# Isolation, Identification, Characterization, and Plasmid Profile of Urinary Tract InfectiousEscherichia coli from Clinical Samples

Authors: Sathiamoorthi Thangavelu; Ranjithkumar Dhandapani; Ajucarmelprecilla Arulprakasam; Ragul Paramasivam; Arunachalam Chinnathambi; Sulaiman Ali Alharbi; Kaliannan Durairaj; Anupama Shrestha
Journal: Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
 (2022)

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## Abstract

Objective. In recent times, urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most widely recognized bacterial diseases all over the planet. UTI influences individuals of any age and gender. The target of this study is to concentrate on the recurrence of uropathogens, the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of the isolates, and the plasmid profile of people from the government clinics of Karaikudi. Methods. From July 2017 to December 2017, 100 urine tests were gathered and handled for the isolation of pathogenic microbes. In total, 89 isolates were found from the samples collected. Results. Escherichia coli was discovered as the most common bacterial isolate screened from the UTI-infected people, accounting for 28.09 percent of all isolates. E. coli was seen to be the highest prevalent bacterium for UTI in all age groups and demonstrated resistance to routinely used medications, especially cefpodoxime and novobiocin, which have been 100 percent resistant. The E. coli isolates screened were positive for beta-lactamase and film generation, and they have strong antimicrobial resistance. As a result, the E. coli strains with the highest prevalence of virulence determinants have become more resistant to many medications because they support the microorganism in overcoming the host’s defense and colonizing or entering the urinary system. The amplified 16S rRNA product was analyzed, and phylogenetic relationships were determined. The presence of TEM (56 percent), CTX-M (64 percent), SHV (40 percent), and OXA (60 percent) was discovered. Among E. coli isolates, CTX-M was the most common extended spectrum-beta lactamase (ESBL). Multiplex PCR was also used to identify the existence of CTX-M subgroups in E. coli isolates. Conclusion. Finally, we urge that antibiotic selection should be predicated on the awareness of the specific prevalence and that novel antimicrobial medicines for urinary infections be developed to combat the overuse of antibiotics.


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## Body

## 1. Introduction

The most extensively recognized and occurring nosocomial bacterial infection in human communities throughout the world is UTI [1–3]. In Africa and Asia, there is a high frequency of urinary tract infections (UTIs) among pregnant women [4]. Bacterial pathogens’ invasion in the epithelium that lines the urinary system from the minor calyx to the prostatic urethra causes UTI. The growth of the bacterium in the urothelium could be benign or severe, resulting in acute inflammation, and an indicative case could be defined by a wide range of symptoms, such as fever, tiredness, anorexia, and vomiting [5–10]. However, all genders are susceptible to infection, with women being more susceptible because of their conceptual life system, and their physiology seems to be more sensitive. By the age of 32, half of all women could have experienced some sort of UTI sickness experience [11]. Antimicrobial medicines often used in impoverished nations were found to be resistant to uropathogens. Despite this high prevalence, the majority of the literature evaluated found that regular culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing were not really conducted as an important element of prenatal care, and treatment was based on trial and error.E. coli dominates the urinary tract by 75% to 80%, followed by S. saprophyticus by 10 percent to 15 percent [12–16]. However, exceptional types cause differences in the urinary tract’s normal anatomy and give rise to many irresistible microbiotas, such as Klebsiella, Proteus, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, Staphylococcus, and Pseudomonas. These microorganisms seem to be more common in the majority of the cases. Furthermore, the causative agents of the urinary tract are more complicated and influenced by a variety of factors, including the vaginal biological process, especially Lactobacillus spp., the intestinal populace, genetic inheritance, behavioral factors, uropathogens virulence characteristics, and host barrier factors [17–20]. Because of the close proximity of factors, uropathogens would be capable of infecting and damaging the urothelium more easily [21–23]. According to several investigations, E. coli-associated UTIs are generally identified in 80 percent of the cases [24]. It could be encountered in both public and clinics [25]. E. coli has several distinct serotypes, and the studies demonstrate that recurring E. coli UTIs have been caused by superinfection rather than by bacterial persistence. Serotyping (rigorous analysis of antimicrobial sensitivity characteristics) assists in the detection of superinfection in ambiguous circumstances. The cause of the disease, such as bacterial survival under aberrant circumstances, with reinfection like fistulae, could be treated by surgery [26].Beta-lactamase is a virulence factor found inE. coli. It shields bacteria from beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin, cephamycin, and carbapenem, by solubilizing the drugs’ beta-lactam ring that has four atoms. Genes that generate beta-lactamase include TEM, CTX-M, OXA, and SHV. They are found in the plasmids of bacteria from the Enterobacteriaceae family. Gram-negative bacteria are known to produce the enzyme bla-TEM, which is responsible for 90 percent of ampicillin resistance in E. coli. This enzyme is also found in K. pneumoniae. The enzymes bla-SHV and bla-TEM are structurally related with a similarity of 68 percent. K. pneumoniae produces the enzyme bla-SHV, which is responsible for up to 20 percent of ampicillin resistance. The antibiotic cefotaxime tolerance is largely because of the enzyme bla-CTX-M. The enzyme bla-CTX-M is found in Salmonella enteric, Salmonella typhimurium, and E. coli, as well as in other Enterobacteriaceae species. Kluyvera species, an uncommon pathogen, also has it. These enzymes only share 40 percent of their DNA with bla-TEM or bla- SHV. Currently, more than 80 CTX-M enzymes have been discovered.The most frequent type of bacterial urinary tract infection impacts the urinary body and could cause bladder and kidney irritation. The majority of the physicians administer the antibiotic to treat UTI infections, which often results in the therapeutic failure caused by bacterial drug resistance. The goal of the present study is to determine the bacterial causative agent, UTIs, the antibiotic susceptibility patterns of isolates, and the plasmid profiles of microorganisms isolated from the people who visited the Government Hospital in Karaikudi, India.


## 2. Materials and Methods

### 2.1. Collection and Transportation of Urine Samples

100 urine tests were collected in each of the 30 mL sterile plastic bottles from people of different age groups in Karaikudi Government Hospital. The samples were appropriately marked, showing the source, date, time of collection, sex, and period of patients. The pee tests were moved in cooler boxes to our microbiology laboratory for bacteriological examinations within 4 h to 6 h of collection.


