sprocket diameter is calculated by the standard diameter of roller chain sprockets [12]. Details of driver and driving sprocket are given in Table 7.Table 7
Details of driver and driving sprocket.
SprocketNumber of teethOutside diameterPitch diameterCalliper diameterDriver sprocket153.3153.0062.590Driven sprocket459.3138.9608.554


## 3.3.2. Differential Specifications

Usually in such competitions it is preferable to use a chain differential as the power is transmitted to the axles by chain drive. We manufacture a sprocket made of 7075 aluminium and die steel with teeth of 45. The real-time monitoring of temperature and vibration data by cloud computing and mobile platform app has shown that during the transmission operations the temperature and vibrations were well between the safe limits of operation.


## 3.4. Design of Air Intake

### 3.4.1. Consideration of Rules for Air Intake

Design of power train involves a lot of observations like to implement a system which moves the vehicle. The torque delivered by the engine is not sufficient to move the vehicle because the engine is designed for two-wheeler, while it is used for 4-wheeler. We will calculate the torque required to move our vehicle. Torque required is more when compared to the torque delivered by engine. Power train is designed to match the torque that requires moving the vehicle. To pass air into the cylinder, we design the air intake with the restrictor diameter of 20 mm. While designing the air intake, we need to be careful in the design of plenum and runner because the air intake is the combination of restrictor, runner, and plenum. Design of one part affects the dimensions of other parts.A rarefaction wave flows upstream from the intake valve to the intake runner because there is low pressure downstream when it opens. From the open end, this wave reflects as a compression wave and returns to the pipe. When the intake valve opens, the rarefaction wave begins, and the compression wave must arrive precisely before the valve closes [13]. Maximum restrictor diameter is 20 mm, any portion of the air intake should be covered for side and back sway crashes, and any piece of the air consumption framework that is under 350 mm (13.8 inches) over the ground. The whole intake runner (Figure 11) has been divided into three pieces, two of which are located within the engine block and one of which is constructed. The fabricated intake portion goes within the engine block from upstream to downstream [14].Figure 11
Diagram of intake runner.


### 3.4.2. Restrictor

Given that the diameter of the restrictor (Figure12) is maximum 20 mm, the diameter at the inlet portion is 46 mm, which is the diameter of the throttle body of KTM 390 cc, and the diameter at the outlet is depending on our design of plenum, converging, and diverging angles of the restrictor, if we observe the restrictor clearly, we have two sections named as converging section and diverging section. Mostly used converging angle is 12 degrees whereas diverging angle is 6 degrees.Figure 12
Diagram of restrictor.


### 3.4.3. Plenum

Plenum is a large cavity at the top of runner. It acts as a reservoir and stores air until it is ready to send to the cylinders. The main advantage over the usage of the plenum is evenly distributing the air into the runner. It is mostly preferable for Multi cylinder engines [15]. The volume of the plenum is almost 3 times the volume of the engine. Engine performance impact is based on the volume of the plenum.


### 3.4.4. Runner

Runner is the connection between the plenum and the engine cylinder. If the engine contains more than one cylinder, then runners are used to equally distribute the air into the plenum. The length of the runner is depending on the speed of the pressure wave and the cam duration, and the bending angle of the runner depends on the pressure wave.


## 3.4.1. Consideration of Rules for Air Intake

Design of power train involves a lot of observations like to implement a system which moves the vehicle. The torque delivered by the engine is not sufficient to move the vehicle because the engine is designed for two-wheeler, while it is used for 4-wheeler. We will calculate the torque required to move our vehicle. Torque required is more when compared to the torque delivered by engine. Power train is designed to match the torque that requires moving the vehicle. To pass air into the cylinder, we design the air intake with the restrictor diameter of 20 mm. While designing the air intake, we need to be careful in the design of plenum and runner because the air intake is the combination of restrictor, runner, and plenum. Design of one part affects the dimensions of other parts.A rarefaction wave flows upstream from the intake valve to the intake runner because there is low pressure downstream when it opens. From the open end, this wave reflects as a compression wave and returns to the pipe. When the intake valve opens, the rarefaction wave begins, and the compression wave must arrive precisely before the valve closes [13]. Maximum restrictor diameter is 20 mm, any portion of the air intake should be covered for side and back sway crashes, and any piece of the air consumption framework that is under 350 mm (13.8 inches) over the ground. The whole intake runner (Figure 11) has been divided into three pieces, two of which are located within the engine block and one of which is constructed. The fabricated intake portion goes within the engine block from upstream to downstream [14].Figure 11
Diagram of intake runner.


## 3.4.2. Restrictor

Given that the diameter of the restrictor (Figure12) is maximum 20 mm, the diameter at the inlet portion is 46 mm, which is the diameter of the throttle body of KTM 390 cc, and the diameter at the outlet is depending on our design of plenum, converging, and diverging angles of the restrictor, if we observe the restrictor clearly, we have two sections named as converging section and diverging section. Mostly used converging angle is 12 degrees whereas diverging angle is 6 degrees.Figure 12
Diagram of restrictor.


## 3.4.3. Plenum

Plenum is a large cavity at the top of runner. It acts as a reservoir and stores air until it is ready to send to the cylinders. The main advantage over the usage of the plenum is evenly distributing the air into the runner. It is mostly preferable for Multi cylinder engines [15]. The volume of the plenum is almost 3 times the volume of the engine. Engine performance impact is based on the volume of the plenum.


## 3.4.4. Runner

Runner is the connection between the plenum and the engine cylinder. If the engine contains more than one cylinder, then runners are used to equally distribute the air into the plenum. The length of the runner is depending on the speed of the pressure wave and the cam duration, and the bending angle of the runner depends on the pressure wave.


## 3.5. Analysis

The method which was used while designing the power train is a conventional method, but all selections from engine selection to final drive follows certain technical rules, economically low, efficient and our availability. In any project one need to consider initially technical ways then efficient is important after that it should be economical cheaper then finally the part should be available. A power train was designed for formula student vehicle with KTM 390 engine. The final gear drive ratio is 3 : 1 (Driven: Drive) and chain differential was selected, because in FSAE Competitions we will transfer power through chain drive. To pass air into the engine we used air intake with restrictor diameter of 20 mm and plenum volume should be three time the engine volume. The diameter of air intake at engine end should be 46 mm because the diameter of KTM 390 engine throttle is 46 mm.


## 4. Conclusion

The vehicle’s reliability was improved as a result of the powertrain simulation in this study. Most of the engineering student has a dream of designing powertrains with less weight-to power ratio. Selection of engine plays a major role in the power train; a square engine which produces more power compared to torque was selected. Power is the main important for race cars when compared to torque. After knowing the requirements of the power train system, look both advantages and disadvantages of different parts. With the careful selection of the engine platform, KTM 390 was selected as the best engine in the segment. It is certainly due to that the power required is more compared to the torque. Power is the main important for race cars when compared to torque. Along with the power, fuel efficiency also matters along with the medium to transfer the power. Power loss is reduced by selecting the chain drive. It appears sensible to continue research into improving the car’s reliability and finding a method to minimize weight. We have achieved the purpose of designing the power train without compromising the driver safety precautions and the power train was designed for formula student race cars by following the SAE International rules.



---

*Source: 9465702-2021-11-29.xml*