# The Protective Effect of Sulodexide on Acute Lung Injury Induced by a Murine Model of Obstructive Jaundice

Authors: Penglei Ma; Yue Long; Qiang Fu; Yanhong Liu; Yitian Yang; Weixing Zhao; Qiangwei Liu; Yang Li; Weidong Mi
Journal: BioMed Research International
 (2022)

---

## Abstract

Introduction. The effect of sulodexide (SLX) on obstructive jaundice- (OJ-) induced acute lung injury (ALI) in rats was examined in this study. Methods. In this study, 48 rats were randomly assigned to one of six groups: sham, OJ, OJ+saline, OJ+SLX (0.5 mg/ml/d), OJ+SLX (1 mg/ml/d), and OJ+SLX (2 mg/ml/d). The pathological lung injury was assessed by histological analysis and lung injury grading. ELISA kits were used to evaluate the expression of IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α, and syndecan-1 (SDC-1) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALFs). Commercial assay kits were performed to evaluate malondialdehyde (MDA) production and catalase (CAT) activity in lung tissues. The apoptosis was assessed by TUNEL assay. The lung microvascular permeability was investigated using Evans blue leakage, lung wet/dry weight (W/D) ratio, and lung permeability index (LPI). SDC-1, claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE cadherin expression levels in lung tissues were measured using Western blot. Results. The OJ-induced ALI rats showed severe lung injury. The value of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and SDC-1 in BALFs was remarkedly increased in the OJ group. MDA content, apoptotic area, apoptotic molecules, and SDC-1 level were all higher in the OJ group’s lung tissues than in the sham group. CAT activity, Evans blue leakage, W/D ratio, LPI, and expression of claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE cadherin were all lower in the OJ group compared to the sham group. The degenerative alterations in lung tissue improved after 7 days of treatment with 2 mg/ml SLX. The BALFs had lower amounts of IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α, and SDC-1. The SLX therapy reduced MDA levels while restoring CAT activity. In lung tissues, SLX reduced apoptotic area and SDC-1 expression. SLX reduced lung microvascular permeability by raising the expression of Claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin in lung tissue when compared to the OJ group. Conclusion. The results suggested that SLX attenuates OJ-induced ALI in rats by protecting the pulmonary microvascular endothelial barrier.


---

## Body

## 1. Introduction

Obstructive jaundice (OJ) is a frequent clinical disease characterised by a blockage of the internal or external bile ducts, resulting in bile excretion problems. It not only causes liver damage but also causes serious damage to other organs of the body, resulting in changes in the function and morphology of multiple organs and systems, thus affecting the therapeutic effect. Although the treatment methods are constantly improving, the incidence and mortality of complications caused by OJ remain high [1]. After biliary obstruction, liver cells are impeded from intaking, binding, and excretion of bilirubin, while bile is reversely secreted, which causes the bound bilirubin to flow back into the blood, causing hyperbilirubinemia. It has been found that the body’s sensitivity to endotoxin is greatly increased with the flow of bilirubin back into the blood, resulting in up to 50-70% of patients suffering from endotoxemia [2]. Endotoxin triggers an inflammatory cascade reaction, which mainly acting on inflammatory and endothelial cells, and activates the release of a huge variety of inflammatory factors from cells. This could result in a systemic inflammatory response and, in severe cases, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). In a systemic inflammatory response, the lung is an essential effector organ. When a significant number of inflammatory agents congregate in tiny airways, alveolar epithelial and interstitial cells become inflamed; it will lead to a series of changes such as hemorrhage, leukocyte infiltration, vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and plasma protein exudation [3], which will lead to ALI [4–6].Acute lung injury (ALI) is the first stage of abrupt respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which is marked by lung inflammation and increased alveolar-capillary membrane permeability, resulting in acute and persistent pathological alterations that lead to hypoxic respiratory distress [7]. The pathophysiological mechanism of ALI caused by OJ is very complex. Some studies have reported that endotoxemia caused by OJ is an important inducement of ALI, and that the severity of ALI in patients is positively correlated with endotoxemia [8]. Lung injury has always been a hot research topic in China and abroad, but there is little research on ALI caused by OJ. The key pathological feature of ALI is the increased of pulmonary vascular permeability. The key to treating ALI is to maintain the integrity of the pulmonary microvascular endothelial barrier structure and reduce pulmonary microvascular permeability. Finding a drug that can alleviate the ALI caused by OJ will reduce the incidence of perioperative complications of OJ and improve the survival rate of patients.Sulodexide (SLX) is a highly purified glycosaminoglycan combination consisting mostly of 80% mobile heparin (HS) and 20% dermatan sulphate [9]. This preparation provides precursors of HS, which can provide material sources for glycocalyx repair [10]. Sulodexide is widely known as a potent antithrombin agent with protective effects on the organs, but its role is currently ambiguous when it comes to sulodexide’s function on acute lung injury. Sulodexide had effect on reconstructing glycocalyx and attenuating the expression of inflammatory factors and decreasing the blood coagulation and lipid metabolism, which are all important for vascular healing. Glycocalyx is a thin, substrate-like layer that covers the endothelial lumen’s surface, which is composed of a variety of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and plasma proteins. It influences the chemotaxis, growth, adhesion, and other functions of endothelial cells by regulating signal transduction pathways [11]. Studies have shown that SLX can protect, maintain, or restore the structural integrity of endothelial glycocalyx [12], and it aids in the restoration of the negative charge of the vascular endothelium, regulating vascular permeability and protecting the thickness of glycocalyx by binding with heparin [13]. By regulating the expression of endothelial factors, SLX can improve the ischemic and hypoxic state of endothelial cells, improve the permeability of blood vessels, relieve inflammatory ulcer, and repair endothelial injury [14]. However, it is still unclear whether it can alleviate ALI caused by OJ by reducing vascular permeability and improve the clinical prognosis of obstructive patients. In the rat model, the goal of this work was to investigate the protective effect of SLX against ALI produced by OJ as well as the probable mechanism. This research established a foundation for using SLX as a therapeutic treatment for OJ-induced ALI, allowing for better patient management and results.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. Drugs and Reagents

Antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, MA, USA); MDA production and CAT activity assay kits were purchased from Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute (Nanjing, China); TUNEL assay was purchased from Kangwei Biotechnology (Beijing, China); IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α, and syndecan-1 (SDC-1) were purchased from Lianke Biotech (Beijing, China) (Hangzhou, China). Sigma-Aldrich provided the pentobarbital, formamide, and Evans blue dye (MO, USA).The other reagents were obtained from Invitrogen. Primers were conducted by Sangon Biotechnology (Shanghai, China).


### 2.2. Animals and Study Groups

The SLAC Laboratory Animal Co. Ltd. furnished a total of 48 healthy male Sprague Dawley rats (weighing 200-20 g) (Shanghai, China). All animal experiments were carried out in compliance with protocols authorised by the Ethics Committee. The rats were divided into six groups (n=8): sham, OJ, OJ+saline, OJ+SLX (0.5 mg/ml/d), OJ+SLX (1 mg/ml/d), OJ+SLX (2 mg/ml/d), and OJ+SLX (2 mg/ml/d). The day before surgery, all rats were required to fast overnight, but they had access to water.Only the hepatoduodenal ligament was removed from the rats in the sham group. The hepatoduodenal ligament was removed from the rats in the OJ group, and the main hepatic duct was ligated. Rats among the OJ+SLX groups: the hepatoduodenal ligament was cut by ligating the common hepatic duct, and SLX was taken injected with different concentration OD for 7 days. Rats in the OJ+saline group: hepatoduodenal ligament was cut by ligating the common hepatic duct and received intraperitoneal injection of the same amount of saline OD for 7 days. After glycocalyx is degraded, Potter et al. know that it takes 7 days to glycocalyx to restore its structure in vivo [15]. As a result, rats were given intraperitoneal injections of SLX for 7 days. The OJ model was created according to Fan W’s method [16]. After modeling, the left lung was removed for further research.


### 2.3. Histological Analysis and Lung Injury Scoring System

Lung tissues were fixed for 24 hours in 4% paraformaldehyde and sliced into 5-meter slices. The lung samples were then paraffin embedded and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE). The lung injury is graded in the same way as previously described [17]. In a nutshell, the first criterion is the degree of inflammatory cell aggregation or infiltration in the blood vessel wall or air gap: 1 denotes merely the blood vessel wall, 2 denotes few cells in the air gap, 3 denotes moderate, and 4 denotes severe (air gap congestion). The degree of hyaline membrane development and interstitial congestion in the lungs is the second criterion: 1 indicates a normal lung, 2 indicates a mild lung (>25% of lung sections), 3 indicates a moderate lung (25 percent-50 percent of lung sections), and 4 indicates a severe lung (>50% of lung sections). The third criterion is bleeding: 0=nonexistence and 1=existence. Six visual fields were evaluated for each mouse at 400x magnification. Two pathologists do not know about animal grouping and make independent analysis.


### 2.4. ELISA

ELISA assays are usually chromogenic using a reaction that converts the substrate into a colored product which can be measured using a plate reader. To collect the supernatant for ELISA, the BALFs were centrifuged at 4°C (400 g, 15 min). According to the manufacturer’s instructions, ELISA kits were used to measure the quantities of IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α, and SDC-1.