### 2.2. Bacterial Isolation and Identification

Culture plates of eosin methylene blue agar, MacConkey agar, supplement agar, blood agar, and mannitol salt agar (Himedia) were employed. The urine samples were spread immediately on the labeled agar medium and left to incubate for 24 hours at 37°C. After incubation, cultures were inspected to see if they had grown significantly. The subcultures were then transferred to nutrient agar plates and cultured for another 24 hours. The bacterial cultures were initially identified based on colony morphology and coloration. Bacteria have been identified using biochemical assays. Standard motility, glucose, sucrose, maltose, and lactose have been used as biochemical assays. The isolates were characterized and identified using the techniques followed by [27, 28].


### 2.3. Assurance of Biofilm Arrangement

Mathur et al. [29] have explained the usage of freshly prepared medium containing brain heart infusion agar (BHI) supplemented with 5 percent sucrose and Congo red for screening the slime formed by Staphylococcus isolates, which necessitates the need for the development of this formulated agar medium. Congo red was made as a concentrated aqueous solution that was autoclaved at 121°C for 15 minutes apart from other medium components, and then this solution was added when the agar was cooled to 55°C. The isolates were streaked to a length of 1.5 cm on the Congo red plate and incubated at 37°C for 48 h.


### 2.4. Assay for Beta-Lactamase Production

The techniques of Lateef et al. [30] were used to measure the beta-lactamase generation. The test organism’s broth sample was point injected on Mueller-Hinton agar (MHA) with 1 percent starch and incubated at 37°C. The plates were again filled with phosphate buffer saline (PBS) containing potassium iodide, iodine, and penicillin, which had been newly prepared. Beta-lactamase generation was shown by the development of distinct colorless zones around the growth of bacteria. Penicillin was converted to penicilloic acid by beta-lactamase, which further converted iodine to iodide. It would be monitored by the decolorization of the starch iodine complexes. The generation of β-lactamase was determined in all of the bacterial isolates.


### 2.5. Polymerase Chain Response for Enhancement of ESBL Qualities by Multiplex PCR

All the partial and entire resistance gene sequences were identified using the techniques followed by Fang et al., [31] with minor modifications. The primers used for PCR were procured from sigma.SHV F 5′ CTT TAT CGC CCC TCA CTC AA ′3SHV R 5′ AGG TGC TCA TCA TGG GAA AG ′3TEM F 5′ CGC CGC ATA CAC TAT TCT CAG AAT GA ′3TEM R 5′ ACG CTC ACC GGC TCC AGA TTT AT ′3CTX-M F 5′ ATG TGC AGY ACC AGT AAR GTK ATG GC ′3CTX-M R 5′ TGG GTR AAR TAR GTS ACC AGA AYC AGC GG ′3OXA F 5′ ACA CAA TAC ATA TCA ACT TCG C ′3OXA R 5′ AGT GTG TTT AGA ATG GTG ATC ′3Every PCR reaction mixture (20μL) includes 2 μL of template DNA (plasmid DNA), 2 μL of 10x buffer, 0.5 μL of the forward and reverse primers (0.5 μM), 1 μL of deoxynucleotide triphosphate, 1 μL of Taq DNA polymerase (con. 5 U/μL), and 8 μL of molecular quality water. The PCR reaction mixture was placed in the thermocycler (Genei). It was exposed to 30 cycles of initial denaturation at 95°C for 15 min, annealing at 62°C for 1.30 minutes, and finally extension at 72°C for 1 minute. A 10-minute final extension was done at 72°C. Then, the reaction PCR mixtures were electrophoresed on 1.5 percent agarose gel with ethidium bromide (EtBr), in addition to the identical DNA molecular weight marker. Finally, using a UV transilluminator, examine the amplified DNA band and determine the resistance gene using the marker.


### 2.6. Isolation of Genomic DNA fromE. coli by 16srRNA Gene Sequence

1.5 mL of broth culture was transferred to a 2 mL tube. The samples were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 8000 rpm. The supernatant was removed after centrifugation, and the pellet was obtained. These collected pellets were dissolved in 200μL of 1X TE buffer with 100 μl of 10 percent SDS and vortexed. The samples were placed at 60°C for 20 minutes. Then, they were mixed with phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24 : 25 : 1), and the liquid was thoroughly mixed by constant stirring. It will develop two phases, and these phases were segregated after the centrifugation of tubes at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The DNA containing the aqueous layer was successfully removed from the tubes and transferred to the new ones. To the tubes containing the aqueous layer, an equal volume of 100 percent isopropyl alcohol was added. The mixture was flipped upside down three to four times and then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm to pellet the DNA. The pellet was recovered after the supernatant was removed. 200 μL of 70% ethanol was added to the pellet and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10,000 rpm. The collected pellet should be air-dried to remove the ethanol entirely to get pure DNA. The dried DNA was dissolved in 20 μL of TE buffer, and it was stored at 4°C until further use.


### 2.7. DNA Sequencing

For the amplification of the 16srRNA gene, the following universal primers have been used: F 5′ AGA GTT TGA TCC TGG CTC AG ′3 and R 5′ ACG GCT ACC TTG TTA CGA CTT ′3. BigDye terminator v3.1 cycle sequencing kit with AmpliTac DNA polymerase (Applied biosystems P/N: 4337457) was used to accomplish the cycle sequencing experiment. Briefly, the 1μL BigDye, 2 μL of 5x sequencing buffer, and 1 μL of 50 percent dimethyl sulfoxide were combined to make the reaction mixture. 4μL of both the primers (each 2 μL) and 10 μL of PCR product were mixed. For 5 minutes, the formed reaction was denatured at 95°C. In an MWG thermocycler, cycles were started by denaturing at 95°C for 30 seconds, annealing at 52°C for 30 seconds, and elongation at 60°C for 4 minutes, with the cycle repeated for about 30 times. Then, the reaction was centrifuged to eliminate the labeled and unlabeled nucleotides and salts on a Sephadex plate (Edge biosystem). The purified mixture was placed in the 96 capillary ABI 3700 DNA scanner for 4 hours of electrophoresis.