### 2.5. Malondialdehyde (MDA) Content and Catalase (CAT) Activity

The measurement of malondialdehyde (MDA) content has long been used as a lipid peroxidation marker in studies related to oxidative stress and redox signaling. Catalase (CAT) is an enzyme in organism that can efficiently and specifically decompose hydrogen peroxide and is a binding enzyme with iron porphyrin as an auxiliary group. The commercial MDA assay kit and the CAT assay kit were obtained to measure the MDA production and CAT activity in tissues following the manufacturer’s protocols.


### 2.6. TUNEL Staining

TUNEL test was used to analyze the apoptosis rate in different groups according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Each group’s TUNEL-positive cells and total number of cells assessed by DAPI staining were counted in a noncontinuous manner below five. A Zeiss LSM800 laser scanning confocal microscope was used to examine the slides (Zeiss, Wetzlar, Germany).


### 2.7. Western Blotting

The total protein in the lung tissue was extracted with cell lysis buffer and measured using a BCA protein assay kit, and the proteins were resolved using SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Electrophoresis of proteins was followed by transfer to PVDF membrane. The membrane was incubated with primary antibodies against Bax (ab32503, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), Bcl-2 (ab32124, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), cleaved caspase-3 (ab32042, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), SDC-1 (ab128936, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), claudin-5 (ab131259, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), ZO-1 (ab190085, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), and VE-cadherin (ab231227, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000) at 4°C overnight, followed by 1 hour at room temperature with the secondary antibody. The protein bands were identified using an enhanced detection chemiluminescence (ECL) technique.


### 2.8. Lung Wet/Dry (W/D) Weight Ratio and Lung Permeability Index (LPI)

To collect the supernatant for ELISA, the BALFs were centrifuged at 4°C (400 g, 15 min). About 8 ml of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was collected after 10 ml of saline was put into the catheter. After that, filter BALF double gauze, centrifuge for 10 minutes at 4000 r/min at 4°C, and collect the supernatant. BALF is quantified using a BCA protein detection kit. LPI is the ratio of BALF protein concentration to plasma protein concentration. After 6 hours of reperfusion, the moist weight of the left lung was measured. After incubation at 60°C for 96 hours, the lung specimens were weighed for dry weight.


### 2.9. Lung Microvascular Permeability

Evans blue dye method was performed to test the lung microvascular permeability [18]. Take the treated experimental animals, and intravenously inject 1% Evans blue (20 mg/kg) 8 hours after model preparation, infused in normal saline through tail vein. Then, the lungs were removed by thoracotomy, the blood on the surface was sucked dry with filter paper, and the surrounding tissues were cut off and chopped. Accurately weigh 300 mg of lung tissue, and extract Evans blue dye by adding 1 ml formamide to every 100 mg of lung tissue to be measured. Then, it was placed in a water-bath degrees Celsius for 24 hours; then, remove the tissues and centrifuge it. The absorbance at 620 nm is detected by enzyme-labeled instrument, and the amount of Evans blue contained in every 100 mg of dry tissue is calculated.


### 2.10. Statistical Analysis

The data is presented as a mean with standard deviation (SEM). With the SPSS 22.0 software, the statistical difference between two groups is examined using a two-tailed unpaired student’sT test. Statistical significance was defined as a P value of less than 0.05. All of the experiments were carried out three times in total.


## 2.1. Drugs and Reagents

Antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, MA, USA); MDA production and CAT activity assay kits were purchased from Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute (Nanjing, China); TUNEL assay was purchased from Kangwei Biotechnology (Beijing, China); IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α, and syndecan-1 (SDC-1) were purchased from Lianke Biotech (Beijing, China) (Hangzhou, China). Sigma-Aldrich provided the pentobarbital, formamide, and Evans blue dye (MO, USA).The other reagents were obtained from Invitrogen. Primers were conducted by Sangon Biotechnology (Shanghai, China).


## 2.2. Animals and Study Groups

The SLAC Laboratory Animal Co. Ltd. furnished a total of 48 healthy male Sprague Dawley rats (weighing 200-20 g) (Shanghai, China). All animal experiments were carried out in compliance with protocols authorised by the Ethics Committee. The rats were divided into six groups (n=8): sham, OJ, OJ+saline, OJ+SLX (0.5 mg/ml/d), OJ+SLX (1 mg/ml/d), OJ+SLX (2 mg/ml/d), and OJ+SLX (2 mg/ml/d). The day before surgery, all rats were required to fast overnight, but they had access to water.Only the hepatoduodenal ligament was removed from the rats in the sham group. The hepatoduodenal ligament was removed from the rats in the OJ group, and the main hepatic duct was ligated. Rats among the OJ+SLX groups: the hepatoduodenal ligament was cut by ligating the common hepatic duct, and SLX was taken injected with different concentration OD for 7 days. Rats in the OJ+saline group: hepatoduodenal ligament was cut by ligating the common hepatic duct and received intraperitoneal injection of the same amount of saline OD for 7 days. After glycocalyx is degraded, Potter et al. know that it takes 7 days to glycocalyx to restore its structure in vivo [15]. As a result, rats were given intraperitoneal injections of SLX for 7 days. The OJ model was created according to Fan W’s method [16]. After modeling, the left lung was removed for further research.