### 2.8. Phylogenetic Analysis

The BLASTn tool on National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website was used to analyze the 16srRNA gene sequence of strains with the nonredundant sequence repository (GenBank). For homologous genes, multisequence alignment was conducted, and a phylogenetic tree was created using the neighboring joining strategy [32].


### 2.9. Polymerase Chain Reaction for Intensification of CTX-M (Subgroups)

All the partial and entire gene sequences of the resistance determinants were identified as per the methodology of Mirzaee et al. [33] The primers were purchased from sigma, and the primers listed below were employed.CTX-M7 F 5′ GCG TGA TAC CAC TTC ACC TC ′3CTX-M8 R 5′ TGA AGT AAG TGA CCA GAA TC ′3CTX-M17 F 5′ TGA TAC CAC CAC GCC GCT ′3CTX-M17 R 5′ TAT TGC ATC AGA AAC CGT GGG ′3CTX-M19 F 5′ CAA TCT GAC GTT GGG CAA TG ′3CTX-M19 R 5′ ATA ACC GTC GGT GAC AAT T ′3CTX- M11 F 5′ ATC AAG CCT GCC GAT CTG GTT ′3CTX-M11 R 5′ GTA AGC TGA CGC AAC GTC TGC ′3


## 2.1. Collection and Transportation of Urine Samples

100 urine tests were collected in each of the 30 mL sterile plastic bottles from people of different age groups in Karaikudi Government Hospital. The samples were appropriately marked, showing the source, date, time of collection, sex, and period of patients. The pee tests were moved in cooler boxes to our microbiology laboratory for bacteriological examinations within 4 h to 6 h of collection.


## 2.2. Bacterial Isolation and Identification

Culture plates of eosin methylene blue agar, MacConkey agar, supplement agar, blood agar, and mannitol salt agar (Himedia) were employed. The urine samples were spread immediately on the labeled agar medium and left to incubate for 24 hours at 37°C. After incubation, cultures were inspected to see if they had grown significantly. The subcultures were then transferred to nutrient agar plates and cultured for another 24 hours. The bacterial cultures were initially identified based on colony morphology and coloration. Bacteria have been identified using biochemical assays. Standard motility, glucose, sucrose, maltose, and lactose have been used as biochemical assays. The isolates were characterized and identified using the techniques followed by [27, 28].


## 2.3. Assurance of Biofilm Arrangement

Mathur et al. [29] have explained the usage of freshly prepared medium containing brain heart infusion agar (BHI) supplemented with 5 percent sucrose and Congo red for screening the slime formed by Staphylococcus isolates, which necessitates the need for the development of this formulated agar medium. Congo red was made as a concentrated aqueous solution that was autoclaved at 121°C for 15 minutes apart from other medium components, and then this solution was added when the agar was cooled to 55°C. The isolates were streaked to a length of 1.5 cm on the Congo red plate and incubated at 37°C for 48 h.


## 2.4. Assay for Beta-Lactamase Production

The techniques of Lateef et al. [30] were used to measure the beta-lactamase generation. The test organism’s broth sample was point injected on Mueller-Hinton agar (MHA) with 1 percent starch and incubated at 37°C. The plates were again filled with phosphate buffer saline (PBS) containing potassium iodide, iodine, and penicillin, which had been newly prepared. Beta-lactamase generation was shown by the development of distinct colorless zones around the growth of bacteria. Penicillin was converted to penicilloic acid by beta-lactamase, which further converted iodine to iodide. It would be monitored by the decolorization of the starch iodine complexes. The generation of β-lactamase was determined in all of the bacterial isolates.


## 2.5. Polymerase Chain Response for Enhancement of ESBL Qualities by Multiplex PCR

All the partial and entire resistance gene sequences were identified using the techniques followed by Fang et al., [31] with minor modifications. The primers used for PCR were procured from sigma.SHV F 5′ CTT TAT CGC CCC TCA CTC AA ′3SHV R 5′ AGG TGC TCA TCA TGG GAA AG ′3TEM F 5′ CGC CGC ATA CAC TAT TCT CAG AAT GA ′3TEM R 5′ ACG CTC ACC GGC TCC AGA TTT AT ′3CTX-M F 5′ ATG TGC AGY ACC AGT AAR GTK ATG GC ′3CTX-M R 5′ TGG GTR AAR TAR GTS ACC AGA AYC AGC GG ′3OXA F 5′ ACA CAA TAC ATA TCA ACT TCG C ′3OXA R 5′ AGT GTG TTT AGA ATG GTG ATC ′3Every PCR reaction mixture (20μL) includes 2 μL of template DNA (plasmid DNA), 2 μL of 10x buffer, 0.5 μL of the forward and reverse primers (0.5 μM), 1 μL of deoxynucleotide triphosphate, 1 μL of Taq DNA polymerase (con. 5 U/μL), and 8 μL of molecular quality water. The PCR reaction mixture was placed in the thermocycler (Genei). It was exposed to 30 cycles of initial denaturation at 95°C for 15 min, annealing at 62°C for 1.30 minutes, and finally extension at 72°C for 1 minute. A 10-minute final extension was done at 72°C. Then, the reaction PCR mixtures were electrophoresed on 1.5 percent agarose gel with ethidium bromide (EtBr), in addition to the identical DNA molecular weight marker. Finally, using a UV transilluminator, examine the amplified DNA band and determine the resistance gene using the marker.


## 2.6. Isolation of Genomic DNA fromE. coli by 16srRNA Gene Sequence

1.5 mL of broth culture was transferred to a 2 mL tube. The samples were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 8000 rpm. The supernatant was removed after centrifugation, and the pellet was obtained. These collected pellets were dissolved in 200μL of 1X TE buffer with 100 μl of 10 percent SDS and vortexed. The samples were placed at 60°C for 20 minutes. Then, they were mixed with phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24 : 25 : 1), and the liquid was thoroughly mixed by constant stirring. It will develop two phases, and these phases were segregated after the centrifugation of tubes at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The DNA containing the aqueous layer was successfully removed from the tubes and transferred to the new ones. To the tubes containing the aqueous layer, an equal volume of 100 percent isopropyl alcohol was added. The mixture was flipped upside down three to four times and then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm to pellet the DNA. The pellet was recovered after the supernatant was removed. 200 μL of 70% ethanol was added to the pellet and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10,000 rpm. The collected pellet should be air-dried to remove the ethanol entirely to get pure DNA. The dried DNA was dissolved in 20 μL of TE buffer, and it was stored at 4°C until further use.