## 2.3. Histological Analysis and Lung Injury Scoring System

Lung tissues were fixed for 24 hours in 4% paraformaldehyde and sliced into 5-meter slices. The lung samples were then paraffin embedded and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE). The lung injury is graded in the same way as previously described [17]. In a nutshell, the first criterion is the degree of inflammatory cell aggregation or infiltration in the blood vessel wall or air gap: 1 denotes merely the blood vessel wall, 2 denotes few cells in the air gap, 3 denotes moderate, and 4 denotes severe (air gap congestion). The degree of hyaline membrane development and interstitial congestion in the lungs is the second criterion: 1 indicates a normal lung, 2 indicates a mild lung (>25% of lung sections), 3 indicates a moderate lung (25 percent-50 percent of lung sections), and 4 indicates a severe lung (>50% of lung sections). The third criterion is bleeding: 0=nonexistence and 1=existence. Six visual fields were evaluated for each mouse at 400x magnification. Two pathologists do not know about animal grouping and make independent analysis.


## 2.4. ELISA

ELISA assays are usually chromogenic using a reaction that converts the substrate into a colored product which can be measured using a plate reader. To collect the supernatant for ELISA, the BALFs were centrifuged at 4°C (400 g, 15 min). According to the manufacturer’s instructions, ELISA kits were used to measure the quantities of IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α, and SDC-1.


## 2.5. Malondialdehyde (MDA) Content and Catalase (CAT) Activity

The measurement of malondialdehyde (MDA) content has long been used as a lipid peroxidation marker in studies related to oxidative stress and redox signaling. Catalase (CAT) is an enzyme in organism that can efficiently and specifically decompose hydrogen peroxide and is a binding enzyme with iron porphyrin as an auxiliary group. The commercial MDA assay kit and the CAT assay kit were obtained to measure the MDA production and CAT activity in tissues following the manufacturer’s protocols.


## 2.6. TUNEL Staining

TUNEL test was used to analyze the apoptosis rate in different groups according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Each group’s TUNEL-positive cells and total number of cells assessed by DAPI staining were counted in a noncontinuous manner below five. A Zeiss LSM800 laser scanning confocal microscope was used to examine the slides (Zeiss, Wetzlar, Germany).


## 2.7. Western Blotting

The total protein in the lung tissue was extracted with cell lysis buffer and measured using a BCA protein assay kit, and the proteins were resolved using SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Electrophoresis of proteins was followed by transfer to PVDF membrane. The membrane was incubated with primary antibodies against Bax (ab32503, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), Bcl-2 (ab32124, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), cleaved caspase-3 (ab32042, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), SDC-1 (ab128936, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), claudin-5 (ab131259, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), ZO-1 (ab190085, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000), and VE-cadherin (ab231227, Abcam, China; 1 : 1000) at 4°C overnight, followed by 1 hour at room temperature with the secondary antibody. The protein bands were identified using an enhanced detection chemiluminescence (ECL) technique.


## 2.8. Lung Wet/Dry (W/D) Weight Ratio and Lung Permeability Index (LPI)

To collect the supernatant for ELISA, the BALFs were centrifuged at 4°C (400 g, 15 min). About 8 ml of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was collected after 10 ml of saline was put into the catheter. After that, filter BALF double gauze, centrifuge for 10 minutes at 4000 r/min at 4°C, and collect the supernatant. BALF is quantified using a BCA protein detection kit. LPI is the ratio of BALF protein concentration to plasma protein concentration. After 6 hours of reperfusion, the moist weight of the left lung was measured. After incubation at 60°C for 96 hours, the lung specimens were weighed for dry weight.