## 2.7. DNA Sequencing

For the amplification of the 16srRNA gene, the following universal primers have been used: F 5′ AGA GTT TGA TCC TGG CTC AG ′3 and R 5′ ACG GCT ACC TTG TTA CGA CTT ′3. BigDye terminator v3.1 cycle sequencing kit with AmpliTac DNA polymerase (Applied biosystems P/N: 4337457) was used to accomplish the cycle sequencing experiment. Briefly, the 1μL BigDye, 2 μL of 5x sequencing buffer, and 1 μL of 50 percent dimethyl sulfoxide were combined to make the reaction mixture. 4μL of both the primers (each 2 μL) and 10 μL of PCR product were mixed. For 5 minutes, the formed reaction was denatured at 95°C. In an MWG thermocycler, cycles were started by denaturing at 95°C for 30 seconds, annealing at 52°C for 30 seconds, and elongation at 60°C for 4 minutes, with the cycle repeated for about 30 times. Then, the reaction was centrifuged to eliminate the labeled and unlabeled nucleotides and salts on a Sephadex plate (Edge biosystem). The purified mixture was placed in the 96 capillary ABI 3700 DNA scanner for 4 hours of electrophoresis.


## 2.8. Phylogenetic Analysis

The BLASTn tool on National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website was used to analyze the 16srRNA gene sequence of strains with the nonredundant sequence repository (GenBank). For homologous genes, multisequence alignment was conducted, and a phylogenetic tree was created using the neighboring joining strategy [32].


## 2.9. Polymerase Chain Reaction for Intensification of CTX-M (Subgroups)

All the partial and entire gene sequences of the resistance determinants were identified as per the methodology of Mirzaee et al. [33] The primers were purchased from sigma, and the primers listed below were employed.CTX-M7 F 5′ GCG TGA TAC CAC TTC ACC TC ′3CTX-M8 R 5′ TGA AGT AAG TGA CCA GAA TC ′3CTX-M17 F 5′ TGA TAC CAC CAC GCC GCT ′3CTX-M17 R 5′ TAT TGC ATC AGA AAC CGT GGG ′3CTX-M19 F 5′ CAA TCT GAC GTT GGG CAA TG ′3CTX-M19 R 5′ ATA ACC GTC GGT GAC AAT T ′3CTX- M11 F 5′ ATC AAG CCT GCC GAT CTG GTT ′3CTX-M11 R 5′ GTA AGC TGA CGC AAC GTC TGC ′3


## 3. Results

### 3.1. Incidence of UTI

100 urine samples have been obtained for pathogen identification from July 2017 to December 2017. Thus, according to their age, patients were divided into six categories. The pathogens were isolated from 64 samples in total, which yielded 89 isolates.


### 3.2. Identification of UTI-Causing Bacterial Isolates

The circulation of some microorganisms inducing UTIs could be seen in Table1, which are Pseudomonas aeruginosa (15.73 percent), Enterococcus faecalis (14.61 percent), Staphylococcus aureus (12.36 percent), Streptococcus pyogens (12.36 percent), Klebsiella pneumonia (8.99 percent), and Protease vulgaris (7.87 percent). Different pathogens were detected on different mediums. Colony shape and cultural features have been used to validate all isolates. Potential colonies were inoculated into nutrient agar plates for additional investigation. Following that, several biochemical tests were conducted to confirm the species. The cultural characteristics and biochemical test results were shown in Table 2.Table 1
The pattern and distribution of some pathogens causing UTIs.
Sl. No.Bacterial isolatesNumber of isolates% of occurrence1Escherichia coli2528.092Pseudomonas aeruginosa1415.733Enterococcus faecalis1314.614Staphylococcus aureus1112.365Streptococcus pyogenes1112.366Klebsiella pneumonia88.997Proteus vulgaris77.87Table 2
Preliminary tests and biochemical characteristics of bacterial isolates from UTI.
IsolatesGram stainingMotilityCatalaseOxidaseGlucoseSucroseLactoseMannitolMaltoseE. coli−ve, short redMotile+−A + G+−A + G+−−P. aeruginosa−ve rodMotile++A+−−−A + G+K. pneumoniae−ve rodNonmotile+−A + G+−−−A + G+S. aureus+ve cocciMotile+−A+A+A+A+A+Enterococcus faecalisGram positiveMotile−−+−++−S. pyogenesGram positiveNonmotile−−+++++Protease vulgaris−veMotile+−A + G+A + G+−−A + G+Note. −ve = Negative, + = Positive.


### 3.3. Antibiotic Pattern

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates are those that are resistant to nine or even more antibiotics, as shown in Table3. A total of 20 various types of resistant patterns were found. The highest resistant pattern was discovered in 5 isolates (20 percent), which were resistant to 14 antibiotics, followed by 3 (12 percent) isolates that were resistant to a minimum of 9 to 14 antibiotics, 2 isolates (8 percent) resistant to 10 to 17 antibiotics in a distinct pattern, and 4 percent of isolates that showed resistance to 12 antibiotics. In this investigation, no single drug was found to be effective against all strains. Cefpodoxime (100 percent), novobiocin (100 percent), vancomycin (96 percent), ceftizoxime (88 percent), and ampicillin resistance were the most common phenotypic patterns (84 percent). A single E. coli strain (E-87) demonstrated the highest antibiotic resistance among 25 isolates (90 percent).Table 3
Antibiotic-resistant pattern ofE. coli isolates.
Sl. No.Antibiotic patternNo. of. IsolatesIsolates %1GE, CF, A, E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, NV, AK, AM282GE, CF, A, E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF3123GE, CF, A, E, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF, NOR, CEF284GE, CF, A, E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF145GE, A, E, NA, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF5206CF, A, E, T, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM287GE, CF, A, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF288GE, CF, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF, TM, CEF149A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF, TM, NR, CEF1410A, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF, TM, CEF1411E, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AM, TM31212E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, NF, TM2813A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, CE, B, VA, NV, AK, CEF1414CF, A, E, T, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, NF, CEF1415CF, A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF, TM, NOR1416GE, A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, NF, NOR1417A, CO, T, CPD, CE, B, VA, NV, NF, TM, NOR2818GE, CF, A, E, CO, NA, T, CZW, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, NF, TM, NOR1419NA, T, CZX, CPD, B, VA, NV, NF, TM, NOR2820A, E, T, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AK, TM, NOR28Note. AM-ampicillin, E-erythromycin, T-trimethoprim, CPD-cefpodoxime-proxetil, K-kanamycin, B-bacitracin, VA-vancomycin, NV-novobiocin, AK-amikacin, TM-tobramycin, NOR-norfloxacin, NA-nalidixic acid, CZX-ceftizoxime, CEF-cefepime, GE-gentamycin, CF-cefalotin, NF-Nitrofurantoin, A-amoxicillin, CO-colistin, and CE-cephalothin.


### 3.4. Virulence Factors ofE. coli Isolates

#### 3.4.1. Biofilm

In the current investigation, 23 isolates (92%) screened positive for biofilm formation, while two isolates (8 percent) tested negative for biofilm formation. Biofilm generation using the Congo red agar methodology yielded three sorts of outcomes. These outcomes were verified with different color forms. About 8 isolates (34.78%) turned black with a dry crystalline appearance, indicating significant biofilm development. A total of 13 isolates (56.52 percent) appeared black with no dry or crystalline appearance and had a modest biofilm-forming potential. About 2 (8.7 percent) isolates had pink colonies with infrequent darkening at the centers, indicating sluggish positive. The two isolates generated only pink colonies, indicating that biofilm development is not achieved.


#### 3.4.2. Beta-Lactamase Production

In the present study, 100% of the result was obtained from beta-lactamase production. The positive result indicated as the zone of inhibition was observed around the colony. The result was depicted in Figure1.Figure 1
Virulence factors ofE. coli isolates show antibiotic stability, biofilm-forming potential, and beta-lactamase production. The identification of a representative E. coli isolate is done by the sequencing of the 16srRNA gene and phylogenetic analysis intensification and sequencing of 16srRNA quality.In anE. coli strain, PCR amplification and the sequencing of a 16S rRNA gene generated 611 base pair sequences (E-42). Then, BLAST assessment was conducted on the DNA sequence. According to BLAST pattern matching against databases sequences (Figure 2), this strain was 98 percent in agreement with the E. coli strain ISD 16s rRNA gene partial sequence (KC893339.1). The homologous sequences from the BLAST search were used to create a phylogenetic tree, revealing their correlation to E. coli strain, as shown in Figure 3.Figure 2
Nucleotide sequence of the 611 bp fragment containing theE. coli 16S rRNA structural gene.Figure 3
Neighbor joining tree for selectedE. coli strain.


#### 3.4.3. Determination of Extended-Spectrumβ-Lactamases (ESBLs) Genes in E. coli Isolates

Multiplex PCR analysis was used to test all 25 isolates for ESBL genes. Our goal in this work was to identify the four kinds of ESBL genes using particular primers, and each isolate produced different findings. ESBL genes were found in 22 (88 percent) isolates. All ESBL genes were found in a single isolate among the 25 isolates, which belonged to a male between the age of 11 years and 20 years. 11 isolates (44 percent) contained three kinds of ESBL genes, whereas only 12 percent of the isolates had none. CTX-M was the most common gene (64 percent), followed by OXA (60 percent), TEM (56 percent), and SHV (40 percent) (Table4).Table 4
Interrelationship between virulence factors, antibiotic sensitivity, and ESBL-producing genes ofE. coli isolates.
Sl. no.IsolatesBiofilmβ-cell lactamase% of antibiotic resistance% of ESBL-producing genes1E-1ModeratePositive65502E-14NegativePositive70753E-16StrongPositive85754E-17ModeratePositive85755E-18StrongPositive85756E-21ModeratePositive70507E-27ModeratePositive55508E-30StrongPositive70509E-40WeakPositive655010E-41ModeratePositive757511E-42StrongPositive7010012E-48ModeratePositive755013E-58StrongPositive707514E-59StrongPositive707515E-60ModeratePositive45016E-61ModeratePositive602517E-65WeakPositive60018E-72ModeratePositive657519E-80ModeratePositive805020E-85ModeratePositive807521E-86NegativePositive555022E-87StrongPositive907523E-97ModeratePositive50024E-98StrongPositive707525E-99ModeratePositive6025


#### 3.4.4. Amplification of CTX-M Subgroups by Multiplex PCR

In the present investigation, the next part of the study was the amplification of the subgroup of CTX-M. In total, 16 isolates were selected based on ESBL gene-producing isolates. Among the 4 types of CTX-M genes, only two types of genes were found in E. coli (group I and group II), whereas, the third and fourth group of genes were not found in any of the isolates. Group II was the highest and most predominant, followed by group I. In age groups, 4 incidences were observed in the age group of above 50, and 3 incidences were observed in 21–30 and 31–40 age groups in females. In the case of males, 3 incidences were observed in the age groups of 21–30, 31–40, and above 50. In the gender-wise classification, subgroup I was the highest (87.5%) in females, whereas subgroup II was the highest (87.5%) in males. The results were depicted in Figure4.Figure 4
Amplification of CTX-M subgroups in ESBL-producingE. coli.


## 3.1. Incidence of UTI

100 urine samples have been obtained for pathogen identification from July 2017 to December 2017. Thus, according to their age, patients were divided into six categories. The pathogens were isolated from 64 samples in total, which yielded 89 isolates.