## 2.9. Lung Microvascular Permeability

Evans blue dye method was performed to test the lung microvascular permeability [18]. Take the treated experimental animals, and intravenously inject 1% Evans blue (20 mg/kg) 8 hours after model preparation, infused in normal saline through tail vein. Then, the lungs were removed by thoracotomy, the blood on the surface was sucked dry with filter paper, and the surrounding tissues were cut off and chopped. Accurately weigh 300 mg of lung tissue, and extract Evans blue dye by adding 1 ml formamide to every 100 mg of lung tissue to be measured. Then, it was placed in a water-bath degrees Celsius for 24 hours; then, remove the tissues and centrifuge it. The absorbance at 620 nm is detected by enzyme-labeled instrument, and the amount of Evans blue contained in every 100 mg of dry tissue is calculated.


## 2.10. Statistical Analysis

The data is presented as a mean with standard deviation (SEM). With the SPSS 22.0 software, the statistical difference between two groups is examined using a two-tailed unpaired student’sT test. Statistical significance was defined as a P value of less than 0.05. All of the experiments were carried out three times in total.


## 3. Results

### 3.1. SLX Attenuated Lung Injury in OJ Rats

OJ rats showed substantial pathological alterations in their lungs. HE staining was used to examine and score morphological alterations in lung tissues. The HE staining results revealed that the alveolar structure was normal. Only a few inflammatory cells were seen in the sham group’s alveolar cavity. In comparison, the OJ group’s alveolar cavities were constricted and had exudates, the alveolar septum was considerably thickened, and the pulmonary stroma had evident inflammatory cell infiltration. The pathological abnormalities associated with lung tissue inflammation were reduced in the SLX group, the alveolar cavity was clear, and fewer alveolar wall components were destroyed in a dose-dependent manner (Figure1).Figure 1
In the OJ rat model, the effect of SLX on pathological alterations in lung tissues. (a) At day 7 (200), representative H&E for each group of rats is presented. At day 7, each group’s histological lung damage score was assessed.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group. Bar=50 μm.
(a)(b)


### 3.2. SLX Attenuated Inflammatory Response of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

ELISA was performed to determine the amounts of IL-6, IL-1, and TNF-α in BALFs, and cell counts were utilized to determine the total number of cells in BALFs to assess the inflammatory response. The OJ group had significantly higher levels of IL-6, IL-1, and TNF-α protein, as well as a higher number of total cells, than the sham group, with SLX largely correcting this impact in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 2). The researchers discovered that SLX reduced the inflammatory response of lung tissue in OJ rats.Figure 2
At day 7, SLX had an effect on the expression of inflammatory cytokines and total cells in the BALF of an OJ rat model. (a–c) ELISA was used to quantify the amounts of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α) in BALFs from different groups. (d) Cell counts for separate groups were used to determine the overall cell count in BALFs. ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.
(a)(b)(c)(d)


### 3.3. SLX Protected against Oxidative Stress of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

In OJ rats, we investigated MDA levels and CAT activity to see if SLX might protect lung tissue from oxidative stress. The findings showed that CAT activity was lower in the OJ group than in the sham group, but that SLX mitigated this reduction in a dose-dependent manner. The MDA content in the OJ group was higher than in the sham group, confirming this finding, although SLX reduced this impact in a dose-dependent manner (Figure3). These data implied that SLX may attenuate ALI induced by OJ in rats by preventing oxidative damage.Figure 3
Effect of SLX on MDA content and CAT activity in lung tissues of OJ rat model. (a) MDA levels and (b) CAT activity were analyzed using the kits in different groups at day 7.∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the I/R group.
(a)(b)


### 3.4. SLX Regulated Apoptosis of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

The degree of apoptosis of lung tissue in OJ rats was determined by TUNEL labeling and the Western blot. As demonstrated in Figure4, the OJ group had more TUNEL-positive pulmonary epithelial cells than the sham group. However, in the SLX group, the number of TUNEL-positive cells decreased considerably in a dose-dependent way. In the OJ group, Bax and cleaved caspase-3 protein levels were higher than in the sham group, although Bcl-2 expression was lower. The expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 was reduced after SLX therapy, but Bcl-2 was drastically raised in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 5). In a dose-dependent way, this impact was corrected after SLX intervention. These findings suggest that SLX may prevent lung tissue apoptosis in OJ rats.Figure 4
Effect of SLX on apoptosis of lung tissue in OJ rat model. Histological images of TUNEL-stained tissues in different groups at day 7 (200x).∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group. Bar=50 μm.Figure 5
The effect of SLX on protein expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3 in lung tissues of OJ rat model was measured by Western blot at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.


### 3.5. SLX Alleviated Vascular Permeability of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

The W/D ratio, LPI, and Evans blue leakage test are commonly used to determine pulmonary vascular permeability. These figures were significantly greater in the OJ group than in the sham group, and the SLX intervention lowered them in a dose-dependent manner (Figure6).Figure 6
Effect of SLX on (a) EB content, (b) W/D value, and (c) LPI value in OJ rat model at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.
(a)(b)(c)In addition, SDC-1 is a key indication of glycocalyx injury. The presence of SDC-1 shedding in lung perfusion fluid was detected using ELISA, and the presence of SDC-1 protein in lung tissue was detected using Western blot. In OJ rats, the quantity of SDC-1 in lung perfusion fluid and the protein level of SDC-1 in tissues increased significantly compared to the sham group and then dropped dramatically in a dose-dependent manner following SLX intervention (Figure7).Figure 7
Effect of SLX on SDC-1 levels in BALF and lung tissues in OJ rat model. (a) SDC-1 shedding in BALFs was measured by ELISA in different groups at day 7. (b) Protein quantification of SDC-1 in lung tissues by Western blot in different groups at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.
(a)(b)At the cell-cell membrane contact, Claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin were mostly identified. Western blot was used to detect protein expression. The results revealed that the expression of those proteins was much lower in the OJ group than in the sham group. The expression of claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin increased in a dose-dependent manner after SLX pretreatment (Figure8). Taken together, SLX alleviated vascular permeability of the lung tissue in OJ rat model.Figure 8
The effect of SLX on protein expression of claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin in lung tissues of OJ rat model was measured by Western blot at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.


## 3.1. SLX Attenuated Lung Injury in OJ Rats

OJ rats showed substantial pathological alterations in their lungs. HE staining was used to examine and score morphological alterations in lung tissues. The HE staining results revealed that the alveolar structure was normal. Only a few inflammatory cells were seen in the sham group’s alveolar cavity. In comparison, the OJ group’s alveolar cavities were constricted and had exudates, the alveolar septum was considerably thickened, and the pulmonary stroma had evident inflammatory cell infiltration. The pathological abnormalities associated with lung tissue inflammation were reduced in the SLX group, the alveolar cavity was clear, and fewer alveolar wall components were destroyed in a dose-dependent manner (Figure1).Figure 1
In the OJ rat model, the effect of SLX on pathological alterations in lung tissues. (a) At day 7 (200), representative H&E for each group of rats is presented. At day 7, each group’s histological lung damage score was assessed.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group. Bar=50 μm.
(a)(b)


## 3.2. SLX Attenuated Inflammatory Response of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

ELISA was performed to determine the amounts of IL-6, IL-1, and TNF-α in BALFs, and cell counts were utilized to determine the total number of cells in BALFs to assess the inflammatory response. The OJ group had significantly higher levels of IL-6, IL-1, and TNF-α protein, as well as a higher number of total cells, than the sham group, with SLX largely correcting this impact in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 2). The researchers discovered that SLX reduced the inflammatory response of lung tissue in OJ rats.Figure 2
At day 7, SLX had an effect on the expression of inflammatory cytokines and total cells in the BALF of an OJ rat model. (a–c) ELISA was used to quantify the amounts of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α) in BALFs from different groups. (d) Cell counts for separate groups were used to determine the overall cell count in BALFs. ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.
(a)(b)(c)(d)


## 3.3. SLX Protected against Oxidative Stress of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

In OJ rats, we investigated MDA levels and CAT activity to see if SLX might protect lung tissue from oxidative stress. The findings showed that CAT activity was lower in the OJ group than in the sham group, but that SLX mitigated this reduction in a dose-dependent manner. The MDA content in the OJ group was higher than in the sham group, confirming this finding, although SLX reduced this impact in a dose-dependent manner (Figure3). These data implied that SLX may attenuate ALI induced by OJ in rats by preventing oxidative damage.Figure 3
Effect of SLX on MDA content and CAT activity in lung tissues of OJ rat model. (a) MDA levels and (b) CAT activity were analyzed using the kits in different groups at day 7.∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the I/R group.
(a)(b)


## 3.4. SLX Regulated Apoptosis of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

The degree of apoptosis of lung tissue in OJ rats was determined by TUNEL labeling and the Western blot. As demonstrated in Figure4, the OJ group had more TUNEL-positive pulmonary epithelial cells than the sham group. However, in the SLX group, the number of TUNEL-positive cells decreased considerably in a dose-dependent way. In the OJ group, Bax and cleaved caspase-3 protein levels were higher than in the sham group, although Bcl-2 expression was lower. The expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 was reduced after SLX therapy, but Bcl-2 was drastically raised in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 5). In a dose-dependent way, this impact was corrected after SLX intervention. These findings suggest that SLX may prevent lung tissue apoptosis in OJ rats.Figure 4
Effect of SLX on apoptosis of lung tissue in OJ rat model. Histological images of TUNEL-stained tissues in different groups at day 7 (200x).∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group. Bar=50 μm.Figure 5
The effect of SLX on protein expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase-3 in lung tissues of OJ rat model was measured by Western blot at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.