## 3.2. Identification of UTI-Causing Bacterial Isolates

The circulation of some microorganisms inducing UTIs could be seen in Table1, which are Pseudomonas aeruginosa (15.73 percent), Enterococcus faecalis (14.61 percent), Staphylococcus aureus (12.36 percent), Streptococcus pyogens (12.36 percent), Klebsiella pneumonia (8.99 percent), and Protease vulgaris (7.87 percent). Different pathogens were detected on different mediums. Colony shape and cultural features have been used to validate all isolates. Potential colonies were inoculated into nutrient agar plates for additional investigation. Following that, several biochemical tests were conducted to confirm the species. The cultural characteristics and biochemical test results were shown in Table 2.Table 1
The pattern and distribution of some pathogens causing UTIs.
Sl. No.Bacterial isolatesNumber of isolates% of occurrence1Escherichia coli2528.092Pseudomonas aeruginosa1415.733Enterococcus faecalis1314.614Staphylococcus aureus1112.365Streptococcus pyogenes1112.366Klebsiella pneumonia88.997Proteus vulgaris77.87Table 2
Preliminary tests and biochemical characteristics of bacterial isolates from UTI.
IsolatesGram stainingMotilityCatalaseOxidaseGlucoseSucroseLactoseMannitolMaltoseE. coli−ve, short redMotile+−A + G+−A + G+−−P. aeruginosa−ve rodMotile++A+−−−A + G+K. pneumoniae−ve rodNonmotile+−A + G+−−−A + G+S. aureus+ve cocciMotile+−A+A+A+A+A+Enterococcus faecalisGram positiveMotile−−+−++−S. pyogenesGram positiveNonmotile−−+++++Protease vulgaris−veMotile+−A + G+A + G+−−A + G+Note. −ve = Negative, + = Positive.


## 3.3. Antibiotic Pattern

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates are those that are resistant to nine or even more antibiotics, as shown in Table3. A total of 20 various types of resistant patterns were found. The highest resistant pattern was discovered in 5 isolates (20 percent), which were resistant to 14 antibiotics, followed by 3 (12 percent) isolates that were resistant to a minimum of 9 to 14 antibiotics, 2 isolates (8 percent) resistant to 10 to 17 antibiotics in a distinct pattern, and 4 percent of isolates that showed resistance to 12 antibiotics. In this investigation, no single drug was found to be effective against all strains. Cefpodoxime (100 percent), novobiocin (100 percent), vancomycin (96 percent), ceftizoxime (88 percent), and ampicillin resistance were the most common phenotypic patterns (84 percent). A single E. coli strain (E-87) demonstrated the highest antibiotic resistance among 25 isolates (90 percent).Table 3
Antibiotic-resistant pattern ofE. coli isolates.
Sl. No.Antibiotic patternNo. of. IsolatesIsolates %1GE, CF, A, E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, NV, AK, AM282GE, CF, A, E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF3123GE, CF, A, E, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF, NOR, CEF284GE, CF, A, E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF145GE, A, E, NA, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF5206CF, A, E, T, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM287GE, CF, A, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF288GE, CF, NA, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF, TM, CEF149A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF, TM, NR, CEF1410A, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, AM, NF, TM, CEF1411E, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AM, TM31212E, Co, NA, T, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, NF, TM2813A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, CE, B, VA, NV, AK, CEF1414CF, A, E, T, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, NF, CEF1415CF, A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AM, NF, TM, NOR1416GE, A, E, Co, T, CZX, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, NF, NOR1417A, CO, T, CPD, CE, B, VA, NV, NF, TM, NOR2818GE, CF, A, E, CO, NA, T, CZW, CPD, CE, K, B, VA, NV, AK, NF, TM, NOR1419NA, T, CZX, CPD, B, VA, NV, NF, TM, NOR2820A, E, T, CZX, CPD, K, B, VA, NV, AK, TM, NOR28Note. AM-ampicillin, E-erythromycin, T-trimethoprim, CPD-cefpodoxime-proxetil, K-kanamycin, B-bacitracin, VA-vancomycin, NV-novobiocin, AK-amikacin, TM-tobramycin, NOR-norfloxacin, NA-nalidixic acid, CZX-ceftizoxime, CEF-cefepime, GE-gentamycin, CF-cefalotin, NF-Nitrofurantoin, A-amoxicillin, CO-colistin, and CE-cephalothin.


## 3.4. Virulence Factors ofE. coli Isolates

### 3.4.1. Biofilm

In the current investigation, 23 isolates (92%) screened positive for biofilm formation, while two isolates (8 percent) tested negative for biofilm formation. Biofilm generation using the Congo red agar methodology yielded three sorts of outcomes. These outcomes were verified with different color forms. About 8 isolates (34.78%) turned black with a dry crystalline appearance, indicating significant biofilm development. A total of 13 isolates (56.52 percent) appeared black with no dry or crystalline appearance and had a modest biofilm-forming potential. About 2 (8.7 percent) isolates had pink colonies with infrequent darkening at the centers, indicating sluggish positive. The two isolates generated only pink colonies, indicating that biofilm development is not achieved.


### 3.4.2. Beta-Lactamase Production

In the present study, 100% of the result was obtained from beta-lactamase production. The positive result indicated as the zone of inhibition was observed around the colony. The result was depicted in Figure1.Figure 1
Virulence factors ofE. coli isolates show antibiotic stability, biofilm-forming potential, and beta-lactamase production. The identification of a representative E. coli isolate is done by the sequencing of the 16srRNA gene and phylogenetic analysis intensification and sequencing of 16srRNA quality.In anE. coli strain, PCR amplification and the sequencing of a 16S rRNA gene generated 611 base pair sequences (E-42). Then, BLAST assessment was conducted on the DNA sequence. According to BLAST pattern matching against databases sequences (Figure 2), this strain was 98 percent in agreement with the E. coli strain ISD 16s rRNA gene partial sequence (KC893339.1). The homologous sequences from the BLAST search were used to create a phylogenetic tree, revealing their correlation to E. coli strain, as shown in Figure 3.Figure 2
Nucleotide sequence of the 611 bp fragment containing theE. coli 16S rRNA structural gene.Figure 3
Neighbor joining tree for selectedE. coli strain.


### 3.4.3. Determination of Extended-Spectrumβ-Lactamases (ESBLs) Genes in E. coli Isolates

Multiplex PCR analysis was used to test all 25 isolates for ESBL genes. Our goal in this work was to identify the four kinds of ESBL genes using particular primers, and each isolate produced different findings. ESBL genes were found in 22 (88 percent) isolates. All ESBL genes were found in a single isolate among the 25 isolates, which belonged to a male between the age of 11 years and 20 years. 11 isolates (44 percent) contained three kinds of ESBL genes, whereas only 12 percent of the isolates had none. CTX-M was the most common gene (64 percent), followed by OXA (60 percent), TEM (56 percent), and SHV (40 percent) (Table4).Table 4
Interrelationship between virulence factors, antibiotic sensitivity, and ESBL-producing genes ofE. coli isolates.
Sl. no.IsolatesBiofilmβ-cell lactamase% of antibiotic resistance% of ESBL-producing genes1E-1ModeratePositive65502E-14NegativePositive70753E-16StrongPositive85754E-17ModeratePositive85755E-18StrongPositive85756E-21ModeratePositive70507E-27ModeratePositive55508E-30StrongPositive70509E-40WeakPositive655010E-41ModeratePositive757511E-42StrongPositive7010012E-48ModeratePositive755013E-58StrongPositive707514E-59StrongPositive707515E-60ModeratePositive45016E-61ModeratePositive602517E-65WeakPositive60018E-72ModeratePositive657519E-80ModeratePositive805020E-85ModeratePositive807521E-86NegativePositive555022E-87StrongPositive907523E-97ModeratePositive50024E-98StrongPositive707525E-99ModeratePositive6025


### 3.4.4. Amplification of CTX-M Subgroups by Multiplex PCR

In the present investigation, the next part of the study was the amplification of the subgroup of CTX-M. In total, 16 isolates were selected based on ESBL gene-producing isolates. Among the 4 types of CTX-M genes, only two types of genes were found in E. coli (group I and group II), whereas, the third and fourth group of genes were not found in any of the isolates. Group II was the highest and most predominant, followed by group I. In age groups, 4 incidences were observed in the age group of above 50, and 3 incidences were observed in 21–30 and 31–40 age groups in females. In the case of males, 3 incidences were observed in the age groups of 21–30, 31–40, and above 50. In the gender-wise classification, subgroup I was the highest (87.5%) in females, whereas subgroup II was the highest (87.5%) in males. The results were depicted in Figure4.Figure 4
Amplification of CTX-M subgroups in ESBL-producingE. coli.


## 3.4.1. Biofilm

In the current investigation, 23 isolates (92%) screened positive for biofilm formation, while two isolates (8 percent) tested negative for biofilm formation. Biofilm generation using the Congo red agar methodology yielded three sorts of outcomes. These outcomes were verified with different color forms. About 8 isolates (34.78%) turned black with a dry crystalline appearance, indicating significant biofilm development. A total of 13 isolates (56.52 percent) appeared black with no dry or crystalline appearance and had a modest biofilm-forming potential. About 2 (8.7 percent) isolates had pink colonies with infrequent darkening at the centers, indicating sluggish positive. The two isolates generated only pink colonies, indicating that biofilm development is not achieved.


## 3.4.2. Beta-Lactamase Production

In the present study, 100% of the result was obtained from beta-lactamase production. The positive result indicated as the zone of inhibition was observed around the colony. The result was depicted in Figure1.Figure 1
Virulence factors ofE. coli isolates show antibiotic stability, biofilm-forming potential, and beta-lactamase production. The identification of a representative E. coli isolate is done by the sequencing of the 16srRNA gene and phylogenetic analysis intensification and sequencing of 16srRNA quality.In anE. coli strain, PCR amplification and the sequencing of a 16S rRNA gene generated 611 base pair sequences (E-42). Then, BLAST assessment was conducted on the DNA sequence. According to BLAST pattern matching against databases sequences (Figure 2), this strain was 98 percent in agreement with the E. coli strain ISD 16s rRNA gene partial sequence (KC893339.1). The homologous sequences from the BLAST search were used to create a phylogenetic tree, revealing their correlation to E. coli strain, as shown in Figure 3.Figure 2
Nucleotide sequence of the 611 bp fragment containing theE. coli 16S rRNA structural gene.Figure 3
Neighbor joining tree for selectedE. coli strain.


## 3.4.3. Determination of Extended-Spectrumβ-Lactamases (ESBLs) Genes in E. coli Isolates

Multiplex PCR analysis was used to test all 25 isolates for ESBL genes. Our goal in this work was to identify the four kinds of ESBL genes using particular primers, and each isolate produced different findings. ESBL genes were found in 22 (88 percent) isolates. All ESBL genes were found in a single isolate among the 25 isolates, which belonged to a male between the age of 11 years and 20 years. 11 isolates (44 percent) contained three kinds of ESBL genes, whereas only 12 percent of the isolates had none. CTX-M was the most common gene (64 percent), followed by OXA (60 percent), TEM (56 percent), and SHV (40 percent) (Table4).Table 4
Interrelationship between virulence factors, antibiotic sensitivity, and ESBL-producing genes ofE. coli isolates.
Sl. no.IsolatesBiofilmβ-cell lactamase% of antibiotic resistance% of ESBL-producing genes1E-1ModeratePositive65502E-14NegativePositive70753E-16StrongPositive85754E-17ModeratePositive85755E-18StrongPositive85756E-21ModeratePositive70507E-27ModeratePositive55508E-30StrongPositive70509E-40WeakPositive655010E-41ModeratePositive757511E-42StrongPositive7010012E-48ModeratePositive755013E-58StrongPositive707514E-59StrongPositive707515E-60ModeratePositive45016E-61ModeratePositive602517E-65WeakPositive60018E-72ModeratePositive657519E-80ModeratePositive805020E-85ModeratePositive807521E-86NegativePositive555022E-87StrongPositive907523E-97ModeratePositive50024E-98StrongPositive707525E-99ModeratePositive6025


## 3.4.4. Amplification of CTX-M Subgroups by Multiplex PCR

In the present investigation, the next part of the study was the amplification of the subgroup of CTX-M. In total, 16 isolates were selected based on ESBL gene-producing isolates. Among the 4 types of CTX-M genes, only two types of genes were found in E. coli (group I and group II), whereas, the third and fourth group of genes were not found in any of the isolates. Group II was the highest and most predominant, followed by group I. In age groups, 4 incidences were observed in the age group of above 50, and 3 incidences were observed in 21–30 and 31–40 age groups in females. In the case of males, 3 incidences were observed in the age groups of 21–30, 31–40, and above 50. In the gender-wise classification, subgroup I was the highest (87.5%) in females, whereas subgroup II was the highest (87.5%) in males. The results were depicted in Figure4.Figure 4
Amplification of CTX-M subgroups in ESBL-producingE. coli.