## 3.5. SLX Alleviated Vascular Permeability of Lung Tissue in OJ Rats

The W/D ratio, LPI, and Evans blue leakage test are commonly used to determine pulmonary vascular permeability. These figures were significantly greater in the OJ group than in the sham group, and the SLX intervention lowered them in a dose-dependent manner (Figure6).Figure 6
Effect of SLX on (a) EB content, (b) W/D value, and (c) LPI value in OJ rat model at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.
(a)(b)(c)In addition, SDC-1 is a key indication of glycocalyx injury. The presence of SDC-1 shedding in lung perfusion fluid was detected using ELISA, and the presence of SDC-1 protein in lung tissue was detected using Western blot. In OJ rats, the quantity of SDC-1 in lung perfusion fluid and the protein level of SDC-1 in tissues increased significantly compared to the sham group and then dropped dramatically in a dose-dependent manner following SLX intervention (Figure7).Figure 7
Effect of SLX on SDC-1 levels in BALF and lung tissues in OJ rat model. (a) SDC-1 shedding in BALFs was measured by ELISA in different groups at day 7. (b) Protein quantification of SDC-1 in lung tissues by Western blot in different groups at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.
(a)(b)At the cell-cell membrane contact, Claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin were mostly identified. Western blot was used to detect protein expression. The results revealed that the expression of those proteins was much lower in the OJ group than in the sham group. The expression of claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin increased in a dose-dependent manner after SLX pretreatment (Figure8). Taken together, SLX alleviated vascular permeability of the lung tissue in OJ rat model.Figure 8
The effect of SLX on protein expression of claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin in lung tissues of OJ rat model was measured by Western blot at day 7.∗∗P<0.01 and ∗∗∗P<0.001 compared with the sham group; #P<0.05 compared with the OJ group.