## 4. Discussion

UTIs are a prominent source of morbidity and healthcare costs in people of all ages. The young and sexually active women are disproportionately afflicted, although other populations are also at risk, such as the elderly and those having genitourinary aid or catheterization. UTI is a severe public health issue that affects millions of individuals each year. The goal of this study was to determine the uropathogens and their susceptibility and resistance patterns. UTI prevalence varies with age, race, gender, and temperature [34]. According to Foxman [21], roughly 40% of women and 12% of men have at least one symptomatic UTI in their lifetime, with approximately 25 percent of afflicted women experiencing recurrent UTI (RUTI).E. coli was the most prevalent bacterium in UTI patients (63.44 percent), however, the prevalence in U.S.A research (75.5%–87.0%) varied [35]. Klebsiella spp. and Proteus spp., on the other hand, were responsible for 16% and 11%, respectively, of all urinary tract infections [36]. Similarly, the most-reported pathogen according to Johansen et al., [37] was E. coli (31%), followed by Pseudomonas (13%), Enterococcus (10%), Klebsiella (10%), Enterobacter (6%), and Proteus (6%). E. coli (71.7%) was the most frequent bacteria in UTIs, according to Kaur et al., [38]. The bacterial causative agents of UTIs identified in this investigation were E. coli (43.86%), P. aeruginosa (24.56%), S. aureus (19.3%), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (12.28%). According to Kumar [27], the proportion of bacterial causative agent differences could be related to diverse lifestyles, a bad healthcare system, lack of knowledge, insufficient water supply, and geographical variances. According to this discovery, the most common bacteria in various lifestyles and geographical variances were E. coli. Antibiotics, such as penicillin, ampicillin, and trimethoprim, were resistant to UTI pathogens. Notably, the increase rate of drug resistance to the commonly used antimicrobial agents has been observed in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [39].The current analysis found that all of the isolates produced beta-lactamase. The second parameter in this investigation was biofilm development using the Congo red technique.In vitro biofilm formation was detected in 23 (92%) of the isolates. Because of their resistance to antibiotics, biofilm-causing isolates were extremely difficult to treat. It is a severe universal problem and a barrier for healthcare workers [40]. Antibiotic resistance is primarily caused by biofilm, according to a large number of researchers [40, 41]. Simultaneously, our studies analyze the issue between all reports for emerging UPEC resistance. According to Marhova et al., [42], biofilm isolates are not immensely linked with antibiotic resistance.The production of beta-lactamase enzymes is one of the key mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Beta-lactamase makes microorganisms resistant to a wide range of antibiotics, including fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, and trimethoprim. These enzymes, which are mostly known as ESBLs, are grouped into four main classes according to the Ambler categorization, which ranges from A to D.E. coli has been found to produce ESBL enzymes CTX-M, TEM, and SHV, all of which belong to group A.ESBL genes were found in theE. coli isolates in this study. The results indicated that the existence of TEM is 56%, CTX-M is 64%, and OXA is 60%. CTX-Ms are the most common ESBLs found in E. coli isolates. Our results are similar to those seen in the study conducted by [43] in Africa, which stated that CTX-M is the most prevalent gene in the population of Africa. Multiplex PCR was also used to detect CTX-M subgroups encompassing 16 E. coli isolates. The CTX-M subgroup-II had the greatest percentage of CTX-M (68.75%), followed by subgroup I (62.5%). In E. coli isolates, further CTX-M subgroups III and IV were found. Multiplex PCR was used to amplify ESBL genes in this work. The multiplex PCR technique has been proved to have the benefit of quickly evaluating large numbers of clinical specimens, and the extracted DNA would be useful for further molecular epidemiological research if needed [44]. In this study, a PCR with only one target was efficient in detecting distinct ESBL-producing genes. Beta-lactamase, biofilm formation, and antibiotic resistance were all observed in E. coli isolates. As a result, E. coli strains with the highest prevalence of virulence factors became more resistant to many medications because they aid the organism in overcoming human defenses and colonizing or invading the urinary system.


## 5. Conclusion

The bacterial isolates screened from the urinary tract-infected people were noted asE. coli (28.09 percent), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (15.73 percent), Enterococcus faecalis (14.61 percent), S. aureus (12.36 percent), Streptococcus pyogenes (12.36 percent), K. pneumoniae (8.99 percent), and Proteus vulgaris (7.87 percent). The antibiotic resistance levels of E. coli isolates were identified from the urine culture, and it shows 100 percent resistance to cefpodoxime and novobiocin, 96 percent resistance to vancomycin, 88 percent resistance to ceftizoxime, 84 percent resistance to ampicillin, and 80 percent resistance to erythromycin, bacitracin, nitrofurantoin, and tetracycline. Furthermore, 72 percent of cefamandole was shown to have the highest sensitivity rate. The highest resistance rates of E. coli observed from the urine culture were 100 percent resistant to cefpodoxime and novobiocin, and they were 28 percent resistant to cefamandole. The presence of TEM (56 percent), CTX-M (64 percent), SHV (40 percent), and OXA (60 percent) was discovered. Resistance rates across the pathogenic organisms are evolving, and several routinely used drugs appear to be becoming more resistant. It is necessary to keep a track of the uropathogen-resistant strains to provide suitable treatment plans for the affected individuals. Each location must assess urinary pathogen resistance characteristics on a frequent basis and administer antibiotics with a low resistance pattern.



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*Source: 7234586-2022-03-20.xml*