## 4. Discussion

Treatment of OJ has always been a challenge in surgery, and its pathophysiological changes are very complicated, mainly caused by the double effects of biliary obstruction and infection. By destroying the intestinal mucosal barrier and microecology and damaging the host immune defense system, intestinal endotoxins and bacteria become shifted, leading to endogenous infection and multiple organ damage [19]. Studies have proved that patients with OJ often develop ALI or even ARDS in the early stage. An excessive and uncontrolled inflammatory response in the lungs is the pathophysiology of ALI. The main pathological changes are the change of alveolar capillary permeability. The infiltration of fluid into alveoli and the pulmonary interstitium, as well as the degradation of the pulmonary microvascular endothelial barrier and changes in the cytoskeleton, all affect gas exchange [20–22]. Glycocalyx on the surface of endothelial cells has been discovered to be the first line of defense in maintaining vascular permeability in recent years. Its main physiological function is to form a molecular layer in vascular endothelium that can function as an inflammatory barrier and mechanical conduction. The glycocalyx in vascular endothelial cells plays an important role in slowing down inflammatory injury [23, 24]. Therefore, exogenous supplementation of glycocalyx components can effectively help repair damaged glycocalyx in patients with ALI.SLX is a natural glycosaminoglycan, which has a structure similar to glycocalyx. Studies have confirmed that SLX, whether administered by an intravenous drip, intramuscular injection, or oral dosage, is an active medication with a high affinity for vascular endothelial cells and can be swiftly absorbed via the glycocalyx structure on the surface of these cells [10]. SLX has been shown in studies to protect vascular endothelial cells, maintain or restore the structural integrity of endothelial glycocalyx [14], and play a key role in restoring the negative charge of vascular endothelium, regulating vascular permeability, and protecting glycocalyx thickness by binding heparin [25, 26]. However, the effect of SLX on ALI caused by OJ, particularly on the pulmonary microvascular endothelial barrier, is unknown. Starting with alveolar capillary permeability, this study discovered that SLX can restore the pulmonary microvascular endothelial barrier, reduce tight junction damage between cells, and thereby ameliorate ALI caused by OJ.Excessive and uncontrolled inflammatory reaction in the lungs is the root cause of ALI. Fundamentally, the main cause of lung function loss is inflammatory injury to pulmonary vascular endothelial cells and alveolar epithelial cells [27, 28]. Inflammatory factors such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α are crucial in the human body. They can behave as “preinflammatory factors,” which can both start the body’s inflammatory response and serve as significant indications of inflammatory infection. Their expression is linked to the progression of the disease. In our research, we found that SLX can reduce the pathological damage in rats with infarct jaundice, including interstitial edema, alveolar hemorrhage, and a large number of inflammatory cell infiltration.Oxidative stress is an important factor in ALI development. Many studies have proved that drugs with antioxidant stress can protect ALI [29]. It has been found that oral administration of SLX can upregulate the antioxidant level of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion mouse model, reduce the infarct size, and decrease the apoptosis rate of myocardial cells [30]. In our research, we reported that SLX can protect lung tissue from oxidative stress. Apoptosis is a programmed cell death regulated by genes. However, abnormal cell apoptosis will cause serious damage to the anatomy and physiology of organs. According to research, SLX intervention can reverse the apoptosis of and alleviate the damage to microvascular endothelial cells induced by hypoxia stimulation through controlling apoptosis-related factors’ expression, thus inhibiting the abnormal apoptosis of endothelial cells [31]. In addition, SLX can protect endothelial cells from apoptosis induced by methylglyoxal and radiation by inhibiting endogenous and exogenous caspase cascade reactions. By participating in intracellular autophagy, they can withstand endothelial dysfunction caused by metabolic or nonmetabolic stress [32]. In our research, we found that the lung tissue of rats with OJ showed obvious apoptosis, especially the apoptosis of pulmonary vascular endothelial cells. By lowering the expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 and raising the expression of Bcl-2, SLX therapy could suppress the apoptosis produced by ALI.As mentioned above, destruction of the pulmonary endothelial barrier is the main cause of ALI. As the first line of defense to maintain vascular permeability, the glycocalyx plays a critical role in the onset and progression of ALI. Glycocalyx is a network structure formed by a 1-3μm thick layer of polysaccharide macromolecular complex. Vessel endothelial cells have a core protein, and a glycosaminoglycan chain is attached to it on their surface. The core proteins include syndecans, glypicans, and perlecans. There are four main subtypes of ligand proteoglycans, of which SDC-1 is one of the most important indicators of glycocalyx damage. Glycocalyx degrades in pathological conditions like inflammation and glycocalyx degradation substances like HS and SDC-1 rise in the blood, exposing adhesion molecules beneath the glycocalyx network structure and promoting inflammatory cell adhesion and aggregation on the endothelium, causing endothelial cell damage. Local inflammation alters the structure and physiology of the glycocalyx, increases paracellular permeability, allows protein and liquid to pass into the interstitial space via the paracellular space, and causes vascular endothelial dysfunction. The interaction between SDC-1 and TNF-α causes endothelial cell structure to be rearranged and the intercellular connection to weaken, increasing paracellular permeability and causing liquid, albumin, and solute overflow [33–36], resulting in ALI. In our research, we reported that the content of SDC-1 in BALFs and lung tissue of rats with OJ increased; the degree of glycocalyx damage in vascular endothelial cells was associated with the degree of lung injury, according to the study. The more glycocalyx destruction there is, the worse the lung injury will be. The content of SDC-1 in rats treated with SLX decreased significantly, indicating that SLX could protect vascular endothelial cells from the endothelium glycocalyx is degraded.In the current research, we reported that pulmonary tissue permeability in rats with infarct jaundice increased, and that SLX treatment reduced this permeability in rats. Endothelial cell connections, particularly tight junctions and sticky junctions, play a major role in vascular permeability, and the loss of tight junctions between cells is a crucial element in increasing vascular permeability. Endothelial intercellular junctions are mainly tight junctions and adhesive junctions. Occluding protein, claudin protein, and related protein ZO-1 make up the majority of the tight junction between endothelial cells. Among 24 members of claudin family, only claudin-5 has specific endothelial cell isotype. Adhesion is the main component of endothelial cell-to-cell connections and is one of the key factors affecting the changes of permeability. Compared to tight junctions, adhesion connections play a significant function in epithelial cells; their importance in endothelial cell-to-cell permeability cannot be overstated [37–40]. Endothelial cell adhesion is a fundamental component of vascular integrity, and VE-cadherin is an important component of that adhesion. Claudin-5, ZO-1, and VE-cadherin levels are all indicators of the pulmonary microvascular endothelial barrier’s integrity. In our study, we discovered that the expression of these proteins was reduced in the lung tissue of rats with OJ, which suggested that the tight junction between endothelial cells in the lung tissue of rats with OJ was damaged, and the permeability of endothelial cells was increased. Treatment with SLX protected endothelial cells and reduced the permeability of blood vessels, thus recovering the ventilation function and improving the prognosis of patients with ALI induced by OJ.In conclusion, our findings showed that SLX attenuates OJ-induced ALI in rats, and that the lowering of vascular permeability could be one of the mechanisms driving this protective effect. Therefore, SLX may have clinical prospects for ALI induced by OJ, and increased knowledge on therapeutic treatments against the condition may have beneficial outcomes for patients with lung injury.



---

*Source: 8717950-2022-08-26.xml